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diff --git a/old/944.txt b/old/944.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c19085f..0000000 --- a/old/944.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19376 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Voyage of the Beagle, by Charles Darwin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Voyage of the Beagle - -Author: Charles Darwin - -Posting Date: June 24, 2013 [EBook #944] -Release Date: June, 1997 -First Posted: June 15, 1997 -Last Updated: September 12, 2003 - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE *** - - - - -Produced by John Hamm - - - - - - - - - - - The Internet Wiretap Online Edition - of THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE BY - CHARLES DARWIN - - - - - -About the online edition. - -The degree symbol is represented as "degs." Italics are represented as -_italics_. Footnotes are collected at the end of each chapter. - - - - - -THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE - - - - -PREFACE - - -I have stated in the preface to the first Edition of this work, and in -the Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle, that it was in consequence of -a wish expressed by Captain Fitz Roy, of having some scientific person -on board, accompanied by an offer from him of giving up part of his own -accommodations, that I volunteered my services, which received, through -the kindness of the hydrographer, Captain Beaufort, the sanction of the -Lords of the Admiralty. As I feel that the opportunities which I -enjoyed of studying the Natural History of the different countries we -visited, have been wholly due to Captain Fitz Roy, I hope I may here be -permitted to repeat my expression of gratitude to him; and to add that, -during the five years we were together, I received from him the most -cordial friendship and steady assistance. Both to Captain Fitz Roy and -to all the Officers of the Beagle [1] I shall ever feel most thankful -for the undeviating kindness with which I was treated during our long -voyage. - -This volume contains, in the form of a Journal, a history of our -voyage, and a sketch of those observations in Natural History and -Geology, which I think will possess some interest for the general -reader. I have in this edition largely condensed and corrected some -parts, and have added a little to others, in order to render the volume -more fitted for popular reading; but I trust that naturalists will -remember, that they must refer for details to the larger publications -which comprise the scientific results of the Expedition. The Zoology -of the Voyage of the Beagle includes an account of the Fossil Mammalia, -by Professor Owen; of the Living Mammalia, by Mr. Waterhouse; of the -Birds, by Mr. Gould; of the Fish, by the Rev. L. Jenyns; and of the -Reptiles, by Mr. Bell. I have appended to the descriptions of each -species an account of its habits and range. These works, which I owe -to the high talents and disinterested zeal of the above distinguished -authors, could not have been undertaken, had it not been for the -liberality of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, who, -through the representation of the Right Honourable the Chancellor of -the Exchequer, have been pleased to grant a sum of one thousand pounds -towards defraying part of the expenses of publication. - -I have myself published separate volumes on the 'Structure and -Distribution of Coral Reefs;' on the 'Volcanic Islands visited during -the Voyage of the Beagle;' and on the 'Geology of South America.' The -sixth volume of the 'Geological Transactions' contains two papers of -mine on the Erratic Boulders and Volcanic Phenomena of South America. -Messrs. Waterhouse, Walker, Newman, and White, have published several -able papers on the Insects which were collected, and I trust that many -others will hereafter follow. The plants from the southern parts of -America will be given by Dr. J. Hooker, in his great work on the Botany -of the Southern Hemisphere. The Flora of the Galapagos Archipelago is -the subject of a separate memoir by him, in the 'Linnean Transactions.' -The Reverend Professor Henslow has published a list of the plants -collected by me at the Keeling Islands; and the Reverend J. M. Berkeley -has described my cryptogamic plants. - -I shall have the pleasure of acknowledging the great assistance which I -have received from several other naturalists, in the course of this and -my other works; but I must be here allowed to return my most sincere -thanks to the Reverend Professor Henslow, who, when I was an -undergraduate at Cambridge, was one chief means of giving me a taste -for Natural History,--who, during my absence, took charge of the -collections I sent home, and by his correspondence directed my -endeavours,--and who, since my return, has constantly rendered me every -assistance which the kindest friend could offer. - -DOWN, BROMLEY, KENT, June 9, 1845 - -[1] I must take this opportunity of returning my sincere thanks to Mr. -Bynoe, the surgeon of the Beagle, for his very kind attention to me -when I was ill at Valparaiso. - - - -THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE - - - -CHAPTER I - -ST. JAGO--CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS - -Porto Praya--Ribeira Grande--Atmospheric Dust with Infusoria--Habits of -a Sea-slug and Cuttle-fish--St. Paul's Rocks, non-volcanic--Singular -Incrustations--Insects the first Colonists of Islands--Fernando -Noronha--Bahia--Burnished Rocks--Habits of a Diodon--Pelagic Confervae -and Infusoria--Causes of discoloured Sea. - - -AFTER having been twice driven back by heavy southwestern gales, Her -Majesty's ship Beagle, a ten-gun brig, under the command of Captain -Fitz Roy, R. N., sailed from Devonport on the 27th of December, 1831. -The object of the expedition was to complete the survey of Patagonia -and Tierra del Fuego, commenced under Captain King in 1826 to 1830,--to -survey the shores of Chile, Peru, and of some islands in the -Pacific--and to carry a chain of chronometrical measurements round the -World. On the 6th of January we reached Teneriffe, but were prevented -landing, by fears of our bringing the cholera: the next morning we saw -the sun rise behind the rugged outline of the Grand Canary island, and -suddenly illuminate the Peak of Teneriffe, whilst the lower parts were -veiled in fleecy clouds. This was the first of many delightful days -never to be forgotten. On the 16th of January, 1832, we anchored at -Porto Praya, in St. Jago, the chief island of the Cape de Verd -archipelago. - -The neighbourhood of Porto Praya, viewed from the sea, wears a desolate -aspect. The volcanic fires of a past age, and the scorching heat of a -tropical sun, have in most places rendered the soil unfit for -vegetation. The country rises in successive steps of table-land, -interspersed with some truncate conical hills, and the horizon is -bounded by an irregular chain of more lofty mountains. The scene, as -beheld through the hazy atmosphere of this climate, is one of great -interest; if, indeed, a person, fresh from sea, and who has just -walked, for the first time, in a grove of cocoa-nut trees, can be a -judge of anything but his own happiness. The island would generally be -considered as very uninteresting, but to anyone accustomed only to an -English landscape, the novel aspect of an utterly sterile land -possesses a grandeur which more vegetation might spoil. A single green -leaf can scarcely be discovered over wide tracts of the lava plains; -yet flocks of goats, together with a few cows, contrive to exist. It -rains very seldom, but during a short portion of the year heavy -torrents fall, and immediately afterwards a light vegetation springs -out of every crevice. This soon withers; and upon such naturally -formed hay the animals live. It had not now rained for an entire year. -When the island was discovered, the immediate neighbourhood of Porto -Praya was clothed with trees, [1] the reckless destruction of which has -caused here, as at St. Helena, and at some of the Canary islands, -almost entire sterility. The broad, flat-bottomed valleys, many of -which serve during a few days only in the season as water-courses, are -clothed with thickets of leafless bushes. Few living creatures inhabit -these valleys. The commonest bird is a kingfisher (Dacelo Iagoensis), -which tamely sits on the branches of the castor-oil plant, and thence -darts on grasshoppers and lizards. It is brightly coloured, but not so -beautiful as the European species: in its flight, manners, and place of -habitation, which is generally in the driest valley, there is also a -wide difference. - -One day, two of the officers and myself rode to Ribeira Grande, a -village a few miles eastward of Porto Praya. Until we reached the -valley of St. Martin, the country presented its usual dull brown -appearance; but here, a very small rill of water produces a most -refreshing margin of luxuriant vegetation. In the course of an hour we -arrived at Ribeira Grande, and were surprised at the sight of a large -ruined fort and cathedral. This little town, before its harbour was -filled up, was the principal place in the island: it now presents a -melancholy, but very picturesque appearance. Having procured a black -Padre for a guide, and a Spaniard who had served in the Peninsular war -as an interpreter, we visited a collection of buildings, of which an -ancient church formed the principal part. It is here the governors and -captain-generals of the islands have been buried. Some of the -tombstones recorded dates of the sixteenth century. [2] - -The heraldic ornaments were the only things in this retired place that -reminded us of Europe. The church or chapel formed one side of a -quadrangle, in the middle of which a large clump of bananas were -growing. On another side was a hospital, containing about a dozen -miserable-looking inmates. - -We returned to the Venda to eat our dinners. A considerable number of -men, women, and children, all as black as jet, collected to watch us. -Our companions were extremely merry; and everything we said or did was -followed by their hearty laughter. Before leaving the town we visited -the cathedral. It does not appear so rich as the smaller church, but -boasts of a little organ, which sent forth singularly inharmonious -cries. We presented the black priest with a few shillings, and the -Spaniard, patting him on the head, said, with much candour, he thought -his colour made no great difference. We then returned, as fast as the -ponies would go, to Porto Praya. - -Another day we rode to the village of St. Domingo, situated near the -centre of the island. On a small plain which we crossed, a few stunted -acacias were growing; their tops had been bent by the steady -trade-wind, in a singular manner--some of them even at right angles to -their trunks. The direction of the branches was exactly N. E. by N., -and S. W. by S., and these natural vanes must indicate the prevailing -direction of the force of the trade-wind. The travelling had made so -little impression on the barren soil, that we here missed our track, -and took that to Fuentes. This we did not find out till we arrived -there; and we were afterwards glad of our mistake. Fuentes is a pretty -village, with a small stream; and everything appeared to prosper well, -excepting, indeed, that which ought to do so most--its inhabitants. The -black children, completely naked, and looking very wretched, were -carrying bundles of firewood half as big as their own bodies. - -Near Fuentes we saw a large flock of guinea-fowl--probably fifty or -sixty in number. They were extremely wary, and could not be -approached. They avoided us, like partridges on a rainy day in -September, running with their heads cocked up; and if pursued, they -readily took to the wing. - -The scenery of St. Domingo possesses a beauty totally unexpected, from -the prevalent gloomy character of the rest of the island. The village -is situated at the bottom of a valley, bounded by lofty and jagged -walls of stratified lava. The black rocks afford a most striking -contrast with the bright green vegetation, which follows the banks of a -little stream of clear water. It happened to be a grand feast-day, and -the village was full of people. On our return we overtook a party of -about twenty young black girls, dressed in excellent taste; their black -skins and snow-white linen being set off by coloured turbans and large -shawls. As soon as we approached near, they suddenly all turned round, -and covering the path with their shawls, sung with great energy a wild -song, beating time with their hands upon their legs. We threw them some -vintems, which were received with screams of laughter, and we left them -redoubling the noise of their song. - -One morning the view was singularly clear; the distant mountains being -projected with the sharpest outline on a heavy bank of dark blue -clouds. Judging from the appearance, and from similar cases in -England, I supposed that the air was saturated with moisture. The -fact, however, turned out quite the contrary. The hygrometer gave a -difference of 29.6 degs., between the temperature of the air, and the -point at which dew was precipitated. This difference was nearly double -that which I had observed on the previous mornings. This unusual -degree of atmospheric dryness was accompanied by continual flashes of -lightning. Is it not an uncommon case, thus to find a remarkable -degree of aerial transparency with such a state of weather? - -Generally the atmosphere is hazy; and this is caused by the falling of -impalpably fine dust, which was found to have slightly injured the -astronomical instruments. The morning before we anchored at Porto -Praya, I collected a little packet of this brown-coloured fine dust, -which appeared to have been filtered from the wind by the gauze of the -vane at the mast-head. Mr. Lyell has also given me four packets of -dust which fell on a vessel a few hundred miles northward of these -islands. Professor Ehrenberg [3] finds that this dust consists in -great part of infusoria with siliceous shields, and of the siliceous -tissue of plants. In five little packets which I sent him, he has -ascertained no less than sixty-seven different organic forms! The -infusoria, with the exception of two marine species, are all -inhabitants of fresh-water. I have found no less than fifteen -different accounts of dust having fallen on vessels when far out in the -Atlantic. From the direction of the wind whenever it has fallen, and -from its having always fallen during those months when the harmattan is -known to raise clouds of dust high into the atmosphere, we may feel -sure that it all comes from Africa. It is, however, a very singular -fact, that, although Professor Ehrenberg knows many species of -infusoria peculiar to Africa, he finds none of these in the dust which -I sent him. On the other hand, he finds in it two species which -hitherto he knows as living only in South America. The dust falls in -such quantities as to dirty everything on board, and to hurt people's -eyes; vessels even have run on shore owing to the obscurity of the -atmosphere. It has often fallen on ships when several hundred, and -even more than a thousand miles from the coast of Africa, and at points -sixteen hundred miles distant in a north and south direction. In some -dust which was collected on a vessel three hundred miles from the land, -I was much surprised to find particles of stone above the thousandth of -an inch square, mixed with finer matter. After this fact one need not -be surprised at the diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules -of cryptogamic plants. - -The geology of this island is the most interesting part of its natural -history. On entering the harbour, a perfectly horizontal white band, -in the face of the sea cliff, may be seen running for some miles along -the coast, and at the height of about forty-five feet above the water. -Upon examination this white stratum is found to consist of calcareous -matter with numerous shells embedded, most or all of which now exist on -the neighbouring coast. It rests on ancient volcanic rocks, and has -been covered by a stream of basalt, which must have entered the sea -when the white shelly bed was lying at the bottom. It is interesting -to trace the changes produced by the heat of the overlying lava, on the -friable mass, which in parts has been converted into a crystalline -limestone, and in other parts into a compact spotted stone Where the -lime has been caught up by the scoriaceous fragments of the lower -surface of the stream, it is converted into groups of beautifully -radiated fibres resembling arragonite. The beds of lava rise in -successive gently-sloping plains, towards the interior, whence the -deluges of melted stone have originally proceeded. Within historical -times, no signs of volcanic activity have, I believe, been manifested -in any part of St. Jago. Even the form of a crater can but rarely be -discovered on the summits of the many red cindery hills; yet the more -recent streams can be distinguished on the coast, forming lines of -cliffs of less height, but stretching out in advance of those belonging -to an older series: the height of the cliffs thus affording a rude -measure of the age of the streams. - -During our stay, I observed the habits of some marine animals. A large -Aplysia is very common. This sea-slug is about five inches long; and -is of a dirty yellowish colour veined with purple. On each side of the -lower surface, or foot, there is a broad membrane, which appears -sometimes to act as a ventilator, in causing a current of water to flow -over the dorsal branchiae or lungs. It feeds on the delicate sea-weeds -which grow among the stones in muddy and shallow water; and I found in -its stomach several small pebbles, as in the gizzard of a bird. This -slug, when disturbed, emits a very fine purplish-red fluid, which -stains the water for the space of a foot around. Besides this means of -defence, an acrid secretion, which is spread over its body, causes a -sharp, stinging sensation, similar to that produced by the Physalia, or -Portuguese man-of-war. - -I was much interested, on several occasions, by watching the habits of -an Octopus, or cuttle-fish. Although common in the pools of water left -by the retiring tide, these animals were not easily caught. By means -of their long arms and suckers, they could drag their bodies into very -narrow crevices; and when thus fixed, it required great force to remove -them. At other times they darted tail first, with the rapidity of an -arrow, from one side of the pool to the other, at the same instant -discolouring the water with a dark chestnut-brown ink. These animals -also escape detection by a very extraordinary, chameleon-like power of -changing their colour. They appear to vary their tints according to the -nature of the ground over which they pass: when in deep water, their -general shade was brownish purple, but when placed on the land, or in -shallow water, this dark tint changed into one of a yellowish green. -The colour, examined more carefully, was a French grey, with numerous -minute spots of bright yellow: the former of these varied in intensity; -the latter entirely disappeared and appeared again by turns. These -changes were effected in such a manner, that clouds, varying in tint -between a hyacinth red and a chestnut-brown, [4] were continually -passing over the body. Any part, being subjected to a slight shock of -galvanism, became almost black: a similar effect, but in a less degree, -was produced by scratching the skin with a needle. These clouds, or -blushes as they may be called, are said to be produced by the alternate -expansion and contraction of minute vesicles containing variously -coloured fluids. [5] - -This cuttle-fish displayed its chameleon-like power both during the act -of swimming and whilst remaining stationary at the bottom. I was much -amused by the various arts to escape detection used by one individual, -which seemed fully aware that I was watching it. Remaining for a time -motionless, it would then stealthily advance an inch or two, like a cat -after a mouse; sometimes changing its colour: it thus proceeded, till -having gained a deeper part, it darted away, leaving a dusky train of -ink to hide the hole into which it had crawled. - -While looking for marine animals, with my head about two feet above the -rocky shore, I was more than once saluted by a jet of water, -accompanied by a slight grating noise. At first I could not think what -it was, but afterwards I found out that it was this cuttle-fish, which, -though concealed in a hole, thus often led me to its discovery. That -it possesses the power of ejecting water there is no doubt, and it -appeared to me that it could certainly take good aim by directing the -tube or siphon on the under side of its body. From the difficulty -which these animals have in carrying their heads, they cannot crawl -with ease when placed on the ground. I observed that one which I kept -in the cabin was slightly phosphorescent in the dark. - -ST. PAUL'S ROCKS.--In crossing the Atlantic we hove-to during the -morning of February 16th, close to the island of St. Paul's. This -cluster of rocks is situated in 0 degs. 58' north latitude, and 29 -degs. 15' west longitude. It is 540 miles distant from the coast of -America, and 350 from the island of Fernando Noronha. The highest -point is only fifty feet above the level of the sea, and the entire -circumference is under three-quarters of a mile. This small point -rises abruptly out of the depths of the ocean. Its mineralogical -constitution is not simple; in some parts the rock is of a cherty, in -others of a felspathic nature, including thin veins of serpentine. It -is a remarkable fact, that all the many small islands, lying far from -any continent, in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans, with the -exception of the Seychelles and this little point of rock, are, I -believe, composed either of coral or of erupted matter. The volcanic -nature of these oceanic islands is evidently an extension of that law, -and the effect of those same causes, whether chemical or mechanical, -from which it results that a vast majority of the volcanoes now in -action stand either near sea-coasts or as islands in the midst of the -sea. - -The rocks of St. Paul appear from a distance of a brilliantly white -colour. This is partly owing to the dung of a vast multitude of -seafowl, and partly to a coating of a hard glossy substance with a -pearly lustre, which is intimately united to the surface of the rocks. -This, when examined with a lens, is found to consist of numerous -exceedingly thin layers, its total thickness being about the tenth of -an inch. It contains much animal matter, and its origin, no doubt, is -due to the action of the rain or spray on the birds' dung. Below some -small masses of guano at Ascension, and on the Abrolhos Islets, I found -certain stalactitic branching bodies, formed apparently in the same -manner as the thin white coating on these rocks. The branching bodies -so closely resembled in general appearance certain nulliporae (a family -of hard calcareous sea-plants), that in lately looking hastily over my -collection I did not perceive the difference. The globular extremities -of the branches are of a pearly texture, like the enamel of teeth, but -so hard as just to scratch plate-glass. I may here mention, that on a -part of the coast of Ascension, where there is a vast accumulation of -shelly sand, an incrustation is deposited on the tidal rocks by the -water of the sea, resembling, as represented in the woodcut, certain -cryptogamic plants (Marchantiae) often seen on damp walls. The surface -of the fronds is beautifully glossy; and those parts formed where fully -exposed to the light are of a jet black colour, but those shaded under -ledges are only grey. I have shown specimens of this incrustation to -several geologists, and they all thought that they were of volcanic or -igneous origin! In its hardness and translucency--in its polish, equal -to that of the finest oliva-shell--in the bad smell given out, and loss -of colour under the blowpipe--it shows a close similarity with living -sea-shells. Moreover, in sea-shells, it is known that the parts -habitually covered and shaded by the mantle of the animal, are of a -paler colour than those fully exposed to the light, just as is the case -with this incrustation. When we remember that lime, either as a -phosphate or carbonate, enters into the composition of the hard parts, -such as bones and shells, of all living animals, it is an interesting -physiological fact [6] to find substances harder than the enamel of -teeth, and coloured surfaces as well polished as those of a fresh -shell, reformed through inorganic means from dead organic -matter--mocking, also, in shape, some of the lower vegetable -productions. - -We found on St. Paul's only two kinds of birds--the booby and the -noddy. The former is a species of gannet, and the latter a tern. Both -are of a tame and stupid disposition, and are so unaccustomed to -visitors, that I could have killed any number of them with my -geological hammer. The booby lays her eggs on the bare rock; but the -tern makes a very simple nest with sea-weed. By the side of many of -these nests a small flying-fish was placed; which I suppose, had been -brought by the male bird for its partner. It was amusing to watch how -quickly a large and active crab (Graspus), which inhabits the crevices -of the rock, stole the fish from the side of the nest, as soon as we -had disturbed the parent birds. Sir W. Symonds, one of the few persons -who have landed here, informs me that he saw the crabs dragging even -the young birds out of their nests, and devouring them. Not a single -plant, not even a lichen, grows on this islet; yet it is inhabited by -several insects and spiders. The following list completes, I believe, -the terrestrial fauna: a fly (Olfersia) living on the booby, and a tick -which must have come here as a parasite on the birds; a small brown -moth, belonging to a genus that feeds on feathers; a beetle (Quedius) -and a woodlouse from beneath the dung; and lastly, numerous spiders, -which I suppose prey on these small attendants and scavengers of the -water-fowl. The often repeated description of the stately palm and -other noble tropical plants, then birds, and lastly man, taking -possession of the coral islets as soon as formed, in the Pacific, is -probably not correct; I fear it destroys the poetry of this story, that -feather and dirt-feeding and parasitic insects and spiders should be -the first inhabitants of newly formed oceanic land. - -The smallest rock in the tropical seas, by giving a foundation for the -growth of innumerable kinds of sea-weed and compound animals, supports -likewise a large number of fish. The sharks and the seamen in the boats -maintained a constant struggle which should secure the greater share of -the prey caught by the fishing-lines. I have heard that a rock near -the Bermudas, lying many miles out at sea, and at a considerable depth, -was first discovered by the circumstance of fish having been observed -in the neighbourhood. - -FERNANDO NORONHA, Feb. 20th.--As far as I was enabled to observe, -during the few hours we stayed at this place, the constitution of the -island is volcanic, but probably not of a recent date. The most -remarkable feature is a conical hill, about one thousand feet high, the -upper part of which is exceedingly steep, and on one side overhangs its -base. The rock is phonolite, and is divided into irregular columns. On -viewing one of these isolated masses, at first one is inclined to -believe that it has been suddenly pushed up in a semi-fluid state. At -St. Helena, however, I ascertained that some pinnacles, of a nearly -similar figure and constitution, had been formed by the injection of -melted rock into yielding strata, which thus had formed the moulds for -these gigantic obelisks. The whole island is covered with wood; but -from the dryness of the climate there is no appearance of luxuriance. -Half-way up the mountain, some great masses of the columnar rock, -shaded by laurel-like trees, and ornamented by others covered with fine -pink flowers but without a single leaf, gave a pleasing effect to the -nearer parts of the scenery. - -BAHIA, OR SAN SALVADOR. BRAZIL, Feb. 29th.--The day has passed -delightfully. Delight itself, however, is a weak term to express the -feelings of a naturalist who, for the first time, has wandered by -himself in a Brazilian forest. The elegance of the grasses, the -novelty of the parasitical plants, the beauty of the flowers, the -glossy green of the foliage, but above all the general luxuriance of -the vegetation, filled me with admiration. A most paradoxical mixture -of sound and silence pervades the shady parts of the wood. The noise -from the insects is so loud, that it may be heard even in a vessel -anchored several hundred yards from the shore; yet within the recesses -of the forest a universal silence appears to reign. To a person fond -of natural history, such a day as this brings with it a deeper pleasure -than he can ever hope to experience again. After wandering about for -some hours, I returned to the landing-place; but, before reaching it, I -was overtaken by a tropical storm. I tried to find shelter under a -tree, which was so thick that it would never have been penetrated by -common English rain; but here, in a couple of minutes, a little torrent -flowed down the trunk. It is to this violence of the rain that we must -attribute the verdure at the bottom of the thickest woods: if the -showers were like those of a colder climate, the greater part would be -absorbed or evaporated before it reached the ground. I will not at -present attempt to describe the gaudy scenery of this noble bay, -because, in our homeward voyage, we called here a second time, and I -shall then have occasion to remark on it. - -Along the whole coast of Brazil, for a length of at least 2000 miles, -and certainly for a considerable space inland, wherever solid rock -occurs, it belongs to a granitic formation. The circumstance of this -enormous area being constituted of materials which most geologists -believe to have been crystallized when heated under pressure, gives -rise to many curious reflections. Was this effect produced beneath the -depths of a profound ocean? or did a covering of strata formerly extend -over it, which has since been removed? Can we believe that any power, -acting for a time short of infinity, could have denuded the granite -over so many thousand square leagues? - -On a point not far from the city, where a rivulet entered the sea, I -observed a fact connected with a subject discussed by Humboldt. [7] At -the cataracts of the great rivers Orinoco, Nile, and Congo, the -syenitic rocks are coated by a black substance, appearing as if they -had been polished with plumbago. The layer is of extreme thinness; and -on analysis by Berzelius it was found to consist of the oxides of -manganese and iron. In the Orinoco it occurs on the rocks periodically -washed by the floods, and in those parts alone where the stream is -rapid; or, as the Indians say, "the rocks are black where the waters -are white." Here the coating is of a rich brown instead of a black -colour, and seems to be composed of ferruginous matter alone. Hand -specimens fail to give a just idea of these brown burnished stones -which glitter in the sun's rays. They occur only within the limits of -the tidal waves; and as the rivulet slowly trickles down, the surf must -supply the polishing power of the cataracts in the great rivers. In -like manner, the rise and fall of the tide probably answer to the -periodical inundations; and thus the same effects are produced under -apparently different but really similar circumstances. The origin, -however, of these coatings of metallic oxides, which seem as if -cemented to the rocks, is not understood; and no reason, I believe, can -be assigned for their thickness remaining the same. - -One day I was amused by watching the habits of the Diodon antennatus, -which was caught swimming near the shore. This fish, with its flabby -skin, is well known to possess the singular power of distending itself -into a nearly spherical form. After having been taken out of water for -a short time, and then again immersed in it, a considerable quantity -both of water and air is absorbed by the mouth, and perhaps likewise by -the branchial orifices. This process is effected by two methods: the -air is swallowed, and is then forced into the cavity of the body, its -return being prevented by a muscular contraction which is externally -visible: but the water enters in a gentle stream through the mouth, -which is kept wide open and motionless; this latter action must, -therefore, depend on suction. The skin about the abdomen is much -looser than that on the back; hence, during the inflation, the lower -surface becomes far more distended than the upper; and the fish, in -consequence, floats with its back downwards. Cuvier doubts whether the -Diodon in this position is able to swim; but not only can it thus move -forward in a straight line, but it can turn round to either side. This -latter movement is effected solely by the aid of the pectoral fins; the -tail being collapsed, and not used. From the body being buoyed up with -so much air, the branchial openings are out of water, but a stream -drawn in by the mouth constantly flows through them. - -The fish, having remained in this distended state for a short time, -generally expelled the air and water with considerable force from the -branchial apertures and mouth. It could emit, at will, a certain -portion of the water, and it appears, therefore, probable that this -fluid is taken in partly for the sake of regulating its specific -gravity. This Diodon possessed several means of defence. It could -give a severe bite, and could eject water from its mouth to some -distance, at the same time making a curious noise by the movement of -its jaws. By the inflation of its body, the papillae, with which the -skin is covered, become erect and pointed. But the most curious -circumstance is, that it secretes from the skin of its belly, when -handled, a most beautiful carmine-red fibrous matter, which stains -ivory and paper in so permanent a manner that the tint is retained with -all its brightness to the present day: I am quite ignorant of the -nature and use of this secretion. I have heard from Dr. Allan of -Forres, that he has frequently found a Diodon, floating alive and -distended, in the stomach of the shark, and that on several occasions -he has known it eat its way, not only through the coats of the stomach, -but through the sides of the monster, which has thus been killed. Who -would ever have imagined that a little soft fish could have destroyed -the great and savage shark? - -March 18th.--We sailed from Bahia. A few days afterwards, when not far -distant from the Abrolhos Islets, my attention was called to a -reddish-brown appearance in the sea. The whole surface of the water, -as it appeared under a weak lens, seemed as if covered by chopped bits -of hay, with their ends jagged. These are minute cylindrical -confervae, in bundles or rafts of from twenty to sixty in each. Mr. -Berkeley informs me that they are the same species (Trichodesmium -erythraeum) with that found over large spaces in the Red Sea, and -whence its name of Red Sea is derived. [8] Their numbers must be -infinite: the ship passed through several bands of them, one of which -was about ten yards wide, and, judging from the mud-like colour of the -water, at least two and a half miles long. In almost every long voyage -some account is given of these confervae. They appear especially -common in the sea near Australia; and off Cape Leeuwin I found an -allied but smaller and apparently different species. Captain Cook, in -his third voyage, remarks, that the sailors gave to this appearance the -name of sea-sawdust. - -Near Keeling Atoll, in the Indian Ocean, I observed many little masses -of confervae a few inches square, consisting of long cylindrical -threads of excessive thinness, so as to be barely visible to the naked -eye, mingled with other rather larger bodies, finely conical at both -ends. Two of these are shown in the woodcut united together. They -vary in length from .04 to .06, and even to .08 of an inch in length; -and in diameter from .006 to .008 of an inch. Near one extremity of -the cylindrical part, a green septum, formed of granular matter, and -thickest in the middle, may generally be seen. This, I believe, is the -bottom of a most delicate, colourless sac, composed of a pulpy -substance, which lines the exterior case, but does not extend within -the extreme conical points. In some specimens, small but perfect -spheres of brownish granular matter supplied the places of the septa; -and I observed the curious process by which they were produced. The -pulpy matter of the internal coating suddenly grouped itself into -lines, some of which assumed a form radiating from a common centre; it -then continued, with an irregular and rapid movement, to contract -itself, so that in the course of a second the whole was united into a -perfect little sphere, which occupied the position of the septum at one -end of the now quite hollow case. The formation of the granular sphere -was hastened by any accidental injury. I may add, that frequently a -pair of these bodies were attached to each other, as represented above, -cone beside cone, at that end where the septum occurs. - -I will add here a few other observations connected with the -discoloration of the sea from organic causes. On the coast of Chile, a -few leagues north of Concepcion, the Beagle one day passed through -great bands of muddy water, exactly like that of a swollen river; and -again, a degree south of Valparaiso, when fifty miles from the land, -the same appearance was still more extensive. Some of the water placed -in a glass was of a pale reddish tint; and, examined under a -microscope, was seen to swarm with minute animalcula darting about, and -often exploding. Their shape is oval, and contracted in the middle by -a ring of vibrating curved ciliae. It was, however, very difficult to -examine them with care, for almost the instant motion ceased, even -while crossing the field of vision, their bodies burst. Sometimes both -ends burst at once, sometimes only one, and a quantity of coarse, -brownish, granular matter was ejected. The animal an instant before -bursting expanded to half again its natural size; and the explosion -took place about fifteen seconds after the rapid progressive motion had -ceased: in a few cases it was preceded for a short interval by a -rotatory movement on the longer axis. About two minutes after any -number were isolated in a drop of water, they thus perished. The -animals move with the narrow apex forwards, by the aid of their -vibratory ciliae, and generally by rapid starts. They are exceedingly -minute, and quite invisible to the naked eye, only covering a space -equal to the square of the thousandth of an inch. Their numbers were -infinite; for the smallest drop of water which I could remove contained -very many. In one day we passed through two spaces of water thus -stained, one of which alone must have extended over several square -miles. What incalculable numbers of these microscopical animals! The -colour of the water, as seen at some distance, was like that of a river -which has flowed through a red clay district, but under the shade of -the vessel's side it was quite as dark as chocolate. The line where -the red and blue water joined was distinctly defined. The weather for -some days previously had been calm, and the ocean abounded, to an -unusual degree, with living creatures. [9] - -In the sea around Tierra del Fuego, and at no great distance from the -land, I have seen narrow lines of water of a bright red colour, from -the number of crustacea, which somewhat resemble in form large prawns. -The sealers call them whale-food. Whether whales feed on them I do not -know; but terns, cormorants, and immense herds of great unwieldy seals -derive, on some parts of the coast, their chief sustenance from these -swimming crabs. Seamen invariably attribute the discoloration of the -water to spawn; but I found this to be the case only on one occasion. -At the distance of several leagues from the Archipelago of the -Galapagos, the ship sailed through three strips of a dark yellowish, or -mud-like water; these strips were some miles long, but only a few yards -wide, and they were separated from the surrounding water by a sinuous -yet distinct margin. The colour was caused by little gelatinous balls, -about the fifth of an inch in diameter, in which numerous minute -spherical ovules were imbedded: they were of two distinct kinds, one -being of a reddish colour and of a different shape from the other. I -cannot form a conjecture as to what two kinds of animals these -belonged. Captain Colnett remarks, that this appearance is very common -among the Galapagos Islands, and that the directions of the bands -indicate that of the currents; in the described case, however, the line -was caused by the wind. The only other appearance which I have to -notice, is a thin oily coat on the water which displays iridescent -colours. I saw a considerable tract of the ocean thus covered on the -coast of Brazil; the seamen attributed it to the putrefying carcase of -some whale, which probably was floating at no great distance. I do not -here mention the minute gelatinous particles, hereafter to be referred -to, which are frequently dispersed throughout the water, for they are -not sufficiently abundant to create any change of colour. - -There are two circumstances in the above accounts which appear -remarkable: first, how do the various bodies which form the bands with -defined edges keep together? In the case of the prawn-like crabs, -their movements were as co-instantaneous as in a regiment of soldiers; -but this cannot happen from anything like voluntary action with the -ovules, or the confervae, nor is it probable among the infusoria. -Secondly, what causes the length and narrowness of the bands? The -appearance so much resembles that which may be seen in every torrent, -where the stream uncoils into long streaks the froth collected in the -eddies, that I must attribute the effect to a similar action either of -the currents of the air or sea. Under this supposition we must believe -that the various organized bodies are produced in certain favourable -places, and are thence removed by the set of either wind or water. I -confess, however, there is a very great difficulty in imagining any one -spot to be the birthplace of the millions of millions of animalcula and -confervae: for whence come the germs at such points?--the parent bodies -having been distributed by the winds and waves over the immense ocean. -But on no other hypothesis can I understand their linear grouping. I -may add that Scoresby remarks that green water abounding with pelagic -animals is invariably found in a certain part of the Arctic Sea. - -[1] I state this on the authority of Dr. E. Dieffenbach, in his German -translation of the first edition of this Journal. - -[2] The Cape de Verd Islands were discovered in 1449. There was a -tombstone of a bishop with the date of 1571; and a crest of a hand and -dagger, dated 1497. - -[3] I must take this opportunity of acknowledging the great kindness -with which this illustrious naturalist has examined many of my -specimens. I have sent (June, 1845) a full account of the falling of -this dust to the Geological Society. - -[4] So named according to Patrick Symes's nomenclature. - -[5] See Encyclop. of Anat. and Physiol., article Cephalopoda - -[6] Mr. Horner and Sir David Brewster have described (Philosophical -Transactions, 1836, p. 65) a singular "artificial substance resembling -shell." It is deposited in fine, transparent, highly polished, -brown-coloured laminae, possessing peculiar optical properties, on the -inside of a vessel, in which cloth, first prepared with glue and then -with lime, is made to revolve rapidly in water. It is much softer, -more transparent, and contains more animal matter, than the natural -incrustation at Ascension; but we here again see the strong tendency -which carbonate of lime and animal matter evince to form a solid -substance allied to shell. - -[7] Pers. Narr., vol. v., pt. 1., p. 18. - -[8] M. Montagne, in Comptes Rendus, etc., Juillet, 1844; and Annal. des -Scienc. Nat., Dec. 1844 - -[9] M. Lesson (Voyage de la Coquille, tom. i., p. 255) mentions red -water off Lima, apparently produced by the same cause. Peron, the -distinguished naturalist, in the Voyage aux Terres Australes, gives no -less than twelve references to voyagers who have alluded to the -discoloured waters of the sea (vol. ii. p. 239). To the references -given by Peron may be added, Humboldt's Pers. Narr., vol. vi. p. 804; -Flinder's Voyage, vol. i. p. 92; Labillardiere, vol. i. p. 287; Ulloa's -Voyage; Voyage of the Astrolabe and of the Coquille; Captain King's -Survey of Australia, etc. - - - -CHAPTER II - -RIO DE JANEIRO - -Rio de Janeiro--Excursion north of Cape Frio--Great -Evaporation--Slavery--Botofogo Bay--Terrestrial Planariae--Clouds on -the Corcovado--Heavy Rain--Musical Frogs--Phosphorescent -Insects--Elater, springing powers of--Blue Haze--Noise made by a -Butterfly--Entomology--Ants--Wasp killing a Spider--Parasitical -Spider--Artifices of an Epeira--Gregarious Spider--Spider with an -unsymmetrical Web. - - -APRIL 4th to July 5th, 1832.--A few days after our arrival I became -acquainted with an Englishman who was going to visit his estate, -situated rather more than a hundred miles from the capital, to the -northward of Cape Frio. I gladly accepted his kind offer of allowing -me to accompany him. - -April 8th.--Our party amounted to seven. The first stage was very -interesting. The day was powerfully hot, and as we passed through the -woods, everything was motionless, excepting the large and brilliant -butterflies, which lazily fluttered about. The view seen when crossing -the hills behind Praia Grande was most beautiful; the colours were -intense, and the prevailing tint a dark blue; the sky and the calm -waters of the bay vied with each other in splendour. After passing -through some cultivated country, we entered a forest, which in the -grandeur of all its parts could not be exceeded. We arrived by midday -at Ithacaia; this small village is situated on a plain, and round the -central house are the huts of the negroes. These, from their regular -form and position, reminded me of the drawings of the Hottentot -habitations in Southern Africa. As the moon rose early, we determined -to start the same evening for our sleeping-place at the Lagoa Marica. -As it was growing dark we passed under one of the massive, bare, and -steep hills of granite which are so common in this country. This spot -is notorious from having been, for a long time, the residence of some -runaway slaves, who, by cultivating a little ground near the top, -contrived to eke out a subsistence. At length they were discovered, -and a party of soldiers being sent, the whole were seized with the -exception of one old woman, who, sooner than again be led into slavery, -dashed herself to pieces from the summit of the mountain. In a Roman -matron this would have been called the noble love of freedom: in a poor -negress it is mere brutal obstinacy. We continued riding for some -hours. For the few last miles the road was intricate, and it passed -through a desert waste of marshes and lagoons. The scene by the dimmed -light of the moon was most desolate. A few fireflies flitted by us; -and the solitary snipe, as it rose, uttered its plaintive cry. The -distant and sullen roar of the sea scarcely broke the stillness of the -night. - -April 9th.--We left our miserable sleeping-place before sunrise. The -road passed through a narrow sandy plain, lying between the sea and the -interior salt lagoons. The number of beautiful fishing birds, such as -egrets and cranes, and the succulent plants assuming most fantastical -forms, gave to the scene an interest which it would not otherwise have -possessed. The few stunted trees were loaded with parasitical plants, -among which the beauty and delicious fragrance of some of the orchideae -were most to be admired. As the sun rose, the day became extremely hot, -and the reflection of the light and heat from the white sand was very -distressing. We dined at Mandetiba; the thermometer in the shade being -84 degs. The beautiful view of the distant wooded hills, reflected in -the perfectly calm water of an extensive lagoon, quite refreshed us. As -the venda [1] here was a very good one, and I have the pleasant, but -rare remembrance, of an excellent dinner, I will be grateful and -presently describe it, as the type of its class. These houses are -often large, and are built of thick upright posts, with boughs -interwoven, and afterwards plastered. They seldom have floors, and -never glazed windows; but are generally pretty well roofed. Universally -the front part is open, forming a kind of verandah, in which tables and -benches are placed. The bed-rooms join on each side, and here the -passenger may sleep as comfortably as he can, on a wooden platform, -covered by a thin straw mat. The venda stands in a courtyard, where -the horses are fed. On first arriving it was our custom to unsaddle -the horses and give them their Indian corn; then, with a low bow, to -ask the senhor to do us the favour to give up something to eat. -"Anything you choose, sir," was his usual answer. For the few first -times, vainly I thanked providence for having guided us to so good a -man. The conversation proceeding, the case universally became -deplorable. "Any fish can you do us the favour of giving ?"--"Oh! no, -sir."--"Any soup?"--"No, sir."--"Any bread?"--"Oh! no, sir."--"Any -dried meat?"--"Oh! no, sir." If we were lucky, by waiting a couple of -hours, we obtained fowls, rice, and farinha. It not unfrequently -happened, that we were obliged to kill, with stones, the poultry for -our own supper. When, thoroughly exhausted by fatigue and hunger, we -timorously hinted that we should be glad of our meal, the pompous, and -(though true) most unsatisfactory answer was, "It will be ready when it -is ready." If we had dared to remonstrate any further, we should have -been told to proceed on our journey, as being too impertinent. The -hosts are most ungracious and disagreeable in their manners; their -houses and their persons are often filthily dirty; the want of the -accommodation of forks, knives, and spoons is common; and I am sure no -cottage or hovel in England could be found in a state so utterly -destitute of every comfort. At Campos Novos, however, we fared -sumptuously; having rice and fowls, biscuit, wine, and spirits, for -dinner; coffee in the evening, and fish with coffee for breakfast. All -this, with good food for the horses, only cost 2s. 6d. per head. Yet -the host of this venda, being asked if he knew anything of a whip which -one of the party had lost, gruffly answered, "How should I know? why -did you not take care of it?--I suppose the dogs have eaten it." - -Leaving Mandetiba, we continued to pass through an intricate wilderness -of lakes; in some of which were fresh, in others salt water shells. Of -the former kinds, I found a Limnaea in great numbers in a lake, into -which, the inhabitants assured me that the sea enters once a year, and -sometimes oftener, and makes the water quite salt. I have no doubt -many interesting facts, in relation to marine and fresh water animals, -might be observed in this chain of lagoons, which skirt the coast of -Brazil. M. Gay [2] has stated that he found in the neighbourhood of -Rio, shells of the marine genera solen and mytilus, and fresh water -ampullariae, living together in brackish water. I also frequently -observed in the lagoon near the Botanic Garden, where the water is only -a little less salt than in the sea, a species of hydrophilus, very -similar to a water-beetle common in the ditches of England: in the same -lake the only shell belonged to a genus generally found in estuaries. - -Leaving the coast for a time, we again entered the forest. The trees -were very lofty, and remarkable, compared with those of Europe, from -the whiteness of their trunks. I see by my note-book, "wonderful and -beautiful, flowering parasites," invariably struck me as the most novel -object in these grand scenes. Travelling onwards we passed through -tracts of pasturage, much injured by the enormous conical ants' nests, -which were nearly twelve feet high. They gave to the plain exactly the -appearance of the mud volcanos at Jorullo, as figured by Humboldt. We -arrived at Engenhodo after it was dark, having been ten hours on -horseback. I never ceased, during the whole journey, to be surprised -at the amount of labour which the horses were capable of enduring; they -appeared also to recover from any injury much sooner than those of our -English breed. The Vampire bat is often the cause of much trouble, by -biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally not so -much owing to the loss of blood, as to the inflammation which the -pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circumstance has -lately been doubted in England; I was therefore fortunate in being -present when one (Desmodus d'orbignyi, Wat.) was actually caught on a -horse's back. We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in -Chile, when my servant, noticing that one of the horses was very -restive, went to see what was the matter, and fancying he could -distinguish something, suddenly put his hand on the beast's withers, -and secured the vampire. In the morning the spot where the bite had -been inflicted was easily distinguished from being slightly swollen and -bloody. The third day afterwards we rode the horse, without any ill -effects. - -April 13th.--After three days' travelling we arrived at Socego, the -estate of Senhor Manuel Figuireda, a relation of one of our party. The -house was simple, and, though like a barn in form, was well suited to -the climate. In the sitting-room gilded chairs and sofas were oddly -contrasted with the whitewashed walls, thatched roof, and windows -without glass. The house, together with the granaries, the stables, -and workshops for the blacks, who had been taught various trades, -formed a rude kind of quadrangle; in the centre of which a large pile -of coffee was drying. These buildings stand on a little hill, -overlooking the cultivated ground, and surrounded on every side by a -wall of dark green luxuriant forest. The chief produce of this part of -the country is coffee. Each tree is supposed to yield annually, on an -average, two pounds; but some give as much as eight. Mandioca or -cassada is likewise cultivated in great quantity. Every part of this -plant is useful; the leaves and stalks are eaten by the horses, and the -roots are ground into a pulp, which, when pressed dry and baked, forms -the farinha, the principal article of sustenance in the Brazils. It is -a curious, though well-known fact, that the juice of this most -nutritious plant is highly poisonous. A few years ago a cow died at -this Fazenda, in consequence of having drunk some of it. Senhor -Figuireda told me that he had planted, the year before, one bag of -feijao or beans, and three of rice; the former of which produced -eighty, and the latter three hundred and twenty fold. The pasturage -supports a fine stock of cattle, and the woods are so full of game that -a deer had been killed on each of the three previous days. This -profusion of food showed itself at dinner, where, if the tables did not -groan, the guests surely did; for each person is expected to eat of -every dish. One day, having, as I thought, nicely calculated so that -nothing should go away untasted, to my utter dismay a roast turkey and -a pig appeared in all their substantial reality. During the meals, it -was the employment of a man to drive out of the room sundry old hounds, -and dozens of little black children, which crawled in together, at -every opportunity. As long as the idea of slavery could be banished, -there was something exceedingly fascinating in this simple and -patriarchal style of living: it was such a perfect retirement and -independence from the rest of the world. - -As soon as any stranger is seen arriving, a large bell is set tolling, -and generally some small cannon are fired. The event is thus announced -to the rocks and woods, but to nothing else. One morning I walked out -an hour before daylight to admire the solemn stillness of the scene; at -last, the silence was broken by the morning hymn, raised on high by the -whole body of the blacks; and in this manner their daily work is -generally begun. On such fazendas as these, I have no doubt the slaves -pass happy and contented lives. On Saturday and Sunday they work for -themselves, and in this fertile climate the labour of two days is -sufficient to support a man and his family for the whole week. - -April 14th.--Leaving Socego, we rode to another estate on the Rio -Macae, which was the last patch of cultivated ground in that direction. -The estate was two and a half miles long, and the owner had forgotten -how many broad. Only a very small piece had been cleared, yet almost -every acre was capable of yielding all the various rich productions of -a tropical land. Considering the enormous area of Brazil, the -proportion of cultivated ground can scarcely be considered as anything, -compared to that which is left in the state of nature: at some future -age, how vast a population it will support! During the second day's -journey we found the road so shut up, that it was necessary that a man -should go ahead with a sword to cut away the creepers. The forest -abounded with beautiful objects; among which the tree ferns, though not -large, were, from their bright green foliage, and the elegant curvature -of their fronds, most worthy of admiration. In the evening it rained -very heavily, and although the thermometer stood at 65 degs., I felt -very cold. As soon as the rain ceased, it was curious to observe the -extraordinary evaporation which commenced over the whole extent of the -forest. At the height of a hundred feet the hills were buried in a -dense white vapour, which rose like columns of smoke from the most -thickly wooded parts, and especially from the valleys. I observed this -phenomenon on several occasions. I suppose it is owing to the large -surface of foliage, previously heated by the sun's rays. - -While staying at this estate, I was very nearly being an eye-witness to -one of those atrocious acts which can only take place in a slave -country. Owing to a quarrel and a lawsuit, the owner was on the point -of taking all the women and children from the male slaves, and selling -them separately at the public auction at Rio. Interest, and not any -feeling of compassion, prevented this act. Indeed, I do not believe -the inhumanity of separating thirty families, who had lived together -for many years, even occurred to the owner. Yet I will pledge myself, -that in humanity and good feeling he was superior to the common run of -men. It may be said there exists no limit to the blindness of interest -and selfish habit. I may mention one very trifling anecdote, which at -the time struck me more forcibly than any story of cruelty. I was -crossing a ferry with a negro, who was uncommonly stupid. In -endeavouring to make him understand, I talked loud, and made signs, in -doing which I passed my hand near his face. He, I suppose, thought I -was in a passion, and was going to strike him; for instantly, with a -frightened look and half-shut eyes, he dropped his hands. I shall -never forget my feelings of surprise, disgust, and shame, at seeing a -great powerful man afraid even to ward off a blow, directed, as he -thought, at his face. This man had been trained to a degradation lower -than the slavery of the most helpless animal. - -April 18th.--In returning we spent two days at Socego, and I employed -them in collecting insects in the forest. The greater number of trees, -although so lofty, are not more than three or four feet in -circumference. There are, of course, a few of much greater dimensions. -Senhor Manuel was then making a canoe 70 feet in length from a solid -trunk, which had originally been 110 feet long, and of great thickness. -The contrast of palm trees, growing amidst the common branching kinds, -never fails to give the scene an intertropical character. Here the -woods were ornamented by the Cabbage Palm--one of the most beautiful of -its family. With a stem so narrow that it might be clasped with the -two hands, it waves its elegant head at the height of forty or fifty -feet above the ground. The woody creepers, themselves covered by other -creepers, were of great thickness: some which I measured were two feet -in circumference. Many of the older trees presented a very curious -appearance from the tresses of a liana hanging from their boughs, and -resembling bundles of hay. If the eye was turned from the world of -foliage above, to the ground beneath, it was attracted by the extreme -elegance of the leaves of the ferns and mimosae. The latter, in some -parts, covered the surface with a brushwood only a few inches high. In -walking across these thick beds of mimosae, a broad track was marked by -the change of shade, produced by the drooping of their sensitive -petioles. It is easy to specify the individual objects of admiration in -these grand scenes; but it is not possible to give an adequate idea of -the higher feelings of wonder, astonishment, and devotion, which fill -and elevate the mind. - -April 19th.--Leaving Socego, during the two first days, we retraced our -steps. It was very wearisome work, as the road generally ran across a -glaring hot sandy plain, not far from the coast. I noticed that each -time the horse put its foot on the fine siliceous sand, a gentle -chirping noise was produced. On the third day we took a different -line, and passed through the gay little village of Madre de Deos. This -is one of the principal lines of road in Brazil; yet it was in so bad a -state that no wheeled vehicle, excepting the clumsy bullock-wagon, -could pass along. In our whole journey we did not cross a single -bridge built of stone; and those made of logs of wood were frequently -so much out of repair, that it was necessary to go on one side to avoid -them. All distances are inaccurately known. The road is often marked -by crosses, in the place of milestones, to signify where human blood -has been spilled. On the evening of the 23rd we arrived at Rio, having -finished our pleasant little excursion. - -During the remainder of my stay at Rio, I resided in a cottage at -Botofogo Bay. It was impossible to wish for anything more delightful -than thus to spend some weeks in so magnificent a country. In England -any person fond of natural history enjoys in his walks a great -advantage, by always having something to attract his attention; but in -these fertile climates, teeming with life, the attractions are so -numerous, that he is scarcely able to walk at all. - -The few observations which I was enabled to make were almost -exclusively confined to the invertebrate animals. The existence of a -division of the genus Planaria, which inhabits the dry land, interested -me much. These animals are of so simple a structure, that Cuvier has -arranged them with the intestinal worms, though never found within the -bodies of other animals. Numerous species inhabit both salt and fresh -water; but those to which I allude were found, even in the drier parts -of the forest, beneath logs of rotten wood, on which I believe they -feed. In general form they resemble little slugs, but are very much -narrower in proportion, and several of the species are beautifully -coloured with longitudinal stripes. Their structure is very simple: -near the middle of the under or crawling surface there are two small -transverse slits, from the anterior one of which a funnel-shaped and -highly irritable mouth can be protruded. For some time after the rest -of the animal was completely dead from the effects of salt water or any -other cause, this organ still retained its vitality. - -I found no less than twelve different species of terrestrial Planariae -in different parts of the southern hemisphere. [3] Some specimens which -I obtained at Van Dieman's Land, I kept alive for nearly two months, -feeding them on rotten wood. Having cut one of them transversely into -two nearly equal parts, in the course of a fortnight both had the shape -of perfect animals. I had, however, so divided the body, that one of -the halves contained both the inferior orifices, and the other, in -consequence, none. In the course of twenty-five days from the -operation, the more perfect half could not have been distinguished from -any other specimen. The other had increased much in size; and towards -its posterior end, a clear space was formed in the parenchymatous mass, -in which a rudimentary cup-shaped mouth could clearly be distinguished; -on the under surface, however, no corresponding slit was yet open. If -the increased heat of the weather, as we approached the equator, had -not destroyed all the individuals, there can be no doubt that this last -step would have completed its structure. Although so well-known an -experiment, it was interesting to watch the gradual production of every -essential organ, out of the simple extremity of another animal. It is -extremely difficult to preserve these Planariae; as soon as the -cessation of life allows the ordinary laws of change to act, their -entire bodies become soft and fluid, with a rapidity which I have never -seen equalled. - -I first visited the forest in which these Planariae were found, in -company with an old Portuguese priest who took me out to hunt with him. -The sport consisted in turning into the cover a few dogs, and then -patiently waiting to fire at any animal which might appear. We were -accompanied by the son of a neighbouring farmer--a good specimen of a -wild Brazilian youth. He was dressed in a tattered old shirt and -trousers, and had his head uncovered: he carried an old-fashioned gun -and a large knife. The habit of carrying the knife is universal; and -in traversing a thick wood it is almost necessary, on account of the -creeping plants. The frequent occurrence of murder may be partly -attributed to this habit. The Brazilians are so dexterous with the -knife, that they can throw it to some distance with precision, and with -sufficient force to cause a fatal wound. I have seen a number of -little boys practising this art as a game of play and from their skill -in hitting an upright stick, they promised well for more earnest -attempts. My companion, the day before, had shot two large bearded -monkeys. These animals have prehensile tails, the extremity of which, -even after death, can support the whole weight of the body. One of -them thus remained fast to a branch, and it was necessary to cut down a -large tree to procure it. This was soon effected, and down came tree -and monkey with an awful crash. Our day's sport, besides the monkey, -was confined to sundry small green parrots and a few toucans. I -profited, however, by my acquaintance with the Portuguese padre, for on -another occasion he gave me a fine specimen of the Yagouaroundi cat. - -Every one has heard of the beauty of the scenery near Botofogo. The -house in which I lived was seated close beneath the well-known mountain -of the Corcovado. It has been remarked, with much truth, that abruptly -conical hills are characteristic of the formation which Humboldt -designates as gneiss-granite. Nothing can be more striking than the -effect of these huge rounded masses of naked rock rising out of the -most luxuriant vegetation. - -I was often interested by watching the clouds, which, rolling in from -seaward, formed a bank just beneath the highest point of the Corcovado. -This mountain, like most others, when thus partly veiled, appeared to -rise to a far prouder elevation than its real height of 2300 feet. Mr. -Daniell has observed, in his meteorological essays, that a cloud -sometimes appears fixed on a mountain summit, while the wind continues -to blow over it. The same phenomenon here presented a slightly -different appearance. In this case the cloud was clearly seen to curl -over, and rapidly pass by the summit, and yet was neither diminished -nor increased in size. The sun was setting, and a gentle southerly -breeze, striking against the southern side of the rock, mingled its -current with the colder air above; and the vapour was thus condensed; -but as the light wreaths of cloud passed over the ridge, and came -within the influence of the warmer atmosphere of the northern sloping -bank, they were immediately re-dissolved. - -The climate, during the months of May and June, or the beginning of -winter, was delightful. The mean temperature, from observations taken -at nine o'clock, both morning and evening, was only 72 degs. It often -rained heavily, but the drying southerly winds soon again rendered the -walks pleasant. One morning, in the course of six hours, 1.6 inches of -rain fell. As this storm passed over the forests which surround the -Corcovado, the sound produced by the drops pattering on the countless -multitude of leaves was very remarkable, it could be heard at the -distance of a quarter of a mile, and was like the rushing of a great -body of water. After the hotter days, it was delicious to sit quietly -in the garden and watch the evening pass into night. Nature, in these -climes, chooses her vocalists from more humble performers than in -Europe. A small frog, of the genus Hyla, sits on a blade of grass -about an inch above the surface of the water, and sends forth a -pleasing chirp: when several are together they sing in harmony on -different notes. I had some difficulty in catching a specimen of this -frog. The genus Hyla has its toes terminated by small suckers; and I -found this animal could crawl up a pane of glass, when placed -absolutely perpendicular. Various cicidae and crickets, at the same -time, keep up a ceaseless shrill cry, but which, softened by the -distance, is not unpleasant. Every evening after dark this great -concert commenced; and often have I sat listening to it, until my -attention has been drawn away by some curious passing insect. - -At these times the fireflies are seen flitting about from hedge to -hedge. On a dark night the light can be seen at about two hundred -paces distant. It is remarkable that in all the different kinds of -glowworms, shining elaters, and various marine animals (such as the -crustacea, medusae, nereidae, a coralline of the genus Clytia, and -Pyrosma), which I have observed, the light has been of a well-marked -green colour. All the fireflies, which I caught here, belonged to the -Lampyridae (in which family the English glowworm is included), and the -greater number of specimens were of Lampyris occidentalis. [4] I found -that this insect emitted the most brilliant flashes when irritated: in -the intervals, the abdominal rings were obscured. The flash was almost -co-instantaneous in the two rings, but it was just perceptible first in -the anterior one. The shining matter was fluid and very adhesive: -little spots, where the skin had been torn, continued bright with a -slight scintillation, whilst the uninjured parts were obscured. When -the insect was decapitated the rings remained uninterruptedly bright, -but not so brilliant as before: local irritation with a needle always -increased the vividness of the light. The rings in one instance -retained their luminous property nearly twenty-four hours after the -death of the insect. From these facts it would appear probable, that -the animal has only the power of concealing or extinguishing the light -for short intervals, and that at other times the display is -involuntary. On the muddy and wet gravel-walks I found the larvae of -this lampyris in great numbers: they resembled in general form the -female of the English glowworm. These larvae possessed but feeble -luminous powers; very differently from their parents, on the slightest -touch they feigned death and ceased to shine; nor did irritation excite -any fresh display. I kept several of them alive for some time: their -tails are very singular organs, for they act, by a well-fitted -contrivance, as suckers or organs of attachment, and likewise as -reservoirs for saliva, or some such fluid. I repeatedly fed them on -raw meat; and I invariably observed, that every now and then the -extremity of the tail was applied to the mouth, and a drop of fluid -exuded on the meat, which was then in the act of being consumed. The -tail, notwithstanding so much practice, does not seem to be able to -find its way to the mouth; at least the neck was always touched first, -and apparently as a guide. - -When we were at Bahia, an elater or beetle (Pyrophorus luminosus, -Illig.) seemed the most common luminous insect. The light in this case -was also rendered more brilliant by irritation. I amused myself one -day by observing the springing powers of this insect, which have not, -as it appears to me, been properly described. [5] The elater, when -placed on its back and preparing to spring, moved its head and thorax -backwards, so that the pectoral spine was drawn out, and rested on the -edge of its sheath. The same backward movement being continued, the -spine, by the full action of the muscles, was bent like a spring; and -the insect at this moment rested on the extremity of its head and -wing-cases. The effort being suddenly relaxed, the head and thorax flew -up, and in consequence, the base of the wing-cases struck the -supporting surface with such force, that the insect by the reaction was -jerked upwards to the height of one or two inches. The projecting -points of the thorax, and the sheath of the spine, served to steady the -whole body during the spring. In the descriptions which I have read, -sufficient stress does not appear to have been laid on the elasticity -of the spine: so sudden a spring could not be the result of simple -muscular contraction, without the aid of some mechanical contrivance. - -On several occasions I enjoyed some short but most pleasant excursions -in the neighbouring country. One day I went to the Botanic Garden, -where many plants, well known for their great utility, might be seen -growing. The leaves of the camphor, pepper, cinnamon, and clove trees -were delightfully aromatic; and the bread-fruit, the jaca, and the -mango, vied with each other in the magnificence of their foliage. The -landscape in the neighbourhood of Bahia almost takes its character from -the two latter trees. Before seeing them, I had no idea that any trees -could cast so black a shade on the ground. Both of them bear to the -evergreen vegetation of these climates the same kind of relation which -laurels and hollies in England do to the lighter green of the deciduous -trees. It may be observed, that the houses within the tropics are -surrounded by the most beautiful forms of vegetation, because many of -them are at the same time most useful to man. Who can doubt that these -qualities are united in the banana, the cocoa-nut, the many kinds of -palm, the orange, and the bread-fruit tree? - -During this day I was particularly struck with a remark of Humboldt's, -who often alludes to "the thin vapour which, without changing the -transparency of the air, renders its tints more harmonious, and softens -its effects." This is an appearance which I have never observed in the -temperate zones. The atmosphere, seen through a short space of half or -three-quarters of a mile, was perfectly lucid, but at a greater -distance all colours were blended into a most beautiful haze, of a pale -French grey, mingled with a little blue. The condition of the -atmosphere between the morning and about noon, when the effect was most -evident, had undergone little change, excepting in its dryness. In the -interval, the difference between the dew point and temperature had -increased from 7.5 to 17 degs. - -On another occasion I started early and walked to the Gavia, or topsail -mountain. The air was delightfully cool and fragrant; and the drops of -dew still glittered on the leaves of the large liliaceous plants, which -shaded the streamlets of clear water. Sitting down on a block of -granite, it was delightful to watch the various insects and birds as -they flew past. The humming-bird seems particularly fond of such shady -retired spots. Whenever I saw these little creatures buzzing round a -flower, with their wings vibrating so rapidly as to be scarcely -visible, I was reminded of the sphinx moths: their movements and habits -are indeed in many respects very similar. - -Following a pathway, I entered a noble forest, and from a height of -five or six hundred feet, one of those splendid views was presented, -which are so common on every side of Rio. At this elevation the -landscape attains its most brilliant tint; and every form, every shade, -so completely surpasses in magnificence all that the European has ever -beheld in his own country, that he knows not how to express his -feelings. The general effect frequently recalled to my mind the gayest -scenery of the Opera-house or the great theatres. I never returned -from these excursions empty-handed. This day I found a specimen of a -curious fungus, called Hymenophallus. Most people know the English -Phallus, which in autumn taints the air with its odious smell: this, -however, as the entomologist is aware, is, to some of our beetles a -delightful fragrance. So was it here; for a Strongylus, attracted by -the odour, alighted on the fungus as I carried it in my hand. We here -see in two distant countries a similar relation between plants and -insects of the same families, though the species of both are different. -When man is the agent in introducing into a country a new species, this -relation is often broken: as one instance of this I may mention, that -the leaves of the cabbages and lettuces, which in England afford food -to such a multitude of slugs and caterpillars, in the gardens near Rio -are untouched. - -During our stay at Brazil I made a large collection of insects. A few -general observations on the comparative importance of the different -orders may be interesting to the English entomologist. The large and -brilliantly coloured Lepidoptera bespeak the zone they inhabit, far -more plainly than any other race of animals. I allude only to the -butterflies; for the moths, contrary to what might have been expected -from the rankness of the vegetation, certainly appeared in much fewer -numbers than in our own temperate regions. I was much surprised at the -habits of Papilio feronia. This butterfly is not uncommon, and -generally frequents the orange-groves. Although a high flier, yet it -very frequently alights on the trunks of trees. On these occasions its -head is invariably placed downwards; and its wings are expanded in a -horizontal plane, instead of being folded vertically, as is commonly -the case. This is the only butterfly which I have ever seen, that uses -its legs for running. Not being aware of this fact, the insect, more -than once, as I cautiously approached with my forceps, shuffled on one -side just as the instrument was on the point of closing, and thus -escaped. But a far more singular fact is the power which this species -possesses of making a noise. [6] Several times when a pair, probably -male and female, were chasing each other in an irregular course, they -passed within a few yards of me; and I distinctly heard a clicking -noise, similar to that produced by a toothed wheel passing under a -spring catch. The noise was continued at short intervals, and could be -distinguished at about twenty yards' distance: I am certain there is no -error in the observation. - -I was disappointed in the general aspect of the Coleoptera. The number -of minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great. [7] The -cabinets of Europe can, as yet, boast only of the larger species from -tropical climates. It is sufficient to disturb the composure of an -entomologist's mind, to look forward to the future dimensions of a -complete catalogue. The carnivorous beetles, or Carabidae, appear in -extremely few numbers within the tropics: this is the more remarkable -when compared to the case of the carnivorous quadrupeds, which are so -abundant in hot countries. I was struck with this observation both on -entering Brazil, and when I saw the many elegant and active forms of -the Harpalidae re-appearing on the temperate plains of La Plata. Do -the very numerous spiders and rapacious Hymenoptera supply the place of -the carnivorous beetles? The carrion-feeders and Brachelytra are very -uncommon; on the other hand, the Rhyncophora and Chrysomelidae, all of -which depend on the vegetable world for subsistence, are present in -astonishing numbers. I do not here refer to the number of different -species, but to that of the individual insects; for on this it is that -the most striking character in the entomology of different countries -depends. The orders Orthoptera and Hemiptera are particularly -numerous; as likewise is the stinging division of the Hymenoptera the -bees, perhaps, being excepted. A person, on first entering a tropical -forest, is astonished at the labours of the ants: well-beaten paths -branch off in every direction, on which an army of never-failing -foragers may be seen, some going forth, and others returning, burdened -with pieces of green leaf, often larger than their own bodies. - -A small dark-coloured ant sometimes migrates in countless numbers. One -day, at Bahia, my attention was drawn by observing many spiders, -cockroaches, and other insects, and some lizards, rushing in the -greatest agitation across a bare piece of ground. A little way behind, -every stalk and leaf was blackened by a small ant. The swarm having -crossed the bare space, divided itself, and descended an old wall. By -this means many insects were fairly enclosed; and the efforts which the -poor little creatures made to extricate themselves from such a death -were wonderful. When the ants came to the road they changed their -course, and in narrow files reascended the wall. Having placed a small -stone so as to intercept one of the lines, the whole body attacked it, -and then immediately retired. Shortly afterwards another body came to -the charge, and again having failed to make any impression, this line -of march was entirely given up. By going an inch round, the file might -have avoided the stone, and this doubtless would have happened, if it -had been originally there: but having been attacked, the lion-hearted -little warriors scorned the idea of yielding. - -Certain wasp-like insects, which construct in the corners of the -verandahs clay cells for their larvae, are very numerous in the -neighbourhood of Rio. These cells they stuff full of half-dead spiders -and caterpillars, which they seem wonderfully to know how to sting to -that degree as to leave them paralysed but alive, until their eggs are -hatched; and the larvae feed on the horrid mass of powerless, -half-killed victims--a sight which has been described by an -enthusiastic naturalist [8] as curious and pleasing! I was much -interested one day by watching a deadly contest between a Pepsis and a -large spider of the genus Lycosa. The wasp made a sudden dash at its -prey, and then flew away: the spider was evidently wounded, for, trying -to escape, it rolled down a little slope, but had still strength -sufficient to crawl into a thick tuft of grass. The wasp soon -returned, and seemed surprised at not immediately finding its victim. -It then commenced as regular a hunt as ever hound did after fox; making -short semicircular casts, and all the time rapidly vibrating its wings -and antennae. The spider, though well concealed, was soon discovered, -and the wasp, evidently still afraid of its adversary's jaws, after -much manoeuvring, inflicted two stings on the under side of its thorax. -At last, carefully examining with its antennae the now motionless -spider, it proceeded to drag away the body. But I stopped both tyrant -and prey. [9] - -The number of spiders, in proportion to other insects, is here compared -with England very much larger; perhaps more so than with any other -division of the articulate animals. The variety of species among the -jumping spiders appears almost infinite. The genus, or rather family, -of Epeira, is here characterized by many singular forms; some species -have pointed coriaceous shells, others enlarged and spiny tibiae. Every -path in the forest is barricaded with the strong yellow web of a -species, belonging to the same division with the Epeira clavipes of -Fabricius, which was formerly said by Sloane to make, in the West -Indies, webs so strong as to catch birds. A small and pretty kind of -spider, with very long fore-legs, and which appears to belong to an -undescribed genus, lives as a parasite on almost every one of these -webs. I suppose it is too insignificant to be noticed by the great -Epeira, and is therefore allowed to prey on the minute insects, which, -adhering to the lines, would otherwise be wasted. When frightened, -this little spider either feigns death by extending its front legs, or -suddenly drops from the web. A large Epeira of the same division with -Epeira tuberculata and conica is extremely common, especially in dry -situations. Its web, which is generally placed among the great leaves -of the common agave, is sometimes strengthened near the centre by a -pair or even four zigzag ribbons, which connect two adjoining rays. -When any large insect, as a grasshopper or wasp, is caught, the spider, -by a dexterous movement, makes it revolve very rapidly, and at the same -time emitting a band of threads from its spinners, soon envelops its -prey in a case like the cocoon of a silkworm. The spider now examines -the powerless victim, and gives the fatal bite on the hinder part of -its thorax; then retreating, patiently waits till the poison has taken -effect. The virulence of this poison may be judged of from the fact -that in half a minute I opened the mesh, and found a large wasp quite -lifeless. This Epeira always stands with its head downwards near the -centre of the web. When disturbed, it acts differently according to -circumstances: if there is a thicket below, it suddenly falls down; and -I have distinctly seen the thread from the spinners lengthened by the -animal while yet stationary, as preparatory to its fall. If the ground -is clear beneath, the Epeira seldom falls, but moves quickly through a -central passage from one to the other side. When still further -disturbed, it practises a most curious manoeuvre: standing in the -middle, it violently jerks the web, which it attached to elastic twigs, -till at last the whole acquires such a rapid vibratory movement, that -even the outline of the spider's body becomes indistinct. - -It is well known that most of the British spiders, when a large insect -is caught in their webs, endeavour to cut the lines and liberate their -prey, to save their nets from being entirely spoiled. I once, however, -saw in a hothouse in Shropshire a large female wasp caught in the -irregular web of a quite small spider; and this spider, instead of -cutting the web, most perseveringly continued to entangle the body, and -especially the wings, of its prey. The wasp at first aimed in vain -repeated thrusts with its sting at its little antagonist. Pitying the -wasp, after allowing it to struggle for more than an hour, I killed it -and put it back into the web. The spider soon returned; and an hour -afterwards I was much surprised to find it with its jaws buried in the -orifice, through which the sting is protruded by the living wasp. I -drove the spider away two or three times, but for the next twenty-four -hours I always found it again sucking at the same place. The spider -became much distended by the juices of its prey, which was many times -larger than itself. - -I may here just mention, that I found, near St. Fe Bajada, many large -black spiders, with ruby-coloured marks on their backs, having -gregarious habits. The webs were placed vertically, as is invariably -the case with the genus Epeira: they were separated from each other by -a space of about two feet, but were all attached to certain common -lines, which were of great length, and extended to all parts of the -community. In this manner the tops of some large bushes were -encompassed by the united nets. Azara [10] has described a gregarious -spider in Paraguay, which Walckanaer thinks must be a Theridion, but -probably it is an Epeira, and perhaps even the same species with mine. -I cannot, however, recollect seeing a central nest as large as a hat, -in which, during autumn, when the spiders die, Azara says the eggs are -deposited. As all the spiders which I saw were of the same size, they -must have been nearly of the same age. This gregarious habit, in so -typical a genus as Epeira, among insects, which are so bloodthirsty and -solitary that even the two sexes attack each other, is a very singular -fact. - -In a lofty valley of the Cordillera, near Mendoza, I found another -spider with a singularly-formed web. Strong lines radiated in a -vertical plane from a common centre, where the insect had its station; -but only two of the rays were connected by a symmetrical mesh-work; so -that the net, instead of being, as is generally the case, circular, -consisted of a wedge-shaped segment. All the webs were similarly -constructed. - -[1] Venda, the Portuguese name for an inn. - -[2] Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1833. - -[3] I have described and named these species in the Annals of Nat. -Hist., vol. xiv. p. 241. - -[4] I am greatly indebted to Mr. Waterhouse for his kindness in naming -for me this and many other insects, and giving me much valuable -assistance. - -[5] Kirby's Entomology, vol. ii. p. 317. - -[6] Mr. Doubleday has lately described (before the Entomological -Society, March 3rd, 1845) a peculiar structure in the wings of this -butterfly, which seems to be the means of its making its noise. He -says, "It is remarkable for having a sort of drum at the base of the -fore wings, between the costal nervure and the subcostal. These two -nervures, moreover, have a peculiar screw-like diaphragm or vessel in -the interior." I find in Langsdorff's travels (in the years 1803-7, p. -74) it is said, that in the island of St. Catherine's on the coast of -Brazil, a butterfly called Februa Hoffmanseggi, makes a noise, when -flying away, like a rattle. - -[7] I may mention, as a common instance of one day's (June 23rd) -collecting, when I was not attending particularly to the Coleoptera, -that I caught sixty-eight species of that order. Among these, there -were only two of the Carabidae, four Brachelytra, fifteen Rhyncophora, -and fourteen of the Chrysomelidae. Thirty-seven species of Arachnidae, -which I brought home, will be sufficient to prove that I was not paying -overmuch attention to the generally favoured order of Coleoptera. - -[8] In a MS. in the British Museum by Mr. Abbott, who made his -observations in Georgia; see Mr. A. White's paper in the "Annals of -Nat. Hist.," vol. vii. p. 472. Lieut. Hutton has described a sphex with -similar habits in India, in the "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. -i. p. 555. - -[9] Don Felix Azara (vol. i. p. 175), mentioning a hymenopterous -insect, probably of the same genus, says he saw it dragging a dead -spider through tall grass, in a straight line to its nest, which was -one hundred and sixty-three paces distant. He adds that the wasp, in -order to find the road, every now and then made "demi-tours d'environ -trois palmes." - -[10] Azara's Voyage, vol. i. p. 213 - - - -CHAPTER III - -MALDONADO - -Monte Video--Excursion to R. Polanco--Lazo and -Bolas--Partridges--Absence of Trees--Deer--Capybara, or River -Hog--Tucutuco--Molothrus, cuckoo-like -habits--Tyrant-flycatcher--Mocking-bird--Carrion Hawks--Tubes formed by -Lightning--House struck. - - -July 5th, 1832--In the morning we got under way, and stood out of the -splendid harbour of Rio de Janeiro. In our passage to the Plata, we -saw nothing particular, excepting on one day a great shoal of -porpoises, many hundreds in number. The whole sea was in places -furrowed by them; and a most extraordinary spectacle was presented, as -hundreds, proceeding together by jumps, in which their whole bodies -were exposed, thus cut the water. When the ship was running nine knots -an hour, these animals could cross and recross the bows with the -greatest of ease, and then dash away right ahead. As soon as we -entered the estuary of the Plata, the weather was very unsettled. One -dark night we were surrounded by numerous seals and penguins, which -made such strange noises, that the officer on watch reported he could -hear the cattle bellowing on shore. On a second night we witnessed a -splendid scene of natural fireworks; the mast-head and yard-arm-ends -shone with St. Elmo's light; and the form of the vane could almost be -traced, as if it had been rubbed with phosphorus. The sea was so -highly luminous, that the tracks of the penguins were marked by a fiery -wake, and the darkness of the sky was momentarily illuminated by the -most vivid lightning. - -When within the mouth of the river, I was interested by observing how -slowly the waters of the sea and river mixed. The latter, muddy and -discoloured, from its less specific gravity, floated on the surface of -the salt water. This was curiously exhibited in the wake of the -vessel, where a line of blue water was seen mingling in little eddies, -with the adjoining fluid. - -July 26th.--We anchored at Monte Video. The Beagle was employed in -surveying the extreme southern and eastern coasts of America, south of -the Plata, during the two succeeding years. To prevent useless -repetitions, I will extract those parts of my journal which refer to -the same districts without always attending to the order in which we -visited them. - -MALDONADO is situated on the northern bank of the Plata, and not very -far from the mouth of the estuary. It is a most quiet, forlorn, little -town; built, as is universally the case in these countries, with the -streets running at right angles to each other, and having in the middle -a large plaza or square, which, from its size, renders the scantiness -of the population more evident. It possesses scarcely any trade; the -exports being confined to a few hides and living cattle. The -inhabitants are chiefly landowners, together with a few shopkeepers and -the necessary tradesmen, such as blacksmiths and carpenters, who do -nearly all the business for a circuit of fifty miles round. The town -is separated from the river by a band of sand-hillocks, about a mile -broad: it is surrounded, on all other sides, by an open -slightly-undulating country, covered by one uniform layer of fine green -turf, on which countless herds of cattle, sheep, and horses graze. -There is very little land cultivated even close to the town. A few -hedges, made of cacti and agave, mark out where some wheat or Indian -corn has been planted. The features of the country are very similar -along the whole northern bank of the Plata. The only difference is, -that here the granitic hills are a little bolder. The scenery is very -uninteresting; there is scarcely a house, an enclosed piece of ground, -or even a tree, to give it an air of cheerfulness Yet, after being -imprisoned for some time in a ship, there is a charm in the unconfined -feeling of walking over boundless plains of turf. Moreover, if your -view is limited to a small space, many objects possess beauty. Some of -the smaller birds are brilliantly coloured; and the bright green sward, -browsed short by the cattle, is ornamented by dwarf flowers, among -which a plant, looking like the daisy, claimed the place of an old -friend. What would a florist say to whole tracts, so thickly covered -by the Verbena melindres, as, even at a distance, to appear of the most -gaudy scarlet? - -I stayed ten weeks at Maldonado, in which time a nearly perfect -collection of the animals, birds, and reptiles, was procured. Before -making any observations respecting them, I will give an account of a -little excursion I made as far as the river Polanco, which is about -seventy miles distant, in a northerly direction. I may mention, as a -proof how cheap everything is in this country, that I paid only two -dollars a day, or eight shillings, for two men, together with a troop -of about a dozen riding-horses. My companions were well armed with -pistols and sabres; a precaution which I thought rather unnecessary but -the first piece of news we heard was, that, the day before, a traveller -from Monte Video had been found dead on the road, with his throat cut. -This happened close to a cross, the record of a former murder. - -On the first night we slept at a retired little country-house; and -there I soon found out that I possessed two or three articles, -especially a pocket compass, which created unbounded astonishment. In -every house I was asked to show the compass, and by its aid, together -with a map, to point out the direction of various places. It excited -the liveliest admiration that I, a perfect stranger, should know the -road (for direction and road are synonymous in this open country) to -places where I had never been. At one house a young woman, who was ill -in bed, sent to entreat me to come and show her the compass. If their -surprise was great, mine was greater, to find such ignorance among -people who possessed their thousands of cattle, and "estancias" of -great extent. It can only be accounted for by the circumstance that -this retired part of the country is seldom visited by foreigners. I -was asked whether the earth or sun moved; whether it was hotter or -colder to the north; where Spain was, and many other such questions. -The greater number of the inhabitants had an indistinct idea that -England, London, and North America, were different names for the same -place; but the better informed well knew that London and North America -were separate countries close together, and that England was a large -town in London! I carried with me some promethean matches, which I -ignited by biting; it was thought so wonderful that a man should strike -fire with his teeth, that it was usual to collect the whole family to -see it: I was once offered a dollar for a single one. Washing my face -in the morning caused much speculation at the village of Las Minas; a -superior tradesman closely cross-questioned me about so singular a -practice; and likewise why on board we wore our beards; for he had -heard from my guide that we did so. He eyed me with much suspicion; -perhaps he had heard of ablutions in the Mahomedan religion, and -knowing me to be a heretick, probably he came to the conclusion that -all hereticks were Turks. It is the general custom in this country to -ask for a night's lodging at the first convenient house. The -astonishment at the compass, and my other feats of jugglery, was to a -certain degree advantageous, as with that, and the long stories my -guides told of my breaking stones, knowing venomous from harmless -snakes, collecting insects, etc., I repaid them for their hospitality. -I am writing as if I had been among the inhabitants of central Africa: -Banda Oriental would not be flattered by the comparison; but such were -my feelings at the time. - -The next day we rode to the village of Las Minas. The country was -rather more hilly, but otherwise continued the same; an inhabitant of -the Pampas no doubt would have considered it as truly Alpine. The -country is so thinly inhabited, that during the whole day we scarcely -met a single person. Las Minas is much smaller even than Maldonado. It -is seated on a little plain, and is surrounded by low rocky mountains. -It is of the usual symmetrical form, and with its whitewashed church -standing in the centre, had rather a pretty appearance. The -outskirting houses rose out of the plain like isolated beings, without -the accompaniment of gardens or courtyards. This is generally the case -in the country, and all the houses have, in consequence an -uncomfortable aspect. At night we stopped at a pulperia, or -drinking-shop. During the evening a great number of Gauchos came in to -drink spirits and smoke cigars: their appearance is very striking; they -are generally tall and handsome, but with a proud and dissolute -expression of countenance. They frequently wear their moustaches and -long black hair curling down their backs. With their brightly coloured -garments, great spurs clanking about their heels, and knives stuck as -daggers (and often so used) at their waists, they look a very different -race of men from what might be expected from their name of Gauchos, or -simple countrymen. Their politeness is excessive; they never drink -their spirits without expecting you to taste it; but whilst making -their exceedingly graceful bow, they seem quite as ready, if occasion -offered, to cut your throat. - -On the third day we pursued rather an irregular course, as I was -employed in examining some beds of marble. On the fine plains of turf -we saw many ostriches (Struthio rhea). Some of the flocks contained as -many as twenty or thirty birds. These, when standing on any little -eminence, and seen against the clear sky, presented a very noble -appearance. I never met with such tame ostriches in any other part of -the country: it was easy to gallop up within a short distance of them; -but then, expanding their wings, they made all sail right before the -wind, and soon left the horse astern. - -At night we came to the house of Don Juan Fuentes, a rich landed -proprietor, but not personally known to either of my companions. On -approaching the house of a stranger, it is usual to follow several -little points of etiquette: riding up slowly to the door, the -salutation of Ave Maria is given, and until somebody comes out and asks -you to alight, it is not customary even to get off your horse: the -formal answer of the owner is, "sin pecado concebida"--that is, -conceived without sin. Having entered the house, some general -conversation is kept up for a few minutes, till permission is asked to -pass the night there. This is granted as a matter of course. The -stranger then takes his meals with the family, and a room is assigned -him, where with the horsecloths belonging to his recado (or saddle of -the Pampas) he makes his bed. It is curious how similar circumstances -produce such similar results in manners. At the Cape of Good Hope the -same hospitality, and very nearly the same points of etiquette, are -universally observed. The difference, however, between the character -of the Spaniard and that of the Dutch boer is shown, by the former -never asking his guest a single question beyond the strictest rule of -politeness, whilst the honest Dutchman demands where he has been, where -he is going, what is his business, and even how many brothers sisters, -or children he may happen to have. - -Shortly after our arrival at Don Juan's, one of the largest herds of -cattle was driven in towards the house, and three beasts were picked -out to be slaughtered for the supply of the establishment. These -half-wild cattle are very active; and knowing full well the fatal lazo, -they led the horses a long and laborious chase. After witnessing the -rude wealth displayed in the number of cattle, men, and horses, Don -Juan's miserable house was quite curious. The floor consisted of -hardened mud, and the windows were without glass; the sitting-room -boasted only of a few of the roughest chairs and stools, with a couple -of tables. The supper, although several strangers were present, -consisted of two huge piles, one of roast beef, the other of boiled, -with some pieces of pumpkin: besides this latter there was no other -vegetable, and not even a morsel of bread. For drinking, a large -earthenware jug of water served the whole party. Yet this man was the -owner of several square miles of land, of which nearly every acre would -produce corn, and, with a little trouble, all the common vegetables. -The evening was spent in smoking, with a little impromptu singing, -accompanied by the guitar. The signoritas all sat together in one -corner of the room, and did not sup with the men. - -So many works have been written about these countries, that it is -almost superfluous to describe either the lazo or the bolas. The lazo -consists of a very strong, but thin, well-plaited rope, made of raw -hide. One end is attached to the broad surcingle, which fastens -together the complicated gear of the recado, or saddle used in the -Pampas; the other is terminated by a small ring of iron or brass, by -which a noose can be formed. The Gaucho, when he is going to use the -lazo, keeps a small coil in his bridle-hand, and in the other holds the -running noose which is made very large, generally having a diameter of -about eight feet. This he whirls round his head, and by the dexterous -movement of his wrist keeps the noose open; then, throwing it, he -causes it to fall on any particular spot he chooses. The lazo, when -not used, is tied up in a small coil to the after part of the recado. -The bolas, or balls, are of two kinds: the simplest, which is chiefly -used for catching ostriches, consists of two round stones, covered with -leather, and united by a thin plaited thong, about eight feet long. The -other kind differs only in having three balls united by the thongs to a -common centre. The Gaucho holds the smallest of the three in his hand, -and whirls the other two round and round his head; then, taking aim, -sends them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no -sooner strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each -other, and become firmly hitched. The size and weight of the balls -vary, according to the purpose for which they are made: when of stone, -although not larger than an apple, they are sent with such force as -sometimes to break the leg even of a horse. I have seen the balls made -of wood, and as large as a turnip, for the sake of catching these -animals without injuring them. The balls are sometimes made of iron, -and these can be hurled to the greatest distance. The main difficulty -in using either lazo or bolas is to ride so well as to be able at full -speed, and while suddenly turning about, to whirl them so steadily -round the head, as to take aim: on foot any person would soon learn the -art. One day, as I was amusing myself by galloping and whirling the -balls round my head, by accident the free one struck a bush, and its -revolving motion being thus destroyed, it immediately fell to the -ground, and, like magic, caught one hind leg of my horse; the other -ball was then jerked out of my hand, and the horse fairly secured. -Luckily he was an old practised animal, and knew what it meant; -otherwise he would probably have kicked till he had thrown himself -down. The Gauchos roared with laughter; they cried out that they had -seen every sort of animal caught, but had never before seen a man -caught by himself. - -During the two succeeding days, I reached the furthest point which I -was anxious to examine. The country wore the same aspect, till at last -the fine green turf became more wearisome than a dusty turnpike road. -We everywhere saw great numbers of partridges (Nothura major). These -birds do not go in coveys, nor do they conceal themselves like the -English kind. It appears a very silly bird. A man on horseback by -riding round and round in a circle, or rather in a spire, so as to -approach closer each time, may knock on the head as many as he pleases. -The more common method is to catch them with a running noose, or little -lazo, made of the stem of an ostrich's feather, fastened to the end of -a long stick. A boy on a quiet old horse will frequently thus catch -thirty or forty in a day. In Arctic North America [1] the Indians -catch the Varying Hare by walking spirally round and round it, when on -its form: the middle of the day is reckoned the best time, when the sun -is high, and the shadow of the hunter not very long. - -On our return to Maldonado, we followed rather a different line of -road. Near Pan de Azucar, a landmark well known to all those who have -sailed up the Plata, I stayed a day at the house of a most hospitable -old Spaniard. Early in the morning we ascended the Sierra de las -Animas. By the aid of the rising sun the scenery was almost -picturesque. To the westward the view extended over an immense level -plain as far as the Mount, at Monte Video, and to the eastward, over -the mammillated country of Maldonado. On the summit of the mountain -there were several small heaps of stones, which evidently had lain -there for many years. My companion assured me that they were the work -of the Indians in the old time. The heaps were similar, but on a much -smaller scale, to those so commonly found on the mountains of Wales. -The desire to signalize any event, on the highest point of the -neighbouring land, seems an universal passion with mankind. At the -present day, not a single Indian, either civilized or wild, exists in -this part of the province; nor am I aware that the former inhabitants -have left behind them any more permanent records than these -insignificant piles on the summit of the Sierra de las Animas. - - -The general, and almost entire absence of trees in Banda Oriental is -remarkable. Some of the rocky hills are partly covered by thickets, -and on the banks of the larger streams, especially to the north of Las -Minas, willow-trees are not uncommon. Near the Arroyo Tapes I heard of -a wood of palms; and one of these trees, of considerable size, I saw -near the Pan de Azucar, in lat. 35 degs. These, and the trees planted -by the Spaniards, offer the only exceptions to the general scarcity of -wood. Among the introduced kinds may be enumerated poplars, olives, -peach, and other fruit trees: the peaches succeed so well, that they -afford the main supply of firewood to the city of Buenos Ayres. -Extremely level countries, such as the Pampas, seldom appear favourable -to the growth of trees. This may possibly be attributed either to the -force of the winds, or the kind of drainage. In the nature of the -land, however, around Maldonado, no such reason is apparent; the rocky -mountains afford protected situations; enjoying various kinds of soil; -streamlets of water are common at the bottoms of nearly every valley; -and the clayey nature of the earth seems adapted to retain moisture. It -has been inferred with much probability, that the presence of woodland -is generally determined [2] by the annual amount of moisture; yet in -this province abundant and heavy rain falls during the winter; and the -summer, though dry, is not so in any excessive degree. [3] We see -nearly the whole of Australia covered by lofty trees, yet that country -possesses a far more arid climate. Hence we must look to some other -and unknown cause. - -Confining our view to South America, we should certainly be tempted to -believe that trees flourished only under a very humid climate; for the -limit of the forest-land follows, in a most remarkable manner, that of -the damp winds. In the southern part of the continent, where the -western gales, charged with moisture from the Pacific, prevail, every -island on the broken west coast, from lat. 38 degs. to the extreme -point of Tierra del Fuego, is densely covered by impenetrable forests. -On the eastern side of the Cordillera, over the same extent of -latitude, where a blue sky and a fine climate prove that the atmosphere -has been deprived of its moisture by passing over the mountains, the -arid plains of Patagonia support a most scanty vegetation. In the more -northern parts of the continent, within the limits of the constant -south-eastern trade-wind, the eastern side is ornamented by magnificent -forests; whilst the western coast, from lat. 4 degs. S. to lat. 32 -degs. S., may be described as a desert; on this western coast, -northward of lat. 4 degs. S., where the trade-wind loses its -regularity, and heavy torrents of rain fall periodically, the shores of -the Pacific, so utterly desert in Peru, assume near Cape Blanco the -character of luxuriance so celebrated at Guyaquil and Panama. Hence in -the southern and northern parts of the continent, the forest and desert -lands occupy reversed positions with respect to the Cordillera, and -these positions are apparently determined by the direction of the -prevalent winds. In the middle of the continent there is a broad -intermediate band, including central Chile and the provinces of La -Plata, where the rain-bringing winds have not to pass over lofty -mountains, and where the land is neither a desert nor covered by -forests. But even the rule, if confined to South America, of trees -flourishing only in a climate rendered humid by rain-bearing winds, has -a strongly marked exception in the case of the Falkland Islands. These -islands, situated in the same latitude with Tierra del Fuego and only -between two and three hundred miles distant from it, having a nearly -similar climate, with a geological formation almost identical, with -favourable situations and the same kind of peaty soil, yet can boast of -few plants deserving even the title of bushes; whilst in Tierra del -Fuego it is impossible to find an acre of land not covered by the -densest forest. In this case, both the direction of the heavy gales of -wind and of the currents of the sea are favourable to the transport of -seeds from Tierra del Fuego, as is shown by the canoes and trunks of -trees drifted from that country, and frequently thrown on the shores of -the Western Falkland. Hence perhaps it is, that there are many plants -in common to the two countries but with respect to the trees of Tierra -del Fuego, even attempts made to transplant them have failed. - -During our stay at Maldonado I collected several quadrupeds, eighty -kinds of birds, and many reptiles, including nine species of snakes. Of -the indigenous mammalia, the only one now left of any size, which is -common, is the Cervus campestris. This deer is exceedingly abundant, -often in small herds, throughout the countries bordering the Plata and -in Northern Patagonia. If a person crawling close along the ground, -slowly advances towards a herd, the deer frequently, out of curiosity, -approach to reconnoitre him. I have by this means, killed from one -spot, three out of the same herd. Although so tame and inquisitive, -yet when approached on horseback, they are exceedingly wary. In this -country nobody goes on foot, and the deer knows man as its enemy only -when he is mounted and armed with the bolas. At Bahia Blanca, a recent -establishment in Northern Patagonia, I was surprised to find how little -the deer cared for the noise of a gun: one day I fired ten times from -within eighty yards at one animal; and it was much more startled at the -ball cutting up the ground than at the report of the rifle. My powder -being exhausted, I was obliged to get up (to my shame as a sportsman be -it spoken, though well able to kill birds on the wing) and halloo till -the deer ran away. - -The most curious fact with respect to this animal, is the -overpoweringly strong and offensive odour which proceeds from the buck. -It is quite indescribable: several times whilst skinning the specimen -which is now mounted at the Zoological Museum, I was almost overcome by -nausea. I tied up the skin in a silk pocket-handkerchief, and so -carried it home: this handkerchief, after being well washed, I -continually used, and it was of course as repeatedly washed; yet every -time, for a space of one year and seven months, when first unfolded, I -distinctly perceived the odour. This appears an astonishing instance -of the permanence of some matter, which nevertheless in its nature must -be most subtile and volatile. Frequently, when passing at the distance -of half a mile to leeward of a herd, I have perceived the whole air -tainted with the effluvium. I believe the smell from the buck is most -powerful at the period when its horns are perfect, or free from the -hairy skin. When in this state the meat is, of course, quite -uneatable; but the Gauchos assert, that if buried for some time in -fresh earth, the taint is removed. I have somewhere read that the -islanders in the north of Scotland treat the rank carcasses of the -fish-eating birds in the same manner. - -The order Rodentia is here very numerous in species: of mice alone I -obtained no less than eight kinds. [4] The largest gnawing animal in -the world, the Hydrochaerus capybara (the water-hog), is here also -common. One which I shot at Monte Video weighed ninety-eight pounds: -its length from the end of the snout to the stump-like tail, was three -feet two inches; and its girth three feet eight. These great Rodents -occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the -water is quite salt, but are far more abundant on the borders of -fresh-water lakes and rivers. Near Maldonado three or four generally -live together. In the daytime they either lie among the aquatic -plants, or openly feed on the turf plain. [5] When viewed at a -distance, from their manner of walking and colour they resemble pigs: -but when seated on their haunches, and attentively watching any object -with one eye, they reassume the appearance of their congeners, cavies -and rabbits. Both the front and side view of their head has quite a -ludicrous aspect, from the great depth of their jaw. These animals, at -Maldonado, were very tame; by cautiously walking, I approached within -three yards of four old ones. This tameness may probably be accounted -for, by the Jaguar having been banished for some years, and by the -Gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them. As I approached -nearer and nearer they frequently made their peculiar noise, which is a -low abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising from -the sudden expulsion of air: the only noise I know at all like it, is -the first hoarse bark of a large dog. Having watched the four from -almost within arm's length (and they me) for several minutes, they -rushed into the water at full gallop with the greatest impetuosity, and -emitted at the same time their bark. After diving a short distance -they came again to the surface, but only just showed the upper part of -their heads. When the female is swimming in the water, and has young -ones, they are said to sit on her back. These animals are easily killed -in numbers; but their skins are of trifling value, and the meat is very -indifferent. On the islands in the Rio Parana they are exceedingly -abundant, and afford the ordinary prey to the Jaguar. - -The Tucutuco (Ctenomys Brasiliensis) is a curious small animal, which -may be briefly described as a Gnawer, with the habits of a mole. It is -extremely numerous in some parts of the country, but it is difficult to -be procured, and never, I believe, comes out of the ground. It throws -up at the mouth of its burrows hillocks of earth like those of the -mole, but smaller. Considerable tracts of country are so completely -undermined by these animals, that horses in passing over, sink above -their fetlocks. The tucutucos appear, to a certain degree, to be -gregarious: the man who procured the specimens for me had caught six -together, and he said this was a common occurrence. They are nocturnal -in their habits; and their principal food is the roots of plants, which -are the object of their extensive and superficial burrows. This animal -is universally known by a very peculiar noise which it makes when -beneath the ground. A person, the first time he hears it, is much -surprised; for it is not easy to tell whence it comes, nor is it -possible to guess what kind of creature utters it. The noise consists -in a short, but not rough, nasal grunt, which is monotonously repeated -about four times in quick succession: [6] the name Tucutuco is given in -imitation of the sound. Where this animal is abundant, it may be heard -at all times of the day, and sometimes directly beneath one's feet. -When kept in a room, the tucutucos move both slowly and clumsily, which -appears owing to the outward action of their hind legs; and they are -quite incapable, from the socket of the thigh-bone not having a certain -ligament, of jumping even the smallest vertical height. They are very -stupid in making any attempt to escape; when angry or frightened they -utter the tucutuco. Of those I kept alive several, even the first day, -became quite tame, not attempting to bite or to run away; others were a -little wilder. - -The man who caught them asserted that very many are invariably found -blind. A specimen which I preserved in spirits was in this state; Mr. -Reid considers it to be the effect of inflammation in the nictitating -membrane. When the animal was alive I placed my finger within half an -inch of its head, and not the slightest notice was taken: it made its -way, however, about the room nearly as well as the others. Considering -the strictly subterranean habits of the tucutuco, the blindness, though -so common, cannot be a very serious evil; yet it appears strange that -any animal should possess an organ frequently subject to be injured. -Lamarck would have been delighted with this fact, had he known it, when -speculating [7] (probably with more truth than usual with him) on the -gradually _acquired_ blindness of the Asphalax, a Gnawer living under -ground, and of the Proteus, a reptile living in dark caverns filled -with water; in both of which animals the eye is in an almost -rudimentary state, and is covered by a tendinous membrane and skin. In -the common mole the eye is extraordinarily small but perfect, though -many anatomists doubt whether it is connected with the true optic -nerve; its vision must certainly be imperfect, though probably useful -to the animal when it leaves its burrow. In the tucutuco, which I -believe never comes to the surface of the ground, the eye is rather -larger, but often rendered blind and useless, though without apparently -causing any inconvenience to the animal; no doubt Lamarck would have -said that the tucutuco is now passing into the state of the Asphalax -and Proteus. - -Birds of many kinds are extremely abundant on the undulating, grassy -plains around Maldonado. There are several species of a family allied -in structure and manners to our Starling: one of these (Molothrus -niger) is remarkable from its habits. Several may often be seen -standing together on the back of a cow or horse; and while perched on a -hedge, pluming themselves in the sun, they sometimes attempt to sing, -or rather to hiss; the noise being very peculiar, resembling that of -bubbles of air passing rapidly from a small orifice under water, so as -to produce an acute sound. According to Azara, this bird, like the -cuckoo, deposits its eggs in other birds' nests. I was several times -told by the country people that there certainly is some bird having -this habit; and my assistant in collecting, who is a very accurate -person, found a nest of the sparrow of this country (Zonotrichia -matutina), with one egg in it larger than the others, and of a -different colour and shape. In North America there is another species -of Molothrus (M. pecoris), which has a similar cuckoo-like habit, and -which is most closely allied in every respect to the species from the -Plata, even in such trifling peculiarities as standing on the backs of -cattle; it differs only in being a little smaller, and in its plumage -and eggs being of a slightly different shade of colour. This close -agreement in structure and habits, in representative species coming -from opposite quarters of a great continent, always strikes one as -interesting, though of common occurrence. - -Mr. Swainson has well remarked, [8] that with the exception of the -Molothrus pecoris, to which must be added the M. niger, the cuckoos are -the only birds which can be called truly parasitical; namely, such as -"fasten themselves, as it were, on another living animal, whose animal -heat brings their young into life, whose food they live upon, and whose -death would cause theirs during the period of infancy." It is -remarkable that some of the species, but not all, both of the Cuckoo -and Molothrus, should agree in this one strange habit of their -parasitical propagation, whilst opposed to each other in almost every -other habit: the molothrus, like our starling, is eminently sociable, -and lives on the open plains without art or disguise: the cuckoo, as -every one knows, is a singularly shy bird; it frequents the most -retired thickets, and feeds on fruit and caterpillars. In structure -also these two genera are widely removed from each other. Many -theories, even phrenological theories, have been advanced to explain -the origin of the cuckoo laying its eggs in other birds' nests. M. -Prevost alone, I think, has thrown light by his observations [9] on -this puzzle: he finds that the female cuckoo, which, according to most -observers, lays at least from four to six eggs, must pair with the male -each time after laying only one or two eggs. Now, if the cuckoo was -obliged to sit on her own eggs, she would either have to sit on all -together, and therefore leave those first laid so long, that they -probably would become addled; or she would have to hatch separately -each egg, or two eggs, as soon as laid: but as the cuckoo stays a -shorter time in this country than any other migratory bird, she -certainly would not have time enough for the successive hatchings. -Hence we can perceive in the fact of the cuckoo pairing several times, -and laying her eggs at intervals, the cause of her depositing her eggs -in other birds' nests, and leaving them to the care of foster-parents. -I am strongly inclined to believe that this view is correct, from -having been independently led (as we shall hereafter see) to an -analogous conclusion with regard to the South American ostrich, the -females of which are parasitical, if I may so express it, on each -other; each female laying several eggs in the nests of several other -females, and the male ostrich undertaking all the cares of incubation, -like the strange foster-parents with the cuckoo. - -I will mention only two other birds, which are very common, and render -themselves prominent from their habits. The Saurophagus sulphuratus is -typical of the great American tribe of tyrant-flycatchers. In its -structure it closely approaches the true shrikes, but in its habits may -be compared to many birds. I have frequently observed it, hunting a -field, hovering over one spot like a hawk, and then proceeding on to -another. When seen thus suspended in the air, it might very readily at -a short distance be mistaken for one of the Rapacious order; its stoop, -however, is very inferior in force and rapidity to that of a hawk. At -other times the Saurophagus haunts the neighbourhood of water, and -there, like a kingfisher, remaining stationary, it catches any small -fish which may come near the margin. These birds are not unfrequently -kept either in cages or in courtyards, with their wings cut. They soon -become tame, and are very amusing from their cunning odd manners, which -were described to me as being similar to those of the common magpie. -Their flight is undulatory, for the weight of the head and bill appears -too great for the body. In the evening the Saurophagus takes its stand -on a bush, often by the roadside, and continually repeats without a -change a shrill and rather agreeable cry, which somewhat resembles -articulate words: the Spaniards say it is like the words "Bien te veo" -(I see you well), and accordingly have given it this name. - -A mocking-bird (Mimus orpheus), called by the inhabitants Calandria, is -remarkable, from possessing a song far superior to that of any other -bird in the country: indeed, it is nearly the only bird in South -America which I have observed to take its stand for the purpose of -singing. The song may be compared to that of the Sedge warbler, but is -more powerful; some harsh notes and some very high ones, being mingled -with a pleasant warbling. It is heard only during the spring. At -other times its cry is harsh and far from harmonious. Near Maldonado -these birds were tame and bold; they constantly attended the country -houses in numbers, to pick the meat which was hung up on the posts or -walls: if any other small bird joined the feast, the Calandria soon -chased it away. On the wide uninhabited plains of Patagonia another -closely allied species, O. Patagonica of d'Orbigny, which frequents the -valleys clothed with spiny bushes, is a wilder bird, and has a slightly -different tone of voice. It appears to me a curious circumstance, as -showing the fine shades of difference in habits, that judging from this -latter respect alone, when I first saw this second species, I thought -it was different from the Maldonado kind. Having afterwards procured a -specimen, and comparing the two without particular care, they appeared -so very similar, that I changed my opinion; but now Mr. Gould says that -they are certainly distinct; a conclusion in conformity with the -trifling difference of habit, of which, of course, he was not aware. - -The number, tameness, and disgusting habits of the carrion-feeding -hawks of South America make them pre-eminently striking to any one -accustomed only to the birds of Northern Europe. In this list may be -included four species of the Caracara or Polyborus, the Turkey buzzard, -the Gallinazo, and the Condor. The Caracaras are, from their -structure, placed among the eagles: we shall soon see how ill they -become so high a rank. In their habits they well supply the place of -our carrion-crows, magpies, and ravens; a tribe of birds widely -distributed over the rest of the world, but entirely absent in South -America. To begin with the Polyborus Brasiliensis: this is a common -bird, and has a wide geographical range; it is most numerous on the -grassy savannahs of La Plata (where it goes by the name of Carrancha), -and is far from unfrequent throughout the sterile plains of Patagonia. -In the desert between the rivers Negro and Colorado, numbers constantly -attend the line of road to devour the carcasses of the exhausted -animals which chance to perish from fatigue and thirst. Although thus -common in these dry and open countries, and likewise on the arid shores -of the Pacific, it is nevertheless found inhabiting the damp impervious -forests of West Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The Carranchas, -together with the Chimango, constantly attend in numbers the estancias -and slaughtering-houses. If an animal dies on the plain the Gallinazo -commences the feast, and then the two species of Polyborus pick the -bones clean. These birds, although thus commonly feeding together, are -far from being friends. When the Carrancha is quietly seated on the -branch of a tree or on the ground, the Chimango often continues for a -long time flying backwards and forwards, up and down, in a semicircle, -trying each time at the bottom of the curve to strike its larger -relative. The Carrancha takes little notice, except by bobbing its -head. Although the Carranchas frequently assemble in numbers, they are -not gregarious; for in desert places they may be seen solitary, or more -commonly by pairs. - -The Carranchas are said to be very crafty, and to steal great numbers -of eggs. They attempt, also, together with the Chimango, to pick off -the scabs from the sore backs of horses and mules. The poor animal, on -the one hand, with its ears down and its back arched; and, on the -other, the hovering bird, eyeing at the distance of a yard the -disgusting morsel, form a picture, which has been described by Captain -Head with his own peculiar spirit and accuracy. These false eagles -most rarely kill any living bird or animal; and their vulture-like, -necrophagous habits are very evident to any one who has fallen asleep -on the desolate plains of Patagonia, for when he wakes, he will see, on -each surrounding hillock, one of these birds patiently watching him -with an evil eye: it is a feature in the landscape of these countries, -which will be recognised by every one who has wandered over them. If a -party of men go out hunting with dogs and horses, they will be -accompanied, during the day, by several of these attendants. After -feeding, the uncovered craw protrudes; at such times, and indeed -generally, the Carrancha is an inactive, tame, and cowardly bird. Its -flight is heavy and slow, like that of an English rook. It seldom -soars; but I have twice seen one at a great height gliding through the -air with much ease. It runs (in contradistinction to hopping), but not -quite so quickly as some of its congeners. At times the Carrancha is -noisy, but is not generally so: its cry is loud, very harsh and -peculiar, and may be likened to the sound of the Spanish guttural g, -followed by a rough double r r; when uttering this cry it elevates its -head higher and higher, till at last, with its beak wide open, the -crown almost touches the lower part of the back. This fact, which has -been doubted, is quite true; I have seen them several times with their -heads backwards in a completely inverted position. To these -observations I may add, on the high authority of Azara, that the -Carrancha feeds on worms, shells, slugs, grasshoppers, and frogs; that -it destroys young lambs by tearing the umbilical cord; and that it -pursues the Gallinazo, till that bird is compelled to vomit up the -carrion it may have recently gorged. Lastly, Azara states that several -Carranchas, five or six together, will unite in chase of large birds, -even such as herons. All these facts show that it is a bird of very -versatile habits and considerable ingenuity. - -The Polyborus Chimango is considerably smaller than the last species. -It is truly omnivorous, and will eat even bread; and I was assured that -it materially injures the potato crops in Chiloe, by stocking up the -roots when first planted. Of all the carrion-feeders it is generally -the last which leaves the skeleton of a dead animal, and may often be -seen within the ribs of a cow or horse, like a bird in a cage. Another -species is the Polyborus Novae Zelandiae, which is exceedingly common -in the Falkland Islands. These birds in many respects resemble in -their habits the Carranchas. They live on the flesh of dead animals -and on marine productions; and on the Ramirez rocks their whole -sustenance must depend on the sea. They are extraordinarily tame and -fearless, and haunt the neighborhood of houses for offal. If a hunting -party kills an animal, a number soon collect and patiently await, -standing on the ground on all sides. After eating, their uncovered -craws are largely protruded, giving them a disgusting appearance. They -readily attack wounded birds: a cormorant in this state having taken to -the shore, was immediately seized on by several, and its death hastened -by their blows. The Beagle was at the Falklands only during the -summer, but the officers of the Adventure, who were there in the -winter, mention many extraordinary instances of the boldness and -rapacity of these birds. They actually pounced on a dog that was lying -fast asleep close by one of the party; and the sportsmen had difficulty -in preventing the wounded geese from being seized before their eyes. It -is said that several together (in this respect resembling the -Carranchas) wait at the mouth of a rabbit-hole, and together seize on -the animal when it comes out. They were constantly flying on board the -vessel when in the harbour; and it was necessary to keep a good look -out to prevent the leather being torn from the rigging, and the meat or -game from the stern. These birds are very mischievous and inquisitive; -they will pick up almost anything from the ground; a large black glazed -hat was carried nearly a mile, as was a pair of the heavy balls used in -catching cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced during the survey a more -severe loss, in their stealing a small Kater's compass in a red morocco -leather case, which was never recovered. These birds are, moreover, -quarrelsome and very passionate; tearing up the grass with their bills -from rage. They are not truly gregarious; they do not soar, and their -flight is heavy and clumsy; on the ground they run extremely fast, very -much like pheasants. They are noisy, uttering several harsh cries, one -of which is like that of the English rook, hence the sealers always -call them rooks. It is a curious circumstance that, when crying out, -they throw their heads upwards and backwards, after the same manner as -the Carrancha. They build in the rocky cliffs of the sea-coast, but -only on the small adjoining islets, and not on the two main islands: -this is a singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird. The -sealers say that the flesh of these birds, when cooked, is quite white, -and very good eating; but bold must the man be who attempts such a meal. - -We have now only to mention the turkey-buzzard (Vultur aura), and the -Gallinazo. The former is found wherever the country is moderately -damp, from Cape Horn to North America. Differently from the Polyborus -Brasiliensis and Chimango, it has found its way to the Falkland -Islands. The turkey-buzzard is a solitary bird, or at most goes in -pairs. It may at once be recognised from a long distance, by its -lofty, soaring, and most elegant flight. It is well known to be a true -carrion-feeder. On the west coast of Patagonia, among the -thickly-wooded islets and broken land, it lives exclusively on what the -sea throws up, and on the carcasses of dead seals. Wherever these -animals are congregated on the rocks, there the vultures may be seen. -The Gallinazo (Cathartes atratus) has a different range from the last -species, as it never occurs southward of lat. 41 degs. Azara states -that there exists a tradition that these birds, at the time of the -conquest, were not found near Monte Video, but that they subsequently -followed the inhabitants from more northern districts. At the present -day they are numerous in the valley of the Colorado, which is three -hundred miles due south of Monte Video. It seems probable that this -additional migration has happened since the time of Azara. The -Gallinazo generally prefers a humid climate, or rather the -neighbourhood of fresh water; hence it is extremely abundant in Brazil -and La Plata, while it is never found on the desert and arid plains of -Northern Patagonia, excepting near some stream. These birds frequent -the whole Pampas to the foot of the Cordillera, but I never saw or -heard of one in Chile; in Peru they are preserved as scavengers. These -vultures certainly may be called gregarious, for they seem to have -pleasure in society, and are not solely brought together by the -attraction of a common prey. On a fine day a flock may often be -observed at a great height, each bird wheeling round and round without -closing its wings, in the most graceful evolutions. This is clearly -performed for the mere pleasure of the exercise, or perhaps is -connected with their matrimonial alliances. - -I have now mentioned all the carrion-feeders, excepting the condor, an -account of which will be more appropriately introduced when we visit a -country more congenial to its habits than the plains of La Plata. - - -In a broad band of sand-hillocks which separate the Laguna del Potrero -from the shores of the Plata, at the distance of a few miles from -Maldonado, I found a group of those vitrified, siliceous tubes, which -are formed by lightning entering loose sand. These tubes resemble in -every particular those from Drigg in Cumberland, described in the -Geological Transactions. [10] The sand-hillocks of Maldonado not being -protected by vegetation, are constantly changing their position. From -this cause the tubes projected above the surface, and numerous -fragments lying near, showed that they had formerly been buried to a -greater depth. Four sets entered the sand perpendicularly: by working -with my hands I traced one of them two feet deep; and some fragments -which evidently had belonged to the same tube, when added to the other -part, measured five feet three inches. The diameter of the whole tube -was nearly equal, and therefore we must suppose that originally it -extended to a much greater depth. These dimensions are however small, -compared to those of the tubes from Drigg, one of which was traced to a -depth of not less than thirty feet. - -The internal surface is completely vitrified, glossy, and smooth. A -small fragment examined under the microscope appeared, from the number -of minute entangled air or perhaps steam bubbles, like an assay fused -before the blowpipe. The sand is entirely, or in greater part, -siliceous; but some points are of a black colour, and from their glossy -surface possess a metallic lustre. The thickness of the wall of the -tube varies from a thirtieth to a twentieth of an inch, and -occasionally even equals a tenth. On the outside the grains of sand -are rounded, and have a slightly glazed appearance: I could not -distinguish any signs of crystallization. In a similar manner to that -described in the Geological Transactions, the tubes are generally -compressed, and have deep longitudinal furrows, so as closely to -resemble a shrivelled vegetable stalk, or the bark of the elm or cork -tree. Their circumference is about two inches, but in some fragments, -which are cylindrical and without any furrows, it is as much as four -inches. The compression from the surrounding loose sand, acting while -the tube was still softened from the effects of the intense heat, has -evidently caused the creases or furrows. Judging from the uncompressed -fragments, the measure or bore of the lightning (if such a term may be -used) must have been about one inch and a quarter. At Paris, M. -Hachette and M. Beudant [11] succeeded in making tubes, in most -respects similar to these fulgurites, by passing very strong shocks of -galvanism through finely-powdered glass: when salt was added, so as to -increase its fusibility, the tubes were larger in every dimension. They -failed both with powdered felspar and quartz. One tube, formed with -pounded glass, was very nearly an inch long, namely .982, and had an -internal diameter of .019 of an inch. When we hear that the strongest -battery in Paris was used, and that its power on a substance of such -easy fusibility as glass was to form tubes so diminutive, we must feel -greatly astonished at the force of a shock of lightning, which, -striking the sand in several places, has formed cylinders, in one -instance of at least thirty feet long, and having an internal bore, -where not compressed, of full an inch and a half; and this in a -material so extraordinarily refractory as quartz! - -The tubes, as I have already remarked, enter the sand nearly in a -vertical direction. One, however, which was less regular than the -others, deviated from a right line, at the most considerable bend, to -the amount of thirty-three degrees. From this same tube, two small -branches, about a foot apart, were sent off; one pointed downwards, and -the other upwards. This latter case is remarkable, as the electric -fluid must have turned back at the acute angle of 26 degs., to the line -of its main course. Besides the four tubes which I found vertical, and -traced beneath the surface, there were several other groups of -fragments, the original sites of which without doubt were near. All -occurred in a level area of shifting sand, sixty yards by twenty, -situated among some high sand-hillocks, and at the distance of about -half a mile from a chain of hills four or five hundred feet in height. -The most remarkable circumstance, as it appears to me, in this case as -well as in that of Drigg, and in one described by M. Ribbentrop in -Germany, is the number of tubes found within such limited spaces. At -Drigg, within an area of fifteen yards, three were observed, and the -same number occurred in Germany. In the case which I have described, -certainly more than four existed within the space of the sixty by -twenty yards. As it does not appear probable that the tubes are -produced by successive distinct shocks, we must believe that the -lightning, shortly before entering the ground, divides itself into -separate branches. - -The neighbourhood of the Rio Plata seems peculiarly subject to electric -phenomena. In the year 1793, [12] one of the most destructive -thunderstorms perhaps on record happened at Buenos Ayres: thirty-seven -places within the city were struck by lightning, and nineteen people -killed. From facts stated in several books of travels, I am inclined -to suspect that thunderstorms are very common near the mouths of great -rivers. Is it not possible that the mixture of large bodies of fresh -and salt water may disturb the electrical equilibrium? Even during our -occasional visits to this part of South America, we heard of a ship, -two churches, and a house having been struck. Both the church and the -house I saw shortly afterwards: the house belonged to Mr. Hood, the -consul-general at Monte Video. Some of the effects were curious: the -paper, for nearly a foot on each side of the line where the bell-wires -had run, was blackened. The metal had been fused, and although the -room was about fifteen feet high, the globules, dropping on the chairs -and furniture, had drilled in them a chain of minute holes. A part of -the wall was shattered, as if by gunpowder, and the fragments had been -blown off with force sufficient to dent the wall on the opposite side -of the room. The frame of a looking-glass was blackened, and the -gilding must have been volatilized, for a smelling-bottle, which stood -on the chimney-piece, was coated with bright metallic particles, which -adhered as firmly as if they had been enamelled. - -[1] Hearne's Journey, p. 383. - -[2] Maclaren, art. "America," Encyclop. Brittann. - -[3] Azara says, "Je crois que la quantite annuelle des pluies est, dans -toutes ces contrees, plus considerable qu'en Espagne."--Vol. i. p. 36. - -[4] In South America I collected altogether twenty-seven species of -mice, and thirteen more are known from the works of Azara and other -authors. Those collected by myself have been named and described by -Mr. Waterhouse at the meetings of the Zoological Society. I must be -allowed to take this opportunity of returning my cordial thanks to Mr. -Waterhouse, and to the other gentleman attached to that Society, for -their kind and most liberal assistance on all occasions. - -[5] In the stomach and duodenum of a capybara which I opened I found a -very large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid, in which scarcely a -fibre could be distinguished. Mr. Owen informs me that a part of the -oesophagus is so constructed that nothing much larger than a crowquill -can be passed down. Certainly the broad teeth and strong jaws of this -animal are well fitted to grind into pulp the aquatic plants on which -it feeds. - -[6] At the R. Negro, in Northern Patagonia, there is an animal of the -same habits, and probably a closely allied species, but which I never -saw. Its noise is different from that of the Maldonado kind; it is -repeated only twice instead of three or four times, and is more -distinct and sonorous; when heard from a distance it so closely -resembles the sound made in cutting down a small tree with an axe, that -I have sometimes remained in doubt concerning it. - -[7] Philosoph. Zoolog., tom. i. p. 242. - -[8] Magazine of Zoology and Botany, vol. i. p. 217. - -[9] Read before the Academy of Sciences in Paris. L'Institut, 1834, p. -418. - -[10] Geolog. Transact. vol. ii. p. 528. In the Philosoph. Transact. -(1790, p. 294) Dr. Priestly has described some imperfect siliceous -tubes and a melted pebble of quartz, found in digging into the ground, -under a tree, where a man had been killed by lightning. - -[11] Annals de Chimie et de Physique, tom. xxxvii. p. 319. - -[12] Azara's Voyage, vol. i. p. 36. - - - -CHAPTER IV - -RIO NEGRO TO BAHIA BLANCA - -Rio Negro--Estancias attacked by the -Indians--Salt-Lakes--Flamingoes--R. Negro to R. Colorado--Sacred -Tree--Patagonian Hare--Indian Families--General Rosas--Proceed to -Bahia Blanca--Sand Dunes--Negro Lieutenant--Bahia Blanca--Saline -Incrustations--Punta Alta--Zorillo. - - -JULY 24th, 1833.--The Beagle sailed from Maldonado, and on August the -3rd she arrived off the mouth of the Rio Negro. This is the principal -river on the whole line of coast between the Strait of Magellan and the -Plata. It enters the sea about three hundred miles south of the -estuary of the Plata. About fifty years ago, under the old Spanish -government, a small colony was established here; and it is still the -most southern position (lat. 41 degs.) on this eastern coast of America -inhabited by civilized man. - -The country near the mouth of the river is wretched in the extreme: on -the south side a long line of perpendicular cliffs commences, which -exposes a section of the geological nature of the country. The strata -are of sandstone, and one layer was remarkable from being composed of a -firmly-cemented conglomerate of pumice pebbles, which must have -travelled more than four hundred miles, from the Andes. The surface is -everywhere covered up by a thick bed of gravel, which extends far and -wide over the open plain. Water is extremely scarce, and, where found, -is almost invariably brackish. The vegetation is scanty; and although -there are bushes of many kinds, all are armed with formidable thorns, -which seem to warn the stranger not to enter on these inhospitable -regions. - -The settlement is situated eighteen miles up the river. The road -follows the foot of the sloping cliff, which forms the northern -boundary of the great valley, in which the Rio Negro flows. On the way -we passed the ruins of some fine "estancias," which a few years since -had been destroyed by the Indians. They withstood several attacks. A -man present at one gave me a very lively description of what took -place. The inhabitants had sufficient notice to drive all the cattle -and horses into the "corral" [1] which surrounded the house, and -likewise to mount some small cannon. The Indians were Araucanians from -the south of Chile; several hundreds in number, and highly disciplined. -They first appeared in two bodies on a neighbouring hill; having there -dismounted, and taken off their fur mantles, they advanced naked to the -charge. The only weapon of an Indian is a very long bamboo or chuzo, -ornamented with ostrich feathers, and pointed by a sharp spearhead. My -informer seemed to remember with the greatest horror the quivering of -these chuzos as they approached near. When close, the cacique -Pincheira hailed the besieged to give up their arms, or he would cut -all their throats. As this would probably have been the result of -their entrance under any circumstances, the answer was given by a -volley of musketry. The Indians, with great steadiness, came to the -very fence of the corral: but to their surprise they found the posts -fastened together by iron nails instead of leather thongs, and, of -course, in vain attempted to cut them with their knives. This saved -the lives of the Christians: many of the wounded Indians were carried -away by their companions, and at last, one of the under caciques being -wounded, the bugle sounded a retreat. They retired to their horses, -and seemed to hold a council of war. This was an awful pause for the -Spaniards, as all their ammunition, with the exception of a few -cartridges, was expended. In an instant the Indians mounted their -horses, and galloped out of sight. Another attack was still more -quickly repulsed. A cool Frenchman managed the gun; he stopped till the -Indians approached close, and then raked their line with grape-shot: he -thus laid thirty-nine of them on the ground; and, of course, such a -blow immediately routed the whole party. - -The town is indifferently called El Carmen or Patagones. It is built on -the face of a cliff which fronts the river, and many of the houses are -excavated even in the sandstone. The river is about two or three -hundred yards wide, and is deep and rapid. The many islands, with -their willow-trees, and the flat headlands, seen one behind the other -on the northern boundary of the broad green valley, form, by the aid of -a bright sun, a view almost picturesque. The number of inhabitants -does not exceed a few hundreds. These Spanish colonies do not, like -our British ones, carry within themselves the elements of growth. Many -Indians of pure blood reside here: the tribe of the Cacique Lucanee -constantly have their Toldos [2] on the outskirts of the town. The -local government partly supplies them with provisions, by giving them -all the old worn-out horses, and they earn a little by making -horse-rugs and other articles of riding-gear. These Indians are -considered civilized; but what their character may have gained by a -lesser degree of ferocity, is almost counterbalanced by their entire -immorality. Some of the younger men are, however, improving; they are -willing to labour, and a short time since a party went on a -sealing-voyage, and behaved very well. They were now enjoying the -fruits of their labour, by being dressed in very gay, clean clothes, -and by being very idle. The taste they showed in their dress was -admirable; if you could have turned one of these young Indians into a -statue of bronze, his drapery would have been perfectly graceful. - -One day I rode to a large salt-lake, or Salina, which is distant -fifteen miles from the town. During the winter it consists of a -shallow lake of brine, which in summer is converted into a field of -snow-white salt. The layer near the margin is from four to five inches -thick, but towards the centre its thickness increases. This lake was -two and a half miles long, and one broad. Others occur in the -neighbourhood many times larger, and with a floor of salt, two and -three feet in thickness, even when under water during the winter. One -of these brilliantly white and level expanses in the midst of the brown -and desolate plain, offers an extraordinary spectacle. A large -quantity of salt is annually drawn from the salina: and great piles, -some hundred tons in weight, were lying ready for exportation. The -season for working the salinas forms the harvest of Patagones; for on -it the prosperity of the place depends. Nearly the whole population -encamps on the bank of the river, and the people are employed in -drawing out the salt in bullock-waggons, This salt is crystallized in -great cubes, and is remarkably pure: Mr. Trenham Reeks has kindly -analyzed some for me, and he finds in it only 0.26 of gypsum and 0.22 -of earthy matter. It is a singular fact, that it does not serve so -well for preserving meat as sea-salt from the Cape de Verd islands; and -a merchant at Buenos Ayres told me that he considered it as fifty per -cent. less valuable. Hence the Cape de Verd salt is constantly -imported, and is mixed with that from these salinas. The purity of the -Patagonian salt, or absence from it of those other saline bodies found -in all sea-water, is the only assignable cause for this inferiority: a -conclusion which no one, I think, would have suspected, but which is -supported by the fact lately ascertained, [3] that those salts answer -best for preserving cheese which contain most of the deliquescent -chlorides. - -The border of this lake is formed of mud: and in this numerous large -crystals of gypsum, some of which are three inches long, lie embedded; -whilst on the surface others of sulphate of soda lie scattered about. -The Gauchos call the former the "Padre del sal," and the latter the -"Madre;" they state that these progenitive salts always occur on the -borders of the salinas, when the water begins to evaporate. The mud is -black, and has a fetid odour. I could not at first imagine the cause -of this, but I afterwards perceived that the froth which the wind -drifted on shore was coloured green, as if by confervae; I attempted to -carry home some of this green matter, but from an accident failed. -Parts of the lake seen from a short distance appeared of a reddish -colour, and this perhaps was owing to some infusorial animalcula. The -mud in many places was thrown up by numbers of some kind of worm, or -annelidous animal. How surprising it is that any creatures should be -able to exist in brine, and that they should be crawling among crystals -of sulphate of soda and lime! And what becomes of these worms when, -during the long summer, the surface is hardened into a solid layer of -salt? Flamingoes in considerable numbers inhabit this lake, and breed -here, throughout Patagonia, in Northern Chile, and at the Galapagos -Islands, I met with these birds wherever there were lakes of brine. I -saw them here wading about in search of food--probably for the worms -which burrow in the mud; and these latter probably feed on infusoria or -confervae. Thus we have a little living world within itself adapted to -these inland lakes of brine. A minute crustaceous animal (Cancer -salinus) is said [4] to live in countless numbers in the brine-pans at -Lymington: but only in those in which the fluid has attained, from -evaporation, considerable strength--namely, about a quarter of a pound -of salt to a pint of water. Well may we affirm that every part of the -world is habitable! Whether lakes of brine, or those subterranean ones -hidden beneath volcanic mountains--warm mineral springs--the wide -expanse and depths of the ocean--the upper regions of the atmosphere, -and even the surface of perpetual snow--all support organic beings. - - -To the northward of the Rio Negro, between it and the inhabited country -near Buenos Ayres, the Spaniards have only one small settlement, -recently established at Bahia Blanca. The distance in a straight line -to Buenos Ayres is very nearly five hundred British miles. The -wandering tribes of horse Indians, which have always occupied the -greater part of this country, having of late much harassed the outlying -estancias, the government at Buenos Ayres equipped some time since an -army under the command of General Rosas for the purpose of -exterminating them. The troops were now encamped on the banks of the -Colorado; a river lying about eighty miles northward of the Rio Negro. -When General Rosas left Buenos Ayres he struck in a direct line across -the unexplored plains: and as the country was thus pretty well cleared -of Indians, he left behind him, at wide intervals, a small party of -soldiers with a troop of horses (a posta), so as to be enabled to keep -up a communication with the capital. As the Beagle intended to call at -Bahia Blanca, I determined to proceed there by land; and ultimately I -extended my plan to travel the whole way by the postas to Buenos Ayres. - -August 11th.--Mr. Harris, an Englishman residing at Patagones, a guide, -and five Gauchos who were proceeding to the army on business, were my -companions on the journey. The Colorado, as I have already said, is -nearly eighty miles distant: and as we travelled slowly, we were two -days and a half on the road. The whole line of country deserves -scarcely a better name than that of a desert. Water is found only in -two small wells; it is called fresh; but even at this time of the year, -during the rainy season, it was quite brackish. In the summer this must -be a distressing passage; for now it was sufficiently desolate. The -valley of the Rio Negro, broad as it is, has merely been excavated out -of the sandstone plain; for immediately above the bank on which the -town stands, a level country commences, which is interrupted only by a -few trifling valleys and depressions. Everywhere the landscape wears -the same sterile aspect; a dry gravelly soil supports tufts of brown -withered grass, and low scattered bushes, armed with thorns. - -Shortly after passing the first spring we came in sight of a famous -tree, which the Indians reverence as the altar of Walleechu. It is -situated on a high part of the plain; and hence is a landmark visible -at a great distance. As soon as a tribe of Indians come in sight of -it, they offer their adorations by loud shouts. The tree itself is -low, much branched, and thorny: just above the root it has a diameter -of about three feet. It stands by itself without any neighbour, and -was indeed the first tree we saw; afterwards we met with a few others -of the same kind, but they were far from common. Being winter the tree -had no leaves, but in their place numberless threads, by which the -various offerings, such as cigars, bread, meat, pieces of cloth, etc., -had been suspended. Poor Indians, not having anything better, only pull -a thread out of their ponchos, and fasten it to the tree. Richer -Indians are accustomed to pour spirits and mate into a certain hole, -and likewise to smoke upwards, thinking thus to afford all possible -gratification to Walleechu. To complete the scene, the tree was -surrounded by the bleached bones of horses which had been slaughtered -as sacrifices. All Indians of every age and sex make their offerings; -they then think that their horses will not tire, and that they -themselves shall be prosperous. The Gaucho who told me this, said that -in the time of peace he had witnessed this scene, and that he and -others used to wait till the Indians had passed by, for the sake of -stealing from Walleechu the offerings. - -The Gauchos think that the Indians consider the tree as the god itself, -but it seems far more probable that they regard it as the altar. The -only cause which I can imagine for this choice, is its being a landmark -in a dangerous passage. The Sierra de la Ventana is visible at an -immense distance; and a Gaucho told me that he was once riding with an -Indian a few miles to the north of the Rio Colorado when the Indian -commenced making the same loud noise which is usual at the first sight -of the distant tree, putting his hand to his head, and then pointing in -the direction of the Sierra. Upon being asked the reason of this, the -Indian said in broken Spanish, "First see the Sierra." About two -leagues beyond this curious tree we halted for the night: at this -instant an unfortunate cow was spied by the lynx-eyed Gauchos, who set -off in full chase, and in a few minutes dragged her in with their -lazos, and slaughtered her. We here had the four necessaries of life -"en el campo,"--pasture for the horses, water (only a muddy puddle), -meat and firewood. The Gauchos were in high spirits at finding all -these luxuries; and we soon set to work at the poor cow. This was the -first night which I passed under the open sky, with the gear of the -recado for my bed. There is high enjoyment in the independence of the -Gaucho life--to be able at any moment to pull up your horse, and say, -"Here we will pass the night." The death-like stillness of the plain, -the dogs keeping watch, the gipsy-group of Gauchos making their beds -round the fire, have left in my mind a strongly-marked picture of this -first night, which will never be forgotten. - -The next day the country continued similar to that above described. It -is inhabited by few birds or animals of any kind. Occasionally a deer, -or a Guanaco (wild Llama) may be seen; but the Agouti (Cavia -Patagonica) is the commonest quadruped. This animal here represents -our hares. It differs, however, from that genus in many essential -respects; for instance, it has only three toes behind. It is also -nearly twice the size, weighing from twenty to twenty-five pounds. The -Agouti is a true friend of the desert; it is a common feature of the -landscape to see two or three hopping quickly one after the other in a -straight line across these wild plains. They are found as far north as -the Sierra Tapalguen (lat. 37 degs. 30'), where the plain rather -suddenly becomes greener and more humid; and their southern limit is -between Port Desire and St. Julian, where there is no change in the -nature of the country. It is a singular fact, that although the Agouti -is not now found as far south as Port St. Julian, yet that Captain -Wood, in his voyage in 1670, talks of them as being numerous there. -What cause can have altered, in a wide, uninhabited, and rarely-visited -country, the range of an animal like this? It appears also, from the -number shot by Captain Wood in one day at Port Desire, that they must -have been considerably more abundant there formerly than at present. -Where the Bizcacha lives and makes its burrows, the Agouti uses them; -but where, as at Bahia Blanca, the Bizcacha is not found, the Agouti -burrows for itself. The same thing occurs with the little owl of the -Pampas (Athene cunicularia), which has so often been described as -standing like a sentinel at the mouth of the burrows; for in Banda -Oriental, owing to the absence of the Bizcacha, it is obliged to hollow -out its own habitation. - -The next morning, as we approached the Rio Colorado, the appearance of -the country changed; we soon came on a plain covered with turf, which, -from its flowers, tall clover, and little owls, resembled the Pampas. -We passed also a muddy swamp of considerable extent, which in summer -dries, and becomes incrusted with various salts; and hence is called a -salitral. It was covered by low succulent plants, of the same kind -with those growing on the sea-shore. The Colorado, at the pass where -we crossed it, is only about sixty yards wide; generally it must be -nearly double that width. Its course is very tortuous, being marked by -willow-trees and beds of reeds: in a direct line the distance to the -mouth of the river is said to be nine leagues, but by water -twenty-five. We were delayed crossing in the canoe by some immense -troops of mares, which were swimming the river in order to follow a -division of troops into the interior. A more ludicrous spectacle I -never beheld than the hundreds and hundreds of heads, all directed one -way, with pointed ears and distended snorting nostrils, appearing just -above the water like a great shoal of some amphibious animal. Mare's -flesh is the only food which the soldiers have when on an expedition. -This gives them a great facility of movement; for the distance to which -horses can be driven over these plains is quite surprising: I have been -assured that an unloaded horse can travel a hundred miles a day for -many days successively. - -The encampment of General Rosas was close to the river. It consisted of -a square formed by waggons, artillery, straw huts, etc. The soldiers -were nearly all cavalry; and I should think such a villainous, -banditti-like army was never before collected together. The greater -number of men were of a mixed breed, between Negro, Indian, and -Spaniard. I know not the reason, but men of such origin seldom have a -good expression of countenance. I called on the Secretary to show my -passport. He began to cross-question me in the most dignified and -mysterious manner. By good luck I had a letter of recommendation from -the government of Buenos Ayres [5] to the commandant of Patagones. This -was taken to General Rosas, who sent me a very obliging message; and -the Secretary returned all smiles and graciousness. We took up our -residence in the _rancho_, or hovel, of a curious old Spaniard, who had -served with Napoleon in the expedition against Russia. - -We stayed two days at the Colorado; I had little to do, for the -surrounding country was a swamp, which in summer (December), when the -snow melts on the Cordillera, is over-flowed by the river. My chief -amusement was watching the Indian families as they came to buy little -articles at the rancho where we stayed. It was supposed that General -Rosas had about six hundred Indian allies. The men were a tall, fine -race, yet it was afterwards easy to see in the Fuegian savage the same -countenance rendered hideous by cold, want of food, and less -civilization. Some authors, in defining the primary races of mankind, -have separated these Indians into two classes; but this is certainly -incorrect. Among the young women or chinas, some deserve to be called -even beautiful. Their hair was coarse, but bright and black; and they -wore it in two plaits hanging down to the waist. They had a high -colour, and eyes that glistened with brilliancy; their legs, feet, and -arms were small and elegantly formed; their ankles, and sometimes their -wrists, were ornamented by broad bracelets of blue beads. Nothing -could be more interesting than some of the family groups. A mother -with one or two daughters would often come to our rancho, mounted on -the same horse. They ride like men, but with their knees tucked up -much higher. This habit, perhaps, arises from their being accustomed, -when travelling, to ride the loaded horses. The duty of the women is -to load and unload the horses; to make the tents for the night; in -short to be, like the wives of all savages, useful slaves. The men -fight, hunt, take care of the horses, and make the riding gear. One of -their chief indoor occupations is to knock two stones together till -they become round, in order to make the bolas. With this important -weapon the Indian catches his game, and also his horse, which roams -free over the plain. In fighting, his first attempt is to throw down -the horse of his adversary with the bolas, and when entangled by the -fall to kill him with the chuzo. If the balls only catch the neck or -body of an animal, they are often carried away and lost. As the making -the stones round is the labour of two days, the manufacture of the -balls is a very common employment. Several of the men and women had -their faces painted red, but I never saw the horizontal bands which are -so common among the Fuegians. Their chief pride consists in having -everything made of silver; I have seen a cacique with his spurs, -stirrups, handle of his knife, and bridle made of this metal: the -head-stall and reins being of wire, were not thicker than whipcord; and -to see a fiery steed wheeling about under the command of so light a -chain, gave to the horsemanship a remarkable character of elegance. - -General Rosas intimated a wish to see me; a circumstance which I was -afterwards very glad of. He is a man of an extraordinary character, -and has a most predominant influence in the country, which it seems he -will use to its prosperity and advancement. [6] He is said to be the -owner of seventy-four square leagues of land, and to have about three -hundred thousand head of cattle. His estates are admirably managed, -and are far more productive of corn than those of others. He first -gained his celebrity by his laws for his own estancias, and by -disciplining several hundred men, so as to resist with success the -attacks of the Indians. There are many stories current about the rigid -manner in which his laws were enforced. One of these was, that no man, -on penalty of being put into the stocks, should carry his knife on a -Sunday: this being the principal day for gambling and drinking, many -quarrels arose, which from the general manner of fighting with the -knife often proved fatal. One Sunday the Governor came in great form -to pay the estancia a visit, and General Rosas, in his hurry, walked -out to receive him with his knife, as usual, stuck in his belt. The -steward touched his arm, and reminded him of the law; upon which -turning to the Governor, he said he was extremely sorry, but that he -must go into the stocks, and that till let out, he possessed no power -even in his own house. After a little time the steward was persuaded -to open the stocks, and to let him out, but no sooner was this done, -than he turned to the steward and said, "You now have broken the laws, -so you must take my place in the stocks." Such actions as these -delighted the Gauchos, who all possess high notions of their own -equality and dignity. - -General Rosas is also a perfect horseman--an accomplishment of no small -consequence In a country where an assembled army elected its general by -the following trial: A troop of unbroken horses being driven into a -corral, were let out through a gateway, above which was a cross-bar: it -was agreed whoever should drop from the bar on one of these wild -animals, as it rushed out, and should be able, without saddle or -bridle, not only to ride it, but also to bring it back to the door of -the corral, should be their general. The person who succeeded was -accordingly elected; and doubtless made a fit general for such an army. -This extraordinary feat has also been performed by Rosas. - -By these means, and by conforming to the dress and habits of the -Gauchos, he has obtained an unbounded popularity in the country, and in -consequence a despotic power. I was assured by an English merchant, -that a man who had murdered another, when arrested and questioned -concerning his motive, answered, "He spoke disrespectfully of General -Rosas, so I killed him." At the end of a week the murderer was at -liberty. This doubtless was the act of the general's party, and not of -the general himself. - -In conversation he is enthusiastic, sensible, and very grave. His -gravity is carried to a high pitch: I heard one of his mad buffoons -(for he keeps two, like the barons of old) relate the following -anecdote. "I wanted very much to hear a certain piece of music, so I -went to the general two or three times to ask him; he said to me, 'Go -about your business, for I am engaged.' I went a second time; he said, -'If you come again I will punish you.' A third time I asked, and he -laughed. I rushed out of the tent, but it was too late--he ordered two -soldiers to catch and stake me. I begged by all the saints in heaven -he would let me off; but it would not do,--when the general laughs he -spares neither mad man nor sound." The poor flighty gentleman looked -quite dolorous, at the very recollection of the staking. This is a -very severe punishment; four posts are driven into the ground, and the -man is extended by his arms and legs horizontally, and there left to -stretch for several hours. The idea is evidently taken from the usual -method of drying hides. My interview passed away, without a smile, and -I obtained a passport and order for the government post-horses, and -this he gave me in the most obliging and ready manner. - -In the morning we started for Bahia Blanca, which we reached in two -days. Leaving the regular encampment, we passed by the toldos of the -Indians. These are round like ovens, and covered with hides; by the -mouth of each, a tapering chuzo was stuck in the ground. The toldos -were divided into separate groups, which belong to the different -caciques' tribes, and the groups were again divided into smaller ones, -according to the relationship of the owners. For several miles we -travelled along the valley of the Colorado. The alluvial plains on the -side appeared fertile, and it is supposed that they are well adapted to -the growth of corn. Turning northward from the river, we soon entered -on a country, differing from the plains south of the river. The land -still continued dry and sterile: but it supported many different kinds -of plants, and the grass, though brown and withered, was more abundant, -as the thorny bushes were less so. These latter in a short space -entirely disappeared, and the plains were left without a thicket to -cover their nakedness. This change in the vegetation marks the -commencement of the grand calcareo argillaceous deposit, which forms -the wide extent of the Pampas, and covers the granitic rocks of Banda -Oriental. From the Strait of Magellan to the Colorado, a distance of -about eight hundred miles, the face of the country is everywhere -composed of shingle: the pebbles are chiefly of porphyry, and probably -owe their origin to the rocks of the Cordillera. North of the Colorado -this bed thins out, and the pebbles become exceedingly small, and here -the characteristic vegetation of Patagonia ceases. - -Having ridden about twenty-five miles, we came to a broad belt of -sand-dunes, which stretches, as far as the eye can reach, to the east -and west. The sand-hillocks resting on the clay, allow small pools of -water to collect, and thus afford in this dry country an invaluable -supply of fresh water. The great advantage arising from depressions -and elevations of the soil, is not often brought home to the mind. The -two miserable springs in the long passage between the Rio Negro and -Colorado were caused by trifling inequalities in the plain, without -them not a drop of water would have been found. The belt of sand-dunes -is about eight miles wide; at some former period, it probably formed -the margin of a grand estuary, where the Colorado now flows. In this -district, where absolute proofs of the recent elevation of the land -occur, such speculations can hardly be neglected by any one, although -merely considering the physical geography of the country. Having -crossed the sandy tract, we arrived in the evening at one of the -post-houses; and, as the fresh horses were grazing at a distance we -determined to pass the night there. - -The house was situated at the base of a ridge between one and two -hundred feet high--a most remarkable feature in this country. This -posta was commanded by a negro lieutenant, born in Africa: to his -credit be it said, there was not a ranche between the Colorado and -Buenos Ayres in nearly such neat order as his. He had a little room -for strangers, and a small corral for the horses, all made of sticks -and reeds; he had also dug a ditch round his house as a defence in case -of being attacked. This would, however, have been of little avail, if -the Indians had come; but his chief comfort seemed to rest in the -thought of selling his life dearly. A short time before, a body of -Indians had travelled past in the night; if they had been aware of the -posta, our black friend and his four soldiers would assuredly have been -slaughtered. I did not anywhere meet a more civil and obliging man -than this negro; it was therefore the more painful to see that he would -not sit down and eat with us. - -In the morning we sent for the horses very early, and started for -another exhilarating gallop. We passed the Cabeza del Buey, an old -name given to the head of a large marsh, which extends from Bahia -Blanca. Here we changed horses, and passed through some leagues of -swamps and saline marshes. Changing horses for the last time, we again -began wading through the mud. My animal fell and I was well soused in -black mire--a very disagreeable accident when one does not possess a -change of clothes. Some miles from the fort we met a man, who told us -that a great gun had been fired, which is a signal that Indians are -near. We immediately left the road, and followed the edge of a marsh, -which when chased offers the best mode of escape. We were glad to -arrive within the walls, when we found all the alarm was about nothing, -for the Indians turned out to be friendly ones, who wished to join -General Rosas. - -Bahia Blanca scarcely deserves the name of a village. A few houses and -the barracks for the troops are enclosed by a deep ditch and fortified -wall. The settlement is only of recent standing (since 1828); and its -growth has been one of trouble. The government of Buenos Ayres -unjustly occupied it by force, instead of following the wise example of -the Spanish Viceroys, who purchased the land near the older settlement -of the Rio Negro, from the Indians. Hence the need of the -fortifications; hence the few houses and little cultivated land without -the limits of the walls; even the cattle are not safe from the attacks -of the Indians beyond the boundaries of the plain, on which the -fortress stands. - -The part of the harbour where the Beagle intended to anchor being -distant twenty-five miles, I obtained from the Commandant a guide and -horses, to take me to see whether she had arrived. Leaving the plain -of green turf, which extended along the course of a little brook, we -soon entered on a wide level waste consisting either of sand, saline -marshes, or bare mud. Some parts were clothed by low thickets, and -others with those succulent plants, which luxuriate only where salt -abounds. Bad as the country was, ostriches, deer, agoutis, and -armadilloes, were abundant. My guide told me, that two months before -he had a most narrow escape of his life: he was out hunting with two -other men, at no great distance from this part of the country, when -they were suddenly met by a party of Indians, who giving chase, soon -overtook and killed his two friends. His own horse's legs were also -caught by the bolas, but he jumped off, and with his knife cut them -free: while doing this he was obliged to dodge round his horse, and -received two severe wounds from their chuzos. Springing on the saddle, -he managed, by a most wonderful exertion, just to keep ahead of the -long spears of his pursuers, who followed him to within sight of the -fort. From that time there was an order that no one should stray far -from the settlement. I did not know of this when I started, and was -surprised to observe how earnestly my guide watched a deer, which -appeared to have been frightened from a distant quarter. - -We found the Beagle had not arrived, and consequently set out on our -return, but the horses soon tiring, we were obliged to bivouac on the -plain. In the morning we had caught an armadillo, which although a -most excellent dish when roasted in its shell, did not make a very -substantial breakfast and dinner for two hungry men. The ground at the -place where we stopped for the night, was incrusted with a layer of -sulphate of soda, and hence, of course, was without water. Yet many of -the smaller rodents managed to exist even here, and the tucutuco was -making its odd little grunt beneath my head, during half the night. Our -horses were very poor ones, and in the morning they were soon exhausted -from not having had anything to drink, so that we were obliged to walk. -About noon the dogs killed a kid, which we roasted. I ate some of it, -but it made me intolerably thirsty. This was the more distressing as -the road, from some recent rain, was full of little puddles of clear -water, yet not a drop was drinkable. I had scarcely been twenty hours -without water, and only part of the time under a hot sun, yet the -thirst rendered me very weak. How people survive two or three days -under such circumstances, I cannot imagine: at the same time, I must -confess that my guide did not suffer at all, and was astonished that -one day's deprivation should be so troublesome to me. - -I have several times alluded to the surface of the ground being -incrusted with salt. This phenomenon is quite different from that of -the salinas, and more extraordinary. In many parts of South America, -wherever the climate is moderately dry, these incrustations occur; but -I have nowhere seen them so abundant as near Bahia Blanca. The salt -here, and in other parts of Patagonia, consists chiefly of sulphate of -soda with some common salt. As long as the ground remains moist in the -salitrales (as the Spaniards improperly call them, mistaking this -substance for saltpeter), nothing is to be seen but an extensive plain -composed of a black, muddy soil, supporting scattered tufts of -succulent plants. On returning through one of these tracts, after a -week's hot weather, one is surprised to see square miles of the plain -white, as if from a slight fall of snow, here and there heaped up by -the wind into little drifts. This latter appearance is chiefly caused -by the salts being drawn up, during the slow evaporation of the -moisture, round blades of dead grass, stumps of wood, and pieces of -broken earth, instead of being crystallized at the bottoms of the -puddles of water. The salitrales occur either on level tracts elevated -only a few feet above the level of the sea, or on alluvial land -bordering rivers. M. Parchappe [7] found that the saline incrustation -on the plain, at the distance of some miles from the sea, consisted -chiefly of sulphate of soda, with only seven per cent. of common salt; -whilst nearer to the coast, the common salt increased to 37 parts in a -hundred. This circumstance would tempt one to believe that the -sulphate of soda is generated in the soil, from the muriate, left on -the surface during the slow and recent elevation of this dry country. -The whole phenomenon is well worthy the attention of naturalists. Have -the succulent, salt-loving plants, which are well known to contain much -soda, the power of decomposing the muriate? Does the black fetid mud, -abounding with organic matter, yield the sulphur and ultimately the -sulphuric acid? - -Two days afterwards I again rode to the harbour: when not far from our -destination, my companion, the same man as before, spied three people -hunting on horseback. He immediately dismounted, and watching them -intently, said, "They don't ride like Christians, and nobody can leave -the fort." The three hunters joined company, and likewise dismounted -from their horses. At last one mounted again and rode over the hill -out of sight. My companion said, "We must now get on our horses: load -your pistol;" and he looked to his own sword. I asked, "Are they -Indians?"--"Quien sabe? (who knows?) if there are no more than three, -it does not signify." It then struck me, that the one man had gone over -the hill to fetch the rest of his tribe. I suggested this; but all the -answer I could extort was, "Quien sabe?" His head and eye never for a -minute ceased scanning slowly the distant horizon. I thought his -uncommon coolness too good a joke, and asked him why he did not return -home. I was startled when he answered, "We are returning, but in a -line so as to pass near a swamp, into which we can gallop the horses as -far as they can go, and then trust to our own legs; so that there is no -danger." I did not feel quite so confident of this, and wanted to -increase our pace. He said, "No, not until they do." When any little -inequality concealed us, we galloped; but when in sight, continued -walking. At last we reached a valley, and turning to the left, -galloped quickly to the foot of a hill; he gave me his horse to hold, -made the dogs lie down, and then crawled on his hands and knees to -reconnoitre. He remained in this position for some time, and at last, -bursting out in laughter, exclaimed, "Mugeres!" (women!). He knew them -to be the wife and sister-in-law of the major's son, hunting for -ostrich's eggs. I have described this man's conduct, because he acted -under the full impression that they were Indians. As soon, however, as -the absurd mistake was found out, he gave me a hundred reasons why they -could not have been Indians; but all these were forgotten at the time. -We then rode on in peace and quietness to a low point called Punta -Alta, whence we could see nearly the whole of the great harbour of -Bahia Blanca. - -The wide expanse of water is choked up by numerous great mud-banks, -which the inhabitants call Cangrejales, or _crabberies_, from the -number of small crabs. The mud is so soft that it is impossible to -walk over them, even for the shortest distance. Many of the banks have -their surfaces covered with long rushes, the tops of which alone are -visible at high water. On one occasion, when in a boat, we were so -entangled by these shallows that we could hardly find our way. Nothing -was visible but the flat beds of mud; the day was not very clear, and -there was much refraction, or as the sailors expressed it, "things -loomed high." The only object within our view which was not level was -the horizon; rushes looked like bushes unsupported in the air, and -water like mud-banks, and mud-banks like water. - -We passed the night in Punta Alta, and I employed myself in searching -for fossil bones; this point being a perfect catacomb for monsters of -extinct races. The evening was perfectly calm and clear; the extreme -monotony of the view gave it an interest even in the midst of mud-banks -and gulls sand-hillocks and solitary vultures. In riding back in the -morning we came across a very fresh track of a Puma, but did not -succeed in finding it. We saw also a couple of Zorillos, or -skunks,--odious animals, which are far from uncommon. In general -appearance, the Zorillo resembles a polecat, but it is rather larger, -and much thicker in proportion. Conscious of its power, it roams by day -about the open plain, and fears neither dog nor man. If a dog is urged -to the attack, its courage is instantly checked by a few drops of the -fetid oil, which brings on violent sickness and running at the nose. -Whatever is once polluted by it, is for ever useless. Azara says the -smell can be perceived at a league distant; more than once, when -entering the harbour of Monte Video, the wind being off shore, we have -perceived the odour on board the Beagle. Certain it is, that every -animal most willingly makes room for the Zorillo. - -[1] The corral is an enclosure made of tall and strong stakes. Every -estancia, or farming estate, has one attached to it. - -[2] The hovels of the Indians are thus called. - -[3] Report of the Agricult. Chem. Assoc. in the Agricult. Gazette, -1845, p. 93. - -[4] Linnaean Trans., vol. xi. p. 205. It is remarkable how all the -circumstances connected with the salt-lakes in Siberia and Patagonia -are similar. Siberia, like Patagonia, appears to have been recently -elevated above the waters of the sea. In both countries the salt-lakes -occupy shallow depressions in the plains; in both the mud on the -borders is black and fetid; beneath the crust of common salt, sulphate -of soda or of magnesium occurs, imperfectly crystallized; and in both, -the muddy sand is mixed with lentils of gypsum. The Siberian -salt-lakes are inhabited by small crustaceous animals; and flamingoes -(Edin. New Philos. Jour., Jan 1830) likewise frequent them. As these -circumstances, apparently so trifling, occur in two distant continents, -we may feel sure that they are the necessary results of a common -cause--See Pallas's Travels, 1793 to 1794, pp. 129 - 134. - -[5] I am bound to express in the strongest terms, my obligation to the -government of Buenos Ayres for the obliging manner in which passports -to all parts of the country were given me, as naturalist of the Beagle. - -[6] This prophecy has turned out entirely and miserably wrong. 1845. - -[7] Voyage dans l'Amerique Merid. par M. A. d'Orbigny. Part. Hist. tom. -i. p. 664. - - - -CHAPTER V - -BAHIA BLANCA - -Bahia Blanca--Geology--Numerous gigantic Quadrupeds--Recent -Extinction--Longevity of species--Large Animals do not require a -luxuriant vegetation--Southern Africa--Siberian Fossils--Two Species of -Ostrich--Habits of Oven-bird--Armadilloes--Venomous Snake, Toad, -Lizard--Hybernation of Animal--Habits of Sea-Pen--Indian Wars and -Massacres--Arrow-head, antiquarian Relic. - - -The Beagle arrived here on the 24th of August, and a week afterwards -sailed for the Plata. With Captain Fitz Roy's consent I was left -behind, to travel by land to Buenos Ayres. I will here add some -observations, which were made during this visit and on a previous -occasion, when the Beagle was employed in surveying the harbour. - -The plain, at the distance of a few miles from the coast, belongs to -the great Pampean formation, which consists in part of a reddish clay, -and in part of a highly calcareous marly rock. Nearer the coast there -are some plains formed from the wreck of the upper plain, and from mud, -gravel, and sand thrown up by the sea during the slow elevation of the -land, of which elevation we have evidence in upraised beds of recent -shells, and in rounded pebbles of pumice scattered over the country. At -Punta Alta we have a section of one of these later-formed little -plains, which is highly interesting from the number and extraordinary -character of the remains of gigantic land-animals embedded in it. These -have been fully described by Professor Owen, in the Zoology of the -voyage of the Beagle, and are deposited in the College of Surgeons. I -will here give only a brief outline of their nature. - -First, parts of three heads and other bones of the Megatherium, the -huge dimensions of which are expressed by its name. Secondly, the -Megalonyx, a great allied animal. Thirdly, the Scelidotherium, also an -allied animal, of which I obtained a nearly perfect skeleton. It must -have been as large as a rhinoceros: in the structure of its head it -comes according to Mr. Owen, nearest to the Cape Anteater, but in some -other respects it approaches to the armadilloes. Fourthly, the Mylodon -Darwinii, a closely related genus of little inferior size. Fifthly, -another gigantic edental quadruped. Sixthly, a large animal, with an -osseous coat in compartments, very like that of an armadillo. -Seventhly, an extinct kind of horse, to which I shall have again to -refer. Eighthly, a tooth of a Pachydermatous animal, probably the same -with the Macrauchenia, a huge beast with a long neck like a camel, -which I shall also refer to again. Lastly, the Toxodon, perhaps one of -the strangest animals ever discovered: in size it equalled an elephant -or megatherium, but the structure of its teeth, as Mr. Owen states, -proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers, the -order which, at the present day, includes most of the smallest -quadrupeds: in many details it is allied to the Pachydermata: judging -from the position of its eyes, ears, and nostrils, it was probably -aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is also allied. How -wonderfully are the different Orders, at the present time so well -separated, blended together in different points of the structure of the -Toxodon! - -The remains of these nine great quadrupeds, and many detached bones, -were found embedded on the beach, within the space of about 200 yards -square. It is a remarkable circumstance that so many different species -should be found together; and it proves how numerous in kind the -ancient inhabitants of this country must have been. At the distance of -about thirty miles from Punta Alta, in a cliff of red earth, I found -several fragments of bones, some of large size. Among them were the -teeth of a gnawer, equalling in size and closely resembling those of -the Capybara, whose habits have been described; and therefore, -probably, an aquatic animal. There was also part of the head of a -Ctenomys; the species being different from the Tucutuco, but with a -close general resemblance. The red earth, like that of the Pampas, in -which these remains were embedded, contains, according to Professor -Ehrenberg, eight fresh-water and one salt-water infusorial animalcule; -therefore, probably, it was an estuary deposit. - -The remains at Punta Alta were embedded in stratified gravel and -reddish mud, just such as the sea might now wash up on a shallow bank. -They were associated with twenty-three species of shells, of which -thirteen are recent and four others very closely related to recent -forms. [1] From the bones of the Scelidotherium, including even the -knee-cap, being intombed in their proper relative positions, and from -the osseous armour of the great armadillo-like animal being so well -preserved, together with the bones of one of its legs, we may feel -assured that these remains were fresh and united by their ligaments, -when deposited in the gravel together with the shells. [2] Hence we -have good evidence that the above enumerated gigantic quadrupeds, more -different from those of the present day than the oldest of the tertiary -quadrupeds of Europe, lived whilst the sea was peopled with most of its -present inhabitants; and we have confirmed that remarkable law so often -insisted on by Mr. Lyell, namely, that the "longevity of the species in -the mammalia is upon the whole inferior to that of the testacea." [3] - -The great size of the bones of the Megatheroid animals, including the -Megatherium, Megalonyx, Scelidotherium, and Mylodon, is truly -wonderful. The habits of life of these animals were a complete puzzle -to naturalists, until Professor Owen [4] solved the problem with -remarkable ingenuity. The teeth indicate, by their simple structure, -that these Megatheroid animals lived on vegetable food, and probably on -the leaves and small twigs of trees; their ponderous forms and great -strong curved claws seem so little adapted for locomotion, that some -eminent naturalists have actually believed, that, like the sloths, to -which they are intimately related, they subsisted by climbing back -downwards on trees, and feeding on the leaves. It was a bold, not to -say preposterous, idea to conceive even antediluvian trees, with -branches strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants. Professor -Owen, with far more probability, believes that, instead of climbing on -the trees, they pulled the branches down to them, and tore up the -smaller ones by the roots, and so fed on the leaves. The colossal -breadth and weight of their hinder quarters, which can hardly be -imagined without having been seen, become on this view, of obvious -service, instead of being an incumbrance: their apparent clumsiness -disappears. With their great tails and their huge heels firmly fixed -like a tripod on the ground, they could freely exert the full force of -their most powerful arms and great claws. Strongly rooted, indeed, -must that tree have been, which could have resisted such force! The -Mylodon, moreover, was furnished with a long extensile tongue like that -of the giraffe, which, by one of those beautiful provisions of nature, -thus reaches with the aid of its long neck its leafy food. I may -remark, that in Abyssinia the elephant, according to Bruce, when it -cannot reach with its proboscis the branches, deeply scores with its -tusks the trunk of the tree, up and down and all round, till it is -sufficiently weakened to be broken down. - -The beds including the above fossil remains, stand only from fifteen to -twenty feet above the level of high-water; and hence the elevation of -the land has been small (without there has been an intercalated period -of subsidence, of which we have no evidence) since the great quadrupeds -wandered over the surrounding plains; and the external features of the -country must then have been very nearly the same as now. What, it may -naturally be asked, was the character of the vegetation at that period; -was the country as wretchedly sterile as it now is? As so many of the -co-embedded shells are the same with those now living in the bay, I was -at first inclined to think that the former vegetation was probably -similar to the existing one; but this would have been an erroneous -inference for some of these same shells live on the luxuriant coast of -Brazil; and generally, the character of the inhabitants of the sea are -useless as guides to judge of those on the land. Nevertheless, from -the following considerations, I do not believe that the simple fact of -many gigantic quadrupeds having lived on the plains round Bahia Blanca, -is any sure guide that they formerly were clothed with a luxuriant -vegetation: I have no doubt that the sterile country a little -southward, near the Rio Negro, with its scattered thorny trees, would -support many and large quadrupeds. - - -That large animals require a luxuriant vegetation, has been a general -assumption which has passed from one work to another; but I do not -hesitate to say that it is completely false, and that it has vitiated -the reasoning of geologists on some points of great interest in the -ancient history of the world. The prejudice has probably been derived -from India, and the Indian islands, where troops of elephants, noble -forests, and impenetrable jungles, are associated together in every -one's mind. If, however, we refer to any work of travels through the -southern parts of Africa, we shall find allusions in almost every page -either to the desert character of the country, or to the numbers of -large animals inhabiting it. The same thing is rendered evident by the -many engravings which have been published of various parts of the -interior. When the Beagle was at Cape Town, I made an excursion of -some days' length into the country, which at least was sufficient to -render that which I had read more fully intelligible. - -Dr. Andrew Smith, who, at the head of his adventurous party, has lately -succeeded in passing the Tropic of Capricorn, informs me that, taking -into consideration the whole of the southern part of Africa, there can -be no doubt of its being a sterile country. On the southern and -south-eastern coasts there are some fine forests, but with these -exceptions, the traveller may pass for days together through open -plains, covered by a poor and scanty vegetation. It is difficult to -convey any accurate idea of degrees of comparative fertility; but it -may be safely said that the amount of vegetation supported at any one -time [5] by Great Britain, exceeds, perhaps even tenfold, the quantity -on an equal area, in the interior parts of Southern Africa. The fact -that bullock-waggons can travel in any direction, excepting near the -coast, without more than occasionally half an hour's delay in cutting -down bushes, gives, perhaps, a more definite notion of the scantiness -of the vegetation. Now, if we look to the animals inhabiting these -wide plains, we shall find their numbers extraordinarily great, and -their bulk immense. We must enumerate the elephant, three species of -rhinoceros, and probably, according to Dr. Smith, two others, the -hippopotamus, the giraffe, the bos caffer--as large as a full-grown -bull, and the elan--but little less, two zebras, and the quaccha, two -gnus, and several antelopes even larger than these latter animals. It -may be supposed that although the species are numerous, the individuals -of each kind are few. By the kindness of Dr. Smith, I am enabled to -show that the case is very different. He informs me, that in lat. 24 -degs., in one day's march with the bullock-waggons, he saw, without -wandering to any great distance on either side, between one hundred and -one hundred and fifty rhinoceroses, which belonged to three species: -the same day he saw several herds of giraffes, amounting together to -nearly a hundred; and that although no elephant was observed, yet they -are found in this district. At the distance of a little more than one -hour's march from their place of encampment on the previous night, his -party actually killed at one spot eight hippopotamuses, and saw many -more. In this same river there were likewise crocodiles. Of course it -was a case quite extraordinary, to see so many great animals crowded -together, but it evidently proves that they must exist in great -numbers. Dr. Smith describes the country passed through that day, as -"being thinly covered with grass, and bushes about four feet high, and -still more thinly with mimosa-trees." The waggons were not prevented -travelling in a nearly straight line. - -Besides these large animals, every one the least acquainted with the -natural history of the Cape, has read of the herds of antelopes, which -can be compared only with the flocks of migratory birds. The numbers -indeed of the lion, panther, and hyaena, and the multitude of birds of -prey, plainly speak of the abundance of the smaller quadrupeds: one -evening seven lions were counted at the same time prowling round Dr. -Smith's encampment. As this able naturalist remarked to me, the -carnage each day in Southern Africa must indeed be terrific! I confess -it is truly surprising how such a number of animals can find support in -a country producing so little food. The larger quadrupeds no doubt -roam over wide tracts in search of it; and their food chiefly consists -of underwood, which probably contains much nutriment in a small bulk. -Dr. Smith also informs me that the vegetation has a rapid growth; no -sooner is a part consumed, than its place is supplied by a fresh stock. -There can be no doubt, however, that our ideas respecting the apparent -amount of food necessary for the support of large quadrupeds are much -exaggerated: it should have been remembered that the camel, an animal -of no mean bulk, has always been considered as the emblem of the desert. - -The belief that where large quadrupeds exist, the vegetation must -necessarily be luxuriant, is the more remarkable, because the converse -is far from true. Mr. Burchell observed to me that when entering -Brazil, nothing struck him more forcibly than the splendour of the -South American vegetation contrasted with that of South Africa, -together with the absence of all large quadrupeds. In his Travels, [6] -he has suggested that the comparison of the respective weights (if -there were sufficient data) of an equal number of the largest -herbivorous quadrupeds of each country would be extremely curious. If -we take on the one side, the elephant, [7] hippopotamus, giraffe, bos -caffer, elan, certainly three, and probably five species of rhinoceros; -and on the American side, two tapirs, the guanaco, three deer, the -vicuna, peccari, capybara (after which we must choose from the monkeys -to complete the number), and then place these two groups alongside each -other, it is not easy to conceive ranks more disproportionate in size. -After the above facts, we are compelled to conclude, against anterior -probability, [8] that among the mammalia there exists no close relation -between the bulk of the species, and the _quantity_ of the vegetation, -in the countries which they inhabit. - -With regard to the number of large quadrupeds, there certainly exists -no quarter of the globe which will bear comparison with Southern -Africa. After the different statements which have been given, the -extremely desert character of that region will not be disputed. In the -European division of the world, we must look back to the tertiary -epochs, to find a condition of things among the mammalia, resembling -that now existing at the Cape of Good Hope. Those tertiary epochs, -which we are apt to consider as abounding to an astonishing degree with -large animals, because we find the remains of many ages accumulated at -certain spots, could hardly boast of more large quadrupeds than -Southern Africa does at present. If we speculate on the condition of -the vegetation during these epochs we are at least bound so far to -consider existing analogies, as not to urge as absolutely necessary a -luxuriant vegetation, when we see a state of things so totally -different at the Cape of Good Hope. - -We know [9] that the extreme regions of North America, many degrees -beyond the limit where the ground at the depth of a few feet remains -perpetually congealed, are covered by forests of large and tall trees. -In a like manner, in Siberia, we have woods of birch, fir, aspen, and -larch, growing in a latitude [10] (64 degs.) where the mean temperature -of the air falls below the freezing point, and where the earth is so -completely frozen, that the carcass of an animal embedded in it is -perfectly preserved. With these facts we must grant, as far as -_quantity alone_ of vegetation is concerned, that the great quadrupeds -of the later tertiary epochs might, in most parts of Northern Europe -and Asia, have lived on the spots where their remains are now found. I -do not here speak of the kind of vegetation necessary for their -support; because, as there is evidence of physical changes, and as the -animals have become extinct, so may we suppose that the species of -plants have likewise been changed. - -These remarks, I may be permitted to add, directly bear on the case of -the Siberian animals preserved in ice. The firm conviction of the -necessity of a vegetation possessing a character of tropical -luxuriance, to support such large animals, and the impossibility of -reconciling this with the proximity of perpetual congelation, was one -chief cause of the several theories of sudden revolutions of climate, -and of overwhelming catastrophes, which were invented to account for -their entombment. I am far from supposing that the climate has not -changed since the period when those animals lived, which now lie buried -in the ice. At present I only wish to show, that as far as _quantity_ -of food _alone_ is concerned, the ancient rhinoceroses might have -roamed over the _steppes_ of central Siberia (the northern parts -probably being under water) even in their present condition, as well as -the living rhinoceroses and elephants over the _Karros_ of Southern -Africa. - - -I will now give an account of the habits of some of the more -interesting birds which are common on the wild plains of Northern -Patagonia: and first for the largest, or South American ostrich. The -ordinary habits of the ostrich are familiar to every one. They live on -vegetable matter, such as roots and grass; but at Bahia Blanca I have -repeatedly seen three or four come down at low water to the extensive -mud-banks which are then dry, for the sake, as the Gauchos say, of -feeding on small fish. Although the ostrich in its habits is so shy, -wary, and solitary, and although so fleet in its pace, it is caught -without much difficulty by the Indian or Gaucho armed with the bolas. -When several horsemen appear in a semicircle, it becomes confounded, -and does not know which way to escape. They generally prefer running -against the wind; yet at the first start they expand their wings, and -like a vessel make all sail. On one fine hot day I saw several -ostriches enter a bed of tall rushes, where they squatted concealed, -till quite closely approached. It is not generally known that ostriches -readily take to the water. Mr. King informs me that at the Bay of San -Blas, and at Port Valdes in Patagonia, he saw these birds swimming -several times from island to island. They ran into the water both when -driven down to a point, and likewise of their own accord when not -frightened: the distance crossed was about two hundred yards. When -swimming, very little of their bodies appear above water; their necks -are extended a little forward, and their progress is slow. On two -occasions I saw some ostriches swimming across the Santa Cruz river, -where its course was about four hundred yards wide, and the stream -rapid. Captain Sturt, [11] when descending the Murrumbidgee, in -Australia, saw two emus in the act of swimming. - -The inhabitants of the country readily distinguish, even at a distance, -the cock bird from the hen. The former is larger and darker-coloured, -[12] and has a bigger head. The ostrich, I believe the cock, emits a -singular, deep-toned, hissing note: when first I heard it, standing in -the midst of some sand-hillocks, I thought it was made by some wild -beast, for it is a sound that one cannot tell whence it comes, or from -how far distant. When we were at Bahia Blanca in the months of -September and October, the eggs, in extraordinary numbers, were found -all over the country. They lie either scattered and single, in which -case they are never hatched, and are called by the Spaniards huachos; -or they are collected together into a shallow excavation, which forms -the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained -twenty-two eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. In one day's hunting -on horseback sixty-four eggs were found; forty-four of these were in -two nests, and the remaining twenty, scattered huachos. The Gauchos -unanimously affirm, and there is no reason to doubt their statement, -that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, and for some time afterwards -accompanies the young. The cock when on the nest lies very close; I -have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted that at such times -they are occasionally fierce, and even dangerous, and that they have -been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on -him. My informer pointed out to me an old man, whom he had seen much -terrified by one chasing him. I observe in Burchell's travels in South -Africa, that he remarks, "Having killed a male ostrich, and the -feathers being dirty, it was said by the Hottentots to be a nest bird." -I understand that the male emu in the Zoological Gardens takes charge -of the nest: this habit, therefore, is common to the family. - -The Gauchos unanimously affirm that several females lay in one nest. I -have been positively told that four or five hen birds have been watched -to go in the middle of the day, one after the other, to the same nest. -I may add, also, that it is believed in Africa, that two or more -females lay in one nest. [13] Although this habit at first appears very -strange, I think the cause may be explained in a simple manner. The -number of eggs in the nest varies from twenty to forty, and even to -fifty; and according to Azara, some times to seventy or eighty. Now, -although it is most probable, from the number of eggs found in one -district being so extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent -birds, and likewise from the state of the ovarium of the hen, that she -may in the course of the season lay a large number, yet the time -required must be very long. Azara states, [14] that a female in a -state of domestication laid seventeen eggs, each at the interval of -three days one from another. If the hen was obliged to hatch her own -eggs, before the last was laid the first probably would be addled; but -if each laid a few eggs at successive periods, in different nests, and -several hens, as is stated to be the case, combined together, then the -eggs in one collection would be nearly of the same age. If the number -of eggs in one of these nests is, as I believe, not greater on an -average than the number laid by one female in the season, then there -must be as many nests as females, and each cock bird will have its fair -share of the labour of incubation; and that during a period when the -females probably could not sit, from not having finished laying. [15] I -have before mentioned the great numbers of huachos, or deserted eggs; -so that in one day's hunting twenty were found in this state. It -appears odd that so many should be wasted. Does it not arise from the -difficulty of several females associating together, and finding a male -ready to undertake the office of incubation? It is evident that there -must at first be some degree of association between at least two -females; otherwise the eggs would remain scattered over the wide plain, -at distances far too great to allow of the male collecting them into -one nest: some authors have believed that the scattered eggs were -deposited for the young birds to feed on. This can hardly be the case -in America, because the huachos, although often found addled and -putrid, are generally whole. - -When at the Rio Negro in Northern Patagonia, I repeatedly heard the -Gauchos talking of a very rare bird which they called Avestruz Petise. -They described it as being less than the common ostrich (which is there -abundant), but with a very close general resemblance. They said its -colour was dark and mottled, and that its legs were shorter, and -feathered lower down than those of the common ostrich. It is more -easily caught by the bolas than the other species. The few inhabitants -who had seen both kinds, affirmed they could distinguish them apart -from a long distance. The eggs of the small species appeared, however, -more generally known; and it was remarked, with surprise, that they -were very little less than those of the Rhea, but of a slightly -different form, and with a tinge of pale blue. This species occurs -most rarely on the plains bordering the Rio Negro; but about a degree -and a half further south they are tolerably abundant. When at Port -Desire, in Patagonia (lat. 48 degs.), Mr. Martens shot an ostrich; and -I looked at it, forgetting at the moment, in the most unaccountable -manner, the whole subject of the Petises, and thought it was a not -full-grown bird of the common sort. It was cooked and eaten before my -memory returned. Fortunately the head, neck, legs, wings, many of the -larger feathers, and a large part of the skin, had been preserved; and -from these a very nearly perfect specimen has been put together, and is -now exhibited in the museum of the Zoological Society. Mr. Gould, in -describing this new species, has done me the honour of calling it after -my name. - -Among the Patagonian Indians in the Strait of Magellan, we found a half -Indian, who had lived some years with the tribe, but had been born in -the northern provinces. I asked him if he had ever heard of the -Avestruz Petise? He answered by saying, "Why, there are none others in -these southern countries." He informed me that the number of eggs in -the nest of the petise is considerably less than in that of the other -kind, namely, not more than fifteen on an average, but he asserted that -more than one female deposited them. At Santa Cruz we saw several of -these birds. They were excessively wary: I think they could see a -person approaching when too far off to be distinguished themselves. In -ascending the river few were seen; but in our quiet and rapid descent, -many, in pairs and by fours or fives, were observed. It was remarked -that this bird did not expand its wings, when first starting at full -speed, after the manner of the northern kind. In conclusion I may -observe, that the Struthio rhea inhabits the country of La Plata as far -as a little south of the Rio Negro in lat. 41 degs., and that the -Struthio Darwinii takes its place in Southern Patagonia; the part about -the Rio Negro being neutral territory. M. A. d'Orbigny, [16] when at -the Rio Negro, made great exertions to procure this bird, but never had -the good fortune to succeed. Dobrizhoffer [17] long ago was aware of -there being two kinds of ostriches, he says, "You must know, moreover, -that Emus differ in size and habits in different tracts of land; for -those that inhabit the plains of Buenos Ayres and Tucuman are larger, -and have black, white and grey feathers; those near to the Strait of -Magellan are smaller and more beautiful, for their white feathers are -tipped with black at the extremity, and their black ones in like manner -terminate in white." - -A very singular little bird, Tinochorus rumicivorus, is here common: in -its habits and general appearance, it nearly equally partakes of the -characters, different as they are, of the quail and snipe. The -Tinochorus is found in the whole of southern South America, wherever -there are sterile plains, or open dry pasture land. It frequents in -pairs or small flocks the most desolate places, where scarcely another -living creature can exist. Upon being approached they squat close, and -then are very difficult to be distinguished from the ground. When -feeding they walk rather slowly, with their legs wide apart. They dust -themselves in roads and sandy places, and frequent particular spots, -where they may be found day after day: like partridges, they take wing -in a flock. In all these respects, in the muscular gizzard adapted for -vegetable food, in the arched beak and fleshy nostrils, short legs and -form of foot, the Tinochorus has a close affinity with quails. But as -soon as the bird is seen flying, its whole appearance changes; the long -pointed wings, so different from those in the gallinaceous order, the -irregular manner of flight, and plaintive cry uttered at the moment of -rising, recall the idea of a snipe. The sportsmen of the Beagle -unanimously called it the short-billed snipe. To this genus, or rather -to the family of the Waders, its skeleton shows that it is really -related. - -The Tinochorus is closely related to some other South American birds. -Two species of the genus Attagis are in almost every respect ptarmigans -in their habits; one lives in Tierra del Fuego, above the limits of the -forest land; and the other just beneath the snow-line on the Cordillera -of Central Chile. A bird of another closely allied genus, Chionis -alba, is an inhabitant of the antarctic regions; it feeds on sea-weed -and shells on the tidal rocks. Although not web footed, from some -unaccountable habit, it is frequently met with far out at sea. This -small family of birds is one of those which, from its varied relations -to other families, although at present offering only difficulties to -the systematic naturalist, ultimately may assist in revealing the grand -scheme, common to the present and past ages, on which organized beings -have been created. - -The genus Furnarius contains several species, all small birds, living -on the ground, and inhabiting open dry countries. In structure they -cannot be compared to any European form. Ornithologists have generally -included them among the creepers, although opposed to that family in -every habit. The best known species is the common oven-bird of La -Plata, the Casara or housemaker of the Spaniards. The nest, whence it -takes its name, is placed in the most exposed situations, as on the top -of a post, a bare rock, or on a cactus. It is composed of mud and bits -of straw, and has strong thick walls: in shape it precisely resembles -an oven, or depressed beehive. The opening is large and arched, and -directly in front, within the nest, there is a partition, which reaches -nearly to the roof, thus forming a passage or antechamber to the true -nest. - -Another and smaller species of Furnarius (F. cunicularius), resembles -the oven-bird in the general reddish tint of its plumage, in a peculiar -shrill reiterated cry, and in an odd manner of running by starts. From -its affinity, the Spaniards call it Casarita (or little housebuilder), -although its nidification is quite different. The Casarita builds its -nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole, which is said to -extend horizontally to nearly six feet under ground. Several of the -country people told me, that when boys, they had attempted to dig out -the nest, but had scarcely ever succeeded in getting to the end of the -passage. The bird chooses any low bank of firm sandy soil by the side -of a road or stream. Here (at Bahia Blanca) the walls round the houses -are built of hardened mud, and I noticed that one, which enclosed a -courtyard where I lodged, was bored through by round holes in a score -of places. On asking the owner the cause of this he bitterly -complained of the little casarita, several of which I afterwards -observed at work. It is rather curious to find how incapable these -birds must be of acquiring any notion of thickness, for although they -were constantly flitting over the low wall, they continued vainly to -bore through it, thinking it an excellent bank for their nests. I do -not doubt that each bird, as often as it came to daylight on the -opposite side, was greatly surprised at the marvellous fact. - -I have already mentioned nearly all the mammalia common in this -country. Of armadilloes three species occur namely, the Dasypus -minutus or _pichy_, the D. villosus or _peludo_, and the _apar_. The -first extends ten degrees further south than any other kind; a fourth -species, the _Mulita_, does not come as far south as Bahia Blanca. The -four species have nearly similar habits; the _peludo_, however, is -nocturnal, while the others wander by day over the open plains, feeding -on beetles, larvae, roots, and even small snakes. The _apar_, commonly -called _mataco_, is remarkable by having only three moveable bands; the -rest of its tesselated covering being nearly inflexible. It has the -power of rolling itself into a perfect sphere, like one kind of English -woodlouse. In this state it is safe from the attack of dogs; for the -dog not being able to take the whole in its mouth, tries to bite one -side, and the ball slips away. The smooth hard covering of the -_mataco_ offers a better defence than the sharp spines of the hedgehog. -The _pichy_ prefers a very dry soil; and the sand-dunes near the coast, -where for many months it can never taste water, is its favourite -resort: it often tries to escape notice, by squatting close to the -ground. In the course of a day's ride, near Bahia Blanca, several were -generally met with. The instant one was perceived, it was necessary, -in order to catch it, almost to tumble off one's horse; for in soft -soil the animal burrowed so quickly, that its hinder quarters would -almost disappear before one could alight. It seems almost a pity to -kill such nice little animals, for as a Gaucho said, while sharpening -his knife on the back of one, "Son tan mansos" (they are so quiet). - -Of reptiles there are many kinds: one snake (a Trigonocephalus, or -Cophias [18]), from the size of the poison channel in its fangs, must -be very deadly. Cuvier, in opposition to some other naturalists, makes -this a sub-genus of the rattlesnake, and intermediate between it and -the viper. In confirmation of this opinion, I observed a fact, which -appears to me very curious and instructive, as showing how every -character, even though it may be in some degree independent of -structure, has a tendency to vary by slow degrees. The extremity of the -tail of this snake is terminated by a point, which is very slightly -enlarged; and as the animal glides along, it constantly vibrates the -last inch; and this part striking against the dry grass and brushwood, -produces a rattling noise, which can be distinctly heard at the -distance of six feet. As often as the animal was irritated or -surprised, its tail was shaken; and the vibrations were extremely -rapid. Even as long as the body retained its irritability, a tendency -to this habitual movement was evident. This Trigonocephalus has, -therefore, in some respects the structure of a viper, with the habits -of a rattlesnake: the noise, however, being produced by a simpler -device. The expression of this snake's face was hideous and fierce; -the pupil consisted of a vertical slit in a mottled and coppery iris; -the jaws were broad at the base, and the nose terminated in a -triangular projection. I do not think I ever saw anything more ugly, -excepting, perhaps, some of the vampire bats. I imagine this repulsive -aspect originates from the features being placed in positions, with -respect to each other, somewhat proportional to those of the human -face; and thus we obtain a scale of hideousness. - -Amongst the Batrachian reptiles, I found only one little toad -(Phryniscus nigricans), which was most singular from its colour. If we -imagine, first, that it had been steeped in the blackest ink, and then, -when dry, allowed to crawl over a board, freshly painted with the -brightest vermilion, so as to colour the soles of its feet and parts of -its stomach, a good idea of its appearance will be gained. If it had -been an unnamed species, surely it ought to have been called -_Diabolicus_, for it is a fit toad to preach in the ear of Eve. Instead -of being nocturnal in its habits, as other toads are, and living in -damp obscure recesses, it crawls during the heat of the day about the -dry sand-hillocks and arid plains, where not a single drop of water can -be found. It must necessarily depend on the dew for its moisture; and -this probably is absorbed by the skin, for it is known, that these -reptiles possess great powers of cutaneous absorption. At Maldonado, I -found one in a situation nearly as dry as at Bahia Blanca, and thinking -to give it a great treat, carried it to a pool of water; not only was -the little animal unable to swim, but I think without help it would -soon have been drowned. Of lizards there were many kinds, but only one -(Proctotretus multimaculatus) remarkable from its habits. It lives on -the bare sand near the sea coast, and from its mottled colour, the -brownish scales being speckled with white, yellowish red, and dirty -blue, can hardly be distinguished from the surrounding surface. When -frightened, it attempts to avoid discovery by feigning death, with -outstretched legs, depressed body, and closed eyes: if further -molested, it buries itself with great quickness in the loose sand. This -lizard, from its flattened body and short legs, cannot run quickly. - -I will here add a few remarks on the hybernation of animals in this -part of South America. When we first arrived at Bahia Blanca, -September 7th, 1832, we thought nature had granted scarcely a living -creature to this sandy and dry country. By digging, however, in the -ground, several insects, large spiders, and lizards were found in a -half-torpid state. On the 15th, a few animals began to appear, and by -the 18th (three days from the equinox), everything announced the -commencement of spring. The plains were ornamented by the flowers of a -pink wood-sorrel, wild peas, cenotherae, and geraniums; and the birds -began to lay their eggs. Numerous Lamellicorn and Heteromerous -insects, the latter remarkable for their deeply sculptured bodies, were -slowly crawling about; while the lizard tribe, the constant inhabitants -of a sandy soil, darted about in every direction. During the first -eleven days, whilst nature was dormant, the mean temperature taken from -observations made every two hours on board the Beagle, was 51 degs.; -and in the middle of the day the thermometer seldom ranged above 55 -degs. On the eleven succeeding days, in which all living things became -so animated, the mean was 58 degs., and the range in the middle of the -day between 60 and 70 degs. Here, then, an increase of seven degrees -in mean temperature, but a greater one of extreme heat, was sufficient -to awake the functions of life. At Monte Video, from which we had just -before sailed, in the twenty-three days included between the 26th of -July and the 19th of August, the mean temperature from 276 observations -was 58.4 degs.; the mean hottest day being 65.5 degs., and the coldest -46 degs. The lowest point to which the thermometer fell was 41.5 -degs., and occasionally in the middle of the day it rose to 69 or 70 -degs. Yet with this high temperature, almost every beetle, several -genera of spiders, snails, and land-shells, toads and lizards were all -lying torpid beneath stones. But we have seen that at Bahia Blanca, -which is four degrees southward and therefore with a climate only a -very little colder, this same temperature with a rather less extreme -heat, was sufficient to awake all orders of animated beings. This shows -how nicely the stimulus required to arouse hybernating animals is -governed by the usual climate of the district, and not by the absolute -heat. It is well known that within the tropics, the hybernation, or -more properly aestivation, of animals is determined not by the -temperature, but by the times of drought. Near Rio de Janeiro, I was -at first surprised to observe, that, a few days after some little -depressions had been filled with water, they were peopled by numerous -full-grown shells and beetles, which must have been lying dormant. -Humboldt has related the strange accident of a hovel having been -erected over a spot where a young crocodile lay buried in the hardened -mud. He adds, "The Indians often find enormous boas, which they call -Uji or water serpents, in the same lethargic state. To reanimate them, -they must be irritated or wetted with water." - -I will only mention one other animal, a zoophyte (I believe Virgularia -Patagonica), a kind of sea-pen. It consists of a thin, straight, -fleshy stem, with alternate rows of polypi on each side, and -surrounding an elastic stony axis, varying in length from eight inches -to two feet. The stem at one extremity is truncate, but at the other -is terminated by a vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony axis which -gives strength to the stem may be traced at this extremity into a mere -vessel filled with granular matter. At low water hundreds of these -zoophytes might be seen, projecting like stubble, with the truncate end -upwards, a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand. When -touched or pulled they suddenly drew themselves in with force, so as -nearly or quite to disappear. By this action, the highly elastic axis -must be bent at the lower extremity, where it is naturally slightly -curved; and I imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte -is enabled to rise again through the mud. Each polypus, though closely -united to its brethren, has a distinct mouth, body, and tentacula. Of -these polypi, in a large specimen, there must be many thousands; yet we -see that they act by one movement: they have also one central axis -connected with a system of obscure circulation, and the ova are -produced in an organ distinct from the separate individuals. [19] Well -may one be allowed to ask, what is an individual? It is always -interesting to discover the foundation of the strange tales of the old -voyagers; and I have no doubt but that the habits of this Virgularia -explain one such case. Captain Lancaster, in his voyage [20] in 1601, -narrates that on the sea-sands of the Island of Sombrero, in the East -Indies, he "found a small twig growing up like a young tree, and on -offering to pluck it up it shrinks down to the ground, and sinks, -unless held very hard. On being plucked up, a great worm is found to -be its root, and as the tree groweth in greatness, so doth the worm -diminish, and as soon as the worm is entirely turned into a tree it -rooteth in the earth, and so becomes great. This transformation is one -of the strangest wonders that I saw in all my travels: for if this tree -is plucked up, while young, and the leaves and bark stripped off, it -becomes a hard stone when dry, much like white coral: thus is this worm -twice transformed into different natures. Of these we gathered and -brought home many." - - -During my stay at Bahia Blanca, while waiting for the Beagle, the place -was in a constant state of excitement, from rumours of wars and -victories, between the troops of Rosas and the wild Indians. One day -an account came that a small party forming one of the postas on the -line to Buenos Ayres, had been found all murdered. The next day three -hundred men arrived from the Colorado, under the command of Commandant -Miranda. A large portion of these men were Indians (mansos, or tame), -belonging to the tribe of the Cacique Bernantio. They passed the night -here; and it was impossible to conceive anything more wild and savage -than the scene of their bivouac. Some drank till they were -intoxicated; others swallowed the steaming blood of the cattle -slaughtered for their suppers, and then, being sick from drunkenness, -they cast it up again, and were besmeared with filth and gore. - -Nam simul expletus dapibus, vinoque sepultus Cervicem inflexam posuit, -jacuitque per antrum Immensus, saniem eructans, ac frusta cruenta Per -somnum commixta mero. - -In the morning they started for the scene of the murder, with orders to -follow the "rastro," or track, even if it led them to Chile. We -subsequently heard that the wild Indians had escaped into the great -Pampas, and from some cause the track had been missed. One glance at -the rastro tells these people a whole history. Supposing they examine -the track of a thousand horses, they will soon guess the number of -mounted ones by seeing how many have cantered; by the depth of the -other impressions, whether any horses were loaded with cargoes; by the -irregularity of the footsteps, how far tired; by the manner in which -the food has been cooked, whether the pursued travelled in haste; by -the general appearance, how long it has been since they passed. They -consider a rastro of ten days or a fortnight, quite recent enough to be -hunted out. We also heard that Miranda struck from the west end of the -Sierra Ventana, in a direct line to the island of Cholechel, situated -seventy leagues up the Rio Negro. This is a distance of between two -and three hundred miles, through a country completely unknown. What -other troops in the world are so independent? With the sun for their -guide, mare's flesh for food, their saddle-cloths for beds,--as long as -there is a little water, these men would penetrate to the end of the -world. - -A few days afterwards I saw another troop of these banditti-like -soldiers start on an expedition against a tribe of Indians at the small -Salinas, who had been betrayed by a prisoner cacique. The Spaniard who -brought the orders for this expedition was a very intelligent man. He -gave me an account of the last engagement at which he was present. Some -Indians, who had been taken prisoners, gave information of a tribe -living north of the Colorado. Two hundred soldiers were sent; and they -first discovered the Indians by a cloud of dust from their horses' -feet, as they chanced to be travelling. The country was mountainous -and wild, and it must have been far in the interior, for the Cordillera -were in sight. The Indians, men, women, and children, were about one -hundred and ten in number, and they were nearly all taken or killed, -for the soldiers sabre every man. The Indians are now so terrified -that they offer no resistance in a body, but each flies, neglecting -even his wife and children; but when overtaken, like wild animals, they -fight against any number to the last moment. One dying Indian seized -with his teeth the thumb of his adversary, and allowed his own eye to -be forced out sooner than relinquish his hold. Another, who was -wounded, feigned death, keeping a knife ready to strike one more fatal -blow. My informer said, when he was pursuing an Indian, the man cried -out for mercy, at the same time that he was covertly loosing the bolas -from his waist, meaning to whirl it round his head and so strike his -pursuer. "I however struck him with my sabre to the ground, and then -got off my horse, and cut his throat with my knife." This is a dark -picture; but how much more shocking is the unquestionable fact, that -all the women who appear above twenty years old are massacred in cold -blood! When I exclaimed that this appeared rather inhuman, he answered, -"Why, what can be done? they breed so!" - -Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, -because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that -such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country? -The children of the Indians are saved, to be sold or given away as -servants, or rather slaves for as long a time as the owners can make -them believe themselves slaves; but I believe in their treatment there -is little to complain of. - -In the battle four men ran away together. They were pursued, one was -killed, and the other three were taken alive. They turned out to be -messengers or ambassadors from a large body of Indians, united in the -common cause of defence, near the Cordillera. The tribe to which they -had been sent was on the point of holding a grand council, the feast of -mare's flesh was ready, and the dance prepared: in the morning the -ambassadors were to have returned to the Cordillera. They were -remarkably fine men, very fair, above six feet high, and all under -thirty years of age. The three survivors of course possessed very -valuable information and to extort this they were placed in a line. The -two first being questioned, answered, "No se" (I do not know), and were -one after the other shot. The third also said "No se;" adding, "Fire, -I am a man, and can die!" Not one syllable would they breathe to injure -the united cause of their country! The conduct of the above-mentioned -cacique was very different; he saved his life by betraying the intended -plan of warfare, and the point of union in the Andes. It was believed -that there were already six or seven hundred Indians together, and that -in summer their numbers would be doubled. Ambassadors were to have been -sent to the Indians at the small Salinas, near Bahia Blanca, whom I -have mentioned that this same cacique had betrayed. The communication, -therefore, between the Indians, extends from the Cordillera to the -coast of the Atlantic. - -General Rosas's plan is to kill all stragglers, and having driven the -remainder to a common point, to attack them in a body, in the summer, -with the assistance of the Chilenos. This operation is to be repeated -for three successive years. I imagine the summer is chosen as the time -for the main attack, because the plains are then without water, and the -Indians can only travel in particular directions. The escape of the -Indians to the south of the Rio Negro, where in such a vast unknown -country they would be safe, is prevented by a treaty with the -Tehuelches to this effect;--that Rosas pays them so much to slaughter -every Indian who passes to the south of the river, but if they fail in -so doing, they themselves are to be exterminated. The war is waged -chiefly against the Indians near the Cordillera; for many of the tribes -on this eastern side are fighting with Rosas. The general, however, -like Lord Chesterfield, thinking that his friends may in a future day -become his enemies, always places them in the front ranks, so that -their numbers may be thinned. Since leaving South America we have -heard that this war of extermination completely failed. - -Among the captive girls taken in the same engagement, there were two -very pretty Spanish ones, who had been carried away by the Indians when -young, and could now only speak the Indian tongue. From their account -they must have come from Salta, a distance in a straight line of nearly -one thousand miles. This gives one a grand idea of the immense -territory over which the Indians roam: yet, great as it is, I think -there will not, in another half-century, be a wild Indian northward of -the Rio Negro. The warfare is too bloody to last; the Christians -killing every Indian, and the Indians doing the same by the Christians. -It is melancholy to trace how the Indians have given way before the -Spanish invaders. Schirdel [21] says that in 1535, when Buenos Ayres -was founded, there were villages containing two and three thousand -inhabitants. Even in Falconer's time (1750) the Indians made inroads -as far as Luxan, Areco, and Arrecife, but now they are driven beyond -the Salado. Not only have whole tribes been exterminated, but the -remaining Indians have become more barbarous: instead of living in -large villages, and being employed in the arts of fishing, as well as -of the chase, they now wander about the open plains, without home or -fixed occupation. - -I heard also some account of an engagement which took place, a few -weeks previously to the one mentioned, at Cholechel. This is a very -important station on account of being a pass for horses; and it was, in -consequence, for some time the head-quarters of a division of the army. -When the troops first arrived there they found a tribe of Indians, of -whom they killed twenty or thirty. The cacique escaped in a manner -which astonished every one. The chief Indians always have one or two -picked horses, which they keep ready for any urgent occasion. On one -of these, an old white horse, the cacique sprung, taking with him his -little son. The horse had neither saddle nor bridle. To avoid the -shots, the Indian rode in the peculiar method of his nation namely, -with an arm round the horse's neck, and one leg only on its back. Thus -hanging on one side, he was seen patting the horse's head, and talking -to him. The pursuers urged every effort in the chase; the Commandant -three times changed his horse, but all in vain. The old Indian father -and his son escaped, and were free. What a fine picture one can form -in one's mind,--the naked, bronze-like figure of the old man with his -little boy, riding like a Mazeppa on the white horse, thus leaving far -behind him the host of his pursuers! - -I saw one day a soldier striking fire with a piece of flint, which I -immediately recognised as having been a part of the head of an arrow. -He told me it was found near the island of Cholechel, and that they are -frequently picked up there. It was between two and three inches long, -and therefore twice as large as those now used in Tierra del Fuego: it -was made of opaque cream-coloured flint, but the point and barbs had -been intentionally broken off. It is well known that no Pampas Indians -now use bows and arrows. I believe a small tribe in Banda Oriental -must be excepted; but they are widely separated from the Pampas -Indians, and border close on those tribes that inhabit the forest, and -live on foot. It appears, therefore, that these arrow-heads are -antiquarian [22] relics of the Indians, before the great change in -habits consequent on the introduction of the horse into South America. - -[1] Since this was written, M. Alcide d'Orbingy has examined these -shells, and pronounces them all to be recent. - -[2] M. Aug. Bravard has described, in a Spanish work ('Observaciones -Geologicas,' 1857), this district, and he believes that the bones of -the extinct mammals were washed out of the underlying Pampean deposit, -and subsequently became embedded with the still existing shells; but I -am not convinced by his remarks. M. Bravard believes that the whole -enormous Pampean deposit is a sub-aerial formation, like sand-dunes: -this seems to me to be an untenable doctrine. - -[3] Principles of Geology, vol. iv. p. 40. - -[4] This theory was first developed in the Zoology of the Voyage of the -Beagle, and subsequently in Professor Owen's Memoir on Mylodon robustus. - -[5] I mean this to exclude the total amount which may have been -successively produced and consumed during a given period. - -[6] Travels in the Interior of South Africa, vol. ii. p. 207 - -[7] The elephant which was killed at Exeter Change was estimated (being -partly weighed) at five tons and a half. The elephant actress, as I was -informed, weighed one ton less; so that we may take five as the average -of a full-grown elephant. I was told at the Surry Gardens, that a -hippopotamus which was sent to England cut up into pieces was estimated -at three tons and a half; we will call it three. From these premises -we may give three tons and a half to each of the five rhinoceroses; -perhaps a ton to the giraffe, and half to the bos caffer as well as to -the elan (a large ox weighs from 1200 to 1500 pounds). This will give -an average (from the above estimates) of 2.7 of a ton for the ten -largest herbivorous animals of Southern Africa. In South America, -allowing 1200 pounds for the two tapirs together, 550 for the guanaco -and vicuna, 500 for three deer, 300 for the capybara, peccari, and a -monkey, we shall have an average of 250 pounds, which I believe is -overstating the result. The ratio will therefore be as 6048 to 250, or -24 to 1, for the ten largest animals from the two continents. - -[8] If we suppose the case of the discovery of a skeleton of a -Greenland whale in a fossil state, not a single cetaceous animal being -known to exist, what naturalist would have ventured conjecture on the -possibility of a carcass so gigantic being supported on the minute -crustacea and mollusca living in the frozen seas of the extreme North? - -[9] See Zoological Remarks to Capt. Back's Expedition, by Dr. -Richardson. He says, "The subsoil north of latitude 56 degs. is -perpetually frozen, the thaw on the coast not penetrating above three -feet, and at Bear Lake, in latitude 64 degs., not more than twenty -inches. The frozen substratum does not of itself destroy vegetation, -for forests flourish on the surface, at a distance from the coast." - -[10] See Humboldt, Fragments Asiatiques, p. 386: Barton's Geography of -Plants: and Malte Brun. In the latter work it is said that the limit -of the growth of trees in Siberia may be drawn under the parallel of 70 -degs. - -[11] Sturt's Travels, vol. ii. p. 74. - -[12] A Gaucho assured me that he had once seen a snow-white or Albino -variety, and that it was a most beautiful bird. - -[13] Burchell's Travels, vol. i. p. 280. - -[14] Azara, vol. iv. p. 173. - -[15] Lichtenstein, however, asserts (Travels, vol. ii. p. 25) that the -hens begin sitting when they have laid ten or twelve eggs; and that -they continue laying, I presume, in another nest. This appears to me -very improbable. He asserts that four or five hens associate for -incubation with one cock, who sits only at night. - -[16] When at the Rio Negro, we heard much of the indefatigable labours -of this naturalist. M. Alcide d'Orbigny, during the years 1825 to -1833, traversed several large portions of South America, and has made a -collection, and is now publishing the results on a scale of -magnificence, which at once places himself in the list of American -travellers second only to Humboldt. - -[17] Account of the Abipones, A.D. 1749, vol. i. (English Translation) -p. 314 - -[18] M. Bibron calls it T. crepitans. - - -[19] The cavities leading from the fleshy compartments of the -extremity, were filled with a yellow pulpy matter, which, examined -under a microscope, presented an extraordinary appearance. The mass -consisted of rounded, semi-transparent, irregular grains, aggregated -together into particles of various sizes. All such particles, and the -separate grains, possessed the power of rapid movement; generally -revolving around different axes, but sometimes progressive. The -movement was visible with a very weak power, but even with the highest -its cause could not be perceived. It was very different from the -circulation of the fluid in the elastic bag, containing the thin -extremity of the axis. On other occasions, when dissecting small -marine animals beneath the microscope, I have seen particles of pulpy -matter, some of large size, as soon as they were disengaged, commence -revolving. I have imagined, I know not with how much truth, that this -granulo-pulpy matter was in process of being converted into ova. -Certainly in this zoophyte such appeared to be the case. - -[20] Kerr's Collection of Voyages, vol. viii. p. 119. - -[21] Purchas's Collection of Voyages. I believe the date was really -1537. - -[22] Azara has even doubted whether the Pampas Indians ever used bows. - - - -CHAPTER VI - -BAHIA BLANCA TO BUENOS AYRES - -Set out for Buenos Ayres--Rio Sauce--Sierra Ventana--Third -Posta--Driving Horses--Bolas--Partridges and Foxes--Features of the -Country--Long-legged Plover--Teru-tero--Hail-storm--Natural Enclosures -in the Sierra Tapalguen--Flesh of Puma--Meat Diet--Guardia del -Monte--Effects of Cattle on the Vegetation--Cardoon--Buenos -Ayres--Corral where Cattle are Slaughtered. - - -SEPTEMBER 18th.--I hired a Gaucho to accompany me on my ride to Buenos -Ayres, though with some difficulty, as the father of one man was afraid -to let him go, and another, who seemed willing, was described to me as -so fearful, that I was afraid to take him, for I was told that even if -he saw an ostrich at a distance, he would mistake it for an Indian, and -would fly like the wind away. The distance to Buenos Ayres is about -four hundred miles, and nearly the whole way through an uninhabited -country. We started early in the morning; ascending a few hundred feet -from the basin of green turf on which Bahia Blanca stands, we entered -on a wide desolate plain. It consists of a crumbling -argillaceo-calcareous rock, which, from the dry nature of the climate, -supports only scattered tufts of withered grass, without a single bush -or tree to break the monotonous uniformity. The weather was fine, but -the atmosphere remarkably hazy; I thought the appearance foreboded a -gale, but the Gauchos said it was owing to the plain, at some great -distance in the interior, being on fire. After a long gallop, having -changed horses twice, we reached the Rio Sauce: it is a deep, rapid, -little stream, not above twenty-five feet wide. The second posta on -the road to Buenos Ayres stands on its banks, a little above there is a -ford for horses, where the water does not reach to the horses' belly; -but from that point, in its course to the sea, it is quite impassable, -and hence makes a most useful barrier against the Indians. - -Insignificant as this stream is, the Jesuit Falconer, whose information -is generally so very correct, figures it as a considerable river, -rising at the foot of the Cordillera. With respect to its source, I do -not doubt that this is the case for the Gauchos assured me, that in the -middle of the dry summer, this stream, at the same time with the -Colorado has periodical floods; which can only originate in the snow -melting on the Andes. It is extremely improbable that a stream so -small as the Sauce then was, should traverse the entire width of the -continent; and indeed, if it were the residue of a large river, its -waters, as in other ascertained cases, would be saline. During the -winter we must look to the springs round the Sierra Ventana as the -source of its pure and limpid stream. I suspect the plains of -Patagonia like those of Australia, are traversed by many water-courses -which only perform their proper parts at certain periods. Probably this -is the case with the water which flows into the head of Port Desire, -and likewise with the Rio Chupat, on the banks of which masses of -highly cellular scoriae were found by the officers employed in the -survey. - -As it was early in the afternoon when we arrived, we took fresh horses, -and a soldier for a guide, and started for the Sierra de la Ventana. -This mountain is visible from the anchorage at Bahia Blanca; and Capt. -Fitz Roy calculates its height to be 3340 feet--an altitude very -remarkable on this eastern side of the continent. I am not aware that -any foreigner, previous to my visit, had ascended this mountain; and -indeed very few of the soldiers at Bahia Blanca knew anything about it. -Hence we heard of beds of coal, of gold and silver, of caves, and of -forests, all of which inflamed my curiosity, only to disappoint it. The -distance from the posta was about six leagues over a level plain of the -same character as before. The ride was, however, interesting, as the -mountain began to show its true form. When we reached the foot of the -main ridge, we had much difficulty in finding any water, and we thought -we should have been obliged to have passed the night without any. At -last we discovered some by looking close to the mountain, for at the -distance even of a few hundred yards the streamlets were buried and -entirely lost in the friable calcareous stone and loose detritus. I do -not think Nature ever made a more solitary, desolate pile of rock;--it -well deserves its name of _Hurtado_, or separated. The mountain is -steep, extremely rugged, and broken, and so entirely destitute of -trees, and even bushes, that we actually could not make a skewer to -stretch out our meat over the fire of thistle-stalks. [1] The strange -aspect of this mountain is contrasted by the sea-like plain, which not -only abuts against its steep sides, but likewise separates the parallel -ranges. The uniformity of the colouring gives an extreme quietness to -the view,--the whitish grey of the quartz rock, and the light brown of -the withered grass of the plain, being unrelieved by any brighter tint. -From custom, one expects to see in the neighbourhood of a lofty and -bold mountain, a broken country strewed over with huge fragments. Here -nature shows that the last movement before the bed of the sea is -changed into dry land may sometimes be one of tranquillity. Under these -circumstances I was curious to observe how far from the parent rock any -pebbles could be found. On the shores of Bahia Blanca, and near the -settlement, there were some of quartz, which certainly must have come -from this source: the distance is forty-five miles. - -The dew, which in the early part of the night wetted the saddle-cloths -under which we slept, was in the morning frozen. The plain, though -appearing horizontal, had insensibly sloped up to a height of between -800 and 900 feet above the sea. In the morning (9th of September) the -guide told me to ascend the nearest ridge, which he thought would lead -me to the four peaks that crown the summit. The climbing up such rough -rocks was very fatiguing; the sides were so indented, that what was -gained in one five minutes was often lost in the next. At last, when I -reached the ridge, my disappointment was extreme in finding a -precipitous valley as deep as the plain, which cut the chain -transversely in two, and separated me from the four points. This -valley is very narrow, but flat-bottomed, and it forms a fine -horse-pass for the Indians, as it connects the plains on the northern -and southern sides of the range. Having descended, and while crossing -it, I saw two horses grazing: I immediately hid myself in the long -grass, and began to reconnoitre; but as I could see no signs of Indians -I proceeded cautiously on my second ascent. It was late in the day, -and this part of the mountain, like the other, was steep and rugged. I -was on the top of the second peak by two o'clock, but got there with -extreme difficulty; every twenty yards I had the cramp in the upper -part of both thighs, so that I was afraid I should not have been able -to have got down again. It was also necessary to return by another -road, as it was out of the question to pass over the saddle-back. I -was therefore obliged to give up the two higher peaks. Their altitude -was but little greater, and every purpose of geology had been answered; -so that the attempt was not worth the hazard of any further exertion. I -presume the cause of the cramp was the great change in the kind of -muscular action, from that of hard riding to that of still harder -climbing. It is a lesson worth remembering, as in some cases it might -cause much difficulty. - -I have already said the mountain is composed of white quartz rock, and -with it a little glossy clay-slate is associated. At the height of a -few hundred feet above the plain patches of conglomerate adhered in -several places to the solid rock. They resembled in hardness, and in -the nature of the cement, the masses which may be seen daily forming on -some coasts. I do not doubt these pebbles were in a similar manner -aggregated, at a period when the great calcareous formation was -depositing beneath the surrounding sea. We may believe that the jagged -and battered forms of the hard quartz yet show the effects of the waves -of an open ocean. - -I was, on the whole, disappointed with this ascent. Even the view was -insignificant;--a plain like the sea, but without its beautiful colour -and defined outline. The scene, however, was novel, and a little -danger, like salt to meat, gave it a relish. That the danger was very -little was certain, for my two companions made a good fire--a thing -which is never done when it is suspected that Indians are near. I -reached the place of our bivouac by sunset, and drinking much mate, and -smoking several cigaritos, soon made up my bed for the night. The wind -was very strong and cold, but I never slept more comfortably. - -September 10th.--In the morning, having fairly scudded before the gale, -we arrived by the middle of the day at the Sauce posta. In the road we -saw great numbers of deer, and near the mountain a guanaco. The plain, -which abuts against the Sierra, is traversed by some curious gullies, -of which one was about twenty feet wide, and at least thirty deep; we -were obliged in consequence to make a considerable circuit before we -could find a pass. We stayed the night at the posta, the conversation, -as was generally the case, being about the Indians. The Sierra Ventana -was formerly a great place of resort; and three or four years ago there -was much fighting there. My guide had been present when many Indians -were killed: the women escaped to the top of the ridge, and fought most -desperately with great stones; many thus saving themselves. - -September 11th.--Proceeded to the third posta in company with the -lieutenant who commanded it. The distance is called fifteen leagues; -but it is only guess-work, and is generally overstated. The road was -uninteresting, over a dry grassy plain; and on our left hand at a -greater or less distance there were some low hills; a continuation of -which we crossed close to the posta. Before our arrival we met a large -herd of cattle and horses, guarded by fifteen soldiers; but we were -told many had been lost. It is very difficult to drive animals across -the plains; for if in the night a puma, or even a fox, approaches, -nothing can prevent the horses dispersing in every direction; and a -storm will have the same effect. A short time since, an officer left -Buenos Ayres with five hundred horses, and when he arrived at the army -he had under twenty. - -Soon afterwards we perceived by the cloud of dust, that a party of -horsemen were coming towards us; when far distant my companions knew -them to be Indians, by their long hair streaming behind their backs. -The Indians generally have a fillet round their heads, but never any -covering; and their black hair blowing across their swarthy faces, -heightens to an uncommon degree the wildness of their appearance. They -turned out to be a party of Bernantio's friendly tribe, going to a -salina for salt. The Indians eat much salt, their children sucking it -like sugar. This habit is very different from that of the Spanish -Gauchos, who, leading the same kind of life, eat scarcely any; -according to Mungo Park, [2] it is people who live on vegetable food -who have an unconquerable desire for salt. The Indians gave us -good-humoured nods as they passed at full gallop, driving before them a -troop of horses, and followed by a train of lanky dogs. - -September 12th and 13th.--I stayed at this posta two days, waiting for -a troop of soldiers, which General Rosas had the kindness to send to -inform me, would shortly travel to Buenos Ayres; and he advised me to -take the opportunity of the escort. In the morning we rode to some -neighbouring hills to view the country, and to examine the geology. -After dinner the soldiers divided themselves into two parties for a -trial of skill with the bolas. Two spears were stuck in the ground -twenty-five yards apart, but they were struck and entangled only once -in four or five times. The balls can be thrown fifty or sixty yards, -but with little certainty. This, however, does not apply to a man on -horseback; for when the speed of the horse is added to the force of the -arm, it is said, that they can be whirled with effect to the distance -of eighty yards. As a proof of their force, I may mention, that at the -Falkland Islands, when the Spaniards murdered some of their own -countrymen and all the Englishmen, a young friendly Spaniard was -running away, when a great tall man, by name Luciano, came at full -gallop after him, shouting to him to stop, and saying that he only -wanted to speak to him. Just as the Spaniard was on the point of -reaching the boat, Luciano threw the balls: they struck him on the legs -with such a jerk, as to throw him down and to render him for some time -insensible. The man, after Luciano had had his talk, was allowed to -escape. He told us that his legs were marked by great weals, where the -thong had wound round, as if he had been flogged with a whip. In the -middle of the day two men arrived, who brought a parcel from the next -posta to be forwarded to the general: so that besides these two, our -party consisted this evening of my guide and self, the lieutenant, and -his four soldiers. The latter were strange beings; the first a fine -young negro; the second half Indian and negro; and the two others -non-descripts; namely, an old Chilian miner, the colour of mahogany, -and another partly a mulatto; but two such mongrels with such -detestable expressions, I never saw before. At night, when they were -sitting round the fire, and playing at cards, I retired to view such a -Salvator Rosa scene. They were seated under a low cliff, so that I -could look down upon them; around the party were lying dogs, arms, -remnants of deer and ostriches; and their long spears were stuck in the -turf. Further in the dark background, their horses were tied up, ready -for any sudden danger. If the stillness of the desolate plain was -broken by one of the dogs barking, a soldier, leaving the fire, would -place his head close to the ground, and thus slowly scan the horizon. -Even if the noisy teru-tero uttered its scream, there would be a pause -in the conversation, and every head, for a moment, a little inclined. - -What a life of misery these men appear to us to lead! They were at -least ten leagues from the Sauce posta, and since the murder committed -by the Indians, twenty from another. The Indians are supposed to have -made their attack in the middle of the night; for very early in the -morning after the murder, they were luckily seen approaching this -posta. The whole party here, however, escaped, together with the troop -of horses; each one taking a line for himself, and driving with him as -many animals as he was able to manage. - -The little hovel, built of thistle-stalks, in which they slept, neither -kept out the wind nor rain; indeed in the latter case the only effect -the roof had, was to condense it into larger drops. They had nothing -to eat excepting what they could catch, such as ostriches, deer, -armadilloes, etc., and their only fuel was the dry stalks of a small -plant, somewhat resembling an aloe. The sole luxury which these men -enjoyed was smoking the little paper cigars, and sucking mate. I used -to think that the carrion vultures, man's constant attendants on these -dreary plains, while seated on the little neighbouring cliffs seemed by -their very patience to say, "Ah! when the Indians come we shall have a -feast." - -In the morning we all sallied forth to hunt, and although we had not -much success, there were some animated chases. Soon after starting the -party separated, and so arranged their plans, that at a certain time of -the day (in guessing which they show much skill) they should all meet -from different points of the compass on a plain piece of ground, and -thus drive together the wild animals. One day I went out hunting at -Bahia Blanca, but the men there merely rode in a crescent, each being -about a quarter of a mile apart from the other. A fine male ostrich -being turned by the headmost riders, tried to escape on one side. The -Gauchos pursued at a reckless pace, twisting their horses about with -the most admirable command, and each man whirling the balls round his -head. At length the foremost threw them, revolving through the air: in -an instant the ostrich rolled over and over, its legs fairly lashed -together by the thong. The plains abound with three kinds of partridge, -[3] two of which are as large as hen pheasants. Their destroyer, a -small and pretty fox, was also singularly numerous; in the course of -the day we could not have seen less than forty or fifty. They were -generally near their earths, but the dogs killed one. When we returned -to the posta, we found two of the party returned who had been hunting -by themselves. They had killed a puma, and had found an ostrich's nest -with twenty-seven eggs in it. Each of these is said to equal in weight -eleven hen's eggs; so that we obtained from this one nest as much food -as 297 hen's eggs would have given. - -September 14th.--As the soldiers belonging to the next posta meant to -return, and we should together make a party of five, and all armed, I -determined not to wait for the expected troops. My host, the -lieutenant, pressed me much to stop. As he had been very obliging--not -only providing me with food, but lending me his private horses--I -wanted to make him some remuneration. I asked my guide whether I might -do so, but he told me certainly not; that the only answer I should -receive, probably would be, "We have meat for the dogs in our country, -and therefore do not grudge it to a Christian." It must not be supposed -that the rank of lieutenant in such an army would at all prevent the -acceptance of payment: it was only the high sense of hospitality, which -every traveller is bound to acknowledge as nearly universal throughout -these provinces. After galloping some leagues, we came to a low swampy -country, which extends for nearly eighty miles northward, as far as the -Sierra Tapalguen. In some parts there were fine damp plains, covered -with grass, while others had a soft, black, and peaty soil. There were -also many extensive but shallow lakes, and large beds of reeds. The -country on the whole resembled the better parts of the Cambridgeshire -fens. At night we had some difficulty in finding amidst the swamps, a -dry place for our bivouac. - -September 15th.--Rose very early in the morning and shortly after -passed the posta where the Indians had murdered the five soldiers. The -officer had eighteen chuzo wounds in his body. By the middle of the -day, after a hard gallop, we reached the fifth posta: on account of -some difficulty in procuring horses we stayed there the night. As this -point was the most exposed on the whole line, twenty-one soldiers were -stationed here; at sunset they returned from hunting, bringing with -them seven deer, three ostriches, and many armadilloes and partridges. -When riding through the country, it is a common practice to set fire to -the plain; and hence at night, as on this occasion, the horizon was -illuminated in several places by brilliant conflagrations. This is done -partly for the sake of puzzling any stray Indians, but chiefly for -improving the pasture. In grassy plains unoccupied by the larger -ruminating quadrupeds, it seems necessary to remove the superfluous -vegetation by fire, so as to render the new year's growth serviceable. - -The rancho at this place did not boast even of a roof, but merely -consisted of a ring of thistle-stalks, to break the force of the wind. -It was situated on the borders of an extensive but shallow lake, -swarming with wild fowl, among which the black-necked swan was -conspicuous. - -The kind of plover, which appears as if mounted on stilts (Himantopus -nigricollis), is here common in flocks of considerable size. It has -been wrongfully accused of inelegance; when wading about in shallow -water, which is its favourite resort, its gait is far from awkward. -These birds in a flock utter a noise, that singularly resembles the cry -of a pack of small dogs in full chase: waking in the night, I have more -than once been for a moment startled at the distant sound. The -teru-tero (Vanellus cayanus) is another bird, which often disturbs the -stillness of the night. In appearance and habits it resembles in many -respects our peewits; its wings, however, are armed with sharp spurs, -like those on the legs of the common cock. As our peewit takes its -name from the sound of its voice, so does the teru-tero. While riding -over the grassy plains, one is constantly pursued by these birds, which -appear to hate mankind, and I am sure deserve to be hated for their -never-ceasing, unvaried, harsh screams. To the sportsman they are most -annoying, by telling every other bird and animal of his approach: to -the traveller in the country, they may possibly, as Molina says, do -good, by warning him of the midnight robber. During the breeding -season, they attempt, like our peewits, by feigning to be wounded, to -draw away from their nests dogs and other enemies. The eggs of this -bird are esteemed a great delicacy. - -September 16th.--To the seventh posta at the foot of the Sierra -Tapalguen. The country was quite level, with a coarse herbage and a -soft peaty soil. The hovel was here remarkably neat, the posts and -rafters being made of about a dozen dry thistle-stalks bound together -with thongs of hide; and by the support of these Ionic-like columns, -the roof and sides were thatched with reeds. We were here told a fact, -which I would not have credited, if I had not had partly ocular proof -of it; namely, that, during the previous night hail as large as small -apples, and extremely hard, had fallen with such violence, as to kill -the greater number of the wild animals. One of the men had already -found thirteen deer (Cervus campestris) lying dead, and I saw their -_fresh_ hides; another of the party, a few minutes after my arrival -brought in seven more. Now I well know, that one man without dogs -could hardly have killed seven deer in a week. The men believed they -had seen about fifteen ostriches (part of one of which we had for -dinner); and they said that several were running about evidently blind -in one eye. Numbers of smaller birds, as ducks, hawks, and partridges, -were killed. I saw one of the latter with a black mark on its back, as -if it had been struck with a paving-stone. A fence of thistle-stalks -round the hovel was nearly broken down, and my informer, putting his -head out to see what was the matter, received a severe cut, and now -wore a bandage. The storm was said to have been of limited extent: we -certainly saw from our last night's bivouac a dense cloud and lightning -in this direction. It is marvellous how such strong animals as deer -could thus have been killed; but I have no doubt, from the evidence I -have given, that the story is not in the least exaggerated. I am glad, -however, to have its credibility supported by the Jesuit Dobrizhoffen, -[4] who, speaking of a country much to the northward, says, hail fell -of an enormous size and killed vast numbers of cattle: the Indians -hence called the place _Lalegraicavalca_, meaning "the little white -things." Dr. Malcolmson, also, informs me that he witnessed in 1831 in -India, a hail-storm, which killed numbers of large birds and much -injured the cattle. These hailstones were flat, and one was ten inches -in circumference, and another weighed two ounces. They ploughed up a -gravel-walk like musket-balls, and passed through glass-windows, making -round holes, but not cracking them. - -Having finished our dinner, of hail-stricken meat, we crossed the -Sierra Tapalguen; a low range of hills, a few hundred feet in height, -which commences at Cape Corrientes. The rock in this part is pure -quartz; further eastward I understand it is granitic. The hills are of -a remarkable form; they consist of flat patches of table-land, -surrounded by low perpendicular cliffs, like the outliers of a -sedimentary deposit. The hill which I ascended was very small, not -above a couple of hundred yards in diameter; but I saw others larger. -One which goes by the name of the "Corral," is said to be two or three -miles in diameter, and encompassed by perpendicular cliffs, between -thirty and forty feet high, excepting at one spot, where the entrance -lies. Falconer [5] gives a curious account of the Indians driving -troops of wild horses into it, and then by guarding the entrance, -keeping them secure. I have never heard of any other instance of -table-land in a formation of quartz, and which, in the hill I examined, -had neither cleavage nor stratification. I was told that the rock of -the "Corral" was white, and would strike fire. - -We did not reach the posta on the Rio Tapalguen till after it was dark. -At supper, from something which was said, I was suddenly struck with -horror at thinking that I was eating one of the favourite dishes of the -country namely, a half-formed calf, long before its proper time of -birth. It turned out to be Puma; the meat is very white and remarkably -like veal in taste. Dr. Shaw was laughed at for stating that "the -flesh of the lion is in great esteem having no small affinity with -veal, both in colour, taste, and flavour." Such certainly is the case -with the Puma. The Gauchos differ in their opinion, whether the Jaguar -is good eating, but are unanimous in saying that cat is excellent. - -September 17th.--We followed the course of the Rio Tapalguen, through a -very fertile country, to the ninth posta. Tapalguen, itself, or the -town of Tapalguen, if it may be so called, consists of a perfectly -level plain, studded over, as far as the eye can reach, with the toldos -or oven-shaped huts of the Indians. The families of the friendly -Indians, who were fighting on the side of Rosas, resided here. We met -and passed many young Indian women, riding by two or three together on -the same horse: they, as well as many of the young men, were strikingly -handsome,--their fine ruddy complexions being the picture of health. -Besides the toldos, there were three ranchos; one inhabited by the -Commandant, and the two others by Spaniards with small shops. - -We were here able to buy some biscuit. I had now been several days -without tasting anything besides meat: I did not at all dislike this -new regimen; but I felt as if it would only have agreed with me with -hard exercise. I have heard that patients in England, when desired to -confine themselves exclusively to an animal diet, even with the hope of -life before their eyes, have hardly been able to endure it. Yet the -Gaucho in the Pampas, for months together, touches nothing but beef. -But they eat, I observe, a very large proportion of fat, which is of a -less animalized nature; and they particularly dislike dry meat, such as -that of the Agouti. Dr. Richardson [6] also, has remarked, "that when -people have fed for a long time solely upon lean animal food, the -desire for fat becomes so insatiable, that they can consume a large -quantity of unmixed and even oily fat without nausea:" this appears to -me a curious physiological fact. It is, perhaps, from their meat -regimen that the Gauchos, like other carnivorous animals, can abstain -long from food. I was told that at Tandeel, some troops voluntarily -pursued a party of Indians for three days, without eating or drinking. - -We saw in the shops many articles, such as horsecloths, belts, and -garters, woven by the Indian women. The patterns were very pretty, and -the colours brilliant; the workmanship of the garters was so good that -an English merchant at Buenos Ayres maintained they must have been -manufactured in England, till he found the tassels had been fastened by -split sinew. - -September 18th.--We had a very long ride this day. At the twelfth -posta, which is seven leagues south of the Rio Salado, we came to the -first estancia with cattle and white women. Afterwards we had to ride -for many miles through a country flooded with water above our horses' -knees. By crossing the stirrups, and riding Arab-like with our legs -bent up, we contrived to keep tolerably dry. It was nearly dark when -we arrived at the Salado; the stream was deep, and about forty yards -wide; in summer, however, its bed becomes almost dry, and the little -remaining water nearly as salt as that of the sea. We slept at one of -the great estancias of General Rosas. It was fortified, and of such an -extent, that arriving in the dark I thought it was a town and fortress. -In the morning we saw immense herds of cattle, the general here having -seventy-four square leagues of land. Formerly nearly three hundred men -were employed about this estate, and they defied all the attacks of the -Indians. - -September 19th.--Passed the Guardia del Monte. This is a nice -scattered little town, with many gardens, full of peach and quince -trees. The plain here looked like that around Buenos Ayres; the turf -being short and bright green, with beds of clover and thistles, and -with bizcacha holes. I was very much struck with the marked change in -the aspect of the country after having crossed the Salado. From a -coarse herbage we passed on to a carpet of fine green verdure. I at -first attributed this to some change in the nature of the soil, but the -inhabitants assured me that here, as well as in Banda Oriental, where -there is as great a difference between the country round Monte Video -and the thinly-inhabited savannahs of Colonia, the whole was to be -attributed to the manuring and grazing of the cattle. Exactly the same -fact has been observed in the prairies [7] of North America, where -coarse grass, between five and six feet high, when grazed by cattle, -changes into common pasture land. I am not botanist enough to say -whether the change here is owing to the introduction of new species, to -the altered growth of the same, or to a difference in their -proportional numbers. Azara has also observed with astonishment this -change: he is likewise much perplexed by the immediate appearance of -plants not occurring in the neighbourhood, on the borders of any track -that leads to a newly-constructed hovel. In another part he says, [8] -"ces chevaux (sauvages) ont la manie de preferer les chemins, et le -bord des routes pour deposer leurs excremens, dont on trouve des -monceaux dans ces endroits." Does this not partly explain the -circumstance? We thus have lines of richly manured land serving as -channels of communication across wide districts. - -Near the Guardia we find the southern limit of two European plants, now -become extraordinarily common. The fennel in great profusion covers -the ditch-banks in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, and -other towns. But the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) has a far wider -range: [9] it occurs in these latitudes on both sides of the, -Cordillera, across the continent. I saw it in unfrequented spots in -Chile, Entre Rios, and Banda Oriental. In the latter country alone, -very many (probably several hundred) square miles are covered by one -mass of these prickly plants, and are impenetrable by man or beast. -Over the undulating plains, where these great beds occur, nothing else -can now live. Before their introduction, however, the surface must -have supported, as in other parts, a rank herbage. I doubt whether any -case is on record of an invasion on so grand a scale of one plant over -the aborigines. As I have already said, I nowhere saw the cardoon -south of the Salado; but it is probable that in proportion as that -country becomes inhabited, the cardoon will extend its limits. The -case is different with the giant thistle (with variegated leaves) of -the Pampas, for I met with it in the valley of the Sauce. According to -the principles so well laid down by Mr. Lyell, few countries have -undergone more remarkable changes, since the year 1535, when the first -colonist of La Plata landed with seventy-two horses. The countless -herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, not only have altered the whole -aspect of the vegetation, but they have almost banished the guanaco, -deer and ostrich. Numberless other changes must likewise have taken -place; the wild pig in some parts probably replaces the peccari; packs -of wild dogs may be heard howling on the wooded banks of the -less-frequented streams; and the common cat, altered into a large and -fierce animal, inhabits rocky hills. As M. d'Orbigny has remarked, the -increase in numbers of the carrion-vulture, since the introduction of -the domestic animals, must have been infinitely great; and we have -given reasons for believing that they have extended their southern -range. No doubt many plants, besides the cardoon and fennel, are -naturalized; thus the islands near the mouth of the Parana, are thickly -clothed with peach and orange trees, springing from seeds carried there -by the waters of the river. - -While changing horses at the Guardia several people questioned us much -about the army,--I never saw anything like the enthusiasm for Rosas, -and for the success of the "most just of all wars, because against -barbarians." This expression, it must be confessed, is very natural, -for till lately, neither man, woman nor horse, was safe from the -attacks of the Indians. We had a long day's ride over the same rich -green plain, abounding with various flocks, and with here and there a -solitary estancia, and its one _ombu_ tree. In the evening it rained -heavily: on arriving at a posthouse we were told by the owner, that if -we had not a regular passport we must pass on, for there were so many -robbers he would trust no one. When he read, however, my passport, -which began with "El Naturalista Don Carlos," his respect and civility -were as unbounded as his suspicions had been before. What a naturalist -might be, neither he nor his countrymen, I suspect, had any idea; but -probably my title lost nothing of its value from that cause. - -September 20th.--We arrived by the middle of the day at Buenos Ayres. -The outskirts of the city looked quite pretty, with the agave hedges, -and groves of olive, peach and willow trees, all just throwing out -their fresh green leaves. I rode to the house of Mr. Lumb, an English -merchant, to whose kindness and hospitality, during my stay in the -country, I was greatly indebted. - -The city of Buenos Ayres is large; [10] and I should think one of the -most regular in the world. Every street is at right angles to the one -it crosses, and the parallel ones being equidistant, the houses are -collected into solid squares of equal dimensions, which are called -quadras. On the other hand, the houses themselves are hollow squares; -all the rooms opening into a neat little courtyard. They are generally -only one story high, with flat roofs, which are fitted with seats and -are much frequented by the inhabitants in summer. In the centre of the -town is the Plaza, where the public offices, fortress, cathedral, etc., -stand. Here also, the old viceroys, before the revolution, had their -palaces. The general assemblage of buildings possesses considerable -architectural beauty, although none individually can boast of any. - -The great _corral_, where the animals are kept for slaughter to supply -food to this beef-eating population, is one of the spectacles best -worth seeing. The strength of the horse as compared to that of the -bullock is quite astonishing: a man on horseback having thrown his lazo -round the horns of a beast, can drag it anywhere he chooses. The -animal ploughing up the ground with outstretched legs, in vain efforts -to resist the force, generally dashes at full speed to one side; but -the horse immediately turning to receive the shock, stands so firmly -that the bullock is almost thrown down, and it is surprising that their -necks are not broken. The struggle is not, however, one of fair -strength; the horse's girth being matched against the bullock's -extended neck. In a similar manner a man can hold the wildest horse, -if caught with the lazo, just behind the ears. When the bullock has -been dragged to the spot where it is to be slaughtered, the matador -with great caution cuts the hamstrings. Then is given the death bellow; -a noise more expressive of fierce agony than any I know. I have often -distinguished it from a long distance, and have always known that the -struggle was then drawing to a close. The whole sight is horrible and -revolting: the ground is almost made of bones; and the horses and -riders are drenched with gore. - -[1] I call these thistle-stalks for the want of a more correct name. I -believe it is a species of Eryngium. - -[2] Travels in Africa, p. 233. - -[3] Two species of Tinamus and Eudromia elegans of A. d'Orbigny, which -can only be called a partridge with regard to its habits. - -[4] History of the Abipones, vol. ii. p. 6. - -[5] Falconer's Patagonia, p. 70. - -[6] Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. i. p. 35. - -[7] See Mr. Atwater's account of the Prairies, in Silliman's N. A. -Journal, vol. i. p. 117. - -[8] Azara's Voyages, vol. i. p. 373. - -[9] M. A. d'Orbigny (vol. i. p. 474) says that the cardoon and -artichoke are both found wild. Dr. Hooker (Botanical Magazine, vol. -iv. p. 2862), has described a variety of the Cynara from this part of -South America under the name of inermis. He states that botanists are -now generally agreed that the cardoon and the artichoke are varieties -of one plant. I may add, that an intelligent farmer assured me that he -had observed in a deserted garden some artichokes changing into the -common cardoon. Dr. Hooker believes that Head's vivid description of -the thistle of the Pampas applies to the cardoon, but this is a -mistake. Captain Head referred to the plant, which I have mentioned a -few lines lower down, under the title of giant thistle. Whether it is -a true thistle I do not know; but it is quite different from the -cardoon; and more like a thistle properly so called. - -[10] It is said to contain 60,000 inhabitants. Monte Video, the second -town of importance on the banks of the Plata, has 15,000. - - - -CHAPTER VII - -BUENOS AYRES AND ST. FE - -Excursion to St. Fe--Thistle Beds--Habits of the Bizcacha--Little -Owl--Saline Streams--Level Plain--Mastodon--St. Fe--Change in -Landscape--Geology--Tooth of extinct Horse--Relation of the Fossil and -recent Quadrupeds of North and South America--Effects of a great -Drought--Parana--Habits of the Jaguar--Scissor-beak--Kingfisher, -Parrot, and Scissor-tail--Revolution--Buenos Ayres State of Government. - - -SEPTEMBER 27th.--In the evening I set out on an excursion to St. Fe, -which is situated nearly three hundred English miles from Buenos Ayres, -on the banks of the Parana. The roads in the neighbourhood of the city -after the rainy weather, were extraordinarily bad. I should never have -thought it possible for a bullock waggon to have crawled along: as it -was, they scarcely went at the rate of a mile an hour, and a man was -kept ahead, to survey the best line for making the attempt. The -bullocks were terribly jaded: it is a great mistake to suppose that -with improved roads, and an accelerated rate of travelling, the -sufferings of the animals increase in the same proportion. We passed a -train of waggons and a troop of beasts on their road to Mendoza. The -distance is about 580 geographical miles, and the journey is generally -performed in fifty days. These waggons are very long, narrow, and -thatched with reeds; they have only two wheels, the diameter of which -in some cases is as much as ten feet. Each is drawn by six bullocks, -which are urged on by a goad at least twenty feet long: this is -suspended from within the roof; for the wheel bullocks a smaller one is -kept; and for the intermediate pair, a point projects at right angles -from the middle of the long one. - -The whole apparatus looked like some implement of war. - -September 28th.--We passed the small town of Luxan where there is a -wooden bridge over the river--a most unusual convenience in this -country. We passed also Areco. The plains appeared level, but were not -so in fact; for in various places the horizon was distant. The -estancias are here wide apart; for there is little good pasture, owing -to the land being covered by beds either of an acrid clover, or of the -great thistle. The latter, well known from the animated description -given by Sir F. Head, were at this time of the year two-thirds grown; -in some parts they were as high as the horse's back, but in others they -had not yet sprung up, and the ground was bare and dusty as on a -turnpike-road. The clumps were of the most brilliant green, and they -made a pleasing miniature-likeness of broken forest land. When the -thistles are full grown, the great beds are impenetrable, except by a -few tracts, as intricate as those in a labyrinth. These are only known -to the robbers, who at this season inhabit them, and sally forth at -night to rob and cut throats with impunity. Upon asking at a house -whether robbers were numerous, I was answered, "The thistles are not up -yet;"--the meaning of which reply was not at first very obvious. There -is little interest in passing over these tracts, for they are inhabited -by few animals or birds, excepting the bizcacha and its friend the -little owl. - -The bizcacha [1] is well known to form a prominent feature in the -zoology of the Pampas. It is found as far south as the Rio Negro, in -lat. 41 degs., but not beyond. It cannot, like the agouti, subsist on -the gravelly and desert plains of Patagonia, but prefers a clayey or -sandy soil, which produces a different and more abundant vegetation. -Near Mendoza, at the foot of the Cordillera, it occurs in close -neighbourhood with the allied alpine species. It is a very curious -circumstance in its geographical distribution, that it has never been -seen, fortunately for the inhabitants of Banda Oriental, to the -eastward of the river Uruguay: yet in this province there are plains -which appear admirably adapted to its habits. The Uruguay has formed an -insuperable obstacle to its migration: although the broader barrier of -the Parana has been passed, and the bizcacha is common in Entre Rios, -the province between these two great rivers. Near Buenos Ayres these -animals are exceedingly common. Their most favourite resort appears to -be those parts of the plain which during one-half of the year are -covered with giant thistles, to the exclusion of other plants. The -Gauchos affirm that it lives on roots; which, from the great strength -of its gnawing teeth, and the kind of places frequented by it, seems -probable. In the evening the bizcachas come out in numbers, and quietly -sit at the mouths of their burrows on their haunches. At such times -they are very tame, and a man on horseback passing by seems only to -present an object for their grave contemplation. They run very -awkwardly, and when running out of danger, from their elevated tails -and short front legs much resemble great rats. Their flesh, when -cooked, is very white and good, but it is seldom used. - -The bizcacha has one very singular habit; namely, dragging every hard -object to the mouth of its burrow: around each group of holes many -bones of cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard lumps of earth, dry dung, -etc., are collected into an irregular heap, which frequently amounts to -as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. I was credibly informed that a -gentleman, when riding on a dark night, dropped his watch; he returned -in the morning, and by searching the neighbourhood of every bizcacha -hole on the line of road, as he expected, he soon found it. This habit -of picking up whatever may be lying on the ground anywhere near its -habitation, must cost much trouble. For what purpose it is done, I am -quite unable to form even the most remote conjecture: it cannot be for -defence, because the rubbish is chiefly placed above the mouth of the -burrow, which enters the ground at a very small inclination. No doubt -there must exist some good reason; but the inhabitants of the country -are quite ignorant of it. The only fact which I know analogous to it, -is the habit of that extraordinary Australian bird, the Calodera -maculata, which makes an elegant vaulted passage of twigs for playing -in, and which collects near the spot, land and sea-shells, bones and -the feathers of birds, especially brightly coloured ones. Mr. Gould, -who has described these facts, informs me, that the natives, when they -lose any hard object, search the playing passages, and he has known a -tobacco-pipe thus recovered. - -The little owl (Athene cunicularia), which has been so often mentioned, -on the plains of Buenos Ayres exclusively inhabits the holes of the -bizcacha; but in Banda Oriental it is its own workman. During the open -day, but more especially in the evening, these birds may be seen in -every direction standing frequently by pairs on the hillock near their -burrows. If disturbed they either enter the hole, or, uttering a -shrill harsh cry, move with a remarkably undulatory flight to a short -distance, and then turning round, steadily gaze at their pursuer. -Occasionally in the evening they may be heard hooting. I found in the -stomachs of two which I opened the remains of mice, and I one day saw a -small snake killed and carried away. It is said that snakes are their -common prey during the daytime. I may here mention, as showing on what -various kinds of food owls subsist, that a species killed among the -islets of the Chonos Archipelago, had its stomach full of good-sized -crabs. In India [2] there is a fishing genus of owls, which likewise -catches crabs. - -In the evening we crossed the Rio Arrecife on a simple raft made of -barrels lashed together, and slept at the post-house on the other side. -I this day paid horse-hire for thirty-one leagues; and although the sun -was glaring hot I was but little fatigued. When Captain Head talks of -riding fifty leagues a day, I do not imagine the distance is equal to -150 English miles. At all events, the thirty-one leagues was only 76 -miles in a straight line, and in an open country I should think four -additional miles for turnings would be a sufficient allowance. - -29th and 30th.--We continued to ride over plains of the same character. -At San Nicolas I first saw the noble river of the Parana. At the foot -of the cliff on which the town stands, some large vessels were at -anchor. Before arriving at Rozario, we crossed the Saladillo, a stream -of fine clear running water, but too saline to drink. Rozario is a -large town built on a dead level plain, which forms a cliff about sixty -feet high over the Parana. The river here is very broad, with many -islands, which are low and wooded, as is also the opposite shore. The -view would resemble that of a great lake, if it were not for the -linear-shaped islets, which alone give the idea of running water. The -cliffs are the most picturesque part; sometimes they are absolutely -perpendicular, and of a red colour; at other times in large broken -masses, covered with cacti and mimosa-trees. The real grandeur, -however, of an immense river like this, is derived from reflecting how -important a means of communication and commerce it forms between one -nation and another; to what a distance it travels, and from how vast a -territory it drains the great body of fresh water which flows past your -feet. - -For many leagues north and south of San Nicolas and Rozario, the -country is really level. Scarcely anything which travellers have -written about its extreme flatness, can be considered as exaggeration. -Yet I could never find a spot where, by slowly turning round, objects -were not seen at greater distances in some directions than in others; -and this manifestly proves inequality in the plain. At sea, a person's -eye being six feet above the surface of the water, his horizon is two -miles and four-fifths distant. In like manner, the more level the -plain, the more nearly does the horizon approach within these narrow -limits; and this, in my opinion, entirely destroys that grandeur which -one would have imagined that a vast level plain would have possessed. - -October 1st.--We started by moonlight and arrived at the Rio Tercero by -sunrise. The river is also called the Saladillo, and it deserves the -name, for the water is brackish. I stayed here the greater part of the -day, searching for fossil bones. Besides a perfect tooth of the -Toxodon, and many scattered bones, I found two immense skeletons near -each other, projecting in bold relief from the perpendicular cliff of -the Parana. They were, however, so completely decayed, that I could -only bring away small fragments of one of the great molar teeth; but -these are sufficient to show that the remains belonged to a Mastodon, -probably to the same species with that, which formerly must have -inhabited the Cordillera in Upper Peru in such great numbers. The men -who took me in the canoe, said they had long known of these skeletons, -and had often wondered how they had got there: the necessity of a -theory being felt, they came to the conclusion that, like the bizcacha, -the mastodon was formerly a burrowing animal! In the evening we rode -another stage, and crossed the Monge, another brackish stream, bearing -the dregs of the washings of the Pampas. - -October 2nd.--We passed through Corunda, which, from the luxuriance of -its gardens, was one of the prettiest villages I saw. From this point -to St. Fe the road is not very safe. The western side of the Parana -northward, ceases to be inhabited; and hence the Indians sometimes come -down thus far, and waylay travellers. The nature of the country also -favours this, for instead of a grassy plain, there is an open woodland, -composed of low prickly mimosas. We passed some houses that had been -ransacked and since deserted; we saw also a spectacle, which my guides -viewed with high satisfaction; it was the skeleton of an Indian with -the dried skin hanging on the bones, suspended to the branch of a tree. - -In the morning we arrived at St. Fe. I was surprised to observe how -great a change of climate a difference of only three degrees of -latitude between this place and Buenos Ayres had caused. This was -evident from the dress and complexion of the men--from the increased -size of the ombu-trees--the number of new cacti and other plants--and -especially from the birds. In the course of an hour I remarked -half-a-dozen birds, which I had never seen at Buenos Ayres. Considering -that there is no natural boundary between the two places, and that the -character of the country is nearly similar, the difference was much -greater than I should have expected. - -October 3rd and 4th.--I was confined for these two days to my bed by a -headache. A good-natured old woman, who attended me, wished me to try -many odd remedies. A common practice is, to bind an orange-leaf or a -bit of black plaster to each temple: and a still more general plan is, -to split a bean into halves, moisten them, and place one on each -temple, where they will easily adhere. It is not thought proper ever -to remove the beans or plaster, but to allow them to drop off, and -sometimes, if a man, with patches on his head, is asked, what is the -matter? he will answer, "I had a headache the day before yesterday." -Many of the remedies used by the people of the country are ludicrously -strange, but too disgusting to be mentioned. One of the least nasty is -to kill and cut open two puppies and bind them on each side of a broken -limb. Little hairless dogs are in great request to sleep at the feet -of invalids. - -St. Fe is a quiet little town, and is kept clean and in good order. The -governor, Lopez, was a common soldier at the time of the revolution; -but has now been seventeen years in power. This stability of -government is owing to his tyrannical habits; for tyranny seems as yet -better adapted to these countries than republicanism. The governor's -favourite occupation is hunting Indians: a short time since he -slaughtered forty-eight, and sold the children at the rate of three or -four pounds apiece. - -October 5th.--We crossed the Parana to St. Fe Bajada, a town on the -opposite shore. The passage took some hours, as the river here -consisted of a labyrinth of small streams, separated by low wooded -islands. I had a letter of introduction to an old Catalonian Spaniard, -who treated me with the most uncommon hospitality. The Bajada is the -capital of Entre Rios. In 1825 the town contained 6000 inhabitants, -and the province 30,000; yet, few as the inhabitants are, no province -has suffered more from bloody and desperate revolutions. They boast -here of representatives, ministers, a standing army, and governors: so -it is no wonder that they have their revolutions. At some future day -this must be one of the richest countries of La Plata. The soil is -varied and productive; and its almost insular form gives it two grand -lines of communication by the rivers Parana and Uruguay. - - -I was delayed here five days, and employed myself in examining the -geology of the surrounding country, which was very interesting. We -here see at the bottom of the cliffs, beds containing sharks' teeth and -sea-shells of extinct species, passing above into an indurated marl, -and from that into the red clayey earth of the Pampas, with its -calcareous concretions and the bones of terrestrial quadrupeds. This -vertical section clearly tells us of a large bay of pure salt-water, -gradually encroached on, and at last converted into the bed of a muddy -estuary, into which floating carcasses were swept. At Punta Gorda, in -Banda Oriental, I found an alternation of the Pampaean estuary deposit, -with a limestone containing some of the same extinct sea-shells; and -this shows either a change in the former currents, or more probably an -oscillation of level in the bottom of the ancient estuary. Until -lately, my reasons for considering the Pampaean formation to be an -estuary deposit were, its general appearance, its position at the mouth -of the existing great river the Plata, and the presence of so many -bones of terrestrial quadrupeds: but now Professor Ehrenberg has had -the kindness to examine for me a little of the red earth, taken from -low down in the deposit, close to the skeletons of the mastodon, and he -finds in it many infusoria, partly salt-water and partly fresh-water -forms, with the latter rather preponderating; and therefore, as he -remarks, the water must have been brackish. M. A. d'Orbigny found on -the banks of the Parana, at the height of a hundred feet, great beds of -an estuary shell, now living a hundred miles lower down nearer the sea; -and I found similar shells at a less height on the banks of the -Uruguay; this shows that just before the Pampas was slowly elevated -into dry land, the water covering it was brackish. Below Buenos Ayres -there are upraised beds of sea-shells of existing species, which also -proves that the period of elevation of the Pampas was within the recent -period. - -In the Pampaean deposit at the Bajada I found the osseous armour of a -gigantic armadillo-like animal, the inside of which, when the earth was -removed, was like a great cauldron; I found also teeth of the Toxodon -and Mastodon, and one tooth of a Horse, in the same stained and decayed -state. This latter tooth greatly interested me, [3] and I took -scrupulous care in ascertaining that it had been embedded -contemporaneously with the other remains; for I was not then aware that -amongst the fossils from Bahia Blanca there was a horse's tooth hidden -in the matrix: nor was it then known with certainty that the remains of -horses are common in North America. Mr. Lyell has lately brought from -the United States a tooth of a horse; and it is an interesting fact, -that Professor Owen could find in no species, either fossil or recent, -a slight but peculiar curvature characterizing it, until he thought of -comparing it with my specimen found here: he has named this American -horse Equus curvidens. Certainly it is a marvellous fact in the -history of the Mammalia, that in South America a native horse should -have lived and disappeared, to be succeeded in after-ages by the -countless herds descended from the few introduced with the Spanish -colonists! - -The existence in South America of a fossil horse, of the mastodon, -possibly of an elephant, [4] and of a hollow-horned ruminant, -discovered by MM. Lund and Clausen in the caves of Brazil, are highly -interesting facts with respect to the geographical distribution of -animals. At the present time, if we divide America, not by the Isthmus -of Panama, but by the southern part of Mexico [5] in lat. 20 degs., -where the great table-land presents an obstacle to the migration of -species, by affecting the climate, and by forming, with the exception -of some valleys and of a fringe of low land on the coast, a broad -barrier; we shall then have the two zoological provinces of North and -South America strongly contrasted with each other. Some few species -alone have passed the barrier, and may be considered as wanderers from -the south, such as the puma, opossum, kinkajou, and peccari. South -America is characterized by possessing many peculiar gnawers, a family -of monkeys, the llama, peccari, tapir, opossums, and, especially, -several genera of Edentata, the order which includes the sloths, -ant-eaters, and armadilloes. North America, on the other hand, is -characterized (putting on one side a few wandering species) by numerous -peculiar gnawers, and by four genera (the ox, sheep, goat, and -antelope) of hollow-horned ruminants, of which great division South -America is not known to possess a single species. Formerly, but within -the period when most of the now existing shells were living, North -America possessed, besides hollow-horned ruminants, the elephant, -mastodon, horse, and three genera of Edentata, namely, the Megatherium, -Megalonyx, and Mylodon. Within nearly this same period (as proved by -the shells at Bahia Blanca) South America possessed, as we have just -seen, a mastodon, horse, hollow-horned ruminant, and the same three -genera (as well as several others) of the Edentata. Hence it is -evident that North and South America, in having within a late -geological period these several genera in common, were much more -closely related in the character of their terrestrial inhabitants than -they now are. The more I reflect on this case, the more interesting it -appears: I know of no other instance where we can almost mark the -period and manner of the splitting up of one great region into two -well-characterized zoological provinces. The geologist, who is fully -impressed with the vast oscillations of level which have affected the -earth's crust within late periods, will not fear to speculate on the -recent elevation of the Mexican platform, or, more probably, on the -recent submergence of land in the West Indian Archipelago, as the cause -of the present zoological separation of North and South America. The -South American character of the West Indian mammals [6] seems to -indicate that this archipelago was formerly united to the southern -continent, and that it has subsequently been an area of subsidence. - -When America, and especially North America, possessed its elephants, -mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned ruminants, it was much more closely -related in its zoological characters to the temperate parts of Europe -and Asia than it now is. As the remains of these genera are found on -both sides of Behring's Straits [7] and on the plains of Siberia, we -are led to look to the north-western side of North America as the -former point of communication between the Old and so-called New World. -And as so many species, both living and extinct, of these same genera -inhabit and have inhabited the Old World, it seems most probable that -the North American elephants, mastodons, horse, and hollow-horned -ruminants migrated, on land since submerged near Behring's Straits, -from Siberia into North America, and thence, on land since submerged in -the West Indies, into South America, where for a time they mingled with -the forms characteristic of that southern continent, and have since -become extinct. - - -While travelling through the country, I received several vivid -descriptions of the effects of a late great drought; and the account of -this may throw some light on the cases where vast numbers of animals of -all kinds have been embedded together. The period included between the -years 1827 and 1830 is called the "gran seco," or the great drought. -During this time so little rain fell, that the vegetation, even to the -thistles, failed; the brooks were dried up, and the whole country -assumed the appearance of a dusty high road. This was especially the -case in the northern part of the province of Buenos Ayres and the -southern part of St. Fe. Very great numbers of birds, wild animals, -cattle, and horses perished from the want of food and water. A man -told me that the deer [8] used to come into his courtyard to the well, -which he had been obliged to dig to supply his own family with water; -and that the partridges had hardly strength to fly away when pursued. -The lowest estimation of the loss of cattle in the province of Buenos -Ayres alone, was taken at one million head. A proprietor at San Pedro -had previously to these years 20,000 cattle; at the end not one -remained. San Pedro is situated in the middle of the finest country; -and even now abounds again with animals; yet during the latter part of -the "gran seco," live cattle were brought in vessels for the -consumption of the inhabitants. The animals roamed from their -estancias, and, wandering far southward, were mingled together in such -multitudes, that a government commission was sent from Buenos Ayres to -settle the disputes of the owners. Sir Woodbine Parish informed me of -another and very curious source of dispute; the ground being so long -dry, such quantities of dust were blown about, that in this open -country the landmarks became obliterated, and people could not tell the -limits of their estates. - -I was informed by an eye-witness that the cattle in herds of thousands -rushed into the Parana, and being exhausted by hunger they were unable -to crawl up the muddy banks, and thus were drowned. The arm of the -river which runs by San Pedro was so full of putrid carcasses, that the -master of a vessel told me that the smell rendered it quite impassable. -Without doubt several hundred thousand animals thus perished in the -river: their bodies when putrid were seen floating down the stream; and -many in all probability were deposited in the estuary of the Plata. All -the small rivers became highly saline, and this caused the death of -vast numbers in particular spots; for when an animal drinks of such -water it does not recover. Azara describes [9] the fury of the wild -horses on a similar occasion, rushing into the marshes, those which -arrived first being overwhelmed and crushed by those which followed. He -adds that more than once he has seen the carcasses of upwards of a -thousand wild horses thus destroyed. I noticed that the smaller -streams in the Pampas were paved with a breccia of bones but this -probably is the effect of a gradual increase, rather than of the -destruction at any one period. Subsequently to the drought of 1827 to -1832, a very rainy season followed which caused great floods. Hence it -is almost certain that some thousands of the skeletons were buried by -the deposits of the very next year. What would be the opinion of a -geologist, viewing such an enormous collection of bones, of all kinds -of animals and of all ages, thus embedded in one thick earthy mass? -Would he not attribute it to a flood having swept over the surface of -the land, rather than to the common order of things? [10] - -October 12th.--I had intended to push my excursion further, but not -being quite well, I was compelled to return by a balandra, or -one-masted vessel of about a hundred tons' burden, which was bound to -Buenos Ayres. As the weather was not fair, we moored early in the day -to a branch of a tree on one of the islands. The Parana is full of -islands, which undergo a constant round of decay and renovation. In the -memory of the master several large ones had disappeared, and others -again had been formed and protected by vegetation. They are composed -of muddy sand, without even the smallest pebble, and were then about -four feet above the level of the river; but during the periodical -floods they are inundated. They all present one character; numerous -willows and a few other trees are bound together by a great variety of -creeping plants, thus forming a thick jungle. These thickets afford a -retreat for capybaras and jaguars. The fear of the latter animal quite -destroyed all pleasure in scrambling through the woods. This evening I -had not proceeded a hundred yards, before finding indubitable signs of -the recent presence of the tiger, I was obliged to come back. On every -island there were tracks; and as on the former excursion "el rastro de -los Indios" had been the subject of conversation, so in this was "el -rastro del tigre." The wooded banks of the great rivers appear to be -the favourite haunts of the jaguar; but south of the Plata, I was told -that they frequented the reeds bordering lakes: wherever they are, they -seem to require water. Their common prey is the capybara, so that it -is generally said, where capybaras are numerous there is little danger -from the jaguar. Falconer states that near the southern side of the -mouth of the Plata there are many jaguars, and that they chiefly live -on fish; this account I have heard repeated. On the Parana they have -killed many wood-cutters, and have even entered vessels at night. There -is a man now living in the Bajada, who, coming up from below when it -was dark, was seized on the deck; he escaped, however, with the loss of -the use of one arm. When the floods drive these animals from the -islands, they are most dangerous. I was told that a few years since a -very large one found its way into a church at St. Fe: two padres -entering one after the other were killed, and a third, who came to see -what was the matter, escaped with difficulty. The beast was destroyed -by being shot from a corner of the building which was unroofed. They -commit also at these times great ravages among cattle and horses. It -is said that they kill their prey by breaking their necks. If driven -from the carcass, they seldom return to it. The Gauchos say that the -jaguar, when wandering about at night, is much tormented by the foxes -yelping as they follow him. This is a curious coincidence with the -fact which is generally affirmed of the jackals accompanying, in a -similarly officious manner, the East Indian tiger. The jaguar is a -noisy animal, roaring much by night, and especially before bad weather. - -One day, when hunting on the banks of the Uruguay, I was shown certain -trees, to which these animals constantly recur for the purpose, as it -is said, of sharpening their claws. I saw three well-known trees; in -front, the bark was worn smooth, as if by the breast of the animal, and -on each side there were deep scratches, or rather grooves, extending in -an oblique line, nearly a yard in length. The scars were of different -ages. A common method of ascertaining whether a jaguar is in the -neighbourhood is to examine these trees. I imagine this habit of the -jaguar is exactly similar to one which may any day be seen in the -common cat, as with outstretched legs and exserted claws it scrapes the -leg of a chair; and I have heard of young fruit-trees in an orchard in -England having been thus much injured. Some such habit must also be -common to the puma, for on the bare hard soil of Patagonia I have -frequently seen scores so deep that no other animal could have made -them. The object of this practice is, I believe, to tear off the -ragged points of their claws, and not, as the Gauchos think, to sharpen -them. The jaguar is killed, without much difficulty, by the aid of -dogs baying and driving him up a tree, where he is despatched with -bullets. - -Owing to bad weather we remained two days at our moorings. Our only -amusement was catching fish for our dinner: there were several kinds, -and all good eating. A fish called the "armado" (a Silurus) is -remarkable from a harsh grating noise which it makes when caught by -hook and line, and which can be distinctly heard when the fish is -beneath the water. This same fish has the power of firmly catching -hold of any object, such as the blade of an oar or the fishing-line, -with the strong spine both of its pectoral and dorsal fin. In the -evening the weather was quite tropical, the thermometer standing at 79 -degs. Numbers of fireflies were hovering about, and the musquitoes -were very troublesome. I exposed my hand for five minutes, and it was -soon black with them; I do not suppose there could have been less than -fifty, all busy sucking. - -October 15th.--We got under way and passed Punta Gorda, where there is -a colony of tame Indians from the province of Missiones. We sailed -rapidly down the current, but before sunset, from a silly fear of bad -weather, we brought-to in a narrow arm of the river. I took the boat -and rowed some distance up this creek. It was very narrow, winding, -and deep; on each side a wall thirty or forty feet high, formed by -trees intwined with creepers, gave to the canal a singularly gloomy -appearance. I here saw a very extraordinary bird, called the -Scissor-beak (Rhynchops nigra). It has short legs, web feet, extremely -long-pointed wings, and is of about the size of a tern. The beak is -flattened laterally, that is, in a plane at right angles to that of a -spoonbill or duck. It is as flat and elastic as an ivory paper-cutter, -and the lower mandible, differing from every other bird, is an inch and -a half longer than the upper. In a lake near Maldonado, from which the -water had been nearly drained, and which, in consequence, swarmed with -small fry, I saw several of these birds, generally in small flocks, -flying rapidly backwards and forwards close to the surface of the lake. -They kept their bills wide open, and the lower mandible half buried in -the water. Thus skimming the surface, they ploughed it in their -course: the water was quite smooth, and it formed a most curious -spectacle to behold a flock, each bird leaving its narrow wake on the -mirror-like surface. In their flight they frequently twist about with -extreme quickness, and dexterously manage with their projecting lower -mandible to plough up small fish, which are secured by the upper and -shorter half of their scissor-like - -[picture] - -bills. This fact I repeatedly saw, as, like swallows, they continued -to fly backwards and forwards close before me. Occasionally when -leaving the surface of the water their flight was wild, irregular, and -rapid; they then uttered loud harsh cries. When these birds are -fishing, the advantage of the long primary feathers of their wings, in -keeping them dry, is very evident. When thus employed, their forms -resemble the symbol by which many artists represent marine birds. Their -tails are much used in steering their irregular course. - -These birds are common far inland along the course of the Rio Parana; -it is said that they remain here during the whole year, and breed in -the marshes. During the day they rest in flocks on the grassy plains -at some distance from the water. Being at anchor, as I have said, in -one of the deep creeks between the islands of the Parana, as the -evening drew to a close, one of these scissor-beaks suddenly appeared. -The water was quite still, and many little fish were rising. The bird -continued for a long time to skim the surface, flying in its wild and -irregular manner up and down the narrow canal, now dark with the -growing night and the shadows of the overhanging trees. At Monte -Video, I observed that some large flocks during the day remained on the -mud-banks at the head of the harbour, in the same manner as on the -grassy plains near the Parana; and every evening they took flight -seaward. From these facts I suspect that the Rhynchops generally -fishes by night, at which time many of the lower animals come most -abundantly to the surface. M. Lesson states that he has seen these -birds opening the shells of the mactrae buried in the sand-banks on the -coast of Chile: from their weak bills, with the lower mandible so much -projecting, their short legs and long wings, it is very improbable that -this can be a general habit. - -In our course down the Parana, I observed only three other birds, whose -habits are worth mentioning. One is a small kingfisher (Ceryle -Americana); it has a longer tail than the European species, and hence -does not sit in so stiff and upright a position. Its flight also, -instead of being direct and rapid, like the course of an arrow, is weak -and undulatory, as among the soft-billed birds. It utters a low note, -like the clicking together of two small stones. A small green parrot -(Conurus murinus), with a grey breast, appears to prefer the tall trees -on the islands to any other situation for its building-place. A number -of nests are placed so close together as to form one great mass of -sticks. These parrots always live in flocks, and commit great ravages -on the corn-fields. I was told, that near Colonia 2500 were killed in -the course of one year. A bird with a forked tail, terminated by two -long feathers (Tyrannus savana), and named by the Spaniards -scissor-tail, is very common near Buenos Ayres: it commonly sits on a -branch of the _ombu_ tree, near a house, and thence takes a short -flight in pursuit of insects, and returns to the same spot. When on -the wing it presents in its manner of flight and general appearance a -caricature-likeness of the common swallow. It has the power of turning -very shortly in the air, and in so doing opens and shuts its tail, -sometimes in a horizontal or lateral and sometimes in a vertical -direction, just like a pair of scissors. - -October 16th.--Some leagues below Rozario, the western shore of the -Parana is bounded by perpendicular cliffs, which extend in a long line -to below San Nicolas; hence it more resembles a sea-coast than that of -a fresh-water river. It is a great drawback to the scenery of the -Parana, that, from the soft nature of its banks, the water is very -muddy. The Uruguay, flowing through a granitic country, is much -clearer; and where the two channels unite at the head of the Plata, the -waters may for a long distance be distinguished by their black and red -colours. In the evening, the wind being not quite fair, as usual we -immediately moored, and the next day, as it blew rather freshly, though -with a favouring current, the master was much too indolent to think of -starting. At Bajada, he was described to me as "hombre muy aflicto"--a -man always miserable to get on; but certainly he bore all delays with -admirable resignation. He was an old Spaniard, and had been many years -in this country. He professed a great liking to the English, but -stoutly maintained that the battle of Trafalgar was merely won by the -Spanish captains having been all bought over; and that the only really -gallant action on either side was performed by the Spanish admiral. It -struck me as rather characteristic, that this man should prefer his -countrymen being thought the worst of traitors, rather than unskilful -or cowardly. - -18th and 19th.--We continued slowly to sail down the noble stream: the -current helped us but little. We met, during our descent, very few -vessels. One of the best gifts of nature, in so grand a channel of -communication, seems here wilfully thrown away--a river in which ships -might navigate from a temperate country, as surprisingly abundant in -certain productions as destitute of others, to another possessing a -tropical climate, and a soil which, according to the best of judges, M. -Bonpland, is perhaps unequalled in fertility in any part of the world. -How different would have been the aspect of this river if English -colonists had by good fortune first sailed up the Plata! What noble -towns would now have occupied its shores! Till the death of Francia, -the Dictator of Paraguay, these two countries must remain distinct, as -if placed on opposite sides of the globe. And when the old -bloody-minded tyrant is gone to his long account, Paraguay will be torn -by revolutions, violent in proportion to the previous unnatural calm. -That country will have to learn, like every other South American state, -that a republic cannot succeed till it contains a certain body of men -imbued with the principles of justice and honour. - -October 20th.--Being arrived at the mouth of the Parana, and as I was -very anxious to reach Buenos Ayres, I went on shore at Las Conchas, -with the intention of riding there. Upon landing, I found to my great -surprise that I was to a certain degree a prisoner. A violent -revolution having broken out, all the ports were laid under an embargo. -I could not return to my vessel, and as for going by land to the city, -it was out of the question. After a long conversation with the -commandant, I obtained permission to go the next day to General Rolor, -who commanded a division of the rebels on this side the capital. In -the morning I rode to the encampment. The general, officers, and -soldiers, all appeared, and I believe really were, great villains. The -general, the very evening before he left the city, voluntarily went to -the Governor, and with his hand to his heart, pledged his word of -honour that he at least would remain faithful to the last. The general -told me that the city was in a state of close blockade, and that all he -could do was to give me a passport to the commander-in-chief of the -rebels at Quilmes. We had therefore to take a great sweep round the -city, and it was with much difficulty that we procured horses. My -reception at the encampment was quite civil, but I was told it was -impossible that I could be allowed to enter the city. I was very -anxious about this, as I anticipated the Beagle's departure from the -Rio Plata earlier than it took place. Having mentioned, however, -General Rosas's obliging kindness to me when at the Colorado, magic -itself could not have altered circumstances quicker than did this -conversation. I was instantly told that though they could not give me -a passport, if I chose to leave my guide and horses, I might pass their -sentinels. I was too glad to accept of this, and an officer was sent -with me to give directions that I should not be stopped at the bridge. -The road for the space of a league was quite deserted. I met one party -of soldiers, who were satisfied by gravely looking at an old passport: -and at length I was not a little pleased to find myself within the city. - -This revolution was supported by scarcely any pretext of grievances: -but in a state which, in the course of nine months (from February to -October, 1820), underwent fifteen changes in its government--each -governor, according to the constitution, being elected for three -years--it would be very unreasonable to ask for pretexts. In this -case, a party of men--who, being attached to Rosas, were disgusted with -the governor Balcarce--to the number of seventy left the city, and with -the cry of Rosas the whole country took arms. The city was then -blockaded, no provisions, cattle or horses, were allowed to enter; -besides this, there was only a little skirmishing, and a few men daily -killed. The outside party well knew that by stopping the supply of -meat they would certainly be victorious. General Rosas could not have -known of this rising; but it appears to be quite consonant with the -plans of his party. A year ago he was elected governor, but he refused -it, unless the Sala would also confer on him extraordinary powers. This -was refused, and since then his party have shown that no other governor -can keep his place. The warfare on both sides was avowedly protracted -till it was possible to hear from Rosas. A note arrived a few days -after I left Buenos Ayres, which stated that the General disapproved of -peace having been broken, but that he thought the outside party had -justice on their side. On the bare reception of this, the Governor, -ministers, and part of the military, to the number of some hundreds, -fled from the city. The rebels entered, elected a new governor, and -were paid for their services to the number of 5500 men. From these -proceedings, it was clear that Rosas ultimately would become the -dictator: to the term king, the people in this, as in other republics, -have a particular dislike. Since leaving South America, we have heard -that Rosas has been elected, with powers and for a time altogether -opposed to the constitutional principles of the republic. - -[1] The bizcacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus) somewhat resembles a large -rabbit, but with bigger gnawing teeth and a long tail; it has, however, -only three toes behind, like the agouti. During the last three or four -years the skins of these animals have been sent to England for the sake -of the fur. - -[2] Journal of Asiatic Soc., vol. v. p. 363. - -[3] I need hardly state here that there is good evidence against any -horse living in America at the time of Columbus. - -[4] Cuvier. Ossemens Fossils, tom. i. p. 158. - -[5] This is the geographical division followed by Lichtenstein, -Swainson, Erichson, and Richardson. The section from Vera Cruz to -Acapulco, given by Humboldt in the Polit. Essay on Kingdom of N. Spain -will show how immense a barrier the Mexican table-land forms. Dr. -Richardson, in his admirable Report on the Zoology of N. America read -before the Brit. Assoc. 1836 (p. 157), talking of the identification of -a Mexican animal with the Synetheres prehensilis, says, "We do not know -with what propriety, but if correct, it is, if not a solitary instance, -at least very nearly so, of a rodent animal being common to North and -South America." - -[6] See Dr. Richardson's Report, p. 157; also L'Institut, 1837, p. 253. -Cuvier says the kinkajou is found in the larger Antilles, but this is -doubtful. M. Gervais states that the Didelphis crancrivora is found -there. It is certain that the West Indies possess some mammifers -peculiar to themselves. A tooth of a mastadon has been brought from -Bahama; Edin. New Phil. Journ., 1826, p. 395. - -[7] See the admirable Appendix by Dr. Buckland to Beechey's Voyage; -also the writings of Chamisso in Kotzebue's Voyage. - -[8] In Captain Owen's Surveying Voyage (vol. ii. p. 274) there is a -curious account of the effects of a drought on the elephants, at -Benguela (west coast of Africa). "A number of these animals had some -time since entered the town, in a body, to possess themselves of the -wells, not being able to procure any water in the country. The -inhabitants mustered, when a desperate conflict ensued, which -terminated in the ultimate discomfiture of the invaders, but not until -they had killed one man, and wounded several others." The town is said -to have a population of nearly three thousand! Dr. Malcolmson informs -me that, during a great drought in India, the wild animals entered the -tents of some troops at Ellore, and that a hare drank out of a vessel -held by the adjutant of the regiment. - -[9] Travels, vol. i. p. 374. - -[10] These droughts to a certain degree seem to be almost periodical; I -was told the dates of several others, and the intervals were about -fifteen years. - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -BANDA ORIENTAL AND PATAGONIA - -Excursion to Colonia del Sacramiento--Value of an Estancia--Cattle, how -counted--Singular Breed of Oxen--Perforated Pebbles--Shepherd -Dogs--Horses broken-in, Gauchos riding--Character of Inhabitants--Rio -Plata--Flocks of Butterflies--Aeronaut Spiders--Phosphorescence of the -Sea--Port Desire--Guanaco--Port St. Julian--Geology of -Patagonia--Fossil gigantic Animal--Types of Organization -constant--Change in the Zoology of America--Causes of Extinction. - - -HAVING been delayed for nearly a fortnight in the city, I was glad to -escape on board a packet bound for Monte Video. A town in a state of -blockade must always be a disagreeable place of residence; in this case -moreover there were constant apprehensions from robbers within. The -sentinels were the worst of all; for, from their office and from having -arms in their hands, they robbed with a degree of authority which other -men could not imitate. - -Our passage was a very long and tedious one. The Plata looks like a -noble estuary on the map; but is in truth a poor affair. A wide -expanse of muddy water has neither grandeur nor beauty. At one time of -the day, the two shores, both of which are extremely low, could just be -distinguished from the deck. On arriving at Monte Video I found that -the Beagle would not sail for some time, so I prepared for a short -excursion in this part of Banda Oriental. Everything which I have said -about the country near Maldonado is applicable to Monte Video; but the -land, with the one exception of the Green Mount 450 feet high, from -which it takes its name, is far more level. Very little of the -undulating grassy plain is enclosed; but near the town there are a few -hedge-banks, covered with agaves, cacti, and fennel. - -November 14th.--We left Monte Video in the afternoon. I intended to -proceed to Colonia del Sacramiento, situated on the northern bank of -the Plata and opposite to Buenos Ayres, and thence, following up the -Uruguay, to the village of Mercedes on the Rio Negro (one of the many -rivers of this name in South America), and from this point to return -direct to Monte Video. We slept at the house of my guide at Canelones. -In the morning we rose early, in the hopes of being able to ride a good -distance; but it was a vain attempt, for all the rivers were flooded. -We passed in boats the streams of Canelones, St. Lucia, and San Jose, -and thus lost much time. On a former excursion I crossed the Lucia -near its mouth, and I was surprised to observe how easily our horses, -although not used to swim, passed over a width of at least six hundred -yards. On mentioning this at Monte Video, I was told that a vessel -containing some mountebanks and their horses, being wrecked in the -Plata, one horse swam seven miles to the shore. In the course of the -day I was amused by the dexterity with which a Gaucho forced a restive -horse to swim a river. He stripped off his clothes, and jumping on its -back, rode into the water till it was out of its depth; then slipping -off over the crupper, he caught hold of the tail, and as often as the -horse turned round the man frightened it back by splashing water in its -face. As soon as the horse touched the bottom on the other side, the -man pulled himself on, and was firmly seated, bridle in hand, before -the horse gained the bank. A naked man on a naked horse is a fine -spectacle; I had no idea how well the two animals suited each other. -The tail of a horse is a very useful appendage; I have passed a river -in a boat with four people in it, which was ferried across in the same -way as the Gaucho. If a man and horse have to cross a broad river, the -best plan is for the man to catch hold of the pommel or mane, and help -himself with the other arm. - -We slept and stayed the following day at the post of Cufre. In the -evening the postman or letter-carrier arrived. He was a day after his -time, owing to the Rio Rozario being flooded. It would not, however, -be of much consequence; for, although he had passed through some of the -principal towns in Banda Oriental, his luggage consisted of two -letters! The view from the house was pleasing; an undulating green -surface, with distant glimpses of the Plata. I find that I look at -this province with very different eyes from what I did upon my first -arrival. I recollect I then thought it singularly level; but now, -after galloping over the Pampas, my only surprise is, what could have -induced me ever to call it level. The country is a series of -undulations, in themselves perhaps not absolutely great, but, as -compared to the plains of St. Fe, real mountains. From these -inequalities there is an abundance of small rivulets, and the turf is -green and luxuriant. - -November 17th.--We crossed the Rozario, which was deep and rapid, and -passing the village of Colla, arrived at midday at Colonia del -Sacramiento. The distance is twenty leagues, through a country covered -with fine grass, but poorly stocked with cattle or inhabitants. I was -invited to sleep at Colonia, and to accompany on the following day a -gentleman to his estancia, where there were some limestone rocks. The -town is built on a stony promontory something in the same manner as at -Monte Video. It is strongly fortified, but both fortifications and -town suffered much in the Brazilian war. It is very ancient; and the -irregularity of the streets, and the surrounding groves of old orange -and peach trees, gave it a pretty appearance. The church is a curious -ruin; it was used as a powder-magazine, and was struck by lightning in -one of the ten thousand thunderstorms of the Rio Plata. Two-thirds of -the building were blown away to the very foundation; and the rest -stands a shattered and curious monument of the united powers of -lightning and gunpowder. In the evening I wandered about the -half-demolished walls of the town. It was the chief seat of the -Brazilian war;--a war most injurious to this country, not so much in -its immediate effects, as in being the origin of a multitude of -generals and all other grades of officers. More generals are numbered -(but not paid) in the United Provinces of La Plata than in the United -Kingdom of Great Britain. These gentlemen have learned to like power, -and do not object to a little skirmishing. Hence there are many always -on the watch to create disturbance and to overturn a government which -as yet has never rested on any staple foundation. I noticed, however, -both here and in other places, a very general interest in the ensuing -election for the President; and this appears a good sign for the -prosperity of this little country. The inhabitants do not require much -education in their representatives; I heard some men discussing the -merits of those for Colonia; and it was said that, "although they were -not men of business, they could all sign their names:" with this they -seemed to think every reasonable man ought to be satisfied. - -18th.--Rode with my host to his estancia, at the Arroyo de San Juan. In -the evening we took a ride round the estate: it contained two square -leagues and a half, and was situated in what is called a rincon; that -is, one side was fronted by the Plata, and the two others guarded by -impassable brooks. There was an excellent port for little vessels, and -an abundance of small wood, which is valuable as supplying fuel to -Buenos Ayres. I was curious to know the value of so complete an -estancia. Of cattle there were 3000, and it would well support three -or four times that number; of mares 800, together with 150 broken-in -horses, and 600 sheep. There was plenty of water and limestone, a -rough house, excellent corrals, and a peach orchard. For all this he -had been offered 2000 Pounds, and he only wanted 500 Pounds additional, -and probably would sell it for less. The chief trouble with an -estancia is driving the cattle twice a week to a central spot, in order -to make them tame, and to count them. This latter operation would be -thought difficult, where there are ten or fifteen thousand head -together. It is managed on the principle that the cattle invariably -divide themselves into little troops of from forty to one hundred. Each -troop is recognized by a few peculiarly marked animals, and its number -is known: so that, one being lost out of ten thousand, it is perceived -by its absence from one of the tropillas. During a stormy night the -cattle all mingle together; but the next morning the tropillas separate -as before; so that each animal must know its fellow out of ten thousand -others. - -On two occasions I met with in this province some oxen of a very -curious breed, called nata or niata. They appear externally to hold -nearly the same relation to other cattle, which bull or pug dogs do to -other dogs. Their forehead is very short and broad, with the nasal end -turned up, and the upper lip much drawn back; their lower jaws project -beyond the upper, and have a corresponding upward curve; hence their -teeth are always exposed. Their nostrils are seated high up and are -very open; their eyes project outwards. When walking they carry their -heads low, on a short neck; and their hinder legs are rather longer -compared with the front legs than is usual. Their bare teeth, their -short heads, and upturned nostrils give them the most ludicrous -self-confident air of defiance imaginable. - -Since my return, I have procured a skeleton head, through the kindness -of my friend Captain Sulivan, R. N., which is now deposited in the -College of Surgeons. [1] Don F. Muniz, of Luxan, has kindly collected -for me all the information which he could respecting this breed. From -his account it seems that about eighty or ninety years ago, they were -rare and kept as curiosities at Buenos Ayres. The breed is universally -believed to have originated amongst the Indians southward of the Plata; -and that it was with them the commonest kind. Even to this day, those -reared in the provinces near the Plata show their less civilized -origin, in being fiercer than common cattle, and in the cow easily -deserting her first calf, if visited too often or molested. It is a -singular fact that an almost similar structure to the abnormal [2] one -of the niata breed, characterizes, as I am informed by Dr. Falconer, -that great extinct ruminant of India, the Sivatherium. The breed is -very _true_; and a niata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves. -A niata bull with a common cow, or the reverse cross, produces -offspring having an intermediate character, but with the niata -characters strongly displayed: according to Senor Muniz, there is the -clearest evidence, contrary to the common belief of agriculturists in -analogous cases, that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull -transmits her peculiarities more strongly than the niata bull when -crossed with a common cow. When the pasture is tolerably long, the -niata cattle feed with the tongue and palate as well as common cattle; -but during the great droughts, when so many animals perish, the niata -breed is under a great disadvantage, and would be exterminated if not -attended to; for the common cattle, like horses, are able just to keep -alive, by browsing with their lips on twigs of trees and reeds; this -the niatas cannot so well do, as their lips do not join, and hence they -are found to perish before the common cattle. This strikes me as a -good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the ordinary -habits of life, on what circumstances, occurring only at long -intervals, the rarity or extinction of a species may be determined. - -November 19th.--Passing the valley of Las Vacas, we slept at a house of -a North American, who worked a lime-kiln on the Arroyo de las Vivoras. -In the morning we rode to a protecting headland on the banks of the -river, called Punta Gorda. On the way we tried to find a jaguar. There -were plenty of fresh tracks, and we visited the trees, on which they -are said to sharpen their claws; but we did not succeed in disturbing -one. From this point the Rio Uruguay presented to our view a noble -volume of water. From the clearness and rapidity of the stream, its -appearance was far superior to that of its neighbour the Parana. On -the opposite coast, several branches from the latter river entered the -Uruguay. As the sun was shining, the two colours of the waters could -be seen quite distinct. - -In the evening we proceeded on our road towards Mercedes on the Rio -Negro. At night we asked permission to sleep at an estancia at which -we happened to arrive. It was a very large estate, being ten leagues -square, and the owner is one of the greatest landowners in the country. -His nephew had charge of it, and with him there was a captain in the -army, who the other day ran away from Buenos Ayres. Considering their -station, their conversation was rather amusing. They expressed, as was -usual, unbounded astonishment at the globe being round, and could -scarcely credit that a hole would, if deep enough, come out on the -other side. They had, however, heard of a country where there were six -months of light and six of darkness, and where the inhabitants were -very tall and thin! They were curious about the price and condition of -horses and cattle in England. Upon finding out we did not catch our -animals with the lazo, they cried out, "Ah, then, you use nothing but -the bolas:" the idea of an enclosed country was quite new to them. The -captain at last said, he had one question to ask me, which he should be -very much obliged if I would answer with all truth. I trembled to -think how deeply scientific it would be: it was, "Whether the ladies of -Buenos Ayres were not the handsomest in the world." I replied, like a -renegade, "Charmingly so." He added, "I have one other question: Do -ladies in any other part of the world wear such large combs?" I -solemnly assured him that they did not. They were absolutely -delighted. The captain exclaimed, "Look there! a man who has seen half -the world says it is the case; we always thought so, but now we know -it." My excellent judgment in combs and beauty procured me a most -hospitable reception; the captain forced me to take his bed, and he -would sleep on his recado. - -21st.--Started at sunrise, and rode slowly during the whole day. The -geological nature of this part of the province was different from the -rest, and closely resembled that of the Pampas. In consequence, there -were immense beds of the thistle, as well as of the cardoon: the whole -country, indeed, may be called one great bed of these plants. The two -sorts grow separate, each plant in company with its own kind. The -cardoon is as high as a horse's back, but the Pampas thistle is often -higher than the crown of the rider's head. To leave the road for a -yard is out of the question; and the road itself is partly, and in some -cases entirely closed. Pasture, of course there is none; if cattle or -horses once enter the bed, they are for the time completely lost. Hence -it is very hazardous to attempt to drive cattle at this season of the -year; for when jaded enough to face the thistles, they rush among them, -and are seen no more. In these districts there are very few estancias, -and these few are situated in the neighbourhood of damp valleys, where -fortunately neither of these overwhelming plants can exist. As night -came on before we arrived at our journey's end, we slept at a miserable -little hovel inhabited by the poorest people. The extreme though -rather formal courtesy of our host and hostess, considering their grade -of life, was quite delightful. - -November 22nd.--Arrived at an estancia on the Berquelo belonging to a -very hospitable Englishman, to whom I had a letter of introduction from -my friend Mr. Lumb. I stayed here three days. One morning I rode with -my host to the Sierra del Pedro Flaco, about twenty miles up the Rio -Negro. Nearly the whole country was covered with good though coarse -grass, which was as high as a horse's belly; yet there were square -leagues without a single head of cattle. The province of Banda -Oriental, if well stocked, would support an astonishing number of -animals, at present the annual export of hides from Monte Video amounts -to three hundred thousand; and the home consumption, from waste, is -very considerable. An "estanciero" told me that he often had to send -large herds of cattle a long journey to a salting establishment, and -that the tired beasts were frequently obliged to be killed and skinned; -but that he could never persuade the Gauchos to eat of them, and every -evening a fresh beast was slaughtered for their suppers! The view of -the Rio Negro from the Sierra was more picturesque than any other which -I saw in this province. The river, broad, deep, and rapid, wound at -the foot of a rocky precipitous cliff: a belt of wood followed its -course, and the horizon terminated in the distant undulations of the -turf-plain. - -When in this neighbourhood, I several times heard of the Sierra de las -Cuentas: a hill distant many miles to the northward. The name -signifies hill of beads. I was assured that vast numbers of little -round stones, of various colours, each with a small cylindrical hole, -are found there. Formerly the Indians used to collect them, for the -purpose of making necklaces and bracelets--a taste, I may observe, -which is common to all savage nations, as well as to the most polished. -I did not know what to understand from this story, but upon mentioning -it at the Cape of Good Hope to Dr. Andrew Smith, he told me that he -recollected finding on the south-eastern coast of Africa, about one -hundred miles to the eastward of St. John's river, some quartz -crystals with their edges blunted from attrition, and mixed with gravel -on the sea-beach. Each crystal was about five lines in diameter, and -from an inch to an inch and a half in length. Many of them had a small -canal extending from one extremity to the other, perfectly cylindrical, -and of a size that readily admitted a coarse thread or a piece of fine -catgut. Their colour was red or dull white. The natives were -acquainted with this structure in crystals. I have mentioned these -circumstances because, although no crystallized body is at present -known to assume this form, it may lead some future traveller to -investigate the real nature of such stones. - - -While staying at this estancia, I was amused with what I saw and heard -of the shepherd-dogs of the country. [3] When riding, it is a common -thing to meet a large flock of sheep guarded by one or two dogs, at the -distance of some miles from any house or man. I often wondered how so -firm a friendship had been established. The method of education -consists in separating the puppy, while very young, from the bitch, and -in accustoming it to its future companions. An ewe is held three or -four times a day for the little thing to suck, and a nest of wool is -made for it in the sheep-pen; at no time is it allowed to associate -with other dogs, or with the children of the family. The puppy is, -moreover, generally castrated; so that, when grown up, it can scarcely -have any feelings in common with the rest of its kind. From this -education it has no wish to leave the flock, and just as another dog -will defend its master, man, so will these the sheep. It is amusing to -observe, when approaching a flock, how the dog immediately advances -barking, and the sheep all close in his rear, as if round the oldest -ram. These dogs are also easily taught to bring home the flock, at a -certain hour in the evening. Their most troublesome fault, when young, -is their desire of playing with the sheep; for in their sport they -sometimes gallop their poor subjects most unmercifully. - -The shepherd-dog comes to the house every day for some meat, and as -soon as it is given him, he skulks away as if ashamed of himself. On -these occasions the house-dogs are very tyrannical, and the least of -them will attack and pursue the stranger. The minute, however, the -latter has reached the flock, he turns round and begins to bark, and -then all the house-dogs take very quickly to their heels. In a similar -manner a whole pack of the hungry wild dogs will scarcely ever (and I -was told by some never) venture to attack a flock guarded by even one -of these faithful shepherds. The whole account appears to me a curious -instance of the pliability of the affections in the dog; and yet, -whether wild or however educated, he has a feeling of respect or fear -for those that are fulfilling their instinct of association. For we -can understand on no principle the wild dogs being driven away by the -single one with its flock, except that they consider, from some -confused notion, that the one thus associated gains power, as if in -company with its own kind. F. Cuvier has observed that all animals that -readily enter into domestication, consider man as a member of their own -society, and thus fulfil their instinct of association. In the above -case the shepherd-dog ranks the sheep as its fellow-brethren, and thus -gains confidence; and the wild dogs, though knowing that the individual -sheep are not dogs, but are good to eat, yet partly consent to this -view when seeing them in a flock with a shepherd-dog at their head. - -One evening a "domidor" (a subduer of horses) came for the purpose of -breaking-in some colts. I will describe the preparatory steps, for I -believe they have not been mentioned by other travellers. A troop of -wild young horses is driven into the corral, or large enclosure of -stakes, and the door is shut. We will suppose that one man alone has -to catch and mount a horse, which as yet had never felt bridle or -saddle. I conceive, except by a Gaucho, such a feat would be utterly -impracticable. The Gaucho picks out a full-grown colt; and as the -beast rushes round the circus he throws his lazo so as to catch both -the front legs. Instantly the horse rolls over with a heavy shock, and -whilst struggling on the ground, the Gaucho, holding the lazo tight, -makes a circle, so as to catch one of the hind legs just beneath the -fetlock, and draws it close to the two front legs: he then hitches the -lazo, so that the three are bound together. Then sitting on the -horse's neck, he fixes a strong bridle, without a bit, to the lower -jaw: this he does by passing a narrow thong through the eye-holes at -the end of the reins, and several times round both jaw and tongue. The -two front legs are now tied closely together with a strong leathern -thong, fastened by a slip-knot. The lazo, which bound the three -together, being then loosed, the horse rises with difficulty. The -Gaucho now holding fast the bridle fixed to the lower jaw, leads the -horse outside the corral. If a second man is present (otherwise the -trouble is much greater) he holds the animal's head, whilst the first -puts on the horsecloths and saddle, and girths the whole together. -During this operation, the horse, from dread and astonishment at thus -being bound round the waist, throws himself over and over again on the -ground, and, till beaten, is unwilling to rise. At last, when the -saddling is finished, the poor animal can hardly breathe from fear, and -is white with foam and sweat. The man now prepares to mount by -pressing heavily on the stirrup, so that the horse may not lose its -balance; and at the moment that he throws his leg over the animal's -back, he pulls the slip-knot binding the front legs, and the beast is -free. Some "domidors" pull the knot while the animal is lying on the -ground, and, standing over the saddle, allow him to rise beneath them. -The horse, wild with dread, gives a few most violent bounds, and then -starts off at full gallop: when quite exhausted, the man, by patience, -brings him back to the corral, where, reeking hot and scarcely alive, -the poor beast is let free. Those animals which will not gallop away, -but obstinately throw themselves on the ground, are by far the most -troublesome. This process is tremendously severe, but in two or three -trials the horse is tamed. It is not, however, for some weeks that the -animal is ridden with the iron bit and solid ring, for it must learn to -associate the will of its rider with the feel of the rein, before the -most powerful bridle can be of any service. - -Animals are so abundant in these countries, that humanity and -self-interest are not closely united; therefore I fear it is that the -former is here scarcely known. One day, riding in the Pampas with a -very respectable "estanciero," my horse, being tired, lagged behind. -The man often shouted to me to spur him. When I remonstrated that it -was a pity, for the horse was quite exhausted, he cried out, "Why -not?--never mind--spur him--it is my horse." I had then some difficulty -in making him comprehend that it was for the horse's sake, and not on -his account, that I did not choose to use my spurs. He exclaimed, with -a look of great surprise, "Ah, Don Carlos, que cosa!" It was clear that -such an idea had never before entered his head. - -The Gauchos are well known to be perfect riders. The idea of being -thrown, let the horse do what it likes; never enters their head. Their -criterion of a good rider is, a man who can manage an untamed colt, or -who, if his horse falls, alights on his own feet, or can perform other -such exploits. I have heard of a man betting that he would throw his -horse down twenty times, and that nineteen times he would not fall -himself. I recollect seeing a Gaucho riding a very stubborn horse, -which three times successively reared so high as to fall backwards with -great violence. The man judged with uncommon coolness the proper -moment for slipping off, not an instant before or after the right time; -and as soon as the horse got up, the man jumped on his back, and at -last they started at a gallop. The Gaucho never appears to exert any -muscular force. I was one day watching a good rider, as we were -galloping along at a rapid pace, and thought to myself, "Surely if the -horse starts, you appear so careless on your seat, you must fall." At -this moment, a male ostrich sprang from its nest right beneath the -horse's nose: the young colt bounded on one side like a stag; but as -for the man, all that could be said was, that he started and took -fright with his horse. - -In Chile and Peru more pains are taken with the mouth of the horse than -in La Plata, and this is evidently a consequence of the more intricate -nature of the country. In Chile a horse is not considered perfectly -broken, till he can be brought up standing, in the midst of his full -speed, on any particular spot,--for instance, on a cloak thrown on the -ground: or, again, he will charge a wall, and rearing, scrape the -surface with his hoofs. I have seen an animal bounding with spirit, -yet merely reined by a fore-finger and thumb, taken at full gallop -across a courtyard, and then made to wheel round the post of a veranda -with great speed, but at so equal a distance, that the rider, with -outstretched arm, all the while kept one finger rubbing the post. Then -making a demi-volte in the air, with the other arm outstretched in a -like manner, he wheeled round, with astonishing force, in an opposite -direction. - -Such a horse is well broken; and although this at first may appear -useless, it is far otherwise. It is only carrying that which is daily -necessary into perfection. When a bullock is checked and caught by the -lazo, it will sometimes gallop round and round in a circle, and the -horse being alarmed at the great strain, if not well broken, will not -readily turn like the pivot of a wheel. In consequence many men have -been killed; for if the lazo once takes a twist round a man's body, it -will instantly, from the power of the two opposed animals, almost cut -him in twain. On the same principle the races are managed; the course -is only two or three hundred yards long, the wish being to have horses -that can make a rapid dash. The race-horses are trained not only to -stand with their hoofs touching a line, but to draw all four feet -together, so as at the first spring to bring into play the full action -of the hind-quarters. In Chile I was told an anecdote, which I believe -was true; and it offers a good illustration of the use of a well-broken -animal. A respectable man riding one day met two others, one of whom -was mounted on a horse, which he knew to have been stolen from himself. -He challenged them; they answered him by drawing their sabres and -giving chase. The man, on his good and fleet beast, kept just ahead: -as he passed a thick bush he wheeled round it, and brought up his horse -to a dead check. The pursuers were obliged to shoot on one side and -ahead. Then instantly dashing on, right behind them, he buried his -knife in the back of one, wounded the other, recovered his horse from -the dying robber, and rode home. For these feats of horsemanship two -things are necessary: a most severe bit, like the Mameluke, the power -of which, though seldom used, the horse knows full well; and large -blunt spurs, that can be applied either as a mere touch, or as an -instrument of extreme pain. I conceive that with English spurs, the -slightest touch of which pricks the skin, it would be impossible to -break in a horse after the South American fashion. - -At an estancia near Las Vacas large numbers of mares are weekly -slaughtered for the sake of their hides, although worth only five paper -dollars, or about half a crown apiece. It seems at first strange that -it can answer to kill mares for such a trifle; but as it is thought -ridiculous in this country ever to break in or ride a mare, they are of -no value except for breeding. The only thing for which I ever saw -mares used, was to tread out wheat from the ear, for which purpose they -were driven round a circular enclosure, where the wheat-sheaves were -strewed. The man employed for slaughtering the mares happened to be -celebrated for his dexterity with the lazo. Standing at the distance -of twelve yards from the mouth of the corral, he has laid a wager that -he would catch by the legs every animal, without missing one, as it -rushed past him. There was another man who said he would enter the -corral on foot, catch a mare, fasten her front legs together, drive her -out, throw her down, kill, skin, and stake the hide for drying (which -latter is a tedious job); and he engaged that he would perform this -whole operation on twenty-two animals in one day. Or he would kill and -take the skin off fifty in the same time. This would have been a -prodigious task, for it is considered a good day's work to skin and -stake the hides of fifteen or sixteen animals. - -November 26th.--I set out on my return in a direct line for Monte -Video. Having heard of some giant's bones at a neighbouring farm-house -on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, I rode there -accompanied by my host, and purchased for the value of eighteen pence -the head of the Toxodon. [4] When found it was quite perfect; but the -boys knocked out some of the teeth with stones, and then set up the -head as a mark to throw at. By a most fortunate chance I found a -perfect tooth, which exactly fitted one of the sockets in this skull, -embedded by itself on the banks of the Rio Tercero, at the distance of -about 180 miles from this place. I found remains of this extraordinary -animal at two other places, so that it must formerly have been common. -I found here, also, some large portions of the armour of a gigantic -armadillo-like animal, and part of the great head of a Mylodon. The -bones of this head are so fresh, that they contain, according to the -analysis by Mr. T. Reeks, seven per cent of animal matter; and when -placed in a spirit-lamp, they burn with a small flame. The number of -the remains embedded in the grand estuary deposit which forms the -Pampas and covers the granitic rocks of Banda Oriental, must be -extraordinarily great. I believe a straight line drawn in any -direction through the Pampas would cut through some skeleton or bones. -Besides those which I found during my short excursions, I heard of many -others, and the origin of such names as "the stream of the animal," -"the hill of the giant," is obvious. At other times I heard of the -marvellous property of certain rivers, which had the power of changing -small bones into large; or, as some maintained, the bones themselves -grew. As far as I am aware, not one of these animals perished, as was -formerly supposed, in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the present -land, but their bones have been exposed by the streams intersecting the -subaqueous deposit in which they were originally embedded. We may -conclude that the whole area of the Pampas is one wide sepulchre of -these extinct gigantic quadrupeds. - -By the middle of the day, on the 28th, we arrived at Monte Video, -having been two days and a half on the road. The country for the whole -way was of a very uniform character, some parts being rather more rocky -and hilly than near the Plata. Not far from Monte Video we passed -through the village of Las Pietras, so named from some large rounded -masses of syenite. Its appearance was rather pretty. In this country -a few fig-trees round a group of houses, and a site elevated a hundred -feet above the general level, ought always to be called picturesque. - - -During the last six months I have had an opportunity of seeing a little -of the character of the inhabitants of these provinces. The Gauchos, -or countryrmen, are very superior to those who reside in the towns. The -Gaucho is invariably most obliging, polite, and hospitable: I did not -meet with even one instance of rudeness or inhospitality. He is -modest, both respecting himself and country, but at the same time a -spirited, bold fellow. On the other hand, many robberies are -committed, and there is much bloodshed: the habit of constantly wearing -the knife is the chief cause of the latter. It is lamentable to hear -how many lives are lost in trifling quarrels. In fighting, each party -tries to mark the face of his adversary by slashing his nose or eyes; -as is often attested by deep and horrid-looking scars. Robberies are a -natural consequence of universal gambling, much drinking, and extreme -indolence. At Mercedes I asked two men why they did not work. One -gravely said the days were too long; the other that he was too poor. -The number of horses and the profusion of food are the destruction of -all industry. Moreover, there are so many feast-days; and again, -nothing can succeed without it be begun when the moon is on the -increase; so that half the month is lost from these two causes. - -Police and justice are quite inefficient. If a man who is poor commits -murder and is taken, he will be imprisoned, and perhaps even shot; but -if he is rich and has friends, he may rely on it no very severe -consequence will ensue. It is curious that the most respectable -inhabitants of the country invariably assist a murderer to escape: they -seem to think that the individual sins against the government, and not -against the people. A traveller has no protection besides his -fire-arms; and the constant habit of carrying them is the main check to -more frequent robberies. The character of the higher and more educated -classes who reside in the towns, partakes, but perhaps in a lesser -degree, of the good parts of the Gaucho, but is, I fear, stained by -many vices of which he is free. Sensuality, mockery of all religion, -and the grossest corruption, are far from uncommon. Nearly every -public officer can be bribed. The head man in the post-office sold -forged government franks. The governor and prime minister openly -combined to plunder the state. Justice, where gold came into play, was -hardly expected by any one. I knew an Englishman, who went to the -Chief Justice (he told me, that not then understanding the ways of the -place, he trembled as he entered the room), and said, "Sir, I have come -to offer you two hundred (paper) dollars (value about five pounds -sterling) if you will arrest before a certain time a man who has -cheated me. I know it is against the law, but my lawyer (naming him) -recommended me to take this step." The Chief Justice smiled -acquiescence, thanked him, and the man before night was safe in prison. -With this entire want of principle in many of the leading men, with the -country full of ill-paid turbulent officers, the people yet hope that a -democratic form of government can succeed! - -On first entering society in these countries, two or three features -strike one as particularly remarkable. The polite and dignified -manners pervading every rank of life, the excellent taste displayed by -the women in their dresses, and the equality amongst all ranks. At the -Rio Colorado some men who kept the humblest shops used to dine with -General Rosas. A son of a major at Bahia Blanca gained his livelihood -by making paper cigars, and he wished to accompany me, as guide or -servant, to Buenos Ayres, but his father objected on the score of the -danger alone. Many officers in the army can neither read nor write, -yet all meet in society as equals. In Entre Rios, the Sala consisted -of only six representatives. One of them kept a common shop, and -evidently was not degraded by the office. All this is what would be -expected in a new country; nevertheless the absence of gentlemen by -profession appears to an Englishman something strange. - -When speaking of these countries, the manner in which they have been -brought up by their unnatural parent, Spain, should always be borne in -mind. On the whole, perhaps, more credit is due for what has been -done, than blame for that which may be deficient. It is impossible to -doubt but that the extreme liberalism of these countries must -ultimately lead to good results. The very general toleration of -foreign religions, the regard paid to the means of education, the -freedom of the press, the facilities offered to all foreigners, and -especially, as I am bound to add, to every one professing the humblest -pretensions to science, should be recollected with gratitude by those -who have visited Spanish South America. - -December 6th.--The Beagle sailed from the Rio Plata, never again to -enter its muddy stream. Our course was directed to Port Desire, on the -coast of Patagonia. Before proceeding any further, I will here put -together a few observations made at sea. - -Several times when the ship has been some miles off the mouth of the -Plata, and at other times when off the shores of Northern Patagonia, we -have been surrounded by insects. One evening, when we were about ten -miles from the Bay of San Blas, vast numbers of butterflies, in bands -or flocks of countless myriads, extended as far as the eye could range. -Even by the aid of a telescope it was not possible to see a space free -from butterflies. The seamen cried out "it was snowing butterflies," -and such in fact was the appearance. More species than one were -present, but the main part belonged to a kind very similar to, but not -identical with, the common English Colias edusa. Some moths and -hymenoptera accompanied the butterflies; and a fine beetle (Calosoma) -flew on board. Other instances are known of this beetle having been -caught far out at sea; and this is the more remarkable, as the greater -number of the Carabidae seldom or never take wing. The day had been -fine and calm, and the one previous to it equally so, with light and -variable airs. Hence we cannot suppose that the insects were blown off -the land, but we must conclude that they voluntarily took flight. The -great bands of the Colias seem at first to afford an instance like -those on record of the migrations of another butterfly, Vanessa cardui; -[5] but the presence of other insects makes the case distinct, and even -less intelligible. Before sunset a strong breeze sprung up from the -north, and this must have caused tens of thousands of the butterflies -and other insects to have perished. - -On another occasion, when seventeen miles off Cape Corrientes, I had a -net overboard to catch pelagic animals. Upon drawing it up, to my -surprise, I found a considerable number of beetles in it, and although -in the open sea, they did not appear much injured by the salt water. I -lost some of the specimens, but those which I preserved belonged to the -genera Colymbetes, Hydroporus, Hydrobius (two species), Notaphus, -Cynucus, Adimonia, and Scarabaeus. At first I thought that these -insects had been blown from the shore; but upon reflecting that out of -the eight species four were aquatic, and two others partly so in their -habits, it appeared to me most probable that they were floated into the -sea by a small stream which drains a lake near Cape Corrientes. On any -supposition it is an interesting circumstance to find live insects -swimming in the open ocean seventeen miles from the nearest point of -land. There are several accounts of insects having been blown off the -Patagonian shore. Captain Cook observed it, as did more lately Captain -King of the Adventure. The cause probably is due to the want of -shelter, both of trees and hills, so that an insect on the wing with an -off-shore breeze, would be very apt to be blown out to sea. The most -remarkable instance I have known of an insect being caught far from the -land, was that of a large grasshopper (Acrydium), which flew on board, -when the Beagle was to windward of the Cape de Verd Islands, and when -the nearest point of land, not directly opposed to the trade-wind, was -Cape Blanco on the coast of Africa, 370 miles distant. [6] - -On several occasions, when the Beagle has been within the mouth of the -Plata, the rigging has been coated with the web of the Gossamer Spider. -One day (November 1st, 1832) I paid particular attention to this -subject. The weather had been fine and clear, and in the morning the -air was full of patches of the flocculent web, as on an autumnal day in -England. The ship was sixty miles distant from the land, in the -direction of a steady though light breeze. Vast numbers of a small -spider, about one-tenth of an inch in length, and of a dusky red -colour, were attached to the webs. There must have been, I should -suppose, some thousands on the ship. The little spider, when first -coming in contact with the rigging, was always seated on a single -thread, and not on the flocculent mass. This latter seems merely to be -produced by the entanglement of the single threads. The spiders were -all of one species, but of both sexes, together with young ones. These -latter were distinguished by their smaller size and more dusky colour. -I will not give the description of this spider, but merely state that -it does not appear to me to be included in any of Latreille's genera. -The little aeronaut as soon as it arrived on board was very active, -running about, sometimes letting itself fall, and then reascending the -same thread; sometimes employing itself in making a small and very -irregular mesh in the corners between the ropes. It could run with -facility on the surface of the water. When disturbed it lifted up its -front legs, in the attitude of attention. On its first arrival it -appeared very thirsty, and with exserted maxillae drank eagerly of -drops of water, this same circumstance has been observed by Strack: may -it not be in consequence of the little insect having passed through a -dry and rarefied atmosphere? Its stock of web seemed inexhaustible. -While watching some that were suspended by a single thread, I several -times observed that the slightest breath of air bore them away out of -sight, in a horizontal line. - -On another occasion (25th) under similar circumstances, I repeatedly -observed the same kind of small spider, either when placed or having -crawled on some little eminence, elevate its abdomen, send forth a -thread, and then sail away horizontally, but with a rapidity which was -quite unaccountable. I thought I could perceive that the spider, -before performing the above preparatory steps, connected its legs -together with the most delicate threads, but I am not sure whether this -observation was correct. - -One day, at St. Fe, I had a better opportunity of observing some -similar facts. A spider which was about three-tenths of an inch in -length, and which in its general appearance resembled a Citigrade -(therefore quite different from the gossamer), while standing on the -summit of a post, darted forth four or five threads from its spinners. -These, glittering in the sunshine, might be compared to diverging rays -of light; they were not, however, straight, but in undulations like -films of silk blown by the wind. They were more than a yard in length, -and diverged in an ascending direction from the orifices. The spider -then suddenly let go its hold of the post, and was quickly borne out of -sight. The day was hot and apparently calm; yet under such -circumstances, the atmosphere can never be so tranquil as not to affect -a vane so delicate as the thread of a spider's web. If during a warm -day we look either at the shadow of any object cast on a bank, or over -a level plain at a distant landmark, the effect of an ascending current -of heated air is almost always evident: such upward currents, it has -been remarked, are also shown by the ascent of soap-bubbles, which will -not rise in an in-doors room. Hence I think there is not much -difficulty in understanding the ascent of the fine lines projected from -a spider's spinners, and afterwards of the spider itself; the -divergence of the lines has been attempted to be explained, I believe -by Mr. Murray, by their similar electrical condition. The circumstance -of spiders of the same species, but of different sexes and ages, being -found on several occasions at the distance of many leagues from the -land, attached in vast numbers to the lines, renders it probable that -the habit of sailing through the air is as characteristic of this -tribe, as that of diving is of the Argyroneta. We may then reject -Latreille's supposition, that the gossamer owes its origin -indifferently to the young of several genera of spiders: although, as -we have seen, the young of other spiders do possess the power of -performing aerial voyages. [7] - -During our different passages south of the Plata, I often towed astern -a net made of bunting, and thus caught many curious animals. Of -Crustacea there were many strange and undescribed genera. One, which -in some respects is allied to the Notopods (or those crabs which have -their posterior legs placed almost on their backs, for the purpose of -adhering to the under side of rocks), is very remarkable from the -structure of its hind pair of legs. The penultimate joint, instead of -terminating in a simple claw, ends in three bristle-like appendages of -dissimilar lengths--the longest equalling that of the entire leg. These -claws are very thin, and are serrated with the finest teeth, directed -backwards: their curved extremities are flattened, and on this part -five most minute cups are placed which seem to act in the same manner -as the suckers on the arms of the cuttle-fish. As the animal lives in -the open sea, and probably wants a place of rest, I suppose this -beautiful and most anomalous structure is adapted to take hold of -floating marine animals. - -In deep water, far from the land, the number of living creatures is -extremely small: south of the latitude 35 degs., I never succeeded in -catching anything besides some beroe, and a few species of minute -entomostracous crustacea. In shoaler water, at the distance of a few -miles from the coast, very many kinds of crustacea and some other -animals are numerous, but only during the night. Between latitudes 56 -and 57 degs. south of Cape Horn, the net was put astern several times; -it never, however, brought up anything besides a few of two extremely -minute species of Entomostraca. Yet whales and seals, petrels and -albatross, are exceedingly abundant throughout this part of the ocean. -It has always been a mystery to me on what the albatross, which lives -far from the shore, can subsist; I presume that, like the condor, it is -able to fast long; and that one good feast on the carcass of a putrid -whale lasts for a long time. The central and intertropical parts of -the Atlantic swarm with Pteropoda, Crustacea, and Radiata, and with -their devourers the flying-fish, and again with their devourers the -bonitos and albicores; I presume that the numerous lower pelagic -animals feed on the Infusoria, which are now known, from the researches -of Ehrenberg, to abound in the open ocean: but on what, in the clear -blue water, do these Infusoria subsist? - -While sailing a little south of the Plata on one very dark night, the -sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful spectacle. There was a -fresh breeze, and every part of the surface, which during the day is -seen as foam, now glowed with a pale light. The vessel drove before -her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her wake she was -followed by a milky train. As far as the eye reached, the crest of -every wave was bright, and the sky above the horizon, from the -reflected glare of these livid flames, was not so utterly obscure as -over the vault of the heavens. - -As we proceed further southward the sea is seldom phosphorescent; and -off Cape Horn I do not recollect more than once having seen it so, and -then it was far from being brilliant. This circumstance probably has a -close connection with the scarcity of organic beings in that part of -the ocean. After the elaborate paper, [8] by Ehrenberg, on the -phosphorescence of the sea, it is almost superfluous on my part to make -any observations on the subject. I may however add, that the same torn -and irregular particles of gelatinous matter, described by Ehrenberg, -seem in the southern as well as in the northern hemisphere, to be the -common cause of this phenomenon. The particles were so minute as -easily to pass through fine gauze; yet many were distinctly visible by -the naked eye. The water when placed in a tumbler and agitated, gave -out sparks, but a small portion in a watch-glass scarcely ever was -luminous. Ehrenberg states that these particles all retain a certain -degree of irritability. My observations, some of which were made -directly after taking up the water, gave a different result. I may -also mention, that having used the net during one night, I allowed it -to become partially dry, and having occasion twelve hours afterwards to -employ it again, I found the whole surface sparkled as brightly as when -first taken out of the water. It does not appear probable in this case, -that the particles could have remained so long alive. On one occasion -having kept a jelly-fish of the genus Dianaea till it was dead, the -water in which it was placed became luminous. When the waves -scintillate with bright green sparks, I believe it is generally owing -to minute crustacea. But there can be no doubt that very many other -pelagic animals, when alive, are phosphorescent. - -On two occasions I have observed the sea luminous at considerable -depths beneath the surface. Near the mouth of the Plata some circular -and oval patches, from two to four yards in diameter, and with defined -outlines, shone with a steady but pale light; while the surrounding -water only gave out a few sparks. The appearance resembled the -reflection of the moon, or some luminous body; for the edges were -sinuous from the undulations of the surface. The ship, which drew -thirteen feet of water, passed over, without disturbing these patches. -Therefore we must suppose that some animals were congregated together -at a greater depth than the bottom of the vessel. - -Near Fernando Noronha the sea gave out light in flashes. The appearance -was very similar to that which might be expected from a large fish -moving rapidly through a luminous fluid. To this cause the sailors -attributed it; at the time, however, I entertained some doubts, on -account of the frequency and rapidity of the flashes. I have already -remarked that the phenomenon is very much more common in warm than in -cold countries; and I have sometimes imagined that a disturbed -electrical condition of the atmosphere was most favourable to its -production. Certainly I think the sea is most luminous after a few -days of more calm weather than ordinary, during which time it has -swarmed with various animals. Observing that the water charged with -gelatinous particles is in an impure state, and that the luminous -appearance in all common cases is produced by the agitation of the -fluid in contact with the atmosphere, I am inclined to consider that -the phosphorescence is the result of the decomposition of the organic -particles, by which process (one is tempted almost to call it a kind of -respiration) the ocean becomes purified. - -December 23rd.--We arrived at Port Desire, situated in lat. 47 degs., -on the coast of Patagonia. The creek runs for about twenty miles -inland, with an irregular width. The Beagle anchored a few miles -within the entrance, in front of the ruins of an old Spanish settlement. - -The same evening I went on shore. The first landing in any new country -is very interesting, and especially when, as in this case, the whole -aspect bears the stamp of a marked and individual character. At the -height of between two and three hundred feet above some masses of -porphyry a wide plain extends, which is truly characteristic of -Patagonia. The surface is quite level, and is composed of well-rounded -shingle mixed with a whitish earth. Here and there scattered tufts of -brown wiry grass are supported, and still more rarely, some low thorny -bushes. The weather is dry and pleasant, and the fine blue sky is but -seldom obscured. When standing in the middle of one of these desert -plains and looking towards the interior, the view is generally bounded -by the escarpment of another plain, rather higher, but equally level -and desolate; and in every other direction the horizon is indistinct -from the trembling mirage which seems to rise from the heated surface. - -In such a country the fate of the Spanish settlement was soon decided; -the dryness of the climate during the greater part of the year, and the -occasional hostile attacks of the wandering Indians, compelled the -colonists to desert their half-finished buildings. The style, however, -in which they were commenced shows the strong and liberal hand of Spain -in the old time. The result of all the attempts to colonize this side -of America south of 41 degs., has been miserable. Port Famine -expresses by its name the lingering and extreme sufferings of several -hundred wretched people, of whom one alone survived to relate their -misfortunes. At St. Joseph's Bay, on the coast of Patagonia, a small -settlement was made; but during one Sunday the Indians made an attack -and massacred the whole party, excepting two men, who remained captives -during many years. At the Rio Negro I conversed with one of these men, -now in extreme old age. - -The zoology of Patagonia is as limited as its flora. [9] On the arid -plains a few black beetles (Heteromera) might be seen slowly crawling -about, and occasionally a lizard darted from side to side. Of birds we -have three carrion hawks and in the valleys a few finches and -insect-feeders. An ibis (Theristicus melanops--a species said to be -found in central Africa) is not uncommon on the most desert parts: in -their stomachs I found grasshoppers, cicadae, small lizards, and even -scorpions. [10] At one time of the year these birds go in flocks, at -another in pairs, their cry is very loud and singular, like the -neighing of the guanaco. - -The guanaco, or wild llama, is the characteristic quadruped of the -plains of Patagonia; it is the South American representative of the -camel of the East. It is an elegant animal in a state of nature, with -a long slender neck and fine legs. It is very common over the whole of -the temperate parts of the continent, as far south as the islands near -Cape Horn. It generally lives in small herds of from half a dozen to -thirty in each; but on the banks of the St. Cruz we saw one herd which -must have contained at least five hundred. - -They are generally wild and extremely wary. Mr. Stokes told me, that -he one day saw through a glass a herd of these animals which evidently -had been frightened, and were running away at full speed, although -their distance was so great that he could not distinguish them with his -naked eye. The sportsman frequently receives the first notice of their -presence, by hearing from a long distance their peculiar shrill -neighing note of alarm. If he then looks attentively, he will probably -see the herd standing in a line on the side of some distant hill. On -approaching nearer, a few more squeals are given, and off they set at -an apparently slow, but really quick canter, along some narrow beaten -track to a neighbouring hill. If, however, by chance he abruptly meets -a single animal, or several together, they will generally stand -motionless and intently gaze at him; then perhaps move on a few yards, -turn round, and look again. What is the cause of this difference in -their shyness? Do they mistake a man in the distance for their chief -enemy the puma? Or does curiosity overcome their timidity? That they -are curious is certain; for if a person lies on the ground, and plays -strange antics, such as throwing up his feet in the air, they will -almost always approach by degrees to reconnoitre him. It was an -artifice that was repeatedly practised by our sportsmen with success, -and it had moreover the advantage of allowing several shots to be -fired, which were all taken as parts of the performance. On the -mountains of Tierra del Fuego, I have more than once seen a guanaco, on -being approached, not only neigh and squeal, but prance and leap about -in the most ridiculous manner, apparently in defiance as a challenge. -These animals are very easily domesticated, and I have seen some thus -kept in northern Patagonia near a house, though not under any -restraint. They are in this state very bold, and readily attack a man -by striking him from behind with both knees. It is asserted that the -motive for these attacks is jealousy on account of their females. The -wild guanacos, however, have no idea of defence; even a single dog will -secure one of these large animals, till the huntsman can come up. In -many of their habits they are like sheep in a flock. Thus when they see -men approaching in several directions on horseback, they soon become -bewildered, and know not which way to run. This greatly facilitates -the Indian method of hunting, for they are thus easily driven to a -central point, and are encompassed. - -The guanacos readily take to the water: several times at Port Valdes -they were seen swimming from island to island. Byron, in his voyage -says he saw them drinking salt water. Some of our officers likewise saw -a herd apparently drinking the briny fluid from a salina near Cape -Blanco. I imagine in several parts of the country, if they do not -drink salt water, they drink none at all. In the middle of the day -they frequently roll in the dust, in saucer-shaped hollows. The males -fight together; two one day passed quite close to me, squealing and -trying to bite each other; and several were shot with their hides -deeply scored. Herds sometimes appear to set out on exploring parties: -at Bahia Blanca, where, within thirty miles of the coast, these animals -are extremely unfrequent, I one day saw the tracks of thirty or forty, -which had come in a direct line to a muddy salt-water creek. They then -must have perceived that they were approaching the sea, for they had -wheeled with the regularity of cavalry, and had returned back in as -straight a line as they had advanced. The guanacos have one singular -habit, which is to me quite inexplicable; namely, that on successive -days they drop their dung in the same defined heap. I saw one of these -heaps which was eight feet in diameter, and was composed of a large -quantity. This habit, according to M. A. d'Orbigny, is common to all -the species of the genus; it is very useful to the Peruvian Indians, -who use the dung for fuel, and are thus saved the trouble of collecting -it. - -The guanacos appear to have favourite spots for lying down to die. On -the banks of the St. Cruz, in certain circumscribed spaces, which were -generally bushy and all near the river, the ground was actually white -with bones. On one such spot I counted between ten and twenty heads. I -particularly examined the bones; they did not appear, as some scattered -ones which I had seen, gnawed or broken, as if dragged together by -beasts of prey. The animals in most cases must have crawled, before -dying, beneath and amongst the bushes. Mr. Bynoe informs me that -during a former voyage he observed the same circumstance on the banks -of the Rio Gallegos. I do not at all understand the reason of this, -but I may observe, that the wounded guanacos at the St. Cruz invariably -walked towards the river. At St. Jago in the Cape de Verd Islands, I -remember having seen in a ravine a retired corner covered with bones of -the goat; we at the time exclaimed that it was the burial ground of all -the goats in the island. I mention these trifling circumstances, -because in certain cases they might explain the occurrence of a number -of uninjured bones in a cave, or buried under alluvial accumulations; -and likewise the cause why certain animals are more commonly embedded -than others in sedimentary deposits. - -One day the yawl was sent under the command of Mr. Chaffers with three -days' provisions to survey the upper part of the harbour. In the -morning we searched for some watering-places mentioned in an old -Spanish chart. We found one creek, at the head of which there was a -trickling rill (the first we had seen) of brackish water. Here the -tide compelled us to wait several hours; and in the interval I walked -some miles into the interior. The plain as usual consisted of gravel, -mingled with soil resembling chalk in appearance, but very different -from it in nature. From the softness of these materials it was worn -into many gulleys. There was not a tree, and, excepting the guanaco, -which stood on the hill-top a watchful sentinel over its herd, scarcely -an animal or a bird. All was stillness and desolation. Yet in passing -over these scenes, without one bright object near, an ill-defined but -strong sense of pleasure is vividly excited. One asked how many ages -the plain had thus lasted, and how many more it was doomed thus to -continue. - -"None can reply--all seems eternal now. The wilderness has a mysterious -tongue, Which teaches awful doubt." [11] - -In the evening we sailed a few miles further up, and then pitched the -tents for the night. By the middle of the next day the yawl was -aground, and from the shoalness of the water could not proceed any -higher. The water being found partly fresh, Mr. Chaffers took the -dingey and went up two or three miles further, where she also grounded, -but in a fresh-water river. The water was muddy, and though the stream -was most insignificant in size, it would be difficult to account for -its origin, except from the melting snow on the Cordillera. At the -spot where we bivouacked, we were surrounded by bold cliffs and steep -pinnacles of porphyry. I do not think I ever saw a spot which appeared -more secluded from the rest of the world, than this rocky crevice in -the wide plain. - -The second day after our return to the anchorage, a party of officers -and myself went to ransack an old Indian grave, which I had found on -the summit of a neighbouring hill. Two immense stones, each probably -weighing at least a couple of tons, had been placed in front of a ledge -of rock about six feet high. At the bottom of the grave on the hard -rock there was a layer of earth about a foot deep, which must have been -brought up from the plain below. Above it a pavement of flat stones -was placed, on which others were piled, so as to fill up the space -between the ledge and the two great blocks. To complete the grave, the -Indians had contrived to detach from the ledge a huge fragment, and to -throw it over the pile so as to rest on the two blocks. We undermined -the grave on both sides, but could not find any relics, or even bones. -The latter probably had decayed long since (in which case the grave -must have been of extreme antiquity), for I found in another place some -smaller heaps beneath which a very few crumbling fragments could yet be -distinguished as having belonged to a man. Falconer states, that where -an Indian dies he is buried, but that subsequently his bones are -carefully taken up and carried, let the distance be ever so great, to -be deposited near the sea-coast. This custom, I think, may be -accounted for by recollecting, that before the introduction of horses, -these Indians must have led nearly the same life as the Fuegians now -do, and therefore generally have resided in the neighbourhood of the -sea. The common prejudice of lying where one's ancestors have lain, -would make the now roaming Indians bring the less perishable part of -their dead to their ancient burial-ground on the coast. - -January 9th, 1834.--Before it was dark the Beagle anchored in the fine -spacious harbour of Port St. Julian, situated about one hundred and ten -miles to the south of Port Desire. We remained here eight days. The -country is nearly similar to that of Port Desire, but perhaps rather -more sterile. One day a party accompanied Captain Fitz Roy on a long -walk round the head of the harbour. We were eleven hours without -tasting any water, and some of the party were quite exhausted. From -the summit of a hill (since well named Thirsty Hill) a fine lake was -spied, and two of the party proceeded with concerted signals to show -whether it was fresh water. What was our disappointment to find a -snow-white expanse of salt, crystallized in great cubes! We attributed -our extreme thirst to the dryness of the atmosphere; but whatever the -cause might be, we were exceedingly glad late in the evening to get -back to the boats. Although we could nowhere find, during our whole -visit, a single drop of fresh water, yet some must exist; for by an odd -chance I found on the surface of the salt water, near the head of the -bay, a Colymbetes not quite dead, which must have lived in some not far -distant pool. Three other insects (a Cincindela, like hybrida, a -Cymindis, and a Harpalus, which all live on muddy flats occasionally -overflowed by the sea), and one other found dead on the plain, complete -the list of the beetles. A good-sized fly (Tabanus) was extremely -numerous, and tormented us by its painful bite. The common horsefly, -which is so troublesome in the shady lanes of England, belongs to this -same genus. We here have the puzzle that so frequently occurs in the -case of musquitoes--on the blood of what animals do these insects -commonly feed? The guanaco is nearly the only warm-blooded quadruped, -and it is found in quite inconsiderable numbers compared with the -multitude of flies. - -The geology of Patagonia is interesting. Differently from Europe, -where the tertiary formations appear to have accumulated in bays, here -along hundreds of miles of coast we have one great deposit, including -many tertiary shells, all apparently extinct. The most common shell is -a massive gigantic oyster, sometimes even a foot in diameter. These -beds are covered by others of a peculiar soft white stone, including -much gypsum, and resembling chalk, but really of a pumiceous nature. It -is highly remarkable, from being composed, to at least one-tenth of its -bulk, of Infusoria. Professor Ehrenberg has already ascertained in it -thirty oceanic forms. This bed extends for 500 miles along the coast, -and probably for a considerably greater distance. At Port St. Julian -its thickness is more than 800 feet! These white beds are everywhere -capped by a mass of gravel, forming probably one of the largest beds of -shingle in the world: it certainly extends from near the Rio Colorado -to between 600 and 700 nautical miles southward, at Santa Cruz (a river -a little south of St. Julian), it reaches to the foot of the -Cordillera; half way up the river, its thickness is more than 200 feet; -it probably everywhere extends to this great chain, whence the -well-rounded pebbles of porphyry have been derived: we may consider its -average breadth as 200 miles, and its average thickness as about 50 -feet. If this great bed of pebbles, without including the mud -necessarily derived from their attrition, was piled into a mound, it -would form a great mountain chain! When we consider that all these -pebbles, countless as the grains of sand in the desert, have been -derived from the slow falling of masses of rock on the old coast-lines -and banks of rivers, and that these fragments have been dashed into -smaller pieces, and that each of them has since been slowly rolled, -rounded, and far transported the mind is stupefied in thinking over the -long, absolutely necessary, lapse of years. Yet all this gravel has -been transported, and probably rounded, subsequently to the deposition -of the white beds, and long subsequently to the underlying beds with -the tertiary shells. - -Everything in this southern continent has been effected on a grand -scale: the land, from the Rio Plata to Tierra del Fuego, a distance of -1200 miles, has been raised in mass (and in Patagonia to a height of -between 300 and 400 feet), within the period of the now existing -sea-shells. The old and weathered shells left on the surface of the -upraised plain still partially retain their colours. The uprising -movement has been interrupted by at least eight long periods of rest, -during which the sea ate, deeply back into the land, forming at -successive levels the long lines of cliffs, or escarpments, which -separate the different plains as they rise like steps one behind the -other. The elevatory movement, and the eating-back power of the sea -during the periods of rest, have been equable over long lines of coast; -for I was astonished to find that the step-like plains stand at nearly -corresponding heights at far distant points. The lowest plain is 90 -feet high; and the highest, which I ascended near the coast, is 950 -feet; and of this, only relics are left in the form of flat -gravel-capped hills. The upper plain of Santa Cruz slopes up to a -height of 3000 feet at the foot of the Cordillera. I have said that -within the period of existing sea-shells, Patagonia has been upraised -300 to 400 feet: I may add, that within the period when icebergs -transported boulders over the upper plain of Santa Cruz, the elevation -has been at least 1500 feet. Nor has Patagonia been affected only by -upward movements: the extinct tertiary shells from Port St. Julian and -Santa Cruz cannot have lived, according to Professor E. Forbes, in a -greater depth of water than from 40 to 250 feet; but they are now -covered with sea-deposited strata from 800 to 1000 feet in thickness: -hence the bed of the sea, on which these shells once lived, must have -sunk downwards several hundred feet, to allow of the accumulation of -the superincumbent strata. What a history of geological changes does -the simply-constructed coast of Patagonia reveal! - -At Port St. Julian, [12] in some red mud capping the gravel on the -90-feet plain, I found half the skeleton of the Macrauchenia -Patachonica, a remarkable quadruped, full as large as a camel. It -belongs to the same division of the Pachydermata with the rhinoceros, -tapir, and palaeotherium; but in the structure of the bones of its long -neck it shows a clear relation to the camel, or rather to the guanaco -and llama. From recent sea-shells being found on two of the higher -step-formed plains, which must have been modelled and upraised before -the mud was deposited in which the Macrauchenia was entombed, it is -certain that this curious quadruped lived long after the sea was -inhabited by its present shells. I was at first much surprised how a -large quadruped could so lately have subsisted, in lat. 49 degs. 15', -on these wretched gravel plains, with their stunted vegetation; but the -relationship of the Macrauchenia to the Guanaco, now an inhabitant of -the most sterile parts, partly explains this difficulty. - -The relationship, though distant, between the Macrauchenia and the -Guanaco, between the Toxodon and the Capybara,--the closer relationship -between the many extinct Edentata and the living sloths, ant-eaters, -and armadillos, now so eminently characteristic of South American -zoology,--and the still closer relationship between the fossil and -living species of Ctenomys and Hydrochaerus, are most interesting -facts. This relationship is shown wonderfully--as wonderfully as -between the fossil and extinct Marsupial animals of Australia--by the -great collection lately brought to Europe from the caves of Brazil by -MM. Lund and Clausen. In this collection there are extinct species of -all the thirty-two genera, excepting four, of the terrestrial -quadrupeds now inhabiting the provinces in which the caves occur; and -the extinct species are much more numerous than those now living: there -are fossil ant-eaters, armadillos, tapirs, peccaries, guanacos, -opossums, and numerous South American gnawers and monkeys, and other -animals. This wonderful relationship in the same continent between the -dead and the living, will, I do not doubt, hereafter throw more light -on the appearance of organic beings on our earth, and their -disappearance from it, than any other class of facts. - -It is impossible to reflect on the changed state of the American -continent without the deepest astonishment. Formerly it must have -swarmed with great monsters: now we find mere pigmies, compared with -the antecedent, allied races. If Buffon had known of the gigantic -sloth and armadillo-like animals, and of the lost Pachydermata, he -might have said with a greater semblance of truth that the creative -force in America had lost its power, rather than that it had never -possessed great vigour. The greater number, if not all, of these -extinct quadrupeds lived at a late period, and were the contemporaries -of most of the existing sea-shells. Since they lived, no very great -change in the form of the land can have taken place. What, then, has -exterminated so many species and whole genera? The mind at first is -irresistibly hurried into the belief of some great catastrophe; but -thus to destroy animals, both large and small, in Southern Patagonia, -in Brazil, on the Cordillera of Peru, in North America up to Behring's -Straits, we must shake the entire framework of the globe. An -examination, moreover, of the geology of La Plata and Patagonia, leads -to the belief that all the features of the land result from slow and -gradual changes. It appears from the character of the fossils in -Europe, Asia, Australia, and in North and South America, that those -conditions which favour the life of the _larger_ quadrupeds were lately -co-extensive with the world: what those conditions were, no one has yet -even conjectured. It could hardly have been a change of temperature, -which at about the same time destroyed the inhabitants of tropical, -temperate, and arctic latitudes on both sides of the globe. In North -America we positively know from Mr. Lyell, that the large quadrupeds -lived subsequently to that period, when boulders were brought into -latitudes at which icebergs now never arrive: from conclusive but -indirect reasons we may feel sure, that in the southern hemisphere the -Macrauchenia, also, lived long subsequently to the ice-transporting -boulder-period. Did man, after his first inroad into South America, -destroy, as has been suggested, the unwieldy Megatherium and the other -Edentata? We must at least look to some other cause for the -destruction of the little tucutuco at Bahia Blanca, and of the many -fossil mice and other small quadrupeds in Brazil. No one will imagine -that a drought, even far severer than those which cause such losses in -the provinces of La Plata, could destroy every individual of every -species from Southern Patagonia to Behring's Straits. What shall we -say of the extinction of the horse? Did those plains fail of pasture, -which have since been overrun by thousands and hundreds of thousands of -the descendants of the stock introduced by the Spaniards? Have the -subsequently introduced species consumed the food of the great -antecedent races? Can we believe that the Capybara has taken the food -of the Toxodon, the Guanaco of the Macrauchenia, the existing small -Edentata of their numerous gigantic prototypes? Certainly, no fact in -the long history of the world is so startling as the wide and repeated -exterminations of its inhabitants. - -Nevertheless, if we consider the subject under another point of view, -it will appear less perplexing. We do not steadily bear in mind, how -profoundly ignorant we are of the conditions of existence of every -animal; nor do we always remember, that some check is constantly -preventing the too rapid increase of every organized being left in a -state of nature. The supply of food, on an average, remains constant, -yet the tendency in every animal to increase by propagation is -geometrical; and its surprising effects have nowhere been more -astonishingly shown, than in the case of the European animals run wild -during the last few centuries in America. Every animal in a state of -nature regularly breeds; yet in a species long established, any _great_ -increase in numbers is obviously impossible, and must be checked by -some means. We are, nevertheless, seldom able with certainty to tell in -any given species, at what period of life, or at what period of the -year, or whether only at long intervals, the check falls; or, again, -what is the precise nature of the check. Hence probably it is, that we -feel so little surprise at one, of two species closely allied in -habits, being rare and the other abundant in the same district; or, -again, that one should be abundant in one district, and another, -filling the same place in the economy of nature, should be abundant in -a neighbouring district, differing very little in its conditions. If -asked how this is, one immediately replies that it is determined by -some slight difference, in climate, food, or the number of enemies: yet -how rarely, if ever, we can point out the precise cause and manner of -action of the check! We are therefore, driven to the conclusion, that -causes generally quite inappreciable by us, determine whether a given -species shall be abundant or scanty in numbers. - -In the cases where we can trace the extinction of a species through -man, either wholly or in one limited district, we know that it becomes -rarer and rarer, and is then lost: it would be difficult to point out -any just distinction [13] between a species destroyed by man or by the -increase of its natural enemies. The evidence of rarity preceding -extinction, is more striking in the successive tertiary strata, as -remarked by several able observers; it has often been found that a -shell very common in a tertiary stratum is now most rare, and has even -long been thought extinct. If then, as appears probable, species first -become rare and then extinct--if the too rapid increase of every -species, even the most favoured, is steadily checked, as we must admit, -though how and when it is hard to say--and if we see, without the -smallest surprise, though unable to assign the precise reason, one -species abundant and another closely allied species rare in the same -district--why should we feel such great astonishment at the rarity -being carried one step further to extinction? An action going on, on -every side of us, and yet barely appreciable, might surely be carried a -little further, without exciting our observation. Who would feel any -great surprise at hearing that the Magalonyx was formerly rare compared -with the Megatherium, or that one of the fossil monkeys was few in -number compared with one of the now living monkeys? and yet in this -comparative rarity, we should have the plainest evidence of less -favourable conditions for their existence. To admit that species -generally become rare before they become extinct--to feel no surprise -at the comparative rarity of one species with another, and yet to call -in some extraordinary agent and to marvel greatly when a species ceases -to exist, appears to me much the same as to admit that sickness in the -individual is the prelude to death--to feel no surprise at -sickness--but when the sick man dies to wonder, and to believe that he -died through violence. - -[1] Mr. Waterhouse has drawn up a detailed description of this head, -which I hope he will publish in some Journal. - -[2] A nearly similar abnormal, but I do not know whether hereditary, -structure has been observed in the carp, and likewise in the crocodile -of the Ganges: Histoire des Anomalies, par M. Isid. Geoffroy St. -Hilaire, tom. i. p. 244. - -[3] M. A. d'Orbigny has given nearly a similar account of these dogs, -tom. i. p. 175. - -[4] I must express my obligations to Mr. Keane, at whose house I was -staying on the Berquelo, and to Mr. Lumb at Buenos Ayres, for without -their assistance these valuable remains would never have reached -England. - -[5] Lyell's Principles of Geology, vol. iii. p. 63. - -[6] The flies which frequently accompany a ship for some days on its -passage from harbour to harbour, wandering from the vessel, are soon -lost, and all disappear. - -[7] Mr. Blackwall, in his Researches in Zoology, has many excellent -observations on the habits of spiders. - -[8] An abstract is given in No. IV. of the Magazine of Zoology and -Botany. - -[9] I found here a species of cactus, described by Professor Henslow, -under the name of Opuntia Darwinii (Magazine of Zoology and Botany, -vol. i. p. 466), which was remarkable for the irritability of the -stamens, when I inserted either a piece of stick or the end of my -finger in the flower. The segments of the perianth also closed on the -pistil, but more slowly than the stamens. Plants of this family, -generally considered as tropical, occur in North America (Lewis and -Clarke's Travels, p. 221), in the same high latitude as here, namely, -in both cases, in 47 degs. - -[10] These insects were not uncommon beneath stones. I found one -cannibal scorpion quietly devouring another. - -[11] Shelley, Lines on Mt. Blanc. - -[12] I have lately heard that Capt. Sulivan, R.N., has found numerous -fossil bones, embedded in regular strata, on the banks of the R. -Gallegos, in lat. 51 degs. 4'. Some of the bones are large; others are -small, and appear to have belonged to an armadillo. This is a most -interesting and important discovery. - -[13] See the excellent remarks on this subject by Mr. Lyell, in his -Principles of Geology. - - - -CHAPTER IX - -SANTA CRUZ, PATAGONIA, AND THE FALKLAND ISLANDS - -Santa Cruz--Expedition up the River--Indians--Immense Streams of -Basaltic Lava--Fragments not transported by the River--Excavations of -the Valley--Condor, Habits of--Cordillera--Erratic Boulders of great -size--Indian Relics--Return to the Ship--Falkland Islands--Wild -Horses, Cattle, Rabbits--Wolf-like Fox--Fire made of Bones--Manner of -Hunting Wild Cattle--Geology--Streams of Stones--Scenes of -Violence--Penguins--Geese--Eggs of Doris--Compound Animals. - - -APRIL 13, 1834.--The Beagle anchored within the mouth of the Santa -Cruz. This river is situated about sixty miles south of Port St. -Julian. During the last voyage Captain Stokes proceeded thirty miles -up it, but then, from the want of provisions, was obliged to return. -Excepting what was discovered at that time, scarcely anything was known -about this large river. Captain Fitz Roy now determined to follow its -course as far as time would allow. On the 18th three whale-boats -started, carrying three weeks' provisions; and the party consisted of -twenty-five souls--a force which would have been sufficient to have -defied a host of Indians. With a strong flood-tide and a fine day we -made a good run, soon drank some of the fresh water, and were at night -nearly above the tidal influence. - -The river here assumed a size and appearance which, even at the highest -point we ultimately reached, was scarcely diminished. It was generally -from three to four hundred yards broad, and in the middle about -seventeen feet deep. The rapidity of the current, which in its whole -course runs at the rate of from four to six knots an hour, is perhaps -its most remarkable feature. The water is of a fine blue colour, but -with a slight milky tinge, and not so transparent as at first sight -would have been expected. It flows over a bed of pebbles, like those -which compose the beach and the surrounding plains. It runs in a -winding course through a valley, which extends in a direct line -westward. This valley varies from five to ten miles in breadth; it is -bounded by step-formed terraces, which rise in most parts, one above -the other, to the height of five hundred feet, and have on the opposite -sides a remarkable correspondence. - -April 19th.--Against so strong a current it was, of course, quite -impossible to row or sail: consequently the three boats were fastened -together head and stern, two hands left in each, and the rest came on -shore to track. As the general arrangements made by Captain Fitz Roy -were very good for facilitating the work of all, and as all had a share -in it, I will describe the system. The party including every one, was -divided into two spells, each of which hauled at the tracking line -alternately for an hour and a half. The officers of each boat lived -with, ate the same food, and slept in the same tent with their crew, so -that each boat was quite independent of the others. After sunset the -first level spot where any bushes were growing, was chosen for our -night's lodging. Each of the crew took it in turns to be cook. -Immediately the boat was hauled up, the cook made his fire; two others -pitched the tent; the coxswain handed the things out of the boat; the -rest carried them up to the tents and collected firewood. By this -order, in half an hour everything was ready for the night. A watch of -two men and an officer was always kept, whose duty it was to look after -the boats, keep up the fire, and guard against Indians. Each in the -party had his one hour every night. - -During this day we tracked but a short distance, for there were many -islets, covered by thorny bushes, and the channels between them were -shallow. - -April 20th.--We passed the islands and set to work. Our regular day's -march, although it was hard enough, carried us on an average only ten -miles in a straight line, and perhaps fifteen or twenty altogether. -Beyond the place where we slept last night, the country is completely -_terra incognita_, for it was there that Captain Stokes turned back. We -saw in the distance a great smoke, and found the skeleton of a horse, -so we knew that Indians were in the neighbourhood. On the next morning -(21st) tracks of a party of horse and marks left by the trailing of the -chuzos, or long spears, were observed on the ground. It was generally -thought that the Indians had reconnoitred us during the night. Shortly -afterwards we came to a spot where, from the fresh footsteps of men, -children, and horses, it was evident that the party had crossed the -river. - -April 22nd.--The country remained the same, and was extremely -uninteresting. The complete similarity of the productions throughout -Patagonia is one of its most striking characters. The level plains of -arid shingle support the same stunted and dwarf plants; and in the -valleys the same thorn-bearing bushes grow. Everywhere we see the same -birds and insects. Even the very banks of the river and of the clear -streamlets which entered it, were scarcely enlivened by a brighter tint -of green. The curse of sterility is on the land, and the water flowing -over a bed of pebbles partakes of the same curse. Hence the number of -water-fowls is very scanty; for there is nothing to support life in the -stream of this barren river. - -Patagonia, poor as she is in some respects, can however boast of a -greater stock of small rodents [1] than perhaps any other country in -the world. Several species of mice are externally characterized by -large thin ears and a very fine fur. These little animals swarm -amongst the thickets in the valleys, where they cannot for months -together taste a drop of water excepting the dew. They all seem to be -cannibals for no sooner was a mouse caught in one of my traps that it -was devoured by others. A small and delicately shaped fox, which is -likewise very abundant, probably derives its entire support from these -small animals. The guanaco is also in his proper district, herds of -fifty or a hundred were common; and, as I have stated, we saw one which -must have contained at least five hundred. The puma, with the condor -and other carrion-hawks in its train, follows and preys upon these -animals. The footsteps of the puma were to be seen almost everywhere -on the banks of the river; and the remains of several guanacos, with -their necks dislocated and bones broken, showed how they had met their -death. - -April 24th.--Like the navigators of old when approaching an unknown -land, we examined and watched for the most trivial sign of a change. -The drifted trunk of a tree, or a boulder of primitive rock, was hailed -with joy, as if we had seen a forest growing on the flanks of the -Cordillera. The top, however, of a heavy bank of clouds, which -remained almost constantly in one position, was the most promising -sign, and eventually turned out a true harbinger. At first the clouds -were mistaken for the mountains themselves, instead of the masses of -vapour condensed by their icy summits. - -April 26th.--We this day met with a marked change in the geological -structure of the plains. From the first starting I had carefully -examined the gravel in the river, and for the two last days had noticed -the presence of a few small pebbles of a very cellular basalt. These -gradually increased in number and in size, but none were as large as a -man's head. This morning, however, pebbles of the same rock, but more -compact, suddenly became abundant, and in the course of half an hour we -saw, at the distance of five of six miles, the angular edge of a great -basaltic platform. When we arrived at its base we found the stream -bubbling among the fallen blocks. For the next twenty-eight miles the -river-course was encumbered with these basaltic masses. Above that -limit immense fragments of primitive rocks, derived from its -surrounding boulder-formation, were equally numerous. None of the -fragments of any considerable size had been washed more than three or -four miles down the river below their parent-source: considering the -singular rapidity of the great body of water in the Santa Cruz, and -that no still reaches occur in any part, this example is a most -striking one, of the inefficiency of rivers in transporting even -moderately-sized fragments. - -The basalt is only lava, which has flowed beneath the sea; but the -eruptions must have been on the grandest scale. At the point where we -first met this formation it was 120 feet in thickness; following up the -river course, the surface imperceptibly rose and the mass became -thicker, so that at forty miles above the first station it was 320 feet -thick. What the thickness may be close to the Cordillera, I have no -means of knowing, but the platform there attains a height of about -three thousand feet above the level of the sea; we must therefore look -to the mountains of that great chain for its source; and worthy of such -a source are streams that have flowed over the gently inclined bed of -the sea to a distance of one hundred miles. At the first glance of the -basaltic cliffs on the opposite sides of the valley, it was evident -that the strata once were united. What power, then, has removed along -a whole line of country, a solid mass of very hard rock, which had an -average thickness of nearly three hundred feet, and a breadth varying -from rather less than two miles to four miles? The river, though it -has so little power in transporting even inconsiderable fragments, yet -in the lapse of ages might produce by its gradual erosion an effect of -which it is difficult to judge the amount. But in this case, -independently of the insignificance of such an agency, good reasons can -be assigned for believing that this valley was formerly occupied by an -arm of the sea. It is needless in this work to detail the arguments -leading to this conclusion, derived from the form and the nature of the -step-formed terraces on both sides of the valley, from the manner in -which the bottom of the valley near the Andes expands into a great -estuary-like plain with sand-hillocks on it, and from the occurrence of -a few sea-shells lying in the bed of the river. If I had space I could -prove that South America was formerly here cut off by a strait, joining -the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, like that of Magellan. But it may yet -be asked, how has the solid basalt been moved? Geologists formerly -would have brought into play the violent action of some overwhelming -debacle; but in this case such a supposition would have been quite -inadmissible, because, the same step-like plains with existing -sea-shells lying on their surface, which front the long line of the -Patagonian coast, sweep up on each side of the valley of Santa Cruz. No -possible action of any flood could thus have modelled the land, either -within the valley or along the open coast; and by the formation of such -step-like plains or terraces the valley itself had been hollowed out. -Although we know that there are tides, which run within the Narrows of -the Strait of Magellan at the rate of eight knots an hour, yet we must -confess that it makes the head almost giddy to reflect on the number of -years, century after century, which the tides, unaided by a heavy surf, -must have required to have corroded so vast an area and thickness of -solid basaltic lava. Nevertheless, we must believe that the strata -undermined by the waters of this ancient strait, were broken up into -huge fragments, and these lying scattered on the beach were reduced -first to smaller blocks, then to pebbles and lastly to the most -impalpable mud, which the tides drifted far into the Eastern or Western -Ocean. - -With the change in the geological structure of the plains the character -of the landscape likewise altered. While rambling up some of the -narrow and rocky defiles, I could almost have fancied myself -transported back again to the barren valleys of the island of St. Jago. -Among the basaltic cliffs I found some plants which I had seen nowhere -else, but others I recognised as being wanderers from Tierra del Fuego. -These porous rocks serve as a reservoir for the scanty rain-water; and -consequently on the line where the igneous and sedimentary formations -unite, some small springs (most rare occurrences in Patagonia) burst -forth; and they could be distinguished at a distance by the -circumscribed patches of bright green herbage. - -April 27th.--The bed of the river became rather narrower and hence the -stream more rapid. It here ran at the rate of six knots an hour. From -this cause, and from the many great angular fragments, tracking the -boats became both dangerous and laborious. - - -This day I shot a condor. It measured from tip to tip of the wings, -eight and a half feet, and from beak to tail, four feet. This bird is -known to have a wide geographical range, being found on the west coast -of South America, from the Strait of Magellan along the Cordillera as -far as eight degrees north of the equator. The steep cliff near the -mouth of the Rio Negro is its northern limit on the Patagonian coast; -and they have there wandered about four hundred miles from the great -central line of their habitations in the Andes. Further south, among -the bold precipices at the head of Port Desire, the condor is not -uncommon; yet only a few stragglers occasionally visit the sea-coast. A -line of cliff near the mouth of the Santa Cruz is frequented by these -birds, and about eighty miles up the river, where the sides of the -valley are formed by steep basaltic precipices, the condor reappears. -From these facts it seems that the condors require perpendicular -cliffs. In Chile, they haunt, during the greater part of the year, the -lower country near the shores of the Pacific, and at night several -roost together in one tree; but in the early part of summer, they -retire to the most inaccessible parts of the inner Cordillera, there to -breed in peace. - -With respect to their propagation, I was told by the country people in -Chile, that the condor makes no sort of nest, but in the months of -November and December lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare -rock. It is said that the young condors cannot fly for an entire year; -and long after they are able, they continue to roost by night, and hunt -by day with their parents. The old birds generally live in pairs; but -among the inland basaltic cliffs of the Santa Cruz, I found a spot, -where scores must usually haunt. On coming suddenly to the brow of the -precipice, it was a grand spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of -these great birds start heavily from their resting-place, and wheel -away in majestic circles. From the quantity of dung on the rocks they -must long have frequented this cliff for roosting and breeding. Having -gorged themselves with carrion on the plains below, they retire to -these favourite ledges to digest their food. From these facts, the -condor, like the gallinazo, must to a certain degree be considered as a -gregarious bird. In this part of the country they live altogether on -the guanacos which have died a natural death, or as more commonly -happens, have been killed by the pumas. I believe, from what I saw in -Patagonia, that they do not on ordinary occasions extend their daily -excursions to any great distance from their regular sleeping-places. - -The condors may oftentimes be seen at a great height, soaring over a -certain spot in the most graceful circles. On some occasions I am sure -that they do this only for pleasure, but on others, the Chileno -countryman tells you that they are watching a dying animal, or the puma -devouring its prey. If the condors glide down, and then suddenly all -rise together, the Chileno knows that it is the puma which, watching -the carcass, has sprung out to drive away the robbers. Besides feeding -on carrion, the condors frequently attack young goats and lambs; and -the shepherd-dogs are trained, whenever they pass over, to run out, and -looking upwards to bark violently. The Chilenos destroy and catch -numbers. Two methods are used; one is to place a carcass on a level -piece of ground within an enclosure of sticks with an opening, and when -the condors are gorged to gallop up on horseback to the entrance, and -thus enclose them: for when this bird has not space to run, it cannot -give its body sufficient momentum to rise from the ground. The second -method is to mark the trees in which, frequently to the number of five -or six together, they roost, and they at night to climb up and noose -them. They are such heavy sleepers, as I have myself witnessed, that -this is not a difficult task. At Valparaiso, I have seen a living -condor sold for sixpence, but the common price is eight or ten -shillings. One which I saw brought in, had been tied with rope, and was -much injured; yet, the moment the line was cut by which its bill was -secured, although surrounded by people, it began ravenously to tear a -piece of carrion. In a garden at the same place, between twenty and -thirty were kept alive. They were fed only once a week, but they -appeared in pretty good health. [2] The Chileno countrymen assert that -the condor will live, and retain its vigour, between five and six weeks -without eating: I cannot answer for the truth of this, but it is a -cruel experiment, which very likely has been tried. - -When an animal is killed in the country, it is well known that the -condors, like other carrion-vultures, soon gain intelligence of it, and -congregate in an inexplicable manner. In most cases it must not be -overlooked, that the birds have discovered their prey, and have picked -the skeleton clean, before the flesh is in the least degree tainted. -Remembering the experiments of M. Audubon, on the little smelling -powers of carrion-hawks, I tried in the above mentioned garden the -following experiment: the condors were tied, each by a rope, in a long -row at the bottom of a wall; and having folded up a piece of meat in -white paper, I walked backwards and forwards, carrying it in my hand at -the distance of about three yards from them, but no notice whatever was -taken. I then threw it on the ground, within one yard of an old male -bird; he looked at it for a moment with attention, but then regarded it -no more. With a stick I pushed it closer and closer, until at last he -touched it with his beak; the paper was then instantly torn off with -fury, and at the same moment, every bird in the long row began -struggling and flapping its wings. Under the same circumstances, it -would have been quite impossible to have deceived a dog. The evidence -in favour of and against the acute smelling powers of carrion-vultures -is singularly balanced. Professor Owen has demonstrated that the -olfactory nerves of the turkey-buzzard (Cathartes aura) are highly -developed, and on the evening when Mr. Owen's paper was read at the -Zoological Society, it was mentioned by a gentleman that he had seen -the carrion-hawks in the West Indies on two occasions collect on the -roof of a house, when a corpse had become offensive from not having -been buried, in this case, the intelligence could hardly have been -acquired by sight. On the other hand, besides the experiments of -Audubon and that one by myself, Mr. Bachman has tried in the United -States many varied plans, showing that neither the turkey-buzzard (the -species dissected by Professor Owen) nor the gallinazo find their food -by smell. He covered portions of highly-offensive offal with a thin -canvas cloth, and strewed pieces of meat on it: these the -carrion-vultures ate up, and then remained quietly standing, with their -beaks within the eighth of an inch of the putrid mass, without -discovering it. A small rent was made in the canvas, and the offal was -immediately discovered; the canvas was replaced by a fresh piece, and -meat again put on it, and was again devoured by the vultures without -their discovering the hidden mass on which they were trampling. These -facts are attested by the signatures of six gentlemen, besides that of -Mr. Bachman. [3] - -Often when lying down to rest on the open plains, on looking upwards, I -have seen carrion-hawks sailing through the air at a great height. -Where the country is level I do not believe a space of the heavens, of -more than fifteen degrees above the horizon, is commonly viewed with -any attention by a person either walking or on horseback. If such be -the case, and the vulture is on the wing at a height of between three -and four thousand feet, before it could come within the range of -vision, its distance in a straight line from the beholder's eye, would -be rather more than two British miles. Might it not thus readily be -overlooked? When an animal is killed by the sportsman in a lonely -valley, may he not all the while be watched from above by the -sharp-sighted bird? And will not the manner of its descend proclaim -throughout the district to the whole family of carrion-feeders, that -their prey is at hand? - -When the condors are wheeling in a flock round and round any spot, -their flight is beautiful. Except when rising from the ground, I do -not recollect ever having seen one of these birds flap its wings. Near -Lima, I watched several for nearly half an hour, without once taking -off my eyes, they moved in large curves, sweeping in circles, -descending and ascending without giving a single flap. As they glided -close over my head, I intently watched from an oblique position, the -outlines of the separate and great terminal feathers of each wing; and -these separate feathers, if there had been the least vibratory -movement, would have appeared as if blended together; but they were -seen distinct against the blue sky. The head and neck were moved -frequently, and apparently with force; and the extended wings seemed to -form the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck, body, and tail -acted. If the bird wished to descend, the wings were for a moment -collapsed; and when again expanded with an altered inclination, the -momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards -with the even and steady movement of a paper kite. In the case of any -bird soaring, its motion must be sufficiently rapid so that the action -of the inclined surface of its body on the atmosphere may -counterbalance its gravity. The force to keep up the momentum of a -body moving in a horizontal plane in the air (in which there is so -little friction) cannot be great, and this force is all that is wanted. -The movements of the neck and body of the condor, we must suppose, is -sufficient for this. However this may be, it is truly wonderful and -beautiful to see so great a bird, hour after hour, without any apparent -exertion, wheeling and gliding over mountain and river. - -April 29th.--From some high land we hailed with joy the white summits -of the Cordillera, as they were seen occasionally peeping through their -dusky envelope of clouds. During the few succeeding days we continued -to get on slowly, for we found the river-course very tortuous, and -strewed with immense fragments of various ancient slate rocks, and of -granite. The plain bordering the valley has here attained an elevation -of about 1100 feet above the river, and its character was much altered. -The well-rounded pebbles of porphyry were mingled with many immense -angular fragments of basalt and of primary rocks. The first of these -erratic boulders which I noticed, was sixty-seven miles distant from -the nearest mountain; another which I measured was five yards square, -and projected five feet above the gravel. Its edges were so angular, -and its size so great, that I at first mistook it for a rock _in situ_, -and took out my compass to observe the direction of its cleavage. The -plain here was not quite so level as that nearer the coast, but yet in -betrayed no signs of any great violence. Under these circumstances it -is, I believe, quite impossible to explain the transportal of these -gigantic masses of rock so many miles from their parent-source, on any -theory except by that of floating icebergs. - -During the two last days we met with signs of horses, and with several -small articles which had belonged to the Indians--such as parts of a -mantle and a bunch of ostrich feathers--, but they appeared to have -been lying long on the ground. Between the place where the Indians had -so lately crossed the river and this neighbourhood, though so many -miles apart, the country appears to be quite unfrequented. At first, -considering the abundance of the guanacos, I was surprised at this; but -it is explained by the stony nature of the plains, which would soon -disable an unshod horse from taking part in the chase. Nevertheless, -in two places in this very central region, I found small heaps of -stones, which I do not think could have been accidentally thrown -together. They were placed on points, projecting over the edge of the -highest lava cliff, and they resembled, but on a small scale, those -near Port Desire. - -May 4th.--Captain Fitz Roy determined to take the boats no higher. The -river had a winding course, and was very rapid; and the appearance of -the country offered no temptation to proceed any further. Everywhere we -met with the same productions, and the same dreary landscape. We were -now one hundred and forty miles distant from the Atlantic and about -sixty from the nearest arm of the Pacific. The valley in this upper -part expanded into a wide basin, bounded on the north and south by the -basaltic platforms, and fronted by the long range of the snow-clad -Cordillera. But we viewed these grand mountains with regret, for we -were obliged to imagine their nature and productions, instead of -standing, as we had hoped, on their summits. Besides the useless loss -of time which an attempt to ascend the river and higher would have cost -us, we had already been for some days on half allowance of bread. This, -although really enough for reasonable men, was, after a hard day's -march, rather scanty food: a light stomach and an easy digestion are -good things to talk about, but very unpleasant in practice. - -5th.--Before sunrise we commenced our descent. We shot down the stream -with great rapidity, generally at the rate of ten knots an hour. In -this one day we effected what had cost us five-and-a-half hard days' -labour in ascending. On the 8th, we reached the Beagle after our -twenty-one days' expedition. Every one, excepting myself, had cause to -be dissatisfied; but to me the ascent afforded a most interesting -section of the great tertiary formation of Patagonia. - -On March 1st, 1833, and again on March 16th, 1834, the Beagle anchored -in Berkeley Sound, in East Falkland Island. This archipelago is -situated in nearly the same latitude with the mouth of the Strait of -Magellan; it covers a space of one hundred and twenty by sixty -geographical miles, and is little more than half the size of Ireland. -After the possession of these miserable islands had been contested by -France, Spain, and England, they were left uninhabited. The government -of Buenos Ayres then sold them to a private individual, but likewise -used them, as old Spain had done before, for a penal settlement. -England claimed her right and seized them. The Englishman who was left -in charge of the flag was consequently murdered. A British officer was -next sent, unsupported by any power: and when we arrived, we found him -in charge of a population, of which rather more than half were runaway -rebels and murderers. - -The theatre is worthy of the scenes acted on it. An undulating land, -with a desolate and wretched aspect, is everywhere covered by a peaty -soil and wiry grass, of one monotonous brown colour. Here and there a -peak or ridge of grey quartz rock breaks through the smooth surface -Every one has heard of the climate of these regions; it may be compared -to that which is experienced at the height of between one and two -thousand feet, on the mountains of North Wales; having however less -sunshine and less frost but more wind and rain. [4] - -16th.--I will now describe a short excursion which made round a part of -this island. In the morning I started with six horses and two Gauchos: -the latter were capital men for the purpose, and well accustomed to -living on their own resources. The weather was very boisterous and -cold with heavy hail-storms. We got on, however, pretty well but, -except the geology, nothing could be less interesting than our day's -ride. The country is uniformly the same undulating moorland; the -surface being covered by light brown withered grass and a few very -small shrubs, all springing out of an elastic peaty soil. In the -valleys here and there might be seen a small flock of wild geese, and -everywhere the ground was so soft that the snipe were able to feed. -Besides these two birds there were few others. There is one main range -of hills, nearly two thousand feet in height, and composed of quartz -rock, the rugged and barren crests of which gave us some trouble to -cross. On the south side we came to the best country for wild cattle; -we met, however, no great number, for they had been lately much -harassed. - -In the evening we came across a small herd. One of my companions, St. -Jago by name, soon separated a fat cow: he threw the bolas, and it -struck her legs, but failed in becoming entangled. Then dropping his -hat to mark the spot where the balls were left, while at full gallop, -he uncoiled his lazo, and after a most severe chase, again came up to -the cow, and caught her round the horns. The other Gaucho had gone on -ahead with the spare horses, so that St. Jago had some difficulty in -killing the furious beast. He managed to get her on a level piece of -ground, by taking advantage of her as often as she rushed at him; and -when she would not move, my horse, from having been trained, would -canter up, and with his chest give her a violent push. But when on -level ground it does not appear an easy job for one man to kill a beast -mad with terror. Nor would it be so, if the horse, when left to itself -without its rider, did not soon learn, for its own safety, to keep the -lazo tight, so that, if the cow or ox moves forward, the horse moves -just as quickly forward; otherwise, it stands motionless leaning on one -side. This horse, however, was a young one, and would not stand still, -but gave in to the cow as she struggled. It was admirable to see with -what dexterity St. Jago dodged behind the beast, till at last he -contrived to give the fatal touch to the main tendon of the hind leg -after which, without much difficulty, he drove his knife into the head -of the spinal marrow, and the cow dropped as if struck by lightning. He -cut off pieces of flesh with the skin to it, but without any bones, -sufficient for our expedition. We then rode on to our sleeping-place, -and had for supper "carne con cuero," or meat roasted with the skin on -it. This is as superior to common beef as venison is to mutton. A -large circular piece taken from the back is roasted on the embers with -the hide downwards and is the form of a saucer, so that none of the -gravy is lost. If any worthy alderman had supped with us that evening, -"carne con cuero," without doubt, would soon have been celebrated in -London. - -During the night it rained, and the next day (17th) was very stormy, -with much hail and snow. We rode across the island to the neck of land -which joins the Rincon del Toro (the great peninsula at the S. W. -extremity) to the rest of the island. From the great number of cows -which have been killed, there is a large proportion of bulls. These -wander about single, or two and three together, and are very savage. I -never saw such magnificent beasts; they equalled in the size of their -huge heads and necks the Grecian marble sculptures. Capt. Sulivan -informs me that the hide of an average-sized bull weighs forty-seven -pounds, whereas a hide of this weight, less thoroughly dried, is -considered as a very heavy one at Monte Video. The young bulls -generally run away, for a short distance; but the old ones do not stir -a step, except to rush at man and horse; and many horses have been thus -killed. An old bull crossed a boggy stream, and took his stand on the -opposite side to us; we in vain tried to drive him away, and failing, -were obliged to make a large circuit. The Gauchos in revenge -determined to emasculate him and render him for the future harmless. It -was very interesting to see how art completely mastered force. One -lazo was thrown over his horns as he rushed at the horse, and another -round his hind legs: in a minute the monster was stretched powerless on -the ground. After the lazo has once been drawn tightly round the horns -of a furious animal, it does not at first appear an easy thing to -disengage it again without killing the beast: nor, I apprehend, would -it be so if the man was by himself. By the aid, however, of a second -person throwing his lazo so as to catch both hind legs, it is quickly -managed: for the animal, as long as its hind legs are kept -outstretched, is quite helpless, and the first man can with his hands -loosen his lazo from the horns, and then quietly mount his horse; but -the moment the second man, by backing ever so little, relaxes the -strain, the lazo slips off the legs of the struggling beast, which then -rises free, shakes himself, and vainly rushes at his antagonist. - -During our whole ride we saw only one troop of wild horses. These -animals, as well as the cattle, were introduced by the French in 1764, -since which time both have greatly increased. It is a curious fact, -that the horses have never left the eastern end of the island, although -there is no natural boundary to prevent them from roaming, and that -part of the island is not more tempting than the rest. The Gauchos -whom I asked, though asserting this to be the case, were unable to -account for it, except from the strong attachment which horses have to -any locality to which they are accustomed. Considering that the island -does not appear fully stocked, and that there are no beasts of prey, I -was particularly curious to know what has checked their originally -rapid increase. That in a limited island some check would sooner or -later supervene, is inevitable; but why had the increase of the horse -been checked sooner than that of the cattle? Capt. Sulivan has taken -much pains for me in this inquiry. The Gauchos employed here attribute -it chiefly to the stallions constantly roaming from place to place, and -compelling the mares to accompany them, whether or not the young foals -are able to follow. One Gaucho told Capt. Sulivan that he had watched -a stallion for a whole hour, violently kicking and biting a mare till -he forced her to leave her foal to its fate. Capt. Sulivan can so far -corroborate this curious account, that he has several times found young -foals dead, whereas he has never found a dead calf. Moreover, the dead -bodies of full-grown horses are more frequently found, as if more -subject to disease or accidents, than those of the cattle. From the -softness of the ground their hoofs often grow irregularly to a great -length, and this causes lameness. The predominant colours are roan and -iron-grey. All the horses bred here, both tame and wild, are rather -small-sized, though generally in good condition; and they have lost so -much strength, that they are unfit to be used in taking wild cattle -with the lazo: in consequence, it is necessary to go to the great -expense of importing fresh horses from the Plata. At some future -period the southern hemisphere probably will have its breed of Falkland -ponies, as the northern has its Shetland breed. - -The cattle, instead of having degenerated like the horses seem, as -before remarked, to have increased in size; and they are much more -numerous than the horses. Capt. Sulivan informs me that they vary much -less in the general form of their bodies and in the shape of their -horns than English cattle. In colour they differ much; and it is a -remarkable circumstance, that in different parts of this one small -island, different colours predominate. Round Mount Usborne, at a -height of from 1000 to 1500 feet above the sea, about half of some of -the herds are mouse or lead-coloured, a tint which is not common in -other parts of the island. Near Port Pleasant dark brown prevails, -whereas south of Choiseul Sound (which almost divides the island into -two parts), white beasts with black heads and feet are the most common: -in all parts black, and some spotted animals may be observed. Capt. -Sulivan remarks, that the difference in the prevailing colours was so -obvious, that in looking for the herds near Port Pleasant, they -appeared from a long distance like black spots, whilst south of -Choiseul Sound they appeared like white spots on the hill-sides. Capt. -Sulivan thinks that the herds do not mingle; and it is a singular fact, -that the mouse-coloured cattle, though living on the high land, calve -about a month earlier in the season than the other coloured beasts on -the lower land. It is interesting thus to find the once domesticated -cattle breaking into three colours, of which some one colour would in -all probability ultimately prevail over the others, if the herds were -left undisturbed for the next several centuries. - -The rabbit is another animal which has been introduced; and has -succeeded very well; so that they abound over large parts of the -island. Yet, like the horses, they are confined within certain limits; -for they have not crossed the central chain of hills, nor would they -have extended even so far as its base, if, as the Gauchos informed me, -small colonies has not been carried there. I should not have supposed -that these animals, natives of northern Africa, could have existed in a -climate so humid as this, and which enjoys so little sunshine that even -wheat ripens only occasionally. It is asserted that in Sweden, which -any one would have thought a more favourable climate, the rabbit cannot -live out of doors. The first few pairs, moreover, had here to content -against pre-existing enemies, in the fox and some large hawks. The -French naturalists have considered the black variety a distinct -species, and called it Lepus Magellanicus. [5] They imagined that -Magellan, when talking of an animal under the name of "conejos" in the -Strait of Magellan, referred to this species; but he was alluding to a -small cavy, which to this day is thus called by the Spaniards. The -Gauchos laughed at the idea of the black kind being different from the -grey, and they said that at all events it had not extended its range -any further than the grey kind; that the two were never found separate; -and that they readily bred together, and produced piebald offspring. Of -the latter I now possess a specimen, and it is marked about the head -differently from the French specific description. This circumstance -shows how cautious naturalists should be in making species; for even -Cuvier, on looking at the skull of one of these rabbits, thought it was -probably distinct! - -The only quadruped native to the island [6]; is a large wolf-like fox -(Canis antarcticus), which is common to both East and West Falkland. I -have no doubt it is a peculiar species, and confined to this -archipelago; because many sealers, Gauchos, and Indians, who have -visited these islands, all maintain that no such animal is found in any -part of South America. - -Molina, from a similarity in habits, thought that this was the same -with his "culpeu;" [7] but I have seen both, and they are quite -distinct. These wolves are well known from Byron's account of their -tameness and curiosity, which the sailors, who ran into the water to -avoid them, mistook for fierceness. To this day their manners remain -the same. They have been observed to enter a tent, and actually pull -some meat from beneath the head of a sleeping seaman. The Gauchos also -have frequently in the evening killed them, by holding out a piece of -meat in one hand, and in the other a knife ready to stick them. As far -as I am aware, there is no other instance in any part of the world, of -so small a mass of broken land, distant from a continent, possessing so -large an aboriginal quadruped peculiar to itself. Their numbers have -rapidly decreased; they are already banished from that half of the -island which lies to the eastward of the neck of land between St. -Salvador Bay and Berkeley Sound. Within a very few years after these -islands shall have become regularly settled, in all probability this -for will be classed with the dodo, as an animal which has perished from -the face of the earth. - -At night (17th) we slept on the neck of land at the head of Choiseul -Sound, which forms the south-west peninsula. The valley was pretty well -sheltered from the cold wind, but there was very little brushwood for -fuel. The Gauchos, however, soon found what, to my great surprise, -made nearly as hot a fire as coals; this was the skeleton of a bullock -lately killed, from which the flesh had been picked by the -carrion-hawks. They told me that in winter they often killed a beast, -cleaned the flesh from the bones with their knives, and then with these -same bones roasted the meat for their suppers. - -18th.--It rained during nearly the whole day. At night we managed, -however, with our saddle-cloths to keep ourselves pretty well dry and -warm; but the ground on which we slept was on each occasion nearly in -the state of a bog, and there was not a dry spot to sit down on after -our day's ride. I have in another part stated how singular it is that -there should be absolutely no trees on these islands, although Tierra -del Fuego is covered by one large forest. The largest bush in the -island (belonging to the family of Compositae) is scarcely so tall as -our gorse. The best fuel is afforded by a green little bush about the -size of common heath, which has the useful property of burning while -fresh and green. It was very surprising to see the Gauchos, in the -midst of rain and everything soaking wet, with nothing more than a -tinder-box and a piece of rag, immediately make a fire. They sought -beneath the tufts of grass and bushel for a few dry twigs, and these -they rubbed into fibres; then surrounding them with coarser twigs, -something like a bird's nest, they put the rag with its spark of fire -in the middle and covered it up. The nest being then held up to the -wind, by degrees it smoked more and more, and at last burst out in -flames. I do not think any other method would have had a chance of -succeeding with such damp materials. - -19th.--Each morning, from not having ridden for some time previously, I -was very stiff. I was surprised to hear the Gauchos, who have from -infancy almost lived on horseback, say that, under similar -circumstances, they always suffer. St. Jago told me, that having been -confined for three months by illness, he went out hunting wild cattle, -and in consequence, for the next two days, his thighs were so stiff -that he was obliged to lie in bed. This shows that the Gauchos, -although they do not appear to do so, yet really must exert much -muscular effort in riding. The hunting wild cattle, in a country so -difficult to pass as this is on account of the swampy ground, must be -very hard work. The Gauchos say they often pass at full speed over -ground which would be impassable at a slower pace; in the same manner -as a man is able to skate over thin ice. When hunting, the party -endeavours to get as close as possible to the herd without being -discovered. Each man carries four or five pair of the bolas; these he -throws one after the other at as many cattle, which, when once -entangled, are left for some days till they become a little exhausted -by hunger and struggling. They are then let free and driven towards a -small herd of tame animals, which have been brought to the spot on -purpose. From their previous treatment, being too much terrified to -leave the herd, they are easily driven, if their strength last out, to -the settlement. - -The weather continued so very bad that we determine to make a push, and -try to reach the vessel before night. From the quantity of rain which -had fallen, the surface of the whole country was swampy. I suppose my -horse fell at least a dozen times, and sometimes the whole six horses -were floundering in the mud together. All the little streams are -bordered by soft peat, which makes it very difficult for the horses to -leap them without falling. To complete our discomforts we were obliged -to cross the head of a creek of the sea, in which the water was as high -as our horses' backs; and the little waves, owing to the violence of -the wind, broke over us, and made us very wet and cold. Even the -iron-framed Gauchos professed themselves glad when they reached the -settlement, after our little excursion. - -The geological structure of these islands is in most respects simple. -The lower country consists of clay-slate and sandstone, containing -fossils, very closely related to, but not identical with, those found -in the Silurian formations of Europe; the hills are formed of white -granular quartz rock. The strata of the latter are frequently arched -with perfect symmetry, and the appearance of some of the masses is in -consequence most singular. Pernety [8] has devoted several pages to -the description of a Hill of Ruins, the successive strata of which he -has justly compared to the seats of an amphitheatre. The quartz rock -must have been quite pasty when it underwent such remarkable flexures -without being shattered into fragments. As the quartz insensibly -passes into the sandstone, it seems probable that the former owes its -origin to the sandstone having been heated to such a degree that it -became viscid, and upon cooling crystallized. While in the soft state -it must have been pushed up through the overlying beds. - -In many parts of the island the bottoms of the valleys are covered in -an extraordinary manner by myriads of great loose angular fragments of -the quartz rock, forming "streams of stones." These have been mentioned -with surprise by every voyager since the time of Pernety. The blocks -are not water-worn, their angles being only a little blunted; they vary -in size from one or two feet in diameter to ten, or even more than -twenty times as much. They are not thrown together into irregular -piles, but are spread out into level sheets or great streams. It is -not possible to ascertain their thickness, but the water of small -streamlets can be heard trickling through the stones many feet below -the surface. The actual depth is probably great, because the crevices -between the lower fragments must long ago have been filled up with -sand. The width of these sheets of stones varied from a few hundred -feet to a mile; but the peaty soil daily encroaches on the borders, and -even forms islets wherever a few fragments happen to lie close -together. In a valley south of Berkeley Sound, which some of our party -called the "great valley of fragments," it was necessary to cross an -uninterrupted band half a mile wide, by jumping from one pointed stone -to another. So large were the fragments, that being overtaken by a -shower of rain, I readily found shelter beneath one of them. - -Their little inclination is the most remarkable circumstance in these -"streams of stones." On the hill-sides I have seen them sloping at an -angle of ten degrees with the horizon; but in some of the level, -broad-bottomed valleys, the inclination is only just sufficient to be -clearly perceived. On so rugged a surface there was no means of -measuring the angle, but to give a common illustration, I may say that -the slope would not have checked the speed of an English mail-coach. In -some places, a continuous stream of these fragments followed up the -course of a valley, and even extended to the very crest of the hill. On -these crests huge masses, exceeding in dimensions any small building, -seemed to stand arrested in their headlong course: there, also, the -curved strata of the archways lay piled on each other, like the ruins -of some vast and ancient cathedral. In endeavouring to describe these -scenes of violence one is tempted to pass from one simile to another. -We may imagine that streams of white lava had flowed from many parts of -the mountains into the lower country, and that when solidified they had -been rent by some enormous convulsion into myriads of fragments. The -expression "streams of stones," which immediately occurred to every -one, conveys the same idea. These scenes are on the spot rendered more -striking by the contrast of the low rounded forms of the neighbouring -hills. - -I was interested by finding on the highest peak of one range (about 700 -feet above the sea) a great arched fragment, lying on its convex side, -or back downwards. Must we believe that it was fairly pitched up in -the air, and thus turned? Or, with more probability, that there -existed formerly a part of the same range more elevated than the point -on which this monument of a great convulsion of nature now lies. As -the fragments in the valleys are neither rounded nor the crevices -filled up with sand, we must infer that the period of violence was -subsequent to the land having been raised above the waters of the sea. -In a transverse section within these valleys, the bottom is nearly -level, or rises but very little towards either side. Hence the -fragments appear to have travelled from the head of the valley; but in -reality it seems more probable that they have been hurled down from the -nearest slopes; and that since, by a vibratory movement of overwhelming -force, [9] the fragments have been levelled into one continuous sheet. -If during the earthquake [10] which in 1835 overthrew Concepcion, in -Chile, it was thought wonderful that small bodies should have been -pitched a few inches from the ground, what must we say to a movement -which has caused fragments many tons in weight, to move onwards like so -much sand on a vibrating board, and find their level? I have seen, in -the Cordillera of the Andes, the evident marks where stupendous -mountains have been broken into pieces like so much thin crust, and the -strata thrown of their vertical edges; but never did any scene, like -these "streams of stones," so forcibly convey to my mind the idea of a -convulsion, of which in historical records we might in vain seek for -any counterpart: yet the progress of knowledge will probably some day -give a simple explanation of this phenomenon, as it already has of the -so long-thought inexplicable transportal of the erratic boulders, which -are strewed over the plains of Europe. - -I have little to remark on the zoology of these islands. have before -described the carrion-vulture of Polyborus. There are some other hawks, -owls, and a few small land-birds. The water-fowl are particularly -numerous, and they must formerly, from the accounts of the old -navigators, have been much more so. One day I observed a cormorant -playing with a fish which it had caught. Eight times successively the -bird let its prey go, then dived after it, and although in deep water, -brought it each time to the surface. In the Zoological Gardens I have -seen the otter treat a fish in the same manner, much as a cat does a -mouse: I do not know of any other instance where dame Nature appears so -wilfully cruel. Another day, having placed myself between a penguin -(Aptenodytes demersa) and the water, I was much amused by watching its -habits. It was a brave bird; and till reaching the sea, it regularly -fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less than heavy blows would have -stopped him; every inch he gained he firmly kept, standing close before -me erect and determined. When thus opposed he continually rolled his -head from side to side, in a very odd manner, as if the power of -distinct vision lay only in the anterior and basal part of each eye. -This bird is commonly called the jackass penguin, from its habit, while -on shore, of throwing its head backwards, and making a loud strange -noise, very like the braying of an ass; but while at sea, and -undisturbed, its note is very deep and solemn, and is often heard in -the night-time. In diving, its little wings are used as fins; but on -the land, as front legs. When crawling, it may be said on four legs, -through the tussocks or on the side of a grassy cliff, it moves so very -quickly that it might easily be mistaken for a quadruped. When at sea -and fishing, it comes to the surface for the purpose of breathing with -such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy any one -at first sight to be sure that it was not a fish leaping for sport. - -Two kinds of geese frequent the Falklands. The upland species (Anas -Magellanica) is common, in pairs and in small flocks, throughout the -island. They do not migrate, but build on the small outlying islets. -This is supposed to be from fear of the foxes: and it is perhaps from -the same cause that these birds, though very tame by day, are shy and -wild in the dusk of the evening. They live entirely on vegetable -matter. - -The rock-goose, so called from living exclusively on the sea-beach -(Anas antarctica), is common both here and on the west coast of -America, as far north as Chile. In the deep and retired channels of -Tierra del Fuego, the snow-white gander, invariably accompanied by his -darker consort, and standing close by each other on some distant rocky -point, is a common feature in the landscape. - -In these islands a great loggerheaded duck or goose (Anas brachyptera), -which sometimes weighs twenty-two pounds, is very abundant. These -birds were in former days called, from their extraordinary manner of -paddling and splashing upon the water, race-horses; but now they are -named, much more appropriately, steamers. Their wings are too small -and weak to allow of flight, but by their aid, partly swimming and -partly flapping the surface of the water, they move very quickly. The -manner is something like that by which the common house-duck escapes -when pursued by a dog; but I am nearly sure that the steamer moves its -wings alternately, instead of both together, as in other birds. These -clumsy, loggerheaded ducks make such a noise and splashing, that the -effect is exceedingly curious. - -Thus we find in South America three birds which use their wings for -other purposes besides flight; the penguins as fins, the steamer as -paddles, and the ostrich as sails: and the Apteryz of New Zealand, as -well as its gigantic extinct prototype the Deinornis, possess only -rudimentary representatives of wings. The steamer is able to dive only -to a very short distance. It feeds entirely on shell-fish from the -kelp and tidal rocks: hence the beak and head, for the purpose of -breaking them, are surprisingly heavy and strong: the head is so strong -that I have scarcely been able to fracture it with my geological -hammer; and all our sportsmen soon discovered how tenacious these birds -were of life. When in the evening pluming themselves in a flock, they -make the same odd mixture of sounds which bull-frogs do within the -tropics. - -In Tierra del Fuego, as well as in the Falkland Islands, made many -observations on the lower marine animals, [11] but they are of little -general interest. I will mention only one class of facts, relating to -certain zoophytes in the more highly organized division of that class. -Several genera (Flustra, Eschara, Cellaria, Crisia, and others) agree -in having singular moveable organs (like those of Flustra avicularia, -found in the European seas) attached to their cells. The organ, in the -greater number of cases, very closely resembles the head of a vulture; -but the lower mandible can be opened much wider than in a real bird's -beak. The head itself possessed considerable powers of movement, by -means of a short neck. In one zoophyte the head itself was fixed, but -the lower jaw free: in another it was replaced by a triangular hood, -with beautifully-fitted trap-door, which evidently answered to the -lower mandible. In the greater number of species, each cell was -provided with one head, but in others each cell had two. - -The young cells at the end of the branches of these corallines contain -quite immature polypi, yet the vulture-head attached to them, though -small, are in every respect perfect When the polypus was removed by a -needle from any of the cells, these organs did not appear in the least -affected. When one of the vulture-like heads was cut off from the -cell, the lower mandible retained its power of opening and closing. -Perhaps the most singular part of their structure is, that when there -were more than two rows of cells on a branch, the central cells were -furnished with these appendages, of only one-fourth the size of the -outside ones. Their movements varied according to the species; but in -some I never saw the least motion; while others, with the lower -mandible generally wide open, oscillated backwards and forwards at the -rate of about five seconds each turn, others moved rapidly and by -starts. When touched with a needle, the beak generally seized the -point so firmly, that the whole branch might be shaken. - -These bodies have no relation whatever with the production of the eggs -or gemmules, as they are formed before the young polypi appear in the -cells at the end of the growing branches; as they move independently of -the polypi, and do not appear to be in any way connected with them; and -as they differ in size on the outer and inner rows of cells, I have -little doubt, that in their functions, they are related rather to the -horny axis of the branches than to the polypi in the cells. The fleshy -appendage at the lower extremity of the sea-pen (described at Bahia -Blanca) also forms part of the zoophyte, as a whole, in the same manner -as the roots of a tree form part of the whole tree, and not of the -individual leaf or flower-buds. - -In another elegant little coralline (Crisia?), each cell was furnished -with a long-toothed bristle, which had the power of moving quickly. -Each of these bristles and each of the vulture-like heads generally -moved quite independently of the others, but sometimes all on both -sides of a branch, sometimes only those on one side, moved together -coinstantaneously, sometimes each moved in regular order one after -another. In these actions we apparently behold as perfect a -transmission of will in the zoophyte, though composed of thousands of -distinct polypi, as in any single animal. The case, indeed, is not -different from that of the sea-pens, which, when touched, drew -themselves into the sand on the coast of Bahia Blanca. I will state -one other instance of uniform action, though of a very different -nature, in a zoophyte closely allied to Clytia, and therefore very -simply organized. Having kept a large tuft of it in a basin of -salt-water, when it was dark I found that as often as I rubbed any part -of a branch, the whole became strongly phosphorescent with a green -light: I do not think I ever saw any object more beautifully so. But -the remarkable circumstance was, that the flashes of light always -proceeded up the branches, from the base towards the extremities. - -The examination of these compound animals was always very interesting -to me. What can be more remarkable that to see a plant-like body -producing an egg, capable of swimming about and of choosing a proper -place to adhere to, which then sprouts into branches, each crowded with -innumerable distinct animals, often of complicated organizations. The -branches, moreover, as we have just seen, sometimes possess organs -capable of movement and independent of the polypi. Surprising as this -union of separate individuals in common stock must always appear, every -tree displays the same fact, for buds must be considered as individual -plants. It is, however, natural to consider a polypus, furnished with a -mouth, intestines, and other organs, as a distinct individual, whereas -the individuality of a leaf-bud is not easily realised, so that the -union of separate individuals in a common body is more striking in a -coralline than in a tree. Our conception of a compound animal, where -in some respects the individuality of each is not completed, may be -aided, by reflecting on the production of two distinct creatures by -bisecting a single one with a knife, or where Nature herself performs -the task of bisection. We may consider the polypi in a zoophyte, or -the buds in a tree, as cases where the division of the individual has -not been completely effected. Certainly in the case of trees, and -judging from analogy in that of corallines, the individuals propagated -by buds seem more intimately related to each other, than eggs or seeds -are to their parents. It seems now pretty well established that plants -propagated by buds all partake of a common duration of life; and it is -familiar to every one, what singular and numerous peculiarities are -transmitted with certainty, by buds, layers, and grafts, which by -seminal propagation never or only casually reappear. - -[1] The desserts of Syria are characterized, according to Volney (tom. -i. p. 351), by woody bushes, numerous rats, gazelles and hares. In the -landscape of Patagonia, the guanaco replaces the gazelle, and the -agouti the hare. - -[2] I noticed that several hours before any one of the condors died, -all the lice, with which it was infested, crawled to the outside -feathers. I was assured that this always happens. - -[3] London's Magazine of Nat. Hist., vol. vii. - -[4] From accounts published since our voyage, and more especially from -several interesting letters from Capt. Sulivan, R. N., employed on the -survey, it appears that we took an exaggerated view of the badness of -the climate on these islands. But when I reflect on the almost -universal covering of peat, and on the fact of wheat seldom ripening -here, I can hardly believe that the climate in summer is so fine and -dry as it has lately been represented. - -[5] Lesson's Zoology of the Voyage of the Coquille, tom. i. p. 168. All -the early voyagers, and especially Bougainville, distinctly state that -the wolf-like fox was the only native animal on the island. The -distinction of the rabbit as a species, is taken from peculiarities in -the fur, from the shape of the head, and from the shortness of the -ears. I may here observe that the difference between the Irish and -English hare rests upon nearly similar characters, only more strongly -marked. - -[6] I have reason, however, to suspect that there is a field-mouse. The -common European rat and mouse have roamed far from the habitations of -the settlers. The common hog has also run wild on one islet; all are -of a black colour: the boars are very fierce, and have great trunks. - -[7] The "culpeu" is the Canis Magellanicus brought home by Captain King -from the Strait of Magellan. It is common in Chile. - -[8] Pernety, Voyage aux Isles Malouines, p. 526. - -[9] "Nous n'avons pas ete moins saisis d'etonnement a la vue de -l'innombrable quantite de pierres de touts grandeurs, bouleversees les -unes sur les autres, et cependent rangees, comme si elles avoient ete -amoncelees negligemment pour remplir des ravins. On ne se lassoit pas -d'admirer les effets prodigieux de la nature."--Pernety, p. 526. - -[10] An inhabitant of Mendoza, and hence well capable of judging, -assured me that, during the several years he had resided on these -islands, he had never felt the slightest shock of an earthquake. - -[11] I was surprised to find, on counting the eggs of a large white -Doris (this sea-slug was three and a half inches long), how -extraordinarily numerous they were. From two to five eggs (each -three-thousandths of an inch in diameter) were contained in spherical -little case. These were arranged two deep in transverse rows forming a -ribbon. The ribbon adhered by its edge to the rock in an oval spire. -One which I found, measured nearly twenty inches in length and half in -breadth. By counting how many balls were contained in a tenth of an -inch in the row, and how many rows in an equal length of the ribbon, on -the most moderate computation there were six hundred thousand eggs. Yet -this Doris was certainly not very common; although I was often -searching under the stones, I saw only seven individuals. No fallacy -is more common with naturalists, than that the numbers of an individual -species depend on its powers of propagation. - - - -CHAPTER X - -TIERRA DEL FUEGO - -Tierra del Fuego, first arrival--Good Success Bay--An Account of the -Fuegians on board--Interview With the Savages--Scenery of the -Forests--Cape Horn--Wigwam Cove--Miserable Condition of the -Savages--Famines--Cannibals--Matricide--Religious Feelings--Great -Gale--Beagle Channel--Ponsonby Sound--Build Wigwams and settle the -Fuegians--Bifurcation of the Beagle Channel--Glaciers--Return to the -Ship--Second Visit in the Ship to the Settlement--Equality of Condition -amongst the Natives. - - -DECEMBER 17th, 1832.--Having now finished with Patagonia and the -Falkland Islands, I will describe our first arrival in Tierra del -Fuego. A little after noon we doubled Cape St. Diego, and entered the -famous strait of Le Maire. We kept close to the Fuegian shore, but the -outline of the rugged, inhospitable Statenland was visible amidst the -clouds. In the afternoon we anchored in the Bay of Good Success. While -entering we were saluted in a manner becoming the inhabitants of this -savage land. A group of Fuegians partly concealed by the entangled -forest, were perched on a wild point overhanging the sea; and as we -passed by, they sprang up and waving their tattered cloaks sent forth a -loud and sonorous shout. The savages followed the ship, and just -before dark we saw their fire, and again heard their wild cry. The -harbour consists of a fine piece of water half surrounded by low -rounded mountains of clay-slate, which are covered to the water's edge -by one dense gloomy forest. A single glance at the landscape was -sufficient to show me how widely different it was from anything I had -ever beheld. At night it blew a gale of wind, and heavy squalls from -the mountains swept past us. It would have been a bad time out at sea, -and we, as well as others, may call this Good Success Bay. - -In the morning the Captain sent a party to communicate with the -Fuegians. When we came within hail, one of the four natives who were -present advanced to receive us, and began to shout most vehemently, -wishing to direct us where to land. When we were on shore the party -looked rather alarmed, but continued talking and making gestures with -great rapidity. It was without exception the most curious and -interesting spectacle I ever beheld: I could not have believed how wide -was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than -between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a -greater power of improvement. The chief spokesman was old, and -appeared to be the head of the family; the three others were powerful -young men, about six feet high. The women and children had been sent -away. These Fuegians are a very different race from the stunted, -miserable wretches farther westward; and they seem closely allied to -the famous Patagonians of the Strait of Magellan. Their only garment -consists of a mantle made of guanaco skin, with the wool outside: this -they wear just thrown over their shoulders, leaving their persons as -often exposed as covered. Their skin is of a dirty coppery-red colour. - -The old man had a fillet of white feathers tied round his head, which -partly confined his black, coarse, and entangled hair. His face was -crossed by two broad transverse bars; one, painted bright red, reached -from ear to ear and included the upper lip; the other, white like -chalk, extended above and parallel to the first, so that even his -eyelids were thus coloured. The other two men were ornamented by -streaks of black powder, made of charcoal. The party altogether -closely resembled the devils which come on the stage in plays like Der -Freischutz. - -Their very attitudes were abject, and the expression of their -countenances distrustful, surprised, and startled. After we had -presented them with some scarlet cloth, which they immediately tied -round their necks, they became good friends. This was shown by the old -man patting our breasts, and making a chuckling kind of noise, as -people do when feeding chickens. I walked with the old man, and this -demonstration of friendship was repeated several times; it was -concluded by three hard slaps, which were given me on the breast and -back at the same time. He then bared his bosom for me to return the -compliment, which being done, he seemed highly pleased. The language -of these people, according to our notions, scarcely deserves to be -called articulate. Captain Cook has compared it to a man clearing his -throat, but certainly no European ever cleared his throat with so many -hoarse, guttural, and clicking sounds. - -They are excellent mimics: as often as we coughed or yawned, or made -any odd motion, they immediately imitated us. Some of our party began -to squint and look awry; but one of the young Fuegians (whose whole -face was painted black, excepting a white band across his eyes) -succeeded in making far more hideous grimaces. They could repeat with -perfect correctness each word in any sentence we addressed them, and -they remembered such words for some time. Yet we Europeans all know -how difficult it is to distinguish apart the sounds in a foreign -language. Which of us, for instance, could follow an American Indian -through a sentence of more than three words? All savages appear to -possess, to an uncommon degree, this power of mimicry. I was told, -almost in the same words, of the same ludicrous habit among the -Caffres; the Australians, likewise, have long been notorious for being -able to imitate and describe the gait of any man, so that he may be -recognized. How can this faculty be explained? is it a consequence of -the more practised habits of perception and keener senses, common to -all men in a savage state, as compared with those long civilized? - -When a song was struck up by our party, I thought the Fuegians would -have fallen down with astonishment. With equal surprise they viewed -our dancing; but one of the young men, when asked, had no objection to -a little waltzing. Little accustomed to Europeans as they appeared to -be, yet they knew and dreaded our fire-arms; nothing would tempt them -to take a gun in their hands. They begged for knives, calling them by -the Spanish word "cuchilla." They explained also what they wanted, by -acting as if they had a piece of blubber in their mouth, and then -pretending to cut instead of tear it. - -I have not as yet noticed the Fuegians whom we had on board. During -the former voyage of the Adventure and Beagle in 1826 to 1830, Captain -Fitz Roy seized on a party of natives, as hostages for the loss of a -boat, which had been stolen, to the great jeopardy of a party employed -on the survey; and some of these natives, as well as a child whom he -bought for a pearl-button, he took with him to England, determining to -educate them and instruct them in religion at his own expense. To -settle these natives in their own country, was one chief inducement to -Captain Fitz Roy to undertake our present voyage; and before the -Admiralty had resolved to send out this expedition, Captain Fitz Roy -had generously chartered a vessel, and would himself have taken them -back. The natives were accompanied by a missionary, R. Matthews; of -whom and of the natives, Captain Fitz Roy has published a full and -excellent account. Two men, one of whom died in England of the -small-pox, a boy and a little girl, were originally taken; and we had -now on board, York Minster, Jemmy Button (whose name expresses his -purchase-money), and Fuegia Basket. York Minster was a full-grown, -short, thick, powerful man: his disposition was reserved, taciturn, -morose, and when excited violently passionate; his affections were very -strong towards a few friends on board; his intellect good. Jemmy -Button was a universal favourite, but likewise passionate; the -expression of his face at once showed his nice disposition. He was -merry and often laughed, and was remarkably sympathetic with any one in -pain: when the water was rough, I was often a little sea-sick, and he -used to come to me and say in a plaintive voice, "Poor, poor fellow!" -but the notion, after his aquatic life, of a man being sea-sick, was -too ludicrous, and he was generally obliged to turn on one side to hide -a smile or laugh, and then he would repeat his "Poor, poor fellow!" He -was of a patriotic disposition; and he liked to praise his own tribe -and country, in which he truly said there were "plenty of trees," and -he abused all the other tribes: he stoutly declared that there was no -Devil in his land. Jemmy was short, thick, and fat, but vain of his -personal appearance; he used always to wear gloves, his hair was neatly -cut, and he was distressed if his well-polished shoes were dirtied. He -was fond of admiring himself in a looking glass; and a merry-faced -little Indian boy from the Rio Negro, whom we had for some months on -board, soon perceived this, and used to mock him: Jemmy, who was always -rather jealous of the attention paid to this little boy, did not at all -like this, and used to say, with rather a contemptuous twist of his -head, "Too much skylark." It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think -over all his many good qualities that he should have been of the same -race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, -degraded savages whom we first met here. Lastly, Fuegia Basket was a -nice, modest, reserved young girl, with a rather pleasing but sometimes -sullen expression, and very quick in learning anything, especially -languages. This she showed in picking up some Portuguese and Spanish, -when left on shore for only a short time at Rio de Janeiro and Monte -Video, and in her knowledge of English. York Minster was very jealous -of any attention paid to her; for it was clear he determined to marry -her as soon as they were settled on shore. - -Although all three could both speak and understand a good deal of -English, it was singularly difficult to obtain much information from -them, concerning the habits of their countrymen; this was partly owing -to their apparent difficulty in understanding the simplest alternative. -Every one accustomed to very young children, knows how seldom one can -get an answer even to so simple a question as whether a thing is black -or white; the idea of black or white seems alternately to fill their -minds. So it was with these Fuegians, and hence it was generally -impossible to find out, by cross questioning, whether one had rightly -understood anything which they had asserted. Their sight was -remarkably acute; it is well known that sailors, from long practice, -can make out a distant object much better than a landsman; but both -York and Jemmy were much superior to any sailor on board: several times -they have declared what some distant object has been, and though -doubted by every one, they have proved right, when it has been examined -through a telescope. They were quite conscious of this power; and -Jemmy, when he had any little quarrel with the officer on watch, would -say, "Me see ship, me no tell." - -It was interesting to watch the conduct of the savages, when we landed, -towards Jemmy Button: they immediately perceived the difference between -him and ourselves, and held much conversation one with another on the -subject. The old man addressed a long harangue to Jemmy, which it -seems was to invite him to stay with them. But Jemmy understood very -little of their language, and was, moreover, thoroughly ashamed of his -countrymen. When York Minster afterwards came on shore, they noticed -him in the same way, and told him he ought to shave; yet he had not -twenty dwarf hairs on his face, whilst we all wore our untrimmed -beards. They examined the colour of his skin, and compared it with -ours. One of our arms being bared, they expressed the liveliest -surprise and admiration at its whiteness, just in the same way in which -I have seen the ourangoutang do at the Zoological Gardens. We thought -that they mistook two or three of the officers, who were rather shorter -and fairer, though adorned with large beards, for the ladies of our -party. The tallest amongst the Fuegians was evidently much pleased at -his height being noticed. When placed back to back with the tallest of -the boat's crew, he tried his best to edge on higher ground, and to -stand on tiptoe. He opened his mouth to show his teeth, and turned his -face for a side view; and all this was done with such alacrity, that I -dare say he thought himself the handsomest man in Tierra del Fuego. -After our first feeling of grave astonishment was over, nothing could -be more ludicrous than the odd mixture of surprise and imitation which -these savages every moment exhibited. - - -The next day I attempted to penetrate some way into the country. Tierra -del Fuego may be described as a mountainous land, partly submerged in -the sea, so that deep inlets and bays occupy the place where valleys -should exist. The mountain sides, except on the exposed western coast, -are covered from the water's edge upwards by one great forest. The -trees reach to an elevation of between 1000 and 1500 feet, and are -succeeded by a band of peat, with minute alpine plants; and this again -is succeeded by the line of perpetual snow, which, according to Captain -King, in the Strait of Magellan descends to between 3000 and 4000 feet. -To find an acre of level land in any part of the country is most rare. -I recollect only one little flat piece near Port Famine, and another of -rather larger extent near Goeree Road. In both places, and everywhere -else, the surface is covered by a thick bed of swampy peat. Even within -the forest, the ground is concealed by a mass of slowly putrefying -vegetable matter, which, from being soaked with water, yields to the -foot. - -Finding it nearly hopeless to push my way through the wood, I followed -the course of a mountain torrent. At first, from the waterfalls and -number of dead trees, I could hardly crawl along; but the bed of the -stream soon became a little more open, from the floods having swept the -sides. I continued slowly to advance for an hour along the broken and -rocky banks, and was amply repaid by the grandeur of the scene. The -gloomy depth of the ravine well accorded with the universal signs of -violence. On every side were lying irregular masses of rock and -torn-up trees; other trees, though still erect, were decayed to the -heart and ready to fall. The entangled mass of the thriving and the -fallen reminded me of the forests within the tropics--yet there was a -difference: for in these still solitudes, Death, instead of Life, -seemed the predominant spirit. I followed the water-course till I came -to a spot where a great slip had cleared a straight space down the -mountain side. By this road I ascended to a considerable elevation, -and obtained a good view of the surrounding woods. The trees all -belong to one kind, the Fagus betuloides; for the number of the other -species of Fagus and of the Winter's Bark, is quite inconsiderable. -This beech keeps its leaves throughout the year; but its foliage is of -a peculiar brownish-green colour, with a tinge of yellow. As the whole -landscape is thus coloured, it has a sombre, dull appearance; nor is it -often enlivened by the rays of the sun. - -December 20th.--One side of the harbour is formed by a hill about 1500 -feet high, which Captain Fitz Roy has called after Sir J. Banks, in -commemoration of his disastrous excursion, which proved fatal to two -men of his party, and nearly so to Dr. Solander. The snow-storm, which -was the cause of their misfortune, happened in the middle of January, -corresponding to our July, and in the latitude of Durham! I was anxious -to reach the summit of this mountain to collect alpine plants; for -flowers of any kind in the lower parts are few in number. We followed -the same water-course as on the previous day, till it dwindled away, -and we were then compelled to crawl blindly among the trees. These, -from the effects of the elevation and of the impetuous winds, were low, -thick and crooked. At length we reached that which from a distance -appeared like a carpet of fine green turf, but which, to our vexation, -turned out to be a compact mass of little beech-trees about four or -five feet high. They were as thick together as box in the border of a -garden, and we were obliged to struggle over the flat but treacherous -surface. After a little more trouble we gained the peat, and then the -bare slate rock. - -A ridge connected this hill with another, distant some miles, and more -lofty, so that patches of snow were lying on it. As the day was not -far advanced, I determined to walk there and collect plants along the -road. It would have been very hard work, had it not been for a -well-beaten and straight path made by the guanacos; for these animals, -like sheep, always follow the same line. When we reached the hill we -found it the highest in the immediate neighbourhood, and the waters -flowed to the sea in opposite directions. We obtained a wide view over -the surrounding country: to the north a swampy moorland extended, but -to the south we had a scene of savage magnificence, well becoming -Tierra del Fuego. There was a degree of mysterious grandeur in -mountain behind mountain, with the deep intervening valleys, all -covered by one thick, dusky mass of forest. The atmosphere, likewise, -in this climate, where gale succeeds gale, with rain, hail, and sleet, -seems blacker than anywhere else. In the Strait of Magellan looking -due southward from Port Famine, the distant channels between the -mountains appeared from their gloominess to lead beyond the confines of -this world. - -December 21st.--The Beagle got under way: and on the succeeding day, -favoured to an uncommon degree by a fine easterly breeze, we closed in -with the Barnevelts, and running past Cape Deceit with its stony peaks, -about three o'clock doubled the weather-beaten Cape Horn. The evening -was calm and bright, and we enjoyed a fine view of the surrounding -isles. Cape Horn, however, demanded his tribute, and before night sent -us a gale of wind directly in our teeth. We stood out to sea, and on -the second day again made the land, when we saw on our weather-bow this -notorious promontory in its proper form--veiled in a mist, and its dim -outline surrounded by a storm of wind and water. Great black clouds -were rolling across the heavens, and squalls of rain, with hail, swept -by us with such extreme violence, that the Captain determined to run -into Wigwam Cove. This is a snug little harbour, not far from Cape -Horn; and here, at Christmas-eve, we anchored in smooth water. The -only thing which reminded us of the gale outside, was every now and -then a puff from the mountains, which made the ship surge at her -anchors. - -December 25th.--Close by the Cove, a pointed hill, called Kater's Peak, -rises to the height of 1700 feet. The surrounding islands all consist -of conical masses of greenstone, associated sometimes with less regular -hills of baked and altered clay-slate. This part of Tierra del Fuego -may be considered as the extremity of the submerged chain of mountains -already alluded to. The cove takes its name of "Wigwam" from some of -the Fuegian habitations; but every bay in the neighbourhood might be so -called with equal propriety. The inhabitants, living chiefly upon -shell-fish, are obliged constantly to change their place of residence; -but they return at intervals to the same spots, as is evident from the -piles of old shells, which must often amount to many tons in freight. -These heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by the bright green -colour of certain plants, which invariably grow on them. Among these -may be enumerated the wild celery and scurvy grass, two very -serviceable plants, the use of which has not been discovered by the -natives. - -The Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and dimensions, a haycock. It -merely consists of a few broken branches stuck in the ground, and very -imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes. -The whole cannot be the work of an hour, and it is only used for a few -days. At Goeree Roads I saw a place where one of these naked men had -slept, which absolutely offered no more cover than the form of a hare. -The man was evidently living by himself, and York Minster said he was -"very bad man," and that probably he had stolen something. On the west -coast, however, the wigwams are rather better, for they are covered -with seal-skins. We were detained here several days by the bad -weather. The climate is certainly wretched: the summer solstice was -now passed, yet every day snow fell on the hills, and in the valleys -there was rain, accompanied by sleet. The thermometer generally stood -about 45 degs., but in the night fell to 38 or 40 degs. From the damp -and boisterous state of the atmosphere, not cheered by a gleam of -sunshine, one fancied the climate even worse than it really was. - -While going one day on shore near Wollaston Island, we pulled alongside -a canoe with six Fuegians. These were the most abject and miserable -creatures I anywhere beheld. On the east coast the natives, as we have -seen, have guanaco cloaks, and on the west they possess seal-skins. -Amongst these central tribes the men generally have an otter-skin, or -some small scrap about as large as a pocket-handkerchief, which is -barely sufficient to cover their backs as low down as their loins. It -is laced across the breast by strings, and according as the wind blows, -it is shifted from side to side. But these Fuegians in the canoe were -quite naked, and even one full-grown woman was absolutely so. It was -raining heavily, and the fresh water, together with the spray, trickled -down her body. In another harbour not far distant, a woman, who was -suckling a recently-born child, came one day alongside the vessel, and -remained there out of mere curiosity, whilst the sleet fell and thawed -on her naked bosom, and on the skin of her naked baby! These poor -wretches were stunted in their growth, their hideous faces bedaubed -with white paint, their skins filthy and greasy, their hair entangled, -their voices discordant, and their gestures violent. Viewing such men, -one can hardly make one's self believe that they are fellow-creatures, -and inhabitants of the same world. It is a common subject of -conjecture what pleasure in life some of the lower animals can enjoy: -how much more reasonably the same question may be asked with respect to -these barbarians! At night, five or six human beings, naked and -scarcely protected from the wind and rain of this tempestuous climate, -sleep on the wet ground coiled up like animals. Whenever it is low -water, winter or summer, night or day, they must rise to pick -shell-fish from the rocks; and the women either dive to collect -sea-eggs, or sit patiently in their canoes, and with a baited hair-line -without any hook, jerk out little fish. If a seal is killed, or the -floating carcass of a putrid whale is discovered, it is a feast; and -such miserable food is assisted by a few tasteless berries and fungi. - -They often suffer from famine: I heard Mr. Low, a sealing-master -intimately acquainted with the natives of this country, give a curious -account of the state of a party of one hundred and fifty natives on the -west coast, who were very thin and in great distress. A succession of -gales prevented the women from getting shell-fish on the rocks, and -they could not go out in their canoes to catch seal. A small party of -these men one morning set out, and the other Indians explained to him, -that they were going a four days' journey for food: on their return, -Low went to meet them, and he found them excessively tired, each man -carrying a great square piece of putrid whale's-blubber with a hole in -the middle, through which they put their heads, like the Gauchos do -through their ponchos or cloaks. As soon as the blubber was brought -into a wigwam, an old man cut off thin slices, and muttering over them, -broiled them for a minute, and distributed them to the famished party, -who during this time preserved a profound silence. Mr. Low believes -that whenever a whale is cast on shore, the natives bury large pieces -of it in the sand, as a resource in time of famine; and a native boy, -whom he had on board, once found a stock thus buried. The different -tribes when at war are cannibals. From the concurrent, but quite -independent evidence of the boy taken by Mr. Low, and of Jemmy Button, -it is certainly true, that when pressed in winter by hunger, they kill -and devour their old women before they kill their dogs: the boy, being -asked by Mr. Low why they did this, answered, "Doggies catch otters, -old women no." This boy described the manner in which they are killed -by being held over smoke and thus choked; he imitated their screams as -a joke, and described the parts of their bodies which are considered -best to eat. Horrid as such a death by the hands of their friends and -relatives must be, the fears of the old women, when hunger begins to -press, are more painful to think of; we are told that they then often -run away into the mountains, but that they are pursued by the men and -brought back to the slaughter-house at their own firesides! - -Captain Fitz Roy could never ascertain that the Fuegians have any -distinct belief in a future life. They sometimes bury their dead in -caves, and sometimes in the mountain forests; we do not know what -ceremonies they perform. Jemmy Button would not eat land-birds, because -"eat dead men": they are unwilling even to mention their dead friends. -We have no reason to believe that they perform any sort of religious -worship; though perhaps the muttering of the old man before he -distributed the putrid blubber to his famished party, may be of this -nature. Each family or tribe has a wizard or conjuring doctor, whose -office we could never clearly ascertain. Jemmy believed in dreams, -though not, as I have said, in the devil: I do not think that our -Fuegians were much more superstitious than some of the sailors; for an -old quartermaster firmly believed that the successive heavy gales, -which we encountered off Cape Horn, were caused by our having the -Fuegians on board. The nearest approach to a religious feeling which I -heard of, was shown by York Minster, who, when Mr. Bynoe shot some very -young ducklings as specimens, declared in the most solemn manner, "Oh, -Mr. Bynoe, much rain, snow, blow much." This was evidently a -retributive punishment for wasting human food. In a wild and excited -manner he also related, that his brother, one day whilst returning to -pick up some dead birds which he had left on the coast, observed some -feathers blown by the wind. His brother said (York imitating his -manner), "What that?" and crawling onwards, he peeped over the cliff, -and saw "wild man" picking his birds; he crawled a little nearer, and -then hurled down a great stone and killed him. York declared for a -long time afterwards storms raged, and much rain and snow fell. As far -as we could make out, he seemed to consider the elements themselves as -the avenging agents: it is evident in this case, how naturally, in a -race a little more advanced in culture, the elements would become -personified. What the "bad wild men" were, has always appeared to me -most mysterious: from what York said, when we found the place like the -form of a hare, where a single man had slept the night before, I should -have thought that they were thieves who had been driven from their -tribes; but other obscure speeches made me doubt this; I have sometimes -imagined that the most probable explanation was that they were insane. - -The different tribes have no government or chief; yet each is -surrounded by other hostile tribes, speaking different dialects, and -separated from each other only by a deserted border or neutral -territory: the cause of their warfare appears to be the means of -subsistence. Their country is a broken mass of wild rocks, lofty -hills, and useless forests: and these are viewed through mists and -endless storms. The habitable land is reduced to the stones on the -beach; in search of food they are compelled unceasingly to wander from -spot to spot, and so steep is the coast, that they can only move about -in their wretched canoes. They cannot know the feeling of having a -home, and still less that of domestic affection; for the husband is to -the wife a brutal master to a laborious slave. Was a more horrid deed -ever perpetrated, than that witnessed on the west coast by Byron, who -saw a wretched mother pick up her bleeding dying infant-boy, whom her -husband had mercilessly dashed on the stones for dropping a basket of -sea-eggs! How little can the higher powers of the mind be brought into -play: what is there for imagination to picture, for reason to compare, -or judgment to decide upon? to knock a limpet from the rock does not -require even cunning, that lowest power of the mind. Their skill in -some respects may be compared to the instinct of animals; for it is not -improved by experience: the canoe, their most ingenious work, poor as -it is, has remained the same, as we know from Drake, for the last two -hundred and fifty years. - -Whilst beholding these savages, one asks, whence have they come? What -could have tempted, or what change compelled a tribe of men, to leave -the fine regions of the north, to travel down the Cordillera or -backbone of America, to invent and build canoes, which are not used by -the tribes of Chile, Peru, and Brazil, and then to enter on one of the -most inhospitable countries within the limits of the globe? Although -such reflections must at first seize on the mind, yet we may feel sure -that they are partly erroneous. There is no reason to believe that the -Fuegians decrease in number; therefore we must suppose that they enjoy -a sufficient share of happiness, of whatever kind it may be, to render -life worth having. Nature by making habit omnipotent, and its effects -hereditary, has fitted the Fuegian to the climate and the productions -of his miserable country. - - -After having been detained six days in Wigwam Cove by very bad weather, -we put to sea on the 30th of December. Captain Fitz Roy wished to get -westward to land York and Fuegia in their own country. When at sea we -had a constant succession of gales, and the current was against us: we -drifted to 57 degs. 23' south. On the 11th of January, 1833, by -carrying a press of sail, we fetched within a few miles of the great -rugged mountain of York Minster (so called by Captain Cook, and the -origin of the name of the elder Fuegian), when a violent squall -compelled us to shorten sail and stand out to sea. The surf was -breaking fearfully on the coast, and the spray was carried over a cliff -estimated to 200 feet in height. On the 12th the gale was very heavy, -and we did not know exactly where we were: it was a most unpleasant -sound to hear constantly repeated, "keep a good look-out to leeward." -On the 13th the storm raged with its full fury: our horizon was -narrowly limited by the sheets of spray borne by the wind. The sea -looked ominous, like a dreary waving plain with patches of drifted -snow: whilst the ship laboured heavily, the albatross glided with its -expanded wings right up the wind. At noon a great sea broke over us, -and filled one of the whale boats, which was obliged to be instantly -cut away. The poor Beagle trembled at the shock, and for a few minutes -would not obey her helm; but soon, like a good ship that she was, she -righted and came up to the wind again. Had another sea followed the -first, our fate would have been decided soon, and for ever. We had now -been twenty-four days trying in vain to get westward; the men were worn -out with fatigue, and they had not had for many nights or days a dry -thing to put on. Captain Fitz Roy gave up the attempt to get westward -by the outside coast. In the evening we ran in behind False Cape Horn, -and dropped our anchor in forty-seven fathoms, fire flashing from the -windlass as the chain rushed round it. How delightful was that still -night, after having been so long involved in the din of the warring -elements! - -January 15th, 1833.--The Beagle anchored in Goeree Roads. Captain Fitz -Roy having resolved to settle the Fuegians, according to their wishes, -in Ponsonby Sound, four boats were equipped to carry them there through -the Beagle Channel. This channel, which was discovered by Captain Fitz -Roy during the last voyage, is a most remarkable feature in the -geography of this, or indeed of any other country: it may be compared -to the valley of Lochness in Scotland, with its chain of lakes and -friths. It is about one hundred and twenty miles long, with an average -breadth, not subject to any very great variation, of about two miles; -and is throughout the greater part so perfectly straight, that the -view, bounded on each side by a line of mountains, gradually becomes -indistinct in the long distance. It crosses the southern part of -Tierra del Fuego in an east and west line, and in the middle is joined -at right angles on the south side by an irregular channel, which has -been called Ponsonby Sound. This is the residence of Jemmy Button's -tribe and family. - -19th.--Three whale-boats and the yawl, with a party of twenty-eight, -started under the command of Captain Fitz Roy. In the afternoon we -entered the eastern mouth of the channel, and shortly afterwards found -a snug little cove concealed by some surrounding islets. Here we -pitched our tents and lighted our fires. Nothing could look more -comfortable than this scene. The glassy water of the little harbour, -with the branches of the trees hanging over the rocky beach, the boats -at anchor, the tents supported by the crossed oars, and the smoke -curling up the wooded valley, formed a picture of quiet retirement. The -next day (20th) we smoothly glided onwards in our little fleet, and -came to a more inhabited district. Few if any of these natives could -ever have seen a white man; certainly nothing could exceed their -astonishment at the apparition of the four boats. Fires were lighted -on every point (hence the name of Tierra del Fuego, or the land of -fire), both to attract our attention and to spread far and wide the -news. Some of the men ran for miles along the shore. I shall never -forget how wild and savage one group appeared: suddenly four or five -men came to the edge of an overhanging cliff; they were absolutely -naked, and their long hair streamed about their faces; they held rugged -staffs in their hands, and, springing from the ground, they waved their -arms round their heads, and sent forth the most hideous yells. - -At dinner-time we landed among a party of Fuegians. At first they were -not inclined to be friendly; for until the Captain pulled in ahead of -the other boats, they kept their slings in their hands. We soon, -however, delighted them by trifling presents, such as tying red tape -round their heads. They liked our biscuit: but one of the savages -touched with his finger some of the meat preserved in tin cases which I -was eating, and feeling it soft and cold, showed as much disgust at it, -as I should have done at putrid blubber. Jemmy was thoroughly ashamed -of his countrymen, and declared his own tribe were quite different, in -which he was wofully mistaken. It was as easy to please as it was -difficult to satisfy these savages. Young and old, men and children, -never ceased repeating the word "yammerschooner," which means "give -me." After pointing to almost every object, one after the other, even -to the buttons on our coats, and saying their favourite word in as many -intonations as possible, they would then use it in a neuter sense, and -vacantly repeat "yammerschooner." After yammerschoonering for any -article very eagerly, they would by a simple artifice point to their -young women or little children, as much as to say, "If you will not -give it me, surely you will to such as these." - -At night we endeavoured in vain to find an uninhabited cove; and at -last were obliged to bivouac not far from a party of natives. They -were very inoffensive as long as they were few in numbers, but in the -morning (21st) being joined by others they showed symptoms of -hostility, and we thought that we should have come to a skirmish. An -European labours under great disadvantages when treating with savages -like these, who have not the least idea of the power of fire-arms. In -the very act of levelling his musket he appears to the savage far -inferior to a man armed with a bow and arrow, a spear, or even a sling. -Nor is it easy to teach them our superiority except by striking a fatal -blow. Like wild beasts, they do not appear to compare numbers; for -each individual, if attacked, instead of retiring, will endeavour to -dash your brains out with a stone, as certainly as a tiger under -similar circumstances would tear you. Captain Fitz Roy on one occasion -being very anxious, from good reasons, to frighten away a small party, -first flourished a cutlass near them, at which they only laughed; he -then twice fired his pistol close to a native. The man both times -looked astounded, and carefully but quickly rubbed his head; he then -stared awhile, and gabbled to his companions, but he never seemed to -think of running away. We can hardly put ourselves in the position of -these savages, and understand their actions. In the case of this -Fuegian, the possibility of such a sound as the report of a gun close -to his ear could never have entered his mind. He perhaps literally did -not for a second know whether it was a sound or a blow, and therefore -very naturally rubbed his head. In a similar manner, when a savage -sees a mark struck by a bullet, it may be some time before he is able -at all to understand how it is effected; for the fact of a body being -invisible from its velocity would perhaps be to him an idea totally -inconceivable. Moreover, the extreme force of a bullet, that -penetrates a hard substance without tearing it, may convince the savage -that it has no force at all. Certainly I believe that many savages of -the lowest grade, such as these of Tierra del Fuego, have seen objects -struck, and even small animals killed by the musket, without being in -the least aware how deadly an instrument it is. - -22nd.--After having passed an unmolested night, in what would appear to -be neutral territory between Jemmy's tribe and the people whom we saw -yesterday, we sailed pleasantly along. I do not know anything which -shows more clearly the hostile state of the different tribes, than -these wide border or neutral tracts. Although Jemmy Button well knew -the force of our party, he was, at first, unwilling to land amidst the -hostile tribe nearest to his own. He often told us how the savage Oens -men "when the leaf red," crossed the mountains from the eastern coast -of Tierra del Fuego, and made inroads on the natives of this part of -the country. It was most curious to watch him when thus talking, and -see his eyes gleaming and his whole face assume a new and wild -expression. As we proceeded along the Beagle Channel, the scenery -assumed a peculiar and very magnificent character; but the effect was -much lessened from the lowness of the point of view in a boat, and from -looking along the valley, and thus losing all the beauty of a -succession of ridges. The mountains were here about three thousand -feet high, and terminated in sharp and jagged points. They rose in one -unbroken sweep from the water's edge, and were covered to the height of -fourteen or fifteen hundred feet by the dusky-coloured forest. It was -most curious to observe, as far as the eye could range, how level and -truly horizontal the line on the mountain side was, at which trees -ceased to grow: it precisely resembled the high-water mark of -drift-weed on a sea-beach. - -At night we slept close to the junction of Ponsonby Sound with the -Beagle Channel. A small family of Fuegians, who were living in the -cove, were quiet and inoffensive, and soon joined our party round a -blazing fire. We were well clothed, and though sitting close to the -fire were far from too warm; yet these naked savages, though further -off, were observed, to our great surprise, to be streaming with -perspiration at undergoing such a roasting. They seemed, however, very -well pleased, and all joined in the chorus of the seamen's songs: but -the manner in which they were invariably a little behindhand was quite -ludicrous. - -During the night the news had spread, and early in the morning (23rd) a -fresh party arrived, belonging to the Tekenika, or Jemmy's tribe. -Several of them had run so fast that their noses were bleeding, and -their mouths frothed from the rapidity with which they talked; and with -their naked bodies all bedaubed with black, white, [1] and red, they -looked like so many demoniacs who had been fighting. We then proceeded -(accompanied by twelve canoes, each holding four or five people) down -Ponsonby Sound to the spot where poor Jemmy expected to find his mother -and relatives. He had already heard that his father was dead; but as -he had had a "dream in his head" to that effect, he did not seem to -care much about it, and repeatedly comforted himself with the very -natural reflection--"Me no help it." He was not able to learn any -particulars regarding his father's death, as his relations would not -speak about it. - -Jemmy was now in a district well known to him, and guided the boats to -a quiet pretty cove named Woollya, surrounded by islets, every one of -which and every point had its proper native name. We found here a -family of Jemmy's tribe, but not his relations: we made friends with -them; and in the evening they sent a canoe to inform Jemmy's mother and -brothers. The cove was bordered by some acres of good sloping land, -not covered (as elsewhere) either by peat or by forest-trees. Captain -Fitz Roy originally intended, as before stated, to have taken York -Minster and Fuegia to their own tribe on the west coast; but as they -expressed a wish to remain here, and as the spot was singularly -favourable, Captain Fitz Roy determined to settle here the whole party, -including Matthews, the missionary. Five days were spent in building -for them three large wigwams, in landing their goods, in digging two -gardens, and sowing seeds. - -The next morning after our arrival (the 24th) the Fuegians began to -pour in, and Jemmy's mother and brothers arrived. Jemmy recognised the -stentorian voice of one of his brothers at a prodigious distance. The -meeting was less interesting than that between a horse, turned out into -a field, when he joins an old companion. There was no demonstration of -affection; they simply stared for a short time at each other; and the -mother immediately went to look after her canoe. We heard, however, -through York that the mother has been inconsolable for the loss of -Jemmy and had searched everywhere for him, thinking that he might have -been left after having been taken in the boat. The women took much -notice of and were very kind to Fuegia. We had already perceived that -Jemmy had almost forgotten his own language. I should think there was -scarcely another human being with so small a stock of language, for his -English was very imperfect. It was laughable, but almost pitiable, to -hear him speak to his wild brother in English, and then ask him in -Spanish ("no sabe?") whether he did not understand him. - -Everything went on peaceably during the three next days whilst the -gardens were digging and wigwams building. We estimated the number of -natives at about one hundred and twenty. The women worked hard, whilst -the men lounged about all day long, watching us. They asked for -everything they saw, and stole what they could. They were delighted at -our dancing and singing, and were particularly interested at seeing us -wash in a neighbouring brook; they did not pay much attention to -anything else, not even to our boats. Of all the things which York -saw, during his absence from his country, nothing seems more to have -astonished him than an ostrich, near Maldonado: breathless with -astonishment he came running to Mr. Bynoe, with whom he was out -walking--"Oh, Mr. Bynoe, oh, bird all same horse!" Much as our white -skins surprised the natives, by Mr. Low's account a negro-cook to a -sealing vessel, did so more effectually, and the poor fellow was so -mobbed and shouted at that he would never go on shore again. -Everything went on so quietly that some of the officers and myself took -long walks in the surrounding hills and woods. Suddenly, however, on -the 27th, every woman and child disappeared. We were all uneasy at -this, as neither York nor Jemmy could make out the cause. It was -thought by some that they had been frightened by our cleaning and -firing off our muskets on the previous evening; by others, that it was -owing to offence taken by an old savage, who, when told to keep further -off, had coolly spit in the sentry's face, and had then, by gestures -acted over a sleeping Fuegian, plainly showed, as it was said, that he -should like to cut up and eat our man. Captain Fitz Roy, to avoid the -chance of an encounter, which would have been fatal to so many of the -Fuegians, thought it advisable for us to sleep at a cove a few miles -distant. Matthews, with his usual quiet fortitude (remarkable in a man -apparently possessing little energy of character), determined to stay -with the Fuegians, who evinced no alarm for themselves; and so we left -them to pass their first awful night. - -On our return in the morning (28th) we were delighted to find all -quiet, and the men employed in their canoes spearing fish. Captain -Fitz Roy determined to send the yawl and one whale-boat back to the -ship; and to proceed with the two other boats, one under his own -command (in which he most kindly allowed me to accompany him), and one -under Mr. Hammond, to survey the western parts of the Beagle Channel, -and afterwards to return and visit the settlement. The day to our -astonishment was overpoweringly hot, so that our skins were scorched: -with this beautiful weather, the view in the middle of the Beagle -Channel was very remarkable. Looking towards either hand, no object -intercepted the vanishing points of this long canal between the -mountains. The circumstance of its being an arm of the sea was -rendered very evident by several huge whales [2] spouting in different -directions. On one occasion I saw two of these monsters, probably male -and female, slowly swimming one after the other, within less than a -stone's throw of the shore, over which the beech-tree extended its -branches. We sailed on till it was dark, and then pitched our tents in -a quiet creek. The greatest luxury was to find for our beds a beach of -pebbles, for they were dry and yielded to the body. Peaty soil is -damp; rock is uneven and hard; sand gets into one's meat, when cooked -and eaten boat-fashion; but when lying in our blanket-bags, on a good -bed of smooth pebbles, we passed most comfortable nights. - -It was my watch till one o'clock. There is something very solemn in -these scenes. At no time does the consciousness in what a remote -corner of the world you are then standing, come so strongly before the -mind. Everything tends to this effect; the stillness of the night is -interrupted only by the heavy breathing of the seamen beneath the -tents, and sometimes by the cry of a night-bird. The occasional -barking of a dog, heard in the distance, reminds one that it is the -land of the savage. - -January 20th.--Early in the morning we arrived at the point where the -Beagle Channel divides into two arms; and we entered the northern one. -The scenery here becomes even grander than before. The lofty mountains -on the north side compose the granitic axis, or backbone of the country -and boldly rise to a height of between three and four thousand feet, -with one peak above six thousand feet. They are covered by a wide -mantle of perpetual snow, and numerous cascades pour their waters, -through the woods, into the narrow channel below. In many parts, -magnificent glaciers extend from the mountain side to the water's edge. -It is scarcely possible to imagine anything more beautiful than the -beryl-like blue of these glaciers, and especially as contrasted with -the dead white of the upper expanse of snow. The fragments which had -fallen from the glacier into the water were floating away, and the -channel with its icebergs presented, for the space of a mile, a -miniature likeness of the Polar Sea. The boats being hauled on shore -at our dinner-hour, we were admiring from the distance of half a mile a -perpendicular cliff of ice, and were wishing that some more fragments -would fall. At last, down came a mass with a roaring noise, and -immediately we saw the smooth outline of a wave travelling towards us. -The men ran down as quickly as they could to the boats; for the chance -of their being dashed to pieces was evident. One of the seamen just -caught hold of the bows, as the curling breaker reached it: he was -knocked over and over, but not hurt, and the boats though thrice lifted -on high and let fall again, received no damage. This was most -fortunate for us, for we were a hundred miles distant from the ship, -and we should have been left without provisions or fire-arms. I had -previously observed that some large fragments of rock on the beach had -been lately displaced; but until seeing this wave, I did not understand -the cause. One side of the creek was formed by a spur of mica-slate; -the head by a cliff of ice about forty feet high; and the other side by -a promontory fifty feet high, built up of huge rounded fragments of -granite and mica-slate, out of which old trees were growing. This -promontory was evidently a moraine, heaped up at a period when the -glacier had greater dimensions. - -When we reached the western mouth of this northern branch of the Beagle -Channel, we sailed amongst many unknown desolate islands, and the -weather was wretchedly bad. We met with no natives. The coast was -almost everywhere so steep, that we had several times to pull many -miles before we could find space enough to pitch our two tents: one -night we slept on large round boulders, with putrefying sea-weed -between them; and when the tide rose, we had to get up and move our -blanket-bags. The farthest point westward which we reached was Stewart -Island, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles from our ship. -We returned into the Beagle Channel by the southern arm, and thence -proceeded, with no adventure, back to Ponsonby Sound. - -February 6th.--We arrived at Woollya. Matthews gave so bad an account -of the conduct of the Fuegians, that Captain Fitz Roy determined to -take him back to the Beagle; and ultimately he was left at New Zealand, -where his brother was a missionary. From the time of our leaving, a -regular system of plunder commenced; fresh parties of the natives kept -arriving: York and Jemmy lost many things, and Matthews almost -everything which had not been concealed underground. Every article -seemed to have been torn up and divided by the natives. Matthews -described the watch he was obliged always to keep as most harassing; -night and day he was surrounded by the natives, who tried to tire him -out by making an incessant noise close to his head. One day an old -man, whom Matthews asked to leave his wigwam, immediately returned with -a large stone in his hand: another day a whole party came armed with -stones and stakes, and some of the younger men and Jemmy's brother were -crying: Matthews met them with presents. Another party showed by signs -that they wished to strip him naked and pluck all the hairs out of his -face and body. I think we arrived just in time to save his life. -Jemmy's relatives had been so vain and foolish, that they had showed to -strangers their plunder, and their manner of obtaining it. It was -quite melancholy leaving the three Fuegians with their savage -countrymen; but it was a great comfort that they had no personal fears. -York, being a powerful resolute man, was pretty sure to get on well, -together with his wife Fuegia. Poor Jemmy looked rather disconsolate, -and would then, I have little doubt, have been glad to have returned -with us. His own brother had stolen many things from him; and as he -remarked, "What fashion call that:" he abused his countrymen, "all bad -men, no sabe (know) nothing" and, though I never heard him swear -before, "damned fools." Our three Fuegians, though they had been only -three years with civilized men, would, I am sure, have been glad to -have retained their new habits; but this was obviously impossible. I -fear it is more than doubtful, whether their visit will have been of -any use to them. - -In the evening, with Matthews on board, we made sail back to the ship, -not by the Beagle Channel, but by the southern coast. The boats were -heavily laden and the sea rough, and we had a dangerous passage. By -the evening of the 7th we were on board the Beagle after an absence of -twenty days, during which time we had gone three hundred miles in the -open boats. On the 11th, Captain Fitz Roy paid a visit by himself to -the Fuegians and found them going on well; and that they had lost very -few more things. - - -On the last day of February in the succeeding year (1834) the Beagle -anchored in a beautiful little cove at the eastern entrance of the -Beagle Channel. Captain Fitz Roy determined on the bold, and as it -proved successful, attempt to beat against the westerly winds by the -same route, which we had followed in the boats to the settlement at -Woollya. We did not see many natives until we were near Ponsonby Sound, -where we were followed by ten or twelve canoes. The natives did not at -all understand the reason of our tacking, and, instead of meeting us at -each tack, vainly strove to follow us in our zigzag course. I was -amused at finding what a difference the circumstance of being quite -superior in force made, in the interest of beholding these savages. -While in the boats I got to hate the very sound of their voices, so -much trouble did they give us. The first and last word was -"yammerschooner." When, entering some quiet little cove, we have looked -round and thought to pass a quiet night, the odious word -"yammerschooner" has shrilly sounded from some gloomy nook, and then -the little signal-smoke has curled up to spread the news far and wide. -On leaving some place we have said to each other, "Thank heaven, we -have at last fairly left these wretches!" when one more faint hallo -from an all-powerful voice, heard at a prodigious distance, would reach -our ears, and clearly could we distinguish--"yammerschooner." But now, -the more Fuegians the merrier; and very merry work it was. Both -parties laughing, wondering, gaping at each other; we pitying them, for -giving us good fish and crabs for rags, etc.; they grasping at the -chance of finding people so foolish as to exchange such splendid -ornaments for a good supper. It was most amusing to see the -undisguised smile of satisfaction with which one young woman with her -face painted black, tied several bits of scarlet cloth round her head -with rushes. Her husband, who enjoyed the very universal privilege in -this country of possessing two wives, evidently became jealous of all -the attention paid to his young wife; and, after a consultation with -his naked beauties, was paddled away by them. - -Some of the Fuegians plainly showed that they had a fair notion of -barter. I gave one man a large nail (a most valuable present) without -making any signs for a return; but he immediately picked out two fish, -and handed them up on the point of his spear. If any present was -designed for one canoe, and it fell near another, it was invariably -given to the right owner. The Fuegian boy, whom Mr. Low had on board -showed, by going into the most violent passion, that he quite -understood the reproach of being called a liar, which in truth he was. -We were this time, as on all former occasions, much surprised at the -little notice, or rather none whatever, which was taken of many things, -the use of which must have been evident to the natives. Simple -circumstances--such as the beauty of scarlet cloth or blue beads, the -absence of women, our care in washing ourselves,--excited their -admiration far more than any grand or complicated object, such as our -ship. Bougainville has well remarked concerning these people, that -they treat the "chefs d'oeuvre de l'industrie humaine, comme ils -traitent les loix de la nature et ses phenomenes." - -On the 5th of March, we anchored in a cove at Woollya, but we saw not a -soul there. We were alarmed at this, for the natives in Ponsonby Sound -showed by gestures, that there had been fighting; and we afterwards -heard that the dreaded Oens men had made a descent. Soon a canoe, with -a little flag flying, was seen approaching, with one of the men in it -washing the paint off his face. This man was poor Jemmy,--now a thin, -haggard savage, with long disordered hair, and naked, except a bit of -blanket round his waist. We did not recognize him till he was close to -us, for he was ashamed of himself, and turned his back to the ship. We -had left him plump, fat, clean, and well-dressed;--I never saw so -complete and grievous a change. As soon, however, as he was clothed, -and the first flurry was over, things wore a good appearance. He dined -with Captain Fitz Roy, and ate his dinner as tidily as formerly. He -told us that he had "too much" (meaning enough) to eat, that he was not -cold, that his relations were very good people, and that he did not -wish to go back to England: in the evening we found out the cause of -this great change in Jemmy's feelings, in the arrival of his young and -nice-looking wife. With his usual good feeling he brought two -beautiful otter-skins for two of his best friends, and some spear-heads -and arrows made with his own hands for the Captain. He said he had -built a canoe for himself, and he boasted that he could talk a little -of his own language! But it is a most singular fact, that he appears -to have taught all his tribe some English: an old man spontaneously -announced "Jemmy Button's wife." Jemmy had lost all his property. He -told us that York Minster had built a large canoe, and with his wife -Fuegia, [3] had several months since gone to his own country, and had -taken farewell by an act of consummate villainy; he persuaded Jemmy and -his mother to come with him, and then on the way deserted them by -night, stealing every article of their property. - -Jemmy went to sleep on shore, and in the morning returned, and remained -on board till the ship got under way, which frightened his wife, who -continued crying violently till he got into his canoe. He returned -loaded with valuable property. Every soul on board was heartily sorry -to shake hands with him for the last time. I do not now doubt that he -will be as happy as, perhaps happier than, if he had never left his own -country. Every one must sincerely hope that Captain Fitz Roy's noble -hope may be fulfilled, of being rewarded for the many generous -sacrifices which he made for these Fuegians, by some shipwrecked sailor -being protected by the descendants of Jemmy Button and his tribe! When -Jemmy reached the shore, he lighted a signal fire, and the smoke curled -up, bidding us a last and long farewell, as the ship stood on her -course into the open sea. - -The perfect equality among the individuals composing the Fuegian tribes -must for a long time retard their civilization. As we see those -animals, whose instinct compels them to live in society and obey a -chief, are most capable of improvement, so is it with the races of -mankind. Whether we look at it as a cause or a consequence, the more -civilized always have the most artificial governments. For instance, -the inhabitants of Otaheite, who, when first discovered, were governed -by hereditary kings, had arrived at a far higher grade than another -branch of the same people, the New Zealanders,--who, although benefited -by being compelled to turn their attention to agriculture, were -republicans in the most absolute sense. In Tierra del Fuego, until -some chief shall arise with power sufficient to secure any acquired -advantage, such as the domesticated animals, it seems scarcely possible -that the political state of the country can be improved. At present, -even a piece of cloth given to one is torn into shreds and distributed; -and no one individual becomes richer than another. On the other hand, -it is difficult to understand how a chief can arise till there is -property of some sort by which he might manifest his superiority and -increase his power. - -I believe, in this extreme part of South America, man exists in a lower -state of improvement than in any other part of the world. The South -Sea Islanders, of the two races inhabiting the Pacific, are -comparatively civilized. The Esquimau in his subterranean hut, enjoys -some of the comforts of life, and in his canoe, when fully equipped, -manifests much skill. Some of the tribes of Southern Africa prowling -about in search of roots, and living concealed on the wild and arid -plains, are sufficiently wretched. The Australian, in the simplicity -of the arts of life, comes nearest the Fuegian: he can, however, boast -of his boomerang, his spear and throwing-stick, his method of climbing -trees, of tracking animals, and of hunting. Although the Australian -may be superior in acquirements, it by no means follows that he is -likewise superior in mental capacity: indeed, from what I saw of the -Fuegians when on board and from what I have read of the Australians, I -should think the case was exactly the reverse. - -[1] This substance, when dry, is tolerably compact, and of little -specific gravity: Professor Ehrenberg has examined it: he states (Konig -Akad. der Wissen: Berlin, Feb. 1845) that it is composed of infusoria, -including fourteen polygastrica, and four phytolitharia. He says that -they are all inhabitants of fresh-water; this is a beautiful example of -the results obtainable through Professor Ehrenberg's microscopic -researches; for Jemmy Button told me that it is always collected at the -bottoms of mountain-brooks. It is, moreover, a striking fact that in -the geographical distribution of the infusoria, which are well known to -have very wide ranges, that all the species in this substance, although -brought from the extreme southern point of Tierra del Fuego, are old, -known forms. - -[2] One day, off the East coast of Tierra del Fuego, we saw a grand -sight in several spermaceti whales jumping upright quite out of the -water, with the exception of their tail-fins. As they fell down -sideways, they splashed the water high up, and the sound reverberated -like a distant broadside. - -[3] Captain Sulivan, who, since his voyage in the Beagle, has been -employed on the survey of the Falkland Islands, heard from a sealer in -(1842?), that when in the western part of the Strait of Magellan, he -was astonished by a native woman coming on board, who could talk some -English. Without doubt this was Fuega Basket. She lived (I fear the -term probably bears a double interpretation) some days on board. - - - -CHAPTER XI - -STRAIT OF MAGELLAN.--CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN COASTS - -Strait of Magellan--Port Famine--Ascent of Mount Tarn--Forests--Edible -Fungus--Zoology--Great Sea-weed--Leave Tierra del -Fuego--Climate--Fruit-trees and Productions of the Southern -Coasts--Height of Snow-line on the Cordillera--Descent of Glaciers to -the Sea--Icebergs formed--Transportal of Boulders--Climate and -Productions of the Antarctic Islands--Preservation of Frozen -Carcasses--Recapitulation. - - -IN THE end of May, 1834, we entered for a second time the eastern mouth -of the Strait of Magellan. The country on both sides of this part of -the Strait consists of nearly level plains, like those of Patagonia. -Cape Negro, a little within the second Narrows, may be considered as -the point where the land begins to assume the marked features of Tierra -del Fuego. On the east coast, south of the Strait, broken park-like -scenery in a like manner connects these two countries, which are -opposed to each other in almost every feature. It is truly surprising -to find in a space of twenty miles such a change in the landscape. If -we take a rather greater distance, as between Port Famine and Gregory -Bay, that is about sixty miles, the difference is still more wonderful. -At the former place, we have rounded mountains concealed by impervious -forests, which are drenched with the rain, brought by an endless -succession of gales; while at Cape Gregory, there is a clear and bright -blue sky over the dry and sterile plains. The atmospheric currents, -[1] although rapid, turbulent, and unconfined by any apparent limits, -yet seem to follow, like a river in its bed, a regularly determined -course. - -During our previous visit (in January), we had an interview at Cape -Gregory with the famous so-called gigantic Patagonians, who gave us a -cordial reception. Their height appears greater than it really is, -from their large guanaco mantles, their long flowing hair, and general -figure: on an average, their height is about six feet, with some men -taller and only a few shorter; and the women are also tall; altogether -they are certainly the tallest race which we anywhere saw. In features -they strikingly resemble the more northern Indians whom I saw with -Rosas, but they have a wilder and more formidable appearance: their -faces were much painted with red and black, and one man was ringed and -dotted with white like a Fuegian. Captain Fitz Roy offered to take any -three of them on board, and all seemed determined to be of the three. -It was long before we could clear the boat; at last we got on board -with our three giants, who dined with the Captain, and behaved quite -like gentlemen, helping themselves with knives, forks, and spoons: -nothing was so much relished as sugar. This tribe has had so much -communication with sealers and whalers that most of the men can speak a -little English and Spanish; and they are half civilized, and -proportionally demoralized. - -The next morning a large party went on shore, to barter for skins and -ostrich-feathers; fire-arms being refused, tobacco was in greatest -request, far more so than axes or tools. The whole population of the -toldos, men, women, and children, were arranged on a bank. It was an -amusing scene, and it was impossible not to like the so-called giants, -they were so thoroughly good-humoured and unsuspecting: they asked us -to come again. They seem to like to have Europeans to live with them; -and old Maria, an important woman in the tribe, once begged Mr. Low to -leave any one of his sailors with them. They spend the greater part of -the year here; but in summer they hunt along the foot of the -Cordillera: sometimes they travel as far as the Rio Negro 750 miles to -the north. They are well stocked with horses, each man having, -according to Mr. Low, six or seven, and all the women, and even -children, their one own horse. In the time of Sarmiento (1580), these -Indians had bows and arrows, now long since disused; they then also -possessed some horses. This is a very curious fact, showing the -extraordinarily rapid multiplication of horses in South America. The -horse was first landed at Buenos Ayres in 1537, and the colony being -then for a time deserted, the horse ran wild; [2] in 1580, only -forty-three years afterwards, we hear of them at the Strait of -Magellan! Mr. Low informs me, that a neighbouring tribe of -foot-Indians is now changing into horse-Indians: the tribe at Gregory -Bay giving them their worn-out horses, and sending in winter a few of -their best skilled men to hunt for them. - -June 1st.--We anchored in the fine bay of Port Famine. It was now the -beginning of winter, and I never saw a more cheerless prospect; the -dusky woods, piebald with snow, could be only seen indistinctly, -through a drizzling hazy atmosphere. We were, however, lucky in -getting two fine days. On one of these, Mount Sarmiento, a distant -mountain 6800 feet high, presented a very noble spectacle. I was -frequently surprised in the scenery of Tierra del Fuego, at the little -apparent elevation of mountains really lofty. I suspect it is owing to -a cause which would not at first be imagined, namely, that the whole -mass, from the summit to the water's edge, is generally in full view. I -remember having seen a mountain, first from the Beagle Channel, where -the whole sweep from the summit to the base was full in view, and then -from Ponsonby Sound across several successive ridges; and it was -curious to observe in the latter case, as each fresh ridge afforded -fresh means of judging of the distance, how the mountain rose in height. - -Before reaching Port Famine, two men were seen running along the shore -and hailing the ship. A boat was sent for them. They turned out to be -two sailors who had run away from a sealing-vessel, and had joined the -Patagonians. These Indians had treated them with their usual -disinterested hospitality. They had parted company through accident, -and were then proceeding to Port Famine in hopes of finding some ship. -I dare say they were worthless vagabonds, but I never saw more -miserable-looking ones. They had been living for some days on -mussel-shells and berries, and their tattered clothes had been burnt by -sleeping so near their fires. They had been exposed night and day, -without any shelter, to the late incessant gales, with rain, sleet, and -snow, and yet they were in good health. - -During our stay at Port Famine, the Fuegians twice came and plagued us. -As there were many instruments, clothes, and men on shore, it was -thought necessary to frighten them away. The first time a few great -guns were fired, when they were far distant. It was most ludicrous to -watch through a glass the Indians, as often as the shot struck the -water, take up stones, and, as a bold defiance, throw them towards the -ship, though about a mile and a half distant! A boat was sent with -orders to fire a few musket-shots wide of them. The Fuegians hid -themselves behind the trees, and for every discharge of the muskets -they fired their arrows; all, however, fell short of the boat, and the -officer as he pointed at them laughed. This made the Fuegians frantic -with passion, and they shook their mantles in vain rage. At last, -seeing the balls cut and strike the trees, they ran away, and we were -left in peace and quietness. During the former voyage the Fuegians -were here very troublesome, and to frighten them a rocket was fired at -night over their wigwams; it answered effectually, and one of the -officers told me that the clamour first raised, and the barking of the -dogs, was quite ludicrous in contrast with the profound silence which -in a minute or two afterwards prevailed. The next morning not a single -Fuegian was in the neighbourhood. - -When the Beagle was here in the month of February, I started one -morning at four o'clock to ascend Mount Tarn, which is 2600 feet high, -and is the most elevated point in this immediate district. We went in -a boat to the foot of the mountain (but unluckily not to the best -part), and then began our ascent. The forest commences at the line of -high-water mark, and during the first two hours I gave over all hopes -of reaching the summit. So thick was the wood, that it was necessary -to have constant recourse to the compass; for every landmark, though in -a mountainous country, was completely shut out. In the deep ravines, -the death-like scene of desolation exceeded all description; outside it -was blowing a gale, but in these hollows, not even a breath of wind -stirred the leaves of the tallest trees. So gloomy, cold, and wet was -every part, that not even the fungi, mosses, or ferns could flourish. -In the valleys it was scarcely possible to crawl along, they were so -completely barricaded by great mouldering trunks, which had fallen down -in every direction. When passing over these natural bridges, one's -course was often arrested by sinking knee deep into the rotten wood; at -other times, when attempting to lean against a firm tree, one was -startled by finding a mass of decayed matter ready to fall at the -slightest touch. We at last found ourselves among the stunted trees, -and then soon reached the bare ridge, which conducted us to the summit. -Here was a view characteristic of Tierra del Fuego; irregular chains of -hills, mottled with patches of snow, deep yellowish-green valleys, and -arms of the sea intersecting the land in many directions. The strong -wind was piercingly cold, and the atmosphere rather hazy, so that we -did not stay long on the top of the mountain. Our descent was not -quite so laborious as our ascent, for the weight of the body forced a -passage, and all the slips and falls were in the right direction. - -I have already mentioned the sombre and dull character of the evergreen -forests, [3] in which two or three species of trees grow, to the -exclusion of all others. Above the forest land, there are many dwarf -alpine plants, which all spring from the mass of peat, and help to -compose it: these plants are very remarkable from their close alliance -with the species growing on the mountains of Europe, though so many -thousand miles distant. The central part of Tierra del Fuego, where -the clay-slate formation occurs, is most favourable to the growth of -trees; on the outer coast the poorer granitic soil, and a situation -more exposed to the violent winds, do not allow of their attaining any -great size. Near Port Famine I have seen more large trees than -anywhere else: I measured a Winter's Bark which was four feet six -inches in girth, and several of the beech were as much as thirteen -feet. Captain King also mentions a beech which was seven feet in -diameter, seventeen feet above the roots. - -There is one vegetable production deserving notice from its importance -as an article of food to the Fuegians. It is a globular, bright-yellow -fungus, which grows in vast numbers on the beech-trees. When young it -is elastic and turgid, with - -[picture] - -a smooth surface; but when mature it shrinks, becomes tougher, and has -its entire surface deeply pitted or honey-combed, as represented in the -accompanying woodcut. This fungus belongs to a new and curious genus, -[4] I found a second species on another species of beech in Chile: and -Dr. Hooker informs me, that just lately a third species has been -discovered on a third species of beech in Van Diernan's Land. How -singular is this relationship between parasitical fungi and the trees -on which they grow, in distant parts of the world! In Tierra del Fuego -the fungus in its tough and mature state is collected in large -quantities by the women and children, and is eaten un-cooked. It has a -mucilaginous, slightly sweet taste, with a faint smell like that of a -mushroom. With the exception of a few berries, chiefly of a dwarf -arbutus, the natives eat no vegetable food besides this fungus. In New -Zealand, before the introduction of the potato, the roots of the fern -were largely consumed; at the present time, I believe, Tierra del Fuego -is the only country in the world where a cryptogamic plant affords a -staple article of food. - -The zoology of Tierra del Fuego, as might have been expected from the -nature of its climate and vegetation, is very poor. Of mammalia, -besides whales and seals, there is one bat, a kind of mouse (Reithrodon -chinchilloides), two true mice, a ctenomys allied to or identical with -the tucutuco, two foxes (Canis Magellanicus and C. Azarae), a -sea-otter, the guanaco, and a deer. Most of these animals inhabit only -the drier eastern parts of the country; and the deer has never been -seen south of the Strait of Magellan. Observing the general -correspondence of the cliffs of soft sandstone, mud, and shingle, on -the opposite sides of the Strait, and on some intervening islands, one -is strongly tempted to believe that the land was once joined, and thus -allowed animals so delicate and helpless as the tucutuco and Reithrodon -to pass over. The correspondence of the cliffs is far from proving any -junction; because such cliffs generally are formed by the intersection -of sloping deposits, which, before the elevation of the land, had been -accumulated near the then existing shores. It is, however, a -remarkable coincidence, that in the two large islands cut off by the -Beagle Channel from the rest of Tierra del Fuego, one has cliffs -composed of matter that may be called stratified alluvium, which front -similar ones on the opposite side of the channel,--while the other is -exclusively bordered by old crystalline rocks: in the former, called -Navarin Island, both foxes and guanacos occur; but in the latter, Hoste -Island, although similar in every respect, and only separated by a -channel a little more than half a mile wide, I have the word of Jemmy -Button for saying that neither of these animals are found. - -The gloomy woods are inhabited by few birds: occasionally the plaintive -note of a white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius albiceps) may be -heard, concealed near the summit of the most lofty trees; and more -rarely the loud strange cry of a black wood-pecker, with a fine scarlet -crest on its head. A little, dusky-coloured wren (Scytalopus -Magellanicus) hops in a skulking manner among the entangled mass of the -fallen and decaying trunks. But the creeper (Oxyurus tupinieri) is the -commonest bird in the country. Throughout the beech forests, high up -and low down, in the most gloomy, wet, and impenetrable ravines, it may -be met with. This little bird no doubt appears more numerous than it -really is, from its habit of following with seeming curiosity any -person who enters these silent woods: continually uttering a harsh -twitter, it flutters from tree to tree, within a few feet of the -intruder's face. It is far from wishing for the modest concealment of -the true creeper (Certhia familiaris); nor does it, like that bird, run -up the trunks of trees, but industriously, after the manner of a -willow-wren, hops about, and searches for insects on every twig and -branch. In the more open parts, three or four species of finches, a -thrush, a starling (or Icterus), two Opetiorhynchi, and several hawks -and owls occur. - -The absence of any species whatever in the whole class of Reptiles, is -a marked feature in the zoology of this country, as well as in that of -the Falkland Islands. I do not ground this statement merely on my own -observation, but I heard it from the Spanish inhabitants of the latter -place, and from Jemmy Button with regard to Tierra del Fuego. On the -banks of the Santa Cruz, in 50 degs. south, I saw a frog; and it is -not improbable that these animals, as well as lizards, may be found as -far south as the Strait of Magellan, where the country retains the -character of Patagonia; but within the damp and cold limit of Tierra -del Fuego not one occurs. That the climate would not have suited some -of the orders, such as lizards, might have been foreseen; but with -respect to frogs, this was not so obvious. - -Beetles occur in very small numbers: it was long before I could believe -that a country as large as Scotland, covered with vegetable productions -and with a variety of stations, could be so unproductive. The few -which I found were alpine species (Harpalidae and Heteromidae) living -under stones. The vegetable-feeding Chrysomelidae, so eminently -characteristic of the Tropics, are here almost entirely absent; [5] I -saw very few flies, butterflies, or bees, and no crickets or -Orthoptera. In the pools of water I found but a few aquatic beetles, -and not any fresh-water shells: Succinea at first appears an exception; -but here it must be called a terrestrial shell, for it lives on the -damp herbage far from the water. Land-shells could be procured only in -the same alpine situations with the beetles. I have already contrasted -the climate as well as the general appearance of Tierra del Fuego with -that of Patagonia; and the difference is strongly exemplified in the -entomology. I do not believe they have one species in common; -certainly the general character of the insects is widely different. - -If we turn from the land to the sea, we shall find the latter as -abundantly stocked with living creatures as the former is poorly so. In -all parts of the world a rocky and partially protected shore perhaps -supports, in a given space, a greater number of individual animals than -any other station. There is one marine production which, from its -importance, is worthy of a particular history. It is the kelp, or -Macrocystis pyrifera. This plant grows on every rock from low-water -mark to a great depth, both on the outer coast and within the channels. -[6] I believe, during the voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, not one -rock near the surface was discovered which was not buoyed by this -floating weed. The good service it thus affords to vessels navigating -near this stormy land is evident; and it certainly has saved many a one -from being wrecked. I know few things more surprising than to see this -plant growing and flourishing amidst those great breakers of the -western ocean, which no mass of rock, let it be ever so hard, can long -resist. The stem is round, slimy, and smooth, and seldom has a -diameter of so much as an inch. A few taken together are sufficiently -strong to support the weight of the large loose stones, to which in the -inland channels they grow attached; and yet some of these stones were -so heavy that when drawn to the surface, they could scarcely be lifted -into a boat by one person. Captain Cook, in his second voyage, says, -that this plant at Kerguelen Land rises from a greater depth than -twenty-four fathoms; "and as it does not grow in a perpendicular -direction, but makes a very acute angle with the bottom, and much of it -afterwards spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea, I am well -warranted to say that some of it grows to the length of sixty fathoms -and upwards." I do not suppose the stem of any other plant attains so -great a length as three hundred and sixty feet, as stated by Captain -Cook. Captain Fitz Roy, moreover, found it growing [7] up from the -greater depth of forty-five fathoms. The beds of this sea-weed, even -when of not great breadth, make excellent natural floating breakwaters. -It is quite curious to see, in an exposed harbour, how soon the waves -from the open sea, as they travel through the straggling stems, sink in -height, and pass into smooth water. - -The number of living creatures of all Orders, whose existence -intimately depends on the kelp, is wonderful. A great volume might be -written, describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of sea-weed. -Almost all the leaves, excepting those that float on the surface, are -so thickly incrusted with corallines as to be of a white colour. We -find exquisitely delicate structures, some inhabited by simple -hydra-like polypi, others by more organized kinds, and beautiful -compound Ascidiae. On the leaves, also, various patelliform shells, -Trochi, uncovered molluscs, and some bivalves are attached. Innumerable -crustacea frequent every part of the plant. On shaking the great -entangled roots, a pile of small fish, shells, cuttle-fish, crabs of -all orders, sea-eggs, star-fish, beautiful Holuthuriae, Planariae, and -crawling nereidous animals of a multitude of forms, all fall out -together. Often as I recurred to a branch of the kelp, I never failed -to discover animals of new and curious structures. In Chiloe, where -the kelp does not thrive very well, the numerous shells, corallines, -and crustacea are absent; but there yet remain a few of the -Flustraceae, and some compound Ascidiae; the latter, however, are of -different species from those in Tierra del Fuego: we see here the fucus -possessing a wider range than the animals which use it as an abode. I -can only compare these great aquatic forests of the southern hemisphere -with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any -country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe nearly so many species -of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of the -kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, -which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction -the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals, and -porpoises, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian savage, the -miserable lord of this miserable land, would redouble his cannibal -feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps cease to exist. - -June 8th.--We weighed anchor early in the morning and left Port Famine. -Captain Fitz Roy determined to leave the Strait of Magellan by the -Magdalen Channel, which had not long been discovered. Our course lay -due south, down that gloomy passage which I have before alluded to as -appearing to lead to another and worse world. The wind was fair, but -the atmosphere was very thick; so that we missed much curious scenery. -The dark ragged clouds were rapidly driven over the mountains, from -their summits nearly down to their bases. The glimpses which we caught -through the dusky mass were highly interesting; jagged points, cones of -snow, blue glaciers, strong outlines, marked on a lurid sky, were seen -at different distances and heights. In the midst of such scenery we -anchored at Cape Turn, close to Mount Sarmiento, which was then hidden -in the clouds. At the base of the lofty and almost perpendicular sides -of our little cove there was one deserted wigwam, and it alone reminded -us that man sometimes wandered into these desolate regions. But it -would be difficult to imagine a scene where he seemed to have fewer -claims or less authority. The inanimate works of nature--rock, ice, -snow, wind, and water--all warring with each other, yet combined -against man--here reigned in absolute sovereignty. - -June 9th.--In the morning we were delighted by seeing the veil of mist -gradually rise from Sarmiento, and display it to our view. This -mountain, which is one of the highest in Tierra del Fuego, has an -altitude of 6800 feet. Its base, for about an eighth of its total -height, is clothed by dusky woods, and above this a field of snow -extends to the summit. These vast piles of snow, which never melt, and -seem destined to last as long as the world holds together, present a -noble and even sublime spectacle. The outline of the mountain was -admirably clear and defined. Owing to the abundance of light reflected -from the white and glittering surface, no shadows were cast on any -part; and those lines which intersected the sky could alone be -distinguished: hence the mass stood out in the boldest relief. Several -glaciers descended in a winding course from the upper great expanse of -snow to the sea-coast: they may be likened to great frozen Niagaras; -and perhaps these cataracts of blue ice are full as beautiful as the -moving ones of water. By night we reached the western part of the -channel; but the water was so deep that no anchorage could be found. We -were in consequence obliged to stand off and on in this narrow arm of -the sea, during a pitch-dark night of fourteen hours long. - -June 10th.--In the morning we made the best of our way into the open -Pacific. The western coast generally consists of low, rounded, quite -barren hills of granite and greenstone. Sir J. Narborough called one -part South Desolation, because it is "so desolate a land to behold:" -and well indeed might he say so. Outside the main islands, there are -numberless scattered rocks on which the long swell of the open ocean -incessantly rages. We passed out between the East and West Furies; and -a little farther northward there are so many breakers that the sea is -called the Milky Way. One sight of such a coast is enough to make a -landsman dream for a week about shipwrecks, peril, and death; and with -this sight we bade farewell for ever to Tierra del Fuego. - -The following discussion on the climate of the southern parts of the -continent with relation to its productions, on the snow-line, on the -extraordinarily low descent of the glaciers, and on the zone of -perpetual congelation in the antarctic islands, may be passed over by -any one not interested in these curious subjects, or the final -recapitulation alone may be read. I shall, however, here give only an -abstract, and must refer for details to the Thirteenth Chapter and the -Appendix of the former edition of this work. - -On the Climate and Productions of Tierra del Fuego and of the -South-west Coast.--The following table gives the mean temperature of -Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and, for comparison, that of -Dublin:-- - - Summer Winter Mean of Summer - Latitude Temp. Temp. and Winter - --------------------------------------------------------------- - Tierra del Fuego 53 38' S. 50 33.08 41.54 - Falkland Islands 51 38' S. 51 -- -- - Dublin 53 21' N. 59.54 39.2 49.37 - - -Hence we see that the central part of Tierra del Fuego is colder in -winter, and no less than 9.5 degs. less hot in summer, than Dublin. -According to von Buch, the mean temperature of July (not the hottest -month in the year) at Saltenfiord in Norway, is as high as 57.8 degs., -and this place is actually 13 degs. nearer the pole than Port Famine! -[8] Inhospitable as this climate appears to our feelings evergreen -trees flourish luxuriantly under it. Humming-birds may be seen sucking -the flowers, and parrots feeding on the seeds of the Winter's Bark, in -lat. 55 degs. S. I have already remarked to what a degree the sea -swarms with living creatures; and the shells (such as the Patellae, -Fissurellae, Chitons, and Barnacles), according to Mr. G. B. Sowerby, -are of a much larger size and of a more vigorous growth, than the -analogous species in the northern hemisphere. A large Voluta is -abundant in southern Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands. At -Bahia Blanca, in lat. 39 degs. S., the most abundant shells were three -species of Oliva (one of large size), one or two Volutas, and a -Terebra. Now, these are amongst the best characterized tropical forms. -It is doubtful whether even one small species of Oliva exists on the -southern shores of Europe, and there are no species of the two other -genera. If a geologist were to find in lat 39 degs. on the coast of -Portugal a bed containing numerous shells belonging to three species of -Oliva, to a Voluta and Terebra, he would probably assert that the -climate at the period of their existence must have been tropical; but -judging from South America, such an inference might be erroneous. - -The equable, humid, and windy climate of Tierra del Fuego extends, with -only a small increase of heat, for many degrees along the west coast of -the continent. The forests for 600 miles northward of Cape Horn, have -a very similar aspect. As a proof of the equable climate, even for 300 -or 400 miles still further northward, I may mention that in Chiloe -(corresponding in latitude with the northern parts of Spain) the peach -seldom produces fruit, whilst strawberries and apples thrive to -perfection. Even the crops of barley and wheat [9] are often brought -into the houses to be dried and ripened. At Valdivia (in the same -latitude of 40 degs., with Madrid) grapes and figs ripen, but are not -common; olives seldom ripen even partially, and oranges not at all. -These fruits, in corresponding latitudes in Europe, are well known to -succeed to perfection; and even in this continent, at the Rio Negro, -under nearly the same parallel with Valdivia, sweet potatoes -(convolvulus) are cultivated; and grapes, figs, olives, oranges, water -and musk melons, produce abundant fruit. Although the humid and -equable climate of Chiloe, and of the coast northward and southward of -it, is so unfavourable to our fruits, yet the native forests, from lat. -45 to 38 degs., almost rival in luxuriance those of the glowing -intertropical regions. Stately trees of many kinds, with smooth and -highly coloured barks, are loaded by parasitical monocotyledonous -plants; large and elegant ferns are numerous, and arborescent grasses -entwine the trees into one entangled mass to the height of thirty or -forty feet above the ground. Palm-trees grow in lat 37 degs.; an -arborescent grass, very like a bamboo, in 40 degs.; and another closely -allied kind, of great length, but not erect, flourishes even as far -south as 45 degs. S. - -An equable climate, evidently due to the large area of sea compared -with the land, seems to extend over the greater part of the southern -hemisphere; and, as a consequence, the vegetation partakes of a -semi-tropical character. Tree-ferns thrive luxuriantly in Van Diemen's -Land (lat. 45 degs.), and I measured one trunk no less than six feet in -circumference. An arborescent fern was found by Forster in New Zealand -in 46 degs., where orchideous plants are parasitical on the trees. In -the Auckland Islands, ferns, according to Dr. Dieffenbach [10] have -trunks so thick and high that they may be almost called tree-ferns; and -in these islands, and even as far south as lat. 55 degs. in the -Macquarrie Islands, parrots abound. - -On the Height of the Snow-line, and on the Descent of the Glaciers in -South America.--For the detailed authorities for the following table, I -must refer to the former edition:-- - - Height in feet - Latitude of Snow-line Observer - ---------------------------------------------------------------- - Equatorial region; mean result 15,748 Humboldt. Bolivia, - lat. 16 to 18 degs. S. 17,000 Pentland. Central Chile, - lat. 33 degs. S. 14,500 - 15,000 Gillies, and - the Author. - Chiloe, lat. 41 to 43 degs. S. 6,000 Officers of the - Beagle and the - Author. - Tierra del Fuego, 54 degs. S. 3,500 - 4,000 King. - - -As the height of the plane of perpetual snow seems chiefly to be -determined by the extreme heat of the summer, rather than by the mean -temperature of the year, we ought not to be surprised at its descent in -the Strait of Magellan, where the summer is so cool, to only 3500 or -4000 feet above the level of the sea; although in Norway, we must -travel to between lat. 67 and 70 degs. N., that is, about 14 degs. -nearer the pole, to meet with perpetual snow at this low level. The -difference in height, namely, about 9000 feet, between the snow-line on -the Cordillera behind Chiloe (with its highest points ranging from only -5600 to 7500 feet) and in central Chile [11] (a distance of only 9 -degs. of latitude), is truly wonderful. The land from the southward of -Chiloe to near Concepcion (lat. 37 degs.) is hidden by one dense forest -dripping with moisture. The sky is cloudy, and we have seen how badly -the fruits of southern Europe succeed. In central Chile, on the other -hand, a little northward of Concepcion, the sky is generally clear, -rain does not fall for the seven summer months, and southern European -fruits succeed admirably; and even the sugar-cane has been cultivated. -[12] No doubt the plane of perpetual snow undergoes the above -remarkable flexure of 9000 feet, unparalleled in other parts of the -world, not far from the latitude of Concepcion, where the land ceases -to be covered with forest-trees; for trees in South America indicate a -rainy climate, and rain a clouded sky and little heat in summer. - -The descent of glaciers to the sea must, I conceive, mainly depend -(subject, of course, to a proper supply of snow in the upper region) on -the lowness of the line of perpetual snow on steep mountains near the -coast. As the snow-line is so low in Tierra del Fuego, we might have -expected that many of the glaciers would have reached the sea. -Nevertheless, I was astonished when I first saw a range, only from 3000 -to 4000 feet in height, in the latitude of Cumberland, with every -valley filled with streams of ice descending to the sea-coast. Almost -every arm of the sea, which penetrates to the interior higher chain, -not only in Tierra del Fuego, but on the coast for 650 miles -northwards, is terminated by "tremendous and astonishing glaciers," as -described by one of the officers on the survey. Great masses of ice -frequently fall from these icy cliffs, and the crash reverberates like -the broadside of a man-of-war through the lonely channels. These -falls, as noticed in the last chapter, produce great waves which break -on the adjoining coasts. It is known that earthquakes frequently cause -masses of earth to fall from sea-cliffs: how terrific, then, would be -the effect of a severe shock (and such occur here [13]) on a body like -a glacier, already in motion, and traversed by fissures! I can readily -believe that the water would be fairly beaten back out of the deepest -channel, and then, returning with an overwhelming force, would whirl -about huge masses of rock like so much chaff. In Eyre's Sound, in the -latitude of Paris, there are immense glaciers, and yet the loftiest -neighbouring mountain is only 6200 feet high. In this Sound, about -fifty icebergs were seen at one time floating outwards, and one of them -must have been at least 168 feet in total height. Some of the icebergs -were loaded with blocks of no inconsiderable size, of granite and other -rocks, different from the clay-slate of the surrounding mountains. The -glacier furthest from the pole, surveyed during the voyages of the -Adventure and Beagle, is in lat. 46 degs. 50', in the Gulf of Penas. It -is 15 miles long, and in one part 7 broad and descends to the -sea-coast. But even a few miles northward of this glacier, in Laguna -de San - -[picture] - -Rafael, some Spanish missionaries [14] encountered "many icebergs, some -great, some small, and others middle-sized," in a narrow arm of the -sea, on the 22nd of the month corresponding with our June, and in a -latitude corresponding with that of the Lake of Geneva! - -In Europe, the most southern glacier which comes down to the sea is met -with, according to Von Buch, on the coast of Norway, in lat. 67 degs. -Now, this is more than 20 degs. of latitude, or 1230 miles, nearer the -pole than the Laguna de San Rafael. The position of the glaciers at -this place and in the Gulf of Penas may be put even in a more striking -point of view, for they descend to the sea-coast within 7.5 degs. of -latitude, or 450 miles, of a harbour, where three species of Oliva, a -Voluta, and a Terebra, are the commonest shells, within less than 9 -degs. from where palms grow, within 4.5 degs. of a region where the -jaguar and puma range over the plains, less than 2.5 degs. from -arborescent grasses, and (looking to the westward in the same -hemisphere) less than 2 degs. from orchideous parasites, and within a -single degree of tree-ferns! - -These facts are of high geological interest with respect to the climate -of the northern hemisphere at the period when boulders were -transported. I will not here detail how simply the theory of icebergs -being charged with fragments of rock, explain the origin and position -of the gigantic boulders of eastern Tierra del Fuego, on the high plain -of Santa Cruz, and on the island of Chiloe. In Tierra del Fuego, the -greater number of boulders lie on the lines of old sea-channels, now -converted into dry valleys by the elevation of the land. They are -associated with a great unstratified formation of mud and sand, -containing rounded and angular fragments of all sizes, which has -originated [15] in the repeated ploughing up of the sea-bottom by the -stranding of icebergs, and by the matter transported on them. Few -geologists now doubt that those erratic boulders which lie near lofty -mountains have been pushed forward by the glaciers themselves, and that -those distant from mountains, and embedded in subaqueous deposits, have -been conveyed thither either on icebergs or frozen in coast-ice. The -connection between the transportal of boulders and the presence of ice -in some form, is strikingly shown by their geographical distribution -over the earth. In South America they are not found further than 48 -degs. of latitude, measured from the southern pole; in North America it -appears that the limit of their transportal extends to 53.5 degs. from -the northern pole; but in Europe to not more than 40 degs. of latitude, -measured from the same point. On the other hand, in the intertropical -parts of America, Asia, and Africa, they have never been observed; nor -at the Cape of Good Hope, nor in Australia. [16] - -On the Climate and Productions of the Antarctic Islands.--Considering -the rankness of the vegetation in Tierra del Fuego, and on the coast -northward of it, the condition of the islands south and south-west of -America is truly surprising. Sandwich Land, in the latitude of the -north part of Scotland, was found by Cook, during the hottest month of -the year, "covered many fathoms thick with everlasting snow;" and there -seems to be scarcely any vegetation. Georgia, an island 96 miles long -and 10 broad, in the latitude of Yorkshire, "in the very height of -summer, is in a manner wholly covered with frozen snow." It can boast -only of moss, some tufts of grass, and wild burnet; it has only one -land-bird (Anthus correndera), yet Iceland, which is 10 degs. nearer -the pole, has, according to Mackenzie, fifteen land-birds. The South -Shetland Islands, in the same latitude as the southern half of Norway, -possess only some lichens, moss, and a little grass; and Lieut. Kendall -[17] found the bay, in which he was at anchor, beginning to freeze at a -period corresponding with our 8th of September. The soil here consists -of ice and volcanic ashes interstratified; and at a little depth -beneath the surface it must remain perpetually congealed, for Lieut. -Kendall found the body of a foreign sailor which had long been buried, -with the flesh and all the features perfectly preserved. It is a -singular fact, that on the two great continents in the northern -hemisphere (but not in the broken land of Europe between them ), we -have the zone of perpetually frozen under-soil in a low -latitude--namely, in 56 degs. in North America at the depth of three -feet, [18] and in 62 degs. in Siberia at the depth of twelve to fifteen -feet--as the result of a directly opposite condition of things to those -of the southern hemisphere. On the northern continents, the winter is -rendered excessively cold by the radiation from a large area of land -into a clear sky, nor is it moderated by the warmth-bringing currents -of the sea; the short summer, on the other hand, is hot. In the -Southern Ocean the winter is not so excessively cold, but the summer is -far less hot, for the clouded sky seldom allows the sun to warm the -ocean, itself a bad absorbent of heat: and hence the mean temperature -of the year, which regulates the zone of perpetually congealed -under-soil, is low. It is evident that a rank vegetation, which does -not so much require heat as it does protection from intense cold, would -approach much nearer to this zone of perpetual congelation under the -equable climate of the southern hemisphere, than under the extreme -climate of the northern continents. - -The case of the sailor's body perfectly preserved in the icy soil of -the South Shetland Islands (lat. 62 to 63 degs. S.), in a rather lower -latitude than that (lat. 64 degs. N.) under which Pallas found the -frozen rhinoceros in Siberia, is very interesting. Although it is a -fallacy, as I have endeavoured to show in a former chapter, to suppose -that the larger quadrupeds require a luxuriant vegetation for their -support, nevertheless it is important to find in the South Shetland -Islands a frozen under-soil within 360 miles of the forest-clad islands -near Cape Horn, where, as far as the _bulk_ of vegetation is concerned, -any number of great quadrupeds might be supported. The perfect -preservation of the carcasses of the Siberian elephants and -rhinoceroses is certainly one of the most wonderful facts in geology; -but independently of the imagined difficulty of supplying them with -food from the adjoining countries, the whole case is not, I think, so -perplexing as it has generally been considered. The plains of Siberia, -like those of the Pampas, appear to have been formed under the sea, -into which rivers brought down the bodies of many animals; of the -greater number of these, only the skeletons have been preserved, but of -others the perfect carcass. Now, it is known that in the shallow sea -on the Arctic coast of America the bottom freezes, [19] and does not -thaw in spring so soon as the surface of the land, moreover at greater -depths, where the bottom of the sea does not freeze the mud a few feet -beneath the top layer might remain even in summer below 32 degs., as in -the case on the land with the soil at the depth of a few feet. At -still greater depths, the temperature of the mud and water would -probably not be low enough to preserve the flesh; and hence, carcasses -drifted beyond the shallow parts near an Arctic coast, would have only -their skeletons preserved: now in the extreme northern parts of Siberia -bones are infinitely numerous, so that even islets are said to be -almost composed of them; [20] and those islets lie no less than ten -degrees of latitude north of the place where Pallas found the frozen -rhinoceros. On the other hand, a carcass washed by a flood into a -shallow part of the Arctic Sea, would be preserved for an indefinite -period, if it were soon afterwards covered with mud sufficiently thick -to prevent the heat of the summer-water penetrating to it; and if, when -the sea-bottom was upraised into land, the covering was sufficiently -thick to prevent the heat of the summer air and sun thawing and -corrupting it. - -Recapitulation.--I will recapitulate the principal facts with regard to -the climate, ice-action, and organic productions of the southern -hemisphere, transposing the places in imagination to Europe, with which -we are so much better acquainted. Then, near Lisbon, the commonest -sea-shells, namely, three species of Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, -would have a tropical character. In the southern provinces of France, -magnificent forests, intwined by arborescent grasses and with the trees -loaded with parasitical plants, would hide the face of the land. The -puma and the jaguar would haunt the Pyrenees. In the latitude of Mont -Blanc, but on an island as far westward as Central North America, -tree-ferns and parasitical Orchideae would thrive amidst the thick -woods. Even as far north as central Denmark, humming-birds would be -seen fluttering about delicate flowers, and parrots feeding amidst the -evergreen woods; and in the sea there, we should have a Voluta, and all -the shells of large size and vigorous growth. Nevertheless, on some -islands only 360 miles northward of our new Cape Horn in Denmark, a -carcass buried in the soil (or if washed into a shallow sea, and -covered up with mud) would be preserved perpetually frozen. If some -bold navigator attempted to penetrate northward of these islands, he -would run a thousand dangers amidst gigantic icebergs, on some of which -he would see great blocks of rock borne far away from their original -site. Another island of large size in the latitude of southern -Scotland, but twice as far to the west, would be "almost wholly covered -with everlasting snow," and would have each bay terminated by -ice-cliffs, whence great masses would be yearly detached: this island -would boast only of a little moss, grass, and burnet, and a titlark -would be its only land inhabitant. From our new Cape Horn in Denmark, -a chain of mountains, scarcely half the height of the Alps, would run -in a straight line due southward; and on its western flank every deep -creek of the sea, or fiord, would end in "bold and astonishing -glaciers." These lonely channels would frequently reverberate with the -falls of ice, and so often would great waves rush along their coasts; -numerous icebergs, some as tall as cathedrals, and occasionally loaded -with "no inconsiderable blocks of rock," would be stranded on the -outlying islets; at intervals violent earthquakes would shoot -prodigious masses of ice into the waters below. Lastly, some -missionaries attempting to penetrate a long arm of the sea, would -behold the not lofty surrounding mountains, sending down their many -grand icy streams to the sea-coast, and their progress in the boats -would be checked by the innumerable floating icebergs, some small and -some great; and this would have occurred on our twenty-second of June, -and where the Lake of Geneva is now spread out! [21] - -[1] The south-westerly breezes are generally very dry. January 29th, -being at anchor under Cape Gregory: a very hard gale from W. by S., -clear sky with few cumuli; temperature 57 degs., dew-point 36 -degs.,--difference 21 degs. On January 15th, at Port St. Julian: in the -morning, light winds with much rain, followed by a very heavy squall -with rain,--settled into heavy gale with large cumuli,--cleared up, -blowing very strong from S.S.W. Temperature 60 degs., dew-point 42 -degs.,--difference 18 degs. - -[2] Rengger, Natur. der Saeugethiere von Paraguay. S. 334. - -[3] Captain Fitz Roy informs me that in April (our October), the leaves -of those trees which grow near the base of the mountains change colour, -but not those on the more elevated parts. I remember having read some -observations, showing that in England the leaves fall earlier in a warm -and fine autumn than in a late and cold one, The change in the colour -being here retarded in the more elevated, and therefore colder -situations, must be owing to the same general law of vegetation. The -trees of Tierra del Fuego during no part of the year entirely shed -their leaves. - -[4] Described from my specimens and notes by the Rev. J. M. Berkeley, -in the Linnean Transactions (vol. xix. p. 37), under the name of -Cyttaria Darwinii; the Chilean species is the C. Berteroii. This genus -is allied to Bulgaria. - -[5] I believe I must except one alpine Haltica, and a single specimen -of a Melasoma. Mr. Waterhouse informs me, that of the Harpalidae there -are eight or nine species--the forms of the greater number being very -peculiar; of Heteromera, four or five species; of Rhyncophora, six or -seven; and of the following families one species in each: -Staphylinidae, Elateridae, Cebrionidae, Melolonthidae. The species in -the other orders are even fewer. In all the orders, the scarcity of -the individuals is even more remarkable than that of the species. Most -of the Coleoptera have been carefully described by Mr. Waterhouse in -the Annals of Nat. Hist. - -[6] Its geographical range is remarkably wide; it is found from the -extreme southern islets near Cape Horn, as far north on the eastern -coast (according to information given me by Mr. Stokes) as lat. 43 -degs.,--but on the western coast, as Dr. Hooker tells me, it extends to -the R. San Francisco in California, and perhaps even to Kamtschatka. We -thus have an immense range in latitude; and as Cook, who must have been -well acquainted with the species, found it at Kerguelen Land, no less -than 140 degs. in longitude. - -[7] Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, vol. i. p. 363.--It appears -that sea-weed grows extremely quick.--Mr. Stephenson found (Wilson's -Voyage round Scotland, vol. ii. p. 228) that a rock uncovered only at -spring-tides, which had been chiselled smooth in November, on the -following May, that is, within six months afterwards, was thickly -covered with Fucus digitatus two feet, and F. esculentus six feet, in -length. - -[8] With regard to Tierra del Fuego, the results are deduced from the -observations of Capt. King (Geographical Journal, 1830), and those -taken on board the Beagle. For the Falkland Islands, I am indebted to -Capt. Sulivan for the mean of the mean temperature (reduced from -careful observations at midnight, 8 A.M., noon, and 8 P.M.) of the -three hottest months, viz., December, January, and February. The -temperature of Dublin is taken from Barton. - -[9] Agueros, Descrip. Hist. de la Prov. de Chiloe, 1791, p. 94. - -[10] See the German Translation of this Journal; and for the other -facts, Mr. Brown's Appendix to Flinders's Voyage. - - -[11] On the Cordillera of central Chile, I believe the snow-line varies -exceedingly in height in different summers. I was assured that during -one very dry and long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, -although it attains the prodigious height of 23,000 feet. It is -probable that much of the snow at these great heights is evaporated -rather than thawed. - -[12] Miers's Chile, vol. i. p. 415. It is said that the sugar-cane grew -at Ingenio, lat. 32 to 33 degs., but not in sufficient quantity to make -the manufacture profitable. In the valley of Quillota, south of -Ingenio, I saw some large date palm trees. - -[13] Bulkeley's and Cummin's Faithful Narrative of the Loss of the -Wager. The earthquake happened August 25, 1741. - -[14] Agueros, Desc. Hist. de Chiloe, p. 227. - -[15] Geological Transactions, vol. vi. p. 415. - -[16] I have given details (the first, I believe, published) on this -subject in the first edition, and in the Appendix to it. I have there -shown that the apparent exceptions to the absence of erratic boulders -in certain countries, are due to erroneous observations; several -statements there given I have since found confirmed by various authors. - -[17] Geographical Journal, 1830, pp. 65, 66. - -[18] Richardson's Append. to Back's Exped., and Humboldt's Fragm. -Asiat., tom. ii. p. 386. - -[19] Messrs. Dease and Simpson, in Geograph. Journ., vol. viii. pp. 218 -and 220. - -[20] Cuvier (Ossemens Fossiles, tom. i. p. 151), from Billing's Voyage. - -[21] In the former edition and Appendix, I have given some facts on the -transportal of erratic boulders and icebergs in the Atlantic Ocean. -This subject has lately been treated excellently by Mr. Hayes, in the -Boston Journal (vol. iv. p. 426). The author does not appear aware of -a case published by me (Geographical Journal, vol. ix. p. 528) of a -gigantic boulder embedded in an iceberg in the Antarctic Ocean, almost -certainly one hundred miles distant from any land, and perhaps much -more distant. In the Appendix I have discussed at length the -probability (at that time hardly thought of) of icebergs, when -stranded, grooving and polishing rocks, like glaciers. This is now a -very commonly received opinion; and I cannot still avoid the suspicion -that it is applicable even to such cases as that of the Jura. Dr. -Richardson has assured me that the icebergs off North America push -before them pebbles and sand, and leave the submarine rocky flats quite -bare; it is hardly possible to doubt that such ledges must be polished -and scored in the direction of the set of the prevailing currents. -Since writing that Appendix, I have seen in North Wales (London Phil. -Mag., vol. xxi. p. 180) the adjoining action of glaciers and floating -icebergs. - - - -CHAPTER XII - -CENTRAL CHILE - -Valparaiso--Excursion to the Foot of the Andes--Structure of the -Land--Ascend the Bell of Quillota--Shattered Masses of -Greenstone--Immense Valleys--Mines--State of -Miners--Santiago--Hot-baths of -Cauquenes--Gold-mines--Grinding-mills--Perforated Stones--Habits of the -Puma--El Turco and Tapacolo--Humming-birds. - - -JULY 23rd.--The Beagle anchored late at night in the bay of Valparaiso, -the chief seaport of Chile. When morning came, everything appeared -delightful. After Tierra del Fuego, the climate felt quite -delicious--the atmosphere so dry, and the heavens so clear and blue -with the sun shining brightly, that all nature seemed sparkling with -life. The view from the anchorage is very pretty. The town is built -at the very foot of a range of hills, about 1600 feet high, and rather -steep. From its position, it consists of one long, straggling street, -which runs parallel to the beach, and wherever a ravine comes down, the -houses are piled up on each side of it. The rounded hills, being only -partially protected by a very scanty vegetation, are worn into -numberless little gullies, which expose a singularly bright red soil. -From this cause, and from the low whitewashed houses with tile roofs, -the view reminded me of St. Cruz in Teneriffe. In a north-westerly -direction there are some fine glimpses of the Andes: but these -mountains appear much grander when viewed from the neighbouring hills: -the great distance at which they are situated can then more readily be -perceived. The volcano of Aconcagua is particularly magnificent. This -huge and irregularly conical mass has an elevation greater than that of -Chimborazo; for, from measurements made by the officers in the Beagle, -its height is no less than 23,000 feet. The Cordillera, however, -viewed from this point, owe the greater part of their beauty to the -atmosphere through which they are seen. When the sun was setting in -the Pacific, it was admirable to watch how clearly their rugged -outlines could be distinguished, yet how varied and how delicate were -the shades of their colour. - -I had the good fortune to find living here Mr. Richard Corfield, an old -schoolfellow and friend, to whose hospitality and kindness I was -greatly indebted, in having afforded me a most pleasant residence -during the Beagle's stay in Chile. The immediate neighbourhood of -Valparaiso is not very productive to the naturalist. During the long -summer the wind blows steadily from the southward, and a little off -shore, so that rain never falls; during the three winter months, -however, it is sufficiently abundant. The vegetation in consequence is -very scanty: except in some deep valleys, there are no trees, and only -a little grass and a few low bushes are scattered over the less steep -parts of the hills. When we reflect, that at the distance of 350 miles -to the south, this side of the Andes is completely hidden by one -impenetrable forest, the contrast is very remarkable. I took several -long walks while collecting objects of natural history. The country is -pleasant for exercise. There are many very beautiful flowers; and, as -in most other dry climates, the plants and shrubs possess strong and -peculiar odours--even one's clothes by brushing through them became -scented. I did not cease from wonder at finding each succeeding day as -fine as the foregoing. What a difference does climate make in the -enjoyment of life! How opposite are the sensations when viewing black -mountains half enveloped in clouds, and seeing another range through -the light blue haze of a fine day! The one for a time may be very -sublime; the other is all gaiety and happy life. - -August 14th.--I set out on a riding excursion, for the purpose of -geologizing the basal parts of the Andes, which alone at this time of -the year are not shut up by the winter snow. Our first day's ride was -northward along the sea-coast. After dark we reached the Hacienda of -Quintero, the estate which formerly belonged to Lord Cochrane. My -object in coming here was to see the great beds of shells, which stand -some yards above the level of the sea, and are burnt for lime. The -proofs of the elevation of this whole line of coast are unequivocal: at -the height of a few hundred feet old-looking shells are numerous, and I -found some at 1300 feet. These shells either lie loose on the surface, -or are embedded in a reddish-black vegetable mould. I was much -surprised to find under the microscope that this vegetable mould is -really marine mud, full of minute particles of organic bodies. - -15th.--We returned towards the valley of Quillota. The country was -exceedingly pleasant; just such as poets would call pastoral: green -open lawns, separated by small valleys with rivulets, and the cottages, -we may suppose of the shepherds scattered on the hill-sides. We were -obliged to cross the ridge of the Chilicauquen. At its base there were -many fine evergreen forest-trees, but these flourished only in the -ravines, where there was running water. Any person who had seen only -the country near Valparaiso, would never have imagined that there had -been such picturesque spots in Chile. As soon as we reached the brow of -the Sierra, the valley of Quillota was immediately under our feet. The -prospect was one of remarkable artificial luxuriance. The valley is -very broad and quite flat, and is thus easily irrigated in all parts. -The little square gardens are crowded with orange and olive trees, and -every sort of vegetable. On each side huge bare mountains rise, and -this from the contrast renders the patchwork valley the more pleasing. -Whoever called "Valparaiso" the "Valley of Paradise," must have been -thinking of Quillota. We crossed over to the Hacienda de San Isidro, -situated at the very foot of the Bell Mountain. - -Chile, as may be seen in the maps, is a narrow strip of land between -the Cordillera and the Pacific; and this strip is itself traversed by -several mountain-lines, which in this part run parallel to the great -range. Between these outer lines and the main Cordillera, a succession -of level basins, generally opening into each other by narrow passages, -extend far to the southward: in these, the principal towns are -situated, as San Felipe, Santiago, San Fernando. These basins or -plains, together with the transverse flat valleys (like that of -Quillota) which connect them with the coast, I have no doubt are the -bottoms of ancient inlets and deep bays, such as at the present day -intersect every part of Tierra del Fuego and the western coast. Chile -must formerly have resembled the latter country in the configuration of -its land and water. The resemblance was occasionally shown strikingly -when a level fog-bank covered, as with a mantle, all the lower parts of -the country: the white vapour curling into the ravines, beautifully -represented little coves and bays; and here and there a solitary -hillock peeping up, showed that it had formerly stood there as an -islet. The contrast of these flat valleys and basins with the -irregular mountains, gave the scenery a character which to me was new -and very interesting. - -From the natural slope to seaward of these plains, they are very easily -irrigated, and in consequence singularly fertile. Without this process -the land would produce scarcely anything, for during the whole summer -the sky is cloudless. The mountains and hills are dotted over with -bushes and low trees, and excepting these the vegetation is very -scanty. Each landowner in the valley possesses a certain portion of -hill-country, where his half-wild cattle, in considerable numbers, -manage to find sufficient pasture. Once every year there is a grand -"rodeo," when all the cattle are driven down, counted, and marked, and -a certain number separated to be fattened in the irrigated fields. -Wheat is extensively cultivated, and a good deal of Indian corn: a kind -of bean is, however, the staple article of food for the common -labourers. The orchards produce an overflowing abundance of peaches -figs, and grapes. With all these advantages, the inhabitants of the -country ought to be much more prosperous than they are. - -16th.--The mayor-domo of the Hacienda was good enough to give me a -guide and fresh horses; and in the morning we set out to ascend the -Campana, or Bell Mountain, which is 6400 feet high. The paths were -very bad, but both the geology and scenery amply repaid the trouble. We -reached by the evening, a spring called the Agua del Guanaco, which is -situated at a great height. This must be an old name, for it is very -many years since a guanaco drank its waters. During the ascent I -noticed that nothing but bushes grew on the northern slope, whilst on -the southern slope there was a bamboo about fifteen feet high. In a -few places there were palms, and I was surprised to see one at an -elevation of at least 4500 feet. These palms are, for their family, -ugly trees. Their stem is very large, and of a curious form, being -thicker in the middle than at the base or top. They are excessively -numerous in some parts of Chile, and valuable on account of a sort of -treacle made from the sap. On one estate near Petorca they tried to -count them, but failed, after having numbered several hundred thousand. -Every year in the early spring, in August, very many are cut down, and -when the trunk is lying on the ground, the crown of leaves is lopped -off. The sap then immediately begins to flow from the upper end, and -continues so doing for some months: it is, however, necessary that a -thin slice should be shaved off from that end every morning, so as to -expose a fresh surface. A good tree will give ninety gallons, and all -this must have been contained in the vessels of the apparently dry -trunk. It is said that the sap flows much more quickly on those days -when the sun is powerful; and likewise, that it is absolutely necessary -to take care, in cutting down the tree, that it should fall with its -head upwards on the side of the hill; for if it falls down the slope, -scarcely any sap will flow; although in that case one would have -thought that the action would have been aided, instead of checked, by -the force of gravity. The sap is concentrated by boiling, and is then -called treacle, which it very much resembles in taste. - -We unsaddled our horses near the spring, and prepared to pass the -night. The evening was fine, and the atmosphere so clear, that the -masts of the vessels at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso, although no -less than twenty-six geographical miles distant, could be distinguished -clearly as little black streaks. A ship doubling the point under sail, -appeared as a bright white speck. Anson expresses much surprise, in -his voyage, at the distance at which his vessels were discovered from -the coast; but he did not sufficiently allow for the height of the -land, and the great transparency of the air. - -The setting of the sun was glorious; the valleys being black whilst the -snowy peaks of the Andes yet retained a ruby tint. When it was dark, -we made a fire beneath a little arbour of bamboos, fried our charqui -(or dried slips of beef), took our mate, and were quite comfortable. -There is an inexpressible charm in thus living in the open air. The -evening was calm and still;--the shrill noise of the mountain bizcacha, -and the faint cry of a goatsucker, were occasionally to be heard. -Besides these, few birds, or even insects, frequent these dry, parched -mountains. - -August 17th.--In the morning we climbed up the rough mass of greenstone -which crowns the summit. This rock, as frequently happens, was much -shattered and broken into huge angular fragments. I observed, however, -one remarkable circumstance, namely, that many of the surfaces -presented every degree of freshness some appearing as if broken the day -before, whilst on others lichens had either just become, or had long -grown, attached. I so fully believed that this was owing to the -frequent earthquakes, that I felt inclined to hurry from below each -loose pile. As one might very easily be deceived in a fact of this -kind, I doubted its accuracy, until ascending Mount Wellington, in Van -Diemen's Land, where earthquakes do not occur; and there I saw the -summit of the mountain similarly composed and similarly shattered, but -all the blocks appeared as if they had been hurled into their present -position thousands of years ago. - -We spent the day on the summit, and I never enjoyed one more -thoroughly. Chile, bounded by the Andes and the Pacific, was seen as -in a map. The pleasure from the scenery, in itself beautiful, was -heightened by the many reflections which arose from the mere view of -the Campana range with its lesser parallel ones, and of the broad -valley of Quillota directly intersecting them. Who can avoid wondering -at the force which has upheaved these mountains, and even more so at -the countless ages which it must have required to have broken through, -removed, and levelled whole masses of them? It is well in this case to -call to mind the vast shingle and sedimentary beds of Patagonia, which, -if heaped on the Cordillera, would increase its height by so many -thousand feet. When in that country, I wondered how any mountain-chain -could have supplied such masses, and not have been utterly obliterated. -We must not now reverse the wonder, and doubt whether all-powerful time -can grind down mountains--even the gigantic Cordillera--into-gravel and -mud. - -The appearance of the Andes was different from that which I had -expected. The lower line of the snow was of course horizontal, and to -this line the even summits of the range seemed quite parallel. Only at -long intervals, a group of points or a single cone showed where a -volcano had existed, or does now exist. Hence the range resembled a -great solid wall, surmounted here and there by a tower, and making a -most perfect barrier to the country. - -Almost every part of the hill had been drilled by attempts to open -gold-mines: the rage for mining has left scarcely a spot in Chile -unexamined. I spent the evening as before, talking round the fire with -my two companions. The Guasos of Chile, who correspond to the Gauchos -of the Pampas, are, however, a very different set of beings. Chile is -the more civilized of the two countries, and the inhabitants, in -consequence, have lost much individual character. Gradations in rank -are much more strongly marked: the Guaso does not by any means consider -every man his equal; and I was quite surprised to find that my -companions did not like to eat at the same time with myself. This -feeling of inequality is a necessary consequence of the existence of an -aristocracy of wealth. It is said that some few of the greater -landowners possess from five to ten thousand pounds sterling per annum: -an inequality of riches which I believe is not met with in any of the -cattle-breeding countries eastward of the Andes. A traveller does not -here meet that unbounded hospitality which refuses all payment, but yet -is so kindly offered that no scruples can be raised in accepting it. -Almost every house in Chile will receive you for the night, but a -trifle is expected to be given in the morning; even a rich man will -accept two or three shillings. The Gaucho, although he may be a -cutthroat, is a gentleman; the Guaso is in few respects better, but at -the same time a vulgar, ordinary fellow. The two men, although -employed much in the same manner, are different in their habits and -attire; and the peculiarities of each are universal in their respective -countries. The Gaucho seems part of his horse, and scorns to exert -himself except when on his back: the Guaso may be hired to work as a -labourer in the fields. The former lives entirely on animal food; the -latter almost wholly on vegetable. We do not here see the white boots, -the broad drawers and scarlet chilipa; the picturesque costume of the -Pampas. Here, common trousers are protected by black and green worsted -leggings. The poncho, however, is common to both. The chief pride of -the Guaso lies in his spurs, which are absurdly large. I measured one -which was six inches in the _diameter_ of the rowel, and the rowel -itself contained upwards of thirty points. The stirrups are on the -same scale, each consisting of a square, carved block of wood, hollowed -out, yet weighing three or four pounds. The Guaso is perhaps more -expert with the lazo than the Gaucho; but, from the nature of the -country, he does not know the use of the bolas. - -August 18th.--We descended the mountain, and passed some beautiful -little spots, with rivulets and fine trees. Having slept at the same -hacienda as before, we rode during the two succeeding days up the -valley, and passed through Quillota, which is more like a collection of -nursery-gardens than a town. The orchards were beautiful, presenting -one mass of peach-blossoms. I saw, also, in one or two places the -date-palm; it is a most stately tree; and I should think a group of -them in their native Asiatic or African deserts must be superb. We -passed likewise San Felipe, a pretty straggling town like Quillota. The -valley in this part expands into one of those great bays or plains, -reaching to the foot of the Cordillera, which have been mentioned as -forming so curious a part of the scenery of Chile. In the evening we -reached the mines of Jajuel, situated in a ravine at the flank of the -great chain. I stayed here five days. My host the superintendent of -the mine, was a shrewd but rather ignorant Cornish miner. He had -married a Spanish woman, and did not mean to return home; but his -admiration for the mines of Cornwall remained unbounded. Amongst many -other questions, he asked me, "Now that George Rex is dead, how many -more of the family of Rexes are yet alive?" This Rex certainly must be -a relation of the great author Finis, who wrote all books! - -These mines are of copper, and the ore is all shipped to Swansea, to be -smelted. Hence the mines have an aspect singularly quiet, as compared -to those in England: here no smoke, furnaces, or great steam-engines, -disturb the solitude of the surrounding mountains. - -The Chilian government, or rather the old Spanish law, encourages by -every method the searching for mines. The discoverer may work a mine -on any ground, by paying five shillings; and before paying this he may -try, even in the garden of another man, for twenty days. - -It is now well known that the Chilian method of mining is the cheapest. -My host says that the two principal improvements introduced by -foreigners have been, first, reducing by previous roasting the copper -pyrites--which, being the common ore in Cornwall, the English miners -were astounded on their arrival to find thrown away as useless: -secondly, stamping and washing the scoriae from the old furnaces--by -which process particles of metal are recovered in abundance. I have -actually seen mules carrying to the coast, for transportation to -England, a cargo of such cinders. But the first case is much the most -curious. The Chilian miners were so convinced that copper pyrites -contained not a particle of copper, that they laughed at the Englishmen -for their ignorance, who laughed in turn, and bought their richest -veins for a few dollars. It is very odd that, in a country where -mining had been extensively carried on for many years, so simple a -process as gently roasting the ore to expel the sulphur previous to -smelting it, had never been discovered. A few improvements have -likewise been introduced in some of the simple machinery; but even to -the present day, water is removed from some mines by men carrying it up -the shaft in leathern bags! - -The labouring men work very hard. They have little time allowed for -their meals, and during summer and winter they begin when it is light, -and leave off at dark. They are paid one pound sterling a month, and -their food is given them: this for breakfast consists of sixteen figs -and two small loaves of bread; for dinner, boiled beans; for supper, -broken roasted wheat grain. They scarcely ever taste meat; as, with -the twelve pounds per annum, they have to clothe themselves, and -support their families. The miners who work in the mine itself have -twenty-five shillings per month, and are allowed a little charqui. But -these men come down from their bleak habitations only once in every -fortnight or three weeks. - -During my stay here I thoroughly enjoyed scrambling about these huge -mountains. The geology, as might have been expected, was very -interesting. The shattered and baked rocks, traversed by innumerable -dykes of greenstone, showed what commotions had formerly taken place. -The scenery was much the same as that near the Bell of Quillota--dry -barren mountains, dotted at intervals by bushes with a scanty foliage. -The cactuses, or rather opuntias were here very numerous. I measured -one of a spherical figure, which, including the spines, was six feet -and four inches in circumference. The height of the common -cylindrical, branching kind, is from twelve to fifteen feet, and the -girth (with spines) of the branches between three and four feet. - -A heavy fall of snow on the mountains prevented me during the last two -days, from making some interesting excursions. I attempted to reach a -lake which the inhabitants, from some unaccountable reason, believe to -be an arm of the sea. During a very dry season, it was proposed to -attempt cutting a channel from it for the sake of the water, but the -padre, after a consultation, declared it was too dangerous, as all -Chile would be inundated, if, as generally supposed, the lake was -connected with the Pacific. We ascended to a great height, but -becoming involved in the snow-drifts failed in reaching this wonderful -lake, and had some difficulty in returning. I thought we should have -lost our horses; for there was no means of guessing how deep the drifts -were, and the animals, when led, could only move by jumping. The black -sky showed that a fresh snow-storm was gathering, and we therefore were -not a little glad when we escaped. By the time we reached the base the -storm commenced, and it was lucky for us that this did not happen three -hours earlier in the day. - -August 26th.--We left Jajuel and again crossed the basin of San Felipe. -The day was truly Chilian: glaringly bright, and the atmosphere quite -clear. The thick and uniform covering of newly fallen snow rendered -the view of the volcano of Aconcagua and the main chain quite glorious. -We were now on the road to Santiago, the capital of Chile. We crossed -the Cerro del Talguen, and slept at a little rancho. The host, talking -about the state of Chile as compared to other countries, was very -humble: "Some see with two eyes, and some with one, but for my part I -do not think that Chile sees with any." - -August 27th.--After crossing many low hills we descended into the small -land-locked plain of Guitron. In the basins, such as this one, which -are elevated from one thousand to two thousand feet above the sea, two -species of acacia, which are stunted in their forms, and stand wide -apart from each other, grow in large numbers. These trees are never -found near the sea-coast; and this gives another characteristic feature -to the scenery of these basins. We crossed a low ridge which separates -Guitron from the great plain on which Santiago stands. The view was -here pre-eminently striking: the dead level surface, covered in parts -by woods of acacia, and with the city in the distance, abutting -horizontally against the base of the Andes, whose snowy peaks were -bright with the evening sun. At the first glance of this view, it was -quite evident that the plain represented the extent of a former inland -sea. As soon as we gained the level road we pushed our horses into a -gallop, and reached the city before it was dark. - -I stayed a week in Santiago, and enjoyed myself very much. In the -morning I rode to various places on the plain, and in the evening dined -with several of the English merchants, whose hospitality at this place -is well known. A never-failing source of pleasure was to ascend the -little hillock of rock (St. Lucia) which projects in the middle of the -city. The scenery certainly is most striking, and, as I have said, -very peculiar. I am informed that this same character is common to the -cities on the great Mexican platform. Of the town I have nothing to -say in detail: it is not so fine or so large as Buenos Ayres, but is -built after the same model. I arrived here by a circuit to the north; -so I resolved to return to Valparaiso by a rather longer excursion to -the south of the direct road. - -September 5th.--By the middle of the day we arrived at one of the -suspension bridges, made of hide, which cross the Maypu, a large -turbulent river a few leagues southward of Santiago. These bridges are -very poor affairs. The road, following the curvature of the suspending -ropes, is made of bundles of sticks placed close together. It was full -of holes, and oscillated rather fearfully, even with the weight of a -man leading his horse. In the evening we reached a comfortable -farm-house, where there were several very pretty senoritas. They were -much horrified at my having entered one of their churches out of mere -curiosity. They asked me, "Why do you not become a Christian--for our -religion is certain?" I assured them I was a sort of Christian; but -they would not hear of it--appealing to my own words, "Do not your -padres, your very bishops, marry?" The absurdity of a bishop having a -wife particularly struck them: they scarcely knew whether to be most -amused or horror-struck at such an enormity. - -6th.--We proceeded due south, and slept at Rancagua. The road passed -over the level but narrow plain, bounded on one side by lofty hills, -and on the other by the Cordillera. The next day we turned up the -valley of the Rio Cachapual, in which the hot-baths of Cauquenes, long -celebrated for their medicinal properties, are situated. The -suspension bridges, in the less frequented parts, are generally taken -down during the winter when the rivers are low. Such was the case in -this valley, and we were therefore obliged to cross the stream on -horseback. This is rather disagreeable, for the foaming water, though -not deep, rushes so quickly over the bed of large rounded stones, that -one's head becomes quite confused, and it is difficult even to perceive -whether the horse is moving onward or standing still. In summer, when -the snow melts, the torrents are quite impassable; their strength and -fury are then extremely great, as might be plainly seen by the marks -which they had left. We reached the baths in the evening, and stayed -there five days, being confined the two last by heavy rain. The -buildings consist of a square of miserable little hovels, each with a -single table and bench. They are situated in a narrow deep valley just -without the central Cordillera. It is a quiet, solitary spot, with a -good deal of wild beauty. - -The mineral springs of Cauquenes burst forth on a line of dislocation, -crossing a mass of stratified rock, the whole of which betrays the -action of heat. A considerable quantity of gas is continually escaping -from the same orifices with the water. Though the springs are only a -few yards apart, they have very different temperature; and this appears -to be the result of an unequal mixture of cold water: for those with -the lowest temperature have scarcely any mineral taste. After the great -earthquake of 1822 the springs ceased, and the water did not return for -nearly a year. They were also much affected by the earthquake of 1835; -the temperature being suddenly changed from 118 to 92 degs. [1] It -seems probable that mineral waters rising deep from the bowels of the -earth, would always be more deranged by subterranean disturbances than -those nearer the surface. The man who had charge of the baths assured -me that in summer the water is hotter and more plentiful than in -winter. The former circumstance I should have expected, from the less -mixture, during the dry season, of cold water; but the latter statement -appears very strange and contradictory. The periodical increase during -the summer, when rain never falls, can, I think, only be accounted for -by the melting of the snow: yet the mountains which are covered by snow -during that season, are three or four leagues distant from the springs. -I have no reason to doubt the accuracy of my informer, who, having -lived on the spot for several years, ought to be well acquainted with -the circumstance,--which, if true, certainly is very curious: for we -must suppose that the snow-water, being conducted through porous strata -to the regions of heat, is again thrown up to the surface by the line -of dislocated and injected rocks at Cauquenes; and the regularity of -the phenomenon would seem to indicate that in this district heated rock -occurred at a depth not very great. - -One day I rode up the valley to the farthest inhabited spot. Shortly -above that point, the Cachapual divides into two deep tremendous -ravines, which penetrate directly into the great range. I scrambled up -a peaked mountain, probably more than six thousand feet high. Here, as -indeed everywhere else, scenes of the highest interest presented -themselves. It was by one of these ravines, that Pincheira entered -Chile and ravaged the neighbouring country. This is the same man whose -attack on an estancia at the Rio Negro I have described. He was a -renegade half-caste Spaniard, who collected a great body of Indians -together and established himself by a stream in the Pampas, which place -none of the forces sent after him could ever discover. From this point -he used to sally forth, and crossing the Cordillera by passes hitherto -unattempted, he ravaged the farm-houses and drove the cattle to his -secret rendezvous. Pincheira was a capital horseman, and he made all -around him equally good, for he invariably shot any one who hesitated -to follow him. It was against this man, and other wandering Indian -tribes, that Rosas waged the war of extermination. - -September 13th.--We left the baths of Cauquenes, and, rejoining the -main road, slept at the Rio Clara. From this place we rode to the town -of San Fernando. Before arriving there, the last land-locked basin had -expanded into a great plain, which extended so far to the south, that -the snowy summits of the more distant Andes were seen as if above the -horizon of the sea. San Fernando is forty leagues from Santiago; and -it was my farthest point southward; for we here turned at right angles -towards the coast. We slept at the gold-mines of Yaquil, which are -worked by Mr. Nixon, an American gentleman, to whose kindness I was -much indebted during the four days I stayed at his house. The next -morning we rode to the mines, which are situated at the distance of -some leagues, near the summit of a lofty hill. On the way we had a -glimpse of the lake Tagua-tagua, celebrated for its floating islands, -which have been described by M. Gay. [2] They are composed of the -stalks of various dead plants intertwined together, and on the surface -of which other living ones take root. Their form is generally -circular, and their thickness from four to six feet, of which the -greater part is immersed in the water. As the wind blows, they pass -from one side of the lake to the other, and often carry cattle and -horses as passengers. - -When we arrived at the mine, I was struck by the pale appearance of -many of the men, and inquired from Mr. Nixon respecting their -condition. The mine is 450 feet deep, and each man brings up about 200 -pounds weight of stone. With this load they have to climb up the -alternate notches cut in the trunks of trees, placed in a zigzag line -up the shaft. Even beardless young men, eighteen and twenty years old, -with little muscular development of their bodies (they are quite naked -excepting drawers) ascend with this great load from nearly the same -depth. A strong man, who is not accustomed to this labour, perspires -most profusely, with merely carrying up his own body. With this very -severe labour, they live entirely on boiled beans and bread. They -would prefer having bread alone; but their masters, finding that they -cannot work so hard upon this, treat them like horses, and make them -eat the beans. Their pay is here rather more than at the mines of -Jajuel, being from 24 to 28 shillings per month. They leave the mine -only once in three weeks; when they stay with their families for two -days. One of the rules of this mine sounds very harsh, but answers -pretty well for the master. The only method of stealing gold is to -secrete pieces of the ore, and take them out as occasion may offer. -Whenever the major-domo finds a lump thus hidden, its full value is -stopped out of the wages of all the men; who thus, without they all -combine, are obliged to keep watch over each other. - -When the ore is brought to the mill, it is ground into an impalpable -powder; the process of washing removes all the lighter particles, and -amalgamation finally secures the gold-dust. The washing, when -described, sounds a very simple process; but it is beautiful to see how -the exact adaptation of the current of water to the specific gravity of -the gold, so easily separates the powdered matrix from the metal. The -mud which passes from the mills is collected into pools, where it -subsides, and every now and then is cleared out, and thrown into a -common heap. A great deal of chemical action then commences, salts of -various kinds effloresce on the surface, and the mass becomes hard. -After having been left for a year or two, and then rewashed, it yields -gold; and this process may be repeated even six or seven times; but the -gold each time becomes less in quantity, and the intervals required (as -the inhabitants say, to generate the metal) are longer. There can be -no doubt that the chemical action, already mentioned, each time -liberates fresh gold from some combination. The discovery of a method -to effect this before the first grinding would without doubt raise the -value of gold-ores many fold. - -It is curious to find how the minute particles of gold, being scattered -about and not corroding, at last accumulate in some quantity. A short -time since a few miners, being out of work, obtained permission to -scrape the ground round the house and mills; they washed the earth thus -got together, and so procured thirty dollars' worth of gold. This is -an exact counterpart of what takes place in nature. Mountains suffer -degradation and wear away, and with them the metallic veins which they -contain. The hardest rock is worn into impalpable mud, the ordinary -metals oxidate, and both are removed; but gold, platina, and a few -others are nearly indestructible, and from their weight, sinking to the -bottom, are left behind. After whole mountains have passed through this -grinding mill, and have been washed by the hand of nature, the residue -becomes metalliferous, and man finds it worth his while to complete the -task of separation. - -Bad as the above treatment of the miners appears, it is gladly accepted -of by them; for the condition of the labouring agriculturists is much -worse. Their wages are lower, and they live almost exclusively on -beans. This poverty must be chiefly owing to the feudal-like system on -which the land is tilled: the landowner gives a small plot of ground to -the labourer for building on and cultivating, and in return has his -services (or those of a proxy) for every day of his life, without any -wages. Until a father has a grown-up son, who can by his labour pay -the rent, there is no one, except on occasional days, to take care of -his own patch of ground. Hence extreme poverty is very common among the -labouring classes in this country. - -There are some old Indian ruins in this neighbourhood, and I was shown -one of the perforated stones, which Molina mentions as being found in -many places in considerable numbers. They are of a circular flattened -form, from five to six inches in diameter, with a hole passing quite -through the centre. It has generally been supposed that they were used -as heads to clubs, although their form does not appear at all well -adapted for that purpose. Burchell [3] states that some of the tribes -in Southern Africa dig up roots by the aid of a stick pointed at one -end, the force and weight of which are increased by a round stone with -a hole in it, into which the other end is firmly wedged. It appears -probable that the Indians of Chile formerly used some such rude -agricultural instrument. - -One day, a German collector in natural history, of the name of Renous, -called, and nearly at the same time an old Spanish lawyer. I was -amused at being told the conversation which took place between them. -Renous speaks Spanish so well, that the old lawyer mistook him for a -Chilian. Renous alluding to me, asked him what he thought of the King -of England sending out a collector to their country, to pick up lizards -and beetles, and to break stones? The old gentleman thought seriously -for some time, and then said, "It is not well,--_hay un gato encerrado -aqui_ (there is a cat shut up here). No man is so rich as to send out -people to pick up such rubbish. I do not like it: if one of us were to -go and do such things in England, do not you think the King of England -would very soon send us out of his country?" And this old gentleman, -from his profession, belongs to the better informed and more -intelligent classes! Renous himself, two or three years before, left -in a house at San Fernando some caterpillars, under charge of a girl to -feed, that they might turn into butterflies. This was rumoured through -the town, and at last the padres and governor consulted together, and -agreed it must be some heresy. Accordingly, when Renous returned, he -was arrested. - -September 19th.--We left Yaquil, and followed the flat valley, formed -like that of Quillota, in which the Rio Tinderidica flows. Even at -these few miles south of Santiago the climate is much damper; in -consequence there are fine tracts of pasturage, which are not -irrigated. (20th.) We followed this valley till it expanded into a -great plain, which reaches from the sea to the mountains west of -Rancagua. We shortly lost all trees and even bushes; so that the -inhabitants are nearly as badly off for firewood as those in the -Pampas. Never having heard of these plains, I was much surprised at -meeting with such scenery in Chile. The plains belong to more than one -series of different elevations, and they are traversed by broad -flat-bottomed valleys; both of which circumstances, as in Patagonia, -bespeak the action of the sea on gently rising land. In the steep -cliffs bordering these valleys, there are some large caves, which no -doubt were originally formed by the waves: one of these is celebrated -under the name of Cueva del Obispo; having formerly been consecrated. -During the day I felt very unwell, and from that time till the end of -October did not recover. - -September 22nd.--We continued to pass over green plains without a tree. -The next day we arrived at a house near Navedad, on the sea-coast, -where a rich Haciendero gave us lodgings. I stayed here the two -ensuing days, and although very unwell, managed to collect from the -tertiary formation some marine shells. - -24th.--Our course was now directed towards Valparaiso, which with great -difficulty I reached on the 27th, and was there confined to my bed till -the end of October. During this time I was an inmate in Mr. Corfield's -house, whose kindness to me I do not know how to express. - - -I will here add a few observations on some of the animals and birds of -Chile. The Puma, or South American Lion, is not uncommon. This animal -has a wide geographical range; being found from the equatorial forests, -throughout the deserts of Patagonia as far south as the damp and cold -latitudes (53 to 54 degs.) of Tierra del Fuego. I have seen its -footsteps in the Cordillera of central Chile, at an elevation of at -least 10,000 feet. In La Plata the puma preys chiefly on deer, -ostriches, bizcacha, and other small quadrupeds; it there seldom -attacks cattle or horses, and most rarely man. In Chile, however, it -destroys many young horses and cattle, owing probably to the scarcity -of other quadrupeds: I heard, likewise, of two men and a woman who had -been thus killed. It is asserted that the puma always kills its prey by -springing on the shoulders, and then drawing back the head with one of -its paws, until the vertebrae break: I have seen in Patagonia the -skeletons of guanacos, with their necks thus dislocated. - -The puma, after eating its fill, covers the carcass with many large -bushes, and lies down to watch it. This habit is often the cause of -its being discovered; for the condors wheeling in the air every now and -then descend to partake of the feast, and being angrily driven away, -rise all together on the wing. The Chileno Guaso then knows there is a -lion watching his prey--the word is given--and men and dogs hurry to -the chase. Sir F. Head says that a Gaucho in the pampas, upon merely -seeing some condors wheeling in the air, cried "A lion!" I could never -myself meet with any one who pretended to such powers of -discrimination. It is asserted that, if a puma has once been betrayed -by thus watching the carcass, and has then been hunted, it never -resumes this habit; but that, having gorged itself, it wanders far -away. The puma is easily killed. In an open country, it is first -entangled with the bolas, then lazoed, and dragged along the ground -till rendered insensible. At Tandeel (south of the plata), I was told -that within three months one hundred were thus destroyed. In Chile -they are generally driven up bushes or trees, and are then either shot, -or baited to death by dogs. The dogs employed in this chase belong to -a particular breed, called Leoneros: they are weak, slight animals, -like long-legged terriers, but are born with a particular instinct for -this sport. The puma is described as being very crafty: when pursued, -it often returns on its former track, and then suddenly making a spring -on one side, waits there till the dogs have passed by. It is a very -silent animal, uttering no cry even when wounded, and only rarely -during the breeding season. - -Of birds, two species of the genus Pteroptochos (megapodius and -albicollis of Kittlitz) are perhaps the most conspicuous. The former, -called by the Chilenos "el Turco," is as large as a fieldfare, to which -bird it has some alliance; but its legs are much longer, tail shorter, -and beak stronger: its colour is a reddish brown. The Turco is not -uncommon. It lives on the ground, sheltered among the thickets which -are scattered over the dry and sterile hills. With its tail erect, and -stilt-like legs, it may be seen every now and then popping from one -bush to another with uncommon quickness. It really requires little -imagination to believe that the bird is ashamed of itself, and is aware -of its most ridiculous figure. On first seeing it, one is tempted to -exclaim, "A vilely stuffed specimen has escaped from some museum, and -has come to life again!" It cannot be made to take flight without the -greatest trouble, nor does it run, but only hops. The various loud -cries which it utters when concealed amongst the bushes, are as strange -as its appearance. It is said to build its nest in a deep hole beneath -the ground. I dissected several specimens: the gizzard, which was very -muscular, contained beetles, vegetable fibres, and pebbles. From this -character, from the length of its legs, scratching feet, membranous -covering to the nostrils, short and arched wings, this bird seems in a -certain degree to connect the thrushes with the gallinaceous order. - -The second species (or P. albicollis) is allied to the first in its -general form. It is called Tapacolo, or "cover your posterior;" and -well does the shameless little bird deserve its name; for it carries -its tail more than erect, that is, inclined backwards towards its head. -It is very common, and frequents the bottoms of hedge-rows, and the -bushes scattered over the barren hills, where scarcely another bird can -exist. In its general manner of feeding, of quickly hopping out of the -thickets and back again, in its desire of concealment, unwillingness to -take flight, and nidification, it bears a close resemblance to the -Turco; but its appearance is not quite so ridiculous. The Tapacolo is -very crafty: when frightened by any person, it will remain motionless -at the bottom of a bush, and will then, after a little while, try with -much address to crawl away on the opposite side. It is also an active -bird, and continually making a noise: these noises are various and -strangely odd; some are like the cooing of doves, others like the -bubbling of water, and many defy all similes. The country people say -it changes its cry five times in the year--according to some change of -season, I suppose. [4] - -Two species of humming-birds are common; Trochilus forficatus is found -over a space of 2500 miles on the west coast, from the hot dry country -of Lima, to the forests of Tierra del Fuego--where it may be seen -flitting about in snow-storms. In the wooded island of Chiloe, which -has an extremely humid climate, this little bird, skipping from side to -side amidst the dripping foliage, is perhaps more abundant than almost -any other kind. I opened the stomachs of several specimens, shot in -different parts of the continent, and in all, remains of insects were -as numerous as in the stomach of a creeper. When this species migrates -in the summer southward, it is replaced by the arrival of another -species coming from the north. This second kind (Trochilus gigas) is a -very large bird for the delicate family to which it belongs: when on -the wing its appearance is singular. Like others of the genus, it -moves from place to place with a rapidity which may be compared to that -of Syrphus amongst flies, and Sphinx among moths; but whilst hovering -over a flower, it flaps its wings with a very slow and powerful -movement, totally different from that vibratory one common to most of -the species, which produces the humming noise. I never saw any other -bird where the force of its wings appeared (as in a butterfly) so -powerful in proportion to the weight of its body. When hovering by a -flower, its tail is constantly expanded and shut like a fan, the body -being kept in a nearly vertical position. This action appears to -steady and support the bird, between the slow movements of its wings. -Although flying from flower to flower in search of food, its stomach -generally contained abundant remains of insects, which I suspect are -much more the object of its search than honey. The note of this -species, like that of nearly the whole family, is extremely shrill. - -[1] Caldeleugh, in Philosoph. Transact. for 1836. - -[2] Annales des Sciences Naturelles, March, 1833. M. Gay, a zealous and -able naturalist, was then occupied in studying every branch of natural -history throughout the kingdom of Chile. - -[3] Burchess's Travels, vol. ii. p. 45. - -[4] It is a remarkable fact, that Molina, though describing in detail -all the birds and animals of Chile, never once mentions this genus, the -species of which are so common, and so remarkable in their habits. Was -he at a loss how to classify them, and did he consequently think that -silence was the more prudent course? It is one more instance of the -frequency of omissions by authors, on those very subjects where it -might have been least expected. - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -CHILOE AND CHONOS ISLANDS - -Chiloe--General Aspect--Boat Excursion--Native Indians--Castro--Tame -Fox--Ascend San Pedro--Chonos Archipelago--Peninsula of Tres -Montes--Granitic Range--Boat-wrecked Sailors--Low's Harbour--Wild -Potato--Formation of Peat--Myopotamus, Otter and Mice--Cheucau and -Barking-bird--Opetiorhynchus--Singular Character of -Ornithology--Petrels. - - -NOVEMBER 10th.--The Beagle sailed from Valparaiso to the south, for the -purpose of surveying the southern part of Chile, the island of Chiloe, -and the broken land called the Chonos Archipelago, as far south as the -Peninsula of Tres Montes. On the 21st we anchored in the bay of S. -Carlos, the capital of Chiloe. - -This island is about ninety miles long, with a breadth of rather less -than thirty. The land is hilly, but not mountainous, and is covered by -one great forest, except where a few green patches have been cleared -round the thatched cottages. From a distance the view somewhat -resembles that of Tierra del Fuego; but the woods, when seen nearer, -are incomparably more beautiful. Many kinds of fine evergreen trees, -and plants with a tropical character, here take the place of the gloomy -beech of the southern shores. In winter the climate is detestable, and -in summer it is only a little better. I should think there are few -parts of the world, within the temperate regions, where so much rain -falls. The winds are very boisterous, and the sky almost always -clouded: to have a week of fine weather is something wonderful. It is -even difficult to get a single glimpse of the Cordillera: during our -first visit, once only the volcano of Osorno stood out in bold relief, -and that was before sunrise; it was curious to watch, as the sun rose, -the outline gradually fading away in the glare of the eastern sky. - -The inhabitants, from their complexion and low stature; appear to have -three-fourths of Indian blood in their veins. They are an humble, -quiet, industrious set of men. Although the fertile soil, resulting -from the decomposition of the volcanic rocks, supports a rank -vegetation, yet the climate is not favourable to any production which -requires much sunshine to ripen it. There is very little pasture for -the larger quadrupeds; and in consequence, the staple articles of food -are pigs, potatoes, and fish. The people all dress in strong woollen -garments, which each family makes for itself, and dyes with indigo of a -dark blue colour. The arts, however, are in the rudest state;--as may -be seen in their strange fashion of ploughing, their method of -spinning, grinding corn, and in the construction of their boats. The -forests are so impenetrable, that the land is nowhere cultivated except -near the coast and on the adjoining islets. Even where paths exist, -they are scarcely passable from the soft and swampy state of the soil. -The inhabitants, like those of Tierra del Fuego, move about chiefly on -the beach or in boats. Although with plenty to eat, the people are -very poor: there is no demand for labour, and consequently the lower -orders cannot scrape together money sufficient to purchase even the -smallest luxuries. There is also a great deficiency of a circulating -medium. I have seen a man bringing on his back a bag of charcoal, with -which to buy some trifle, and another carrying a plank to exchange for -a bottle of wine. Hence every tradesman must also be a merchant, and -again sell the goods which he takes in exchange. - -November 24th.--The yawl and whale-boat were sent under the command of -Mr. (now Captain) Sulivan, to survey the eastern or inland coast of -Chiloe; and with orders to meet the Beagle at the southern extremity of -the island; to which point she would proceed by the outside, so as thus -to circumnavigate the whole. I accompanied this expedition, but -instead of going in the boats the first day, I hired horses to take me -to Chacao, at the northern extremity of the island. The road followed -the coast; every now and then crossing promontories covered by fine -forests. In these shaded paths it is absolutely necessary that the -whole road should be made of logs of wood, which are squared and placed -by the side of each other. From the rays of the sun never penetrating -the evergreen foliage, the ground is so damp and soft, that except by -this means neither man nor horse would be able to pass along. I -arrived at the village of Chacao shortly after the tents belonging to -the boats were pitched for the night. - -The land in this neighbourhood has been extensively cleared, and there -were many quiet and most picturesque nooks in the forest. Chacao was -formerly the principal port in the island; but many vessels having been -lost, owing to the dangerous currents and rocks in the straits, the -Spanish government burnt the church, and thus arbitrarily compelled the -greater number of inhabitants to migrate to S. Carlos. We had not long -bivouacked, before the barefooted son of the governor came down to -reconnoitre us. Seeing the English flag hoisted at the yawl's -mast-head, he asked with the utmost indifference, whether it was always -to fly at Chacao. In several places the inhabitants were much -astonished at the appearance of men-of-war's boats, and hoped and -believed it was the forerunner of a Spanish fleet, coming to recover -the island from the patriot government of Chile. All the men in power, -however, had been informed of our intended visit, and were exceedingly -civil. While we were eating our supper, the governor paid us a visit. -He had been a lieutenant-colonel in the Spanish service, but now was -miserably poor. He gave us two sheep, and accepted in return two -cotton handkerchiefs, some brass trinkets, and a little tobacco. - -25th.--Torrents of rain: we managed, however, to run down the coast as -far as Huapi-lenou. The whole of this eastern side of Chiloe has one -aspect; it is a plain, broken by valleys and divided into little -islands, and the whole thickly covered with one impervious -blackish-green forest. On the margins there are some cleared spaces, -surrounding the high-roofed cottages. - -26th--The day rose splendidly clear. The volcano of Orsono was -spouting out volumes of smoke. This most beautiful mountain, formed -like a perfect cone, and white with snow, stands out in front of the -Cordillera. Another great volcano, with a saddle-shaped summit, also -emitted from its immense crater little jets of steam. Subsequently we -saw the lofty-peaked Corcovado--well deserving the name of "el famoso -Corcovado." Thus we beheld, from one point of view, three great active -volcanoes, each about seven thousand feet high. In addition to this, -far to the south, there were other lofty cones covered with snow, -which, although not known to be active, must be in their origin -volcanic. The line of the Andes is not, in this neighbourhood, nearly -so elevated as in Chile; neither does it appear to form so perfect a -barrier between the regions of the earth. This great range, although -running in a straight north and south line, owing to an optical -deception, always appeared more or less curved; for the lines drawn -from each peak to the beholder's eye, necessarily converged like the -radii of a semicircle, and as it was not possible (owing to the -clearness of the atmosphere and the absence of all intermediate -objects) to judge how far distant the farthest peaks were off, they -appeared to stand in a flattish semicircle. - -Landing at midday, we saw a family of pure Indian extraction. The -father was singularly like York Minster; and some of the younger boys, -with their ruddy complexions, might have been mistaken for Pampas -Indians. Everything I have seen, convinces me of the close connexion -of the different American tribes, who nevertheless speak distinct -languages. This party could muster but little Spanish, and talked to -each other in their own tongue. It is a pleasant thing to see the -aborigines advanced to the same degree of civilization, however low -that may be, which their white conquerors have attained. More to the -south we saw many pure Indians: indeed, all the inhabitants of some of -the islets retain their Indian surnames. In the census of 1832, there -were in Chiloe and its dependencies forty-two thousand souls; the -greater number of these appear to be of mixed blood. Eleven thousand -retain their Indian surnames, but it is probable that not nearly all of -these are of a pure breed. Their manner of life is the same with that -of the other poor inhabitants, and they are all Christians; but it is -said that they yet retain some strange superstitious ceremonies, and -that they pretend to hold communication with the devil in certain -caves. Formerly, every one convicted of this offence was sent to the -Inquisition at Lima. Many of the inhabitants who are not included in -the eleven thousand with Indian surnames, cannot be distinguished by -their appearance from Indians. Gomez, the governor of Lemuy, is -descended from noblemen of Spain on both sides; but by constant -intermarriages with the natives the present man is an Indian. On the -other hand the governor of Quinchao boasts much of his purely kept -Spanish blood. - -We reached at night a beautiful little cove, north of the island of -Caucahue. The people here complained of want of land. This is partly -owing to their own negligence in not clearing the woods, and partly to -restrictions by the government, which makes it necessary, before buying -ever so small a piece, to pay two shillings to the surveyor for -measuring each quadra (150 yards square), together with whatever price -he fixes for the value of the land. After his valuation the land must -be put up three times to auction, and if no one bids more, the -purchaser can have it at that rate. All these exactions must be a -serious check to clearing the ground, where the inhabitants are so -extremely poor. In most countries, forests are removed without much -difficulty by the aid of fire; but in Chiloe, from the damp nature of -the climate, and the sort of trees, it is necessary first to cut them -down. This is a heavy drawback to the prosperity of Chiloe. In the -time of the Spaniards the Indians could not hold land; and a family, -after having cleared a piece of ground, might be driven away, and the -property seized by the government. The Chilian authorities are now -performing an act of justice by making retribution to these poor -Indians, giving to each man, according to his grade of life, a certain -portion of land. The value of uncleared ground is very little. The -government gave Mr. Douglas (the present surveyor, who informed me of -these circumstances) eight and a half square miles of forest near S. -Carlos, in lieu of a debt; and this he sold for 350 dollars, or about -70 pounds sterling. - -The two succeeding days were fine, and at night we reached the island -of Quinchao. This neighbourhood is the most cultivated part of the -Archipelago; for a broad strip of land on the coast of the main island, -as well as on many of the smaller adjoining ones, is almost completely -cleared. Some of the farm-houses seemed very comfortable. I was -curious to ascertain how rich any of these people might be, but Mr. -Douglas says that no one can be considered as possessing a regular -income. One of the richest landowners might possibly accumulate, in a -long industrious life, as much as 1000 pounds sterling; but should this -happen, it would all be stowed away in some secret corner, for it is -the custom of almost every family to have a jar or treasure-chest -buried in the ground. - -November 30th.--Early on Sunday morning we reached Castro, the ancient -capital of Chiloe, but now a most forlorn and deserted place. The usual -quadrangular arrangement of Spanish towns could be traced, but the -streets and plaza were coated with fine green turf, on which sheep were -browsing. The church, which stands in the middle, is entirely built of -plank, and has a picturesque and venerable appearance. The poverty of -the place may be conceived from the fact, that although containing some -hundreds of inhabitants, one of our party was unable anywhere to -purchase either a pound of sugar or an ordinary knife. No individual -possessed either a watch or a clock; and an old man, who was supposed -to have a good idea of time, was employed to strike the church bell by -guess. The arrival of our boats was a rare event in this quiet retired -corner of the world; and nearly all the inhabitants came down to the -beach to see us pitch our tents. They were very civil, and offered us -a house; and one man even sent us a cask of cider as a present. In the -afternoon we paid our respects to the governor--a quiet old man, who, -in his appearance and manner of life, was scarcely superior to an -English cottager. At night heavy rain set in, which was hardly -sufficient to drive away from our tents the large circle of lookers-on. -An Indian family, who had come to trade in a canoe from Caylen, -bivouacked near us. They had no shelter during the rain. In the -morning I asked a young Indian, who was wet to the skin, how he had -passed the night. He seemed perfectly content, and answered, "Muy -bien, senor." - -December 1st.--We steered for the island of Lemuy. I was anxious to -examine a reported coal-mine which turned out to be lignite of little -value, in the sandstone (probably of an ancient tertiary epoch) of -which these islands are composed. When we reached Lemuy we had much -difficulty in finding any place to pitch our tents, for it was -spring-tide, and the land was wooded down to the water's edge. In a -short time we were surrounded by a large group of the nearly pure -Indian inhabitants. They were much surprised at our arrival, and said -one to the other, "This is the reason we have seen so many parrots -lately; the cheucau (an odd red-breasted little bird, which inhabits -the thick forest, and utters very peculiar noises) has not cried -'beware' for nothing." They were soon anxious for barter. Money was -scarcely worth anything, but their eagerness for tobacco was something -quite extraordinary. After tobacco, indigo came next in value; then -capsicum, old clothes, and gunpowder. The latter article was required -for a very innocent purpose: each parish has a public musket, and the -gunpowder was wanted for making a noise on their saint or feast days. - -The people here live chiefly on shell-fish and potatoes. At certain -seasons they catch also, in "corrales," or hedges under water, many -fish which are left on the mud-banks as the tide falls. They -occasionally possess fowls, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle; the -order in which they are here mentioned, expressing their respective -numbers. I never saw anything more obliging and humble than the -manners of these people. They generally began with stating that they -were poor natives of the place, and not Spaniards and that they were in -sad want of tobacco and other comforts. At Caylen, the most southern -island, the sailors bought with a stick of tobacco, of the value of -three-halfpence, two fowls, one of which, the Indian stated, had skin -between its toes, and turned out to be a fine duck; and with some -cotton handkerchiefs, worth three shillings, three sheep and a large -bunch of onions were procured. The yawl at this place was anchored -some way from the shore, and we had fears for her safety from robbers -during the night. Our pilot, Mr. Douglas, accordingly told the -constable of the district that we always placed sentinels with loaded -arms and not understanding Spanish, if we saw any person in the dark, -we should assuredly shoot him. The constable, with much humility, -agreed to the perfect propriety of this arrangement, and promised us -that no one should stir out of his house during that night. - -During the four succeeding days we continued sailing southward. The -general features of the country remained the same, but it was much less -thickly inhabited. On the large island of Tanqui there was scarcely -one cleared spot, the trees on every side extending their branches over -the sea-beach. I one day noticed, growing on the sandstone cliffs, -some very fine plants of the panke (Gunnera scabra), which somewhat -resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic scale. The inhabitants eat the -stalks, which are subacid, and tan leather with the roots, and prepare -a black dye from them. The leaf is nearly circular, but deeply indented -on its margin. I measured one which was nearly eight feet in diameter, -and therefore no less than twenty-four in circumference! The stalk is -rather more than a yard high, and each plant sends out four or five of -these enormous leaves, presenting together a very noble appearance. - -December 6th.--We reached Caylen, called "el fin del Cristiandad." In -the morning we stopped for a few minutes at a house on the northern end -of Laylec, which was the extreme point of South American Christendom, -and a miserable hovel it was. The latitude is 43 degs. 10', which is -two degrees farther south than the Rio Negro on the Atlantic coast. -These extreme Christians were very poor, and, under the plea of their -situation, begged for some tobacco. As a proof of the poverty of these -Indians, I may mention that shortly before this, we had met a man, who -had travelled three days and a half on foot, and had as many to return, -for the sake of recovering the value of a small axe and a few fish. How -very difficult it must be to buy the smallest article, when such -trouble is taken to recover so small a debt. - -In the evening we reached the island of San Pedro, where we found the -Beagle at anchor. In doubling the point, two of the officers landed to -take a round of angles with the theodolite. A fox (Canis fulvipes), of -a kind said to be peculiar to the island, and very rare in it, and -which is a new species, was sitting on the rocks. He was so intently -absorbed in watching the work of the officers, that I was able, by -quietly walking up behind, to knock him on the head with my geological -hammer. This fox, more curious or more scientific, but less wise, than -the generality of his brethren, is now mounted in the museum of the -Zoological Society. - -We stayed three days in this harbour, on one of which Captain Fitz -Roy, with a party, attempted to ascend to the summit of San Pedro. The -woods here had rather a different appearance from those on the northern -part of the island. The rock, also, being micaceous slate, there was no -beach, but the steep sides dipped directly beneath the water. The -general aspect in consequence was more like that of Tierra del Fuego -than of Chiloe. In vain we tried to gain the summit: the forest was so -impenetrable, that no one who has not beheld it can imagine so -entangled a mass of dying and dead trunks. I am sure that often, for -more than ten minutes together, our feet never touched the ground, and -we were frequently ten or fifteen feet above it, so that the seamen as -a joke called out the soundings. At other times we crept one after -another on our hands and knees, under the rotten trunks. In the lower -part of the mountain, noble trees of the Winter's Bark, and a laurel -like the sassafras with fragrant leaves, and others, the names of which -I do not know, were matted together by a trailing bamboo or cane. Here -we were more like fishes struggling in a net than any other animal. On -the higher parts, brushwood takes the place of larger trees, with here -and there a red cedar or an alerce pine. I was also pleased to see, at -an elevation of a little less than 1000 feet, our old friend the -southern beech. They were, however, poor stunted trees, and I should -think that this must be nearly their northern limit. We ultimately -gave up the attempt in despair. - -December 10th.--The yawl and whale-boat, with Mr. Sulivan, proceeded on -their survey, but I remained on board the Beagle, which the next day -left San Pedro for the southward. On the 13th we ran into an opening in -the southern part of Guayatecas, or the Chonos Archipelago; and it was -fortunate we did so, for on the following day a storm, worthy of Tierra -del Fuego, raged with great fury. White massive clouds were piled up -against a dark blue sky, and across them black ragged sheets of vapour -were rapidly driven. The successive mountain ranges appeared like dim -shadows, and the setting sun cast on the woodland a yellow gleam, much -like that produced by the flame of spirits of wine. The water was -white with the flying spray, and the wind lulled and roared again -through the rigging: it was an ominous, sublime scene. During a few -minutes there was a bright rainbow, and it was curious to observe the -effect of the spray, which being carried along the surface of the -water, changed the ordinary semicircle into a circle--a band of -prismatic colours being continued, from both feet of the common arch -across the bay, close to the vessel's side: thus forming a distorted, -but very nearly entire ring. - -We stayed here three days. The weather continued bad: but this did not -much signify, for the surface of the land in all these islands is all -but impassable. The coast is so very rugged that to attempt to walk in -that direction requires continued scrambling up and down over the sharp -rocks of mica-slate; and as for the woods, our faces, hands, and -shin-bones all bore witness to the maltreatment we received, in merely -attempting to penetrate their forbidden recesses. - -December 18th.--We stood out to sea. On the 20th we bade farewell to -the south, and with a fair wind turned the ship's head northward. From -Cape Tres Montes we sailed pleasantly along the lofty weather-beaten -coast, which is remarkable for the bold outline of its hills, and the -thick covering of forest even on the almost precipitous flanks. The -next day a harbour was discovered, which on this dangerous coast might -be of great service to a distressed vessel. It can easily be -recognized by a hill 1600 feet high, which is even more perfectly -conical than the famous sugar-loaf at Rio de Janeiro. The next day, -after anchoring, I succeeded in reaching the summit of this hill. It -was a laborious undertaking, for the sides were so steep that in some -parts it was necessary to use the trees as ladders. There were also -several extensive brakes of the Fuchsia, covered with its beautiful -drooping flowers, but very difficult to crawl through. In these wild -countries it gives much delight to gain the summit of any mountain. -There is an indefinite expectation of seeing something very strange, -which, however often it may be balked, never failed with me to recur on -each successive attempt. Every one must know the feeling of triumph -and pride which a grand view from a height communicates to the mind. In -these little frequented countries there is also joined to it some -vanity, that you perhaps are the first man who ever stood on this -pinnacle or admired this view. - -A strong desire is always felt to ascertain whether any human being has -previously visited an unfrequented spot. A bit of wood with a nail in -it, is picked up and studied as if it were covered with hieroglyphics. -Possessed with this feeling, I was much interested by finding, on a -wild part of the coast, a bed made of grass beneath a ledge of rock. -Close by it there had been a fire, and the man had used an axe. The -fire, bed, and situation showed the dexterity of an Indian; but he -could scarcely have been an Indian, for the race is in this part -extinct, owing to the Catholic desire of making at one blow Christians -and Slaves. I had at the time some misgivings that the solitary man -who had made his bed on this wild spot, must have been some poor -shipwrecked sailor, who, in trying to travel up the coast, had here -laid himself down for his dreary night. - -December 28th.--The weather continued very bad, but it at last -permitted us to proceed with the survey. The time hung heavy on our -hands, as it always did when we were delayed from day to day by -successive gales of wind. In the evening another harbour was -discovered, where we anchored. Directly afterwards a man was seen -waving a shirt, and a boat was sent which brought back two seamen. A -party of six had run away from an American whaling vessel, and had -landed a little to the southward in a boat, which was shortly -afterwards knocked to pieces by the surf. They had now been wandering -up and down the coast for fifteen months, without knowing which way to -go, or where they were. What a singular piece of good fortune it was -that this harbour was now discovered! Had it not been for this one -chance, they might have wandered till they had grown old men, and at -last have perished on this wild coast. Their sufferings had been very -great, and one of their party had lost his life by falling from the -cliffs. They were sometimes obliged to separate in search of food, and -this explained the bed of the solitary man. Considering what they had -undergone, I think they had kept a very good reckoning of time, for -they had lost only four days. - -December 30th.--We anchored in a snug little cove at the foot of some -high hills, near the northern extremity of Tres Montes. After -breakfast the next morning, a party ascended one of these mountains, -which was 2400 feet high. The scenery was remarkable The chief part of -the range was composed of grand, solid, abrupt masses of granite, which -appeared as if they had been coeval with the beginning of the world. -The granite was capped with mica-slate, and this in the lapse of ages -had been worn into strange finger-shaped points. These two formations, -thus differing in their outlines, agree in being almost destitute of -vegetation. This barrenness had to our eyes a strange appearance, from -having been so long accustomed to the sight of an almost universal -forest of dark-green trees. I took much delight in examining the -structure of these mountains. The complicated and lofty ranges bore a -noble aspect of durability--equally profitless, however, to man and to -all other animals. Granite to the geologist is classic ground: from -its widespread limits, and its beautiful and compact texture, few rocks -have been more anciently recognised. Granite has given rise, perhaps, -to more discussion concerning its origin than any other formation. We -generally see it constituting the fundamental rock, and, however -formed, we know it is the deepest layer in the crust of this globe to -which man has penetrated. The limit of man's knowledge in any subject -possesses a high interest, which is perhaps increased by its close -neighbourhood to the realms of imagination. - -January 1st 1835.--The new year is ushered in with the ceremonies -proper to it in these regions. She lays out no false hopes: a heavy -north-western gale, with steady rain, bespeaks the rising year. Thank -God, we are not destined here to see the end of it, but hope then to be -in the Pacific Ocean, where a blue sky tells one there is a heaven,--a -something beyond the clouds above our heads. - -The north-west winds prevailing for the next four days, we only managed -to cross a great bay, and then anchored in another secure harbour. I -accompanied the Captain in a boat to the head of a deep creek. On the -way the number of seals which we saw was quite astonishing: every bit -of flat rock, and parts of the beach, were covered with them. There -appeared to be of a loving disposition, and lay huddled together, fast -asleep, like so many pigs; but even pigs would have been ashamed of -their dirt, and of the foul smell which came from them. Each herd was -watched by the patient but inauspicious eyes of the turkey-buzzard. -This disgusting bird, with its bald scarlet head, formed to wallow in -putridity, is very common on the west coast, and their attendance on -the seals shows on what they rely for their food. We found the water -(probably only that of the surface) nearly fresh: this was caused by -the number of torrents which, in the form of cascades, came tumbling -over the bold granite mountains into the sea. The fresh water attracts -the fish, and these bring many terns, gulls, and two kinds of -cormorant. We saw also a pair of the beautiful black-necked swans, and -several small sea-otters, the fur of which is held in such high -estimation. In returning, we were again amused by the impetuous manner -in which the heap of seals, old and young, tumbled into the water as -the boat passed. They did not remain long under water, but rising, -followed us with outstretched necks, expressing great wonder and -curiosity. - -7th.--Having run up the coast, we anchored near the northern end of the -Chonos Archipelago, in Low's Harbour, where we remained a week. The -islands were here, as in Chiloe, composed of a stratified, soft, -littoral deposit; and the vegetation in consequence was beautifully -luxuriant. The woods came down to the sea-beach, just in the manner of -an evergreen shrubbery over a gravel walk. We also enjoyed from the -anchorage a splendid view of four great snowy cones of the Cordillera, -including "el famoso Corcovado;" the range itself had in this latitude -so little height, that few parts of it appeared above the tops of the -neighbouring islets. We found here a party of five men from Caylen, -"el fin del Cristiandad," who had most adventurously crossed in their -miserable boat-canoe, for the purpose of fishing, the open space of sea -which separates Chonos from Chiloe. These islands will, in all -probability, in a short time become peopled like those adjoining the -coast of Chiloe. - - -The wild potato grows on these islands in great abundance, on the -sandy, shelly soil near the sea-beach. The tallest plant was four feet -in height. The tubers were generally small, but I found one, of an -oval shape, two inches in diameter: they resembled in every respect, -and had the same smell as English potatoes; but when boiled they shrunk -much, and were watery and insipid, without any bitter taste. They are -undoubtedly here indigenous: they grow as far south, according to Mr. -Low, as lat. 50 degs., and are called Aquinas by the wild Indians of -that part: the Chilotan Indians have a different name for them. -Professor Henslow, who has examined the dried specimens which I brought -home, says that they are the same with those described by Mr. Sabine -[1] from Valparaiso, but that they form a variety which by some -botanists has been considered as specifically distinct. It is -remarkable that the same plant should be found on the sterile mountains -of central Chile, where a drop of rain does not fall for more than six -months, and within the damp forests of these southern islands. - -In the central parts of the Chonos Archipelago (lat. 45 degs.), the -forest has very much the same character with that along the whole west -coast, for 600 miles southward to Cape Horn. The arborescent grass of -Chiloe is not found here; while the beech of Tierra del Fuego grows to -a good size, and forms a considerable proportion of the wood; not, -however, in the same exclusive manner as it does farther southward. -Cryptogamic plants here find a most congenial climate. In the Strait -of Magellan, as I have before remarked, the country appears too cold -and wet to allow of their arriving at perfection; but in these islands, -within the forest, the number of species and great abundance of mosses, -lichens, and small ferns, is quite extraordinary. [2] In Tierra del -Fuego trees grow only on the hill-sides; every level piece of land -being invariably covered by a thick bed of peat; but in Chiloe flat -land supports the most luxuriant forests. Here, within the Chonos -Archipelago, the nature of the climate more closely approaches that of -Tierra del Fuego than that of northern Chiloe; for every patch of level -ground is covered by two species of plants (Astelia pumila and Donatia -magellanica), which by their joint decay compose a thick bed of elastic -peat. - -In Tierra del Fuego, above the region of woodland, the former of these -eminently sociable plants is the chief agent in the production of peat. -Fresh leaves are always succeeding one to the other round the central -tap-root, the lower ones soon decay, and in tracing a root downwards in -the peat, the leaves, yet holding their place, can be observed passing -through every stage of decomposition, till the whole becomes blended in -one confused mass. The Astelia is assisted by a few other -plants,--here and there a small creeping Myrtus (M. nummularia), with a -woody stem like our cranberry and with a sweet berry,--an Empetrum (E. -rubrum), like our heath,--a rush (Juncus grandiflorus), are nearly the -only ones that grow on the swampy surface. These plants, though -possessing a very close general resemblance to the English species of -the same genera, are different. In the more level parts of the -country, the surface of the peat is broken up into little pools of -water, which stand at different heights, and appear as if artificially -excavated. Small streams of water, flowing underground, complete the -disorganization of the vegetable matter, and consolidate the whole. - -The climate of the southern part of America appears particularly -favourable to the production of peat. In the Falkland Islands almost -every kind of plant, even the coarse grass which covers the whole -surface of the land, becomes converted into this substance: scarcely -any situation checks its growth; some of the beds are as much as twelve -feet thick, and the lower part becomes so solid when dry, that it will -hardly burn. Although every plant lends its aid, yet in most parts the -Astelia is the most efficient. It is rather a singular circumstance, -as being so very different from what occurs in Europe, that I nowhere -saw moss forming by its decay any portion of the peat in South America. -With respect to the northern limit, at which the climate allows of that -peculiar kind of slow decomposition which is necessary for its -production, I believe that in Chiloe (lat. 41 to 42 degs.), although -there is much swampy ground, no well-characterized peat occurs: but in -the Chonos Islands, three degrees farther southward, we have seen that -it is abundant. On the eastern coast in La Plata (lat. 35 degs.) I was -told by a Spanish resident who had visited Ireland, that he had often -sought for this substance, but had never been able to find any. He -showed me, as the nearest approach to it which he had discovered, a -black peaty soil, so penetrated with roots as to allow of an extremely -slow and imperfect combustion. - - -The zoology of these broken islets of the Chonos Archipelago is, as -might have been expected, very poor. Of quadrupeds two aquatic kinds -are common. The Myopotamus Coypus (like a beaver, but with a round -tail) is well known from its fine fur, which is an object of trade -throughout the tributaries of La Plata. It here, however, exclusively -frequents salt water; which same circumstance has been mentioned as -sometimes occurring with the great rodent, the Capybara. A small -sea-otter is very numerous; this animal does not feed exclusively on -fish, but, like the seals, draws a large supply from a small red crab, -which swims in shoals near the surface of the water. Mr. Bynoe saw one -in Tierra del Fuego eating a cuttle-fish; and at Low's Harbour, another -was killed in the act of carrying to its hole a large volute shell. At -one place I caught in a trap a singular little mouse (M. brachiotis); -it appeared common on several of the islets, but the Chilotans at Low's -Harbour said that it was not found in all. What a succession of -chances, [3] or what changes of level must have been brought into play, -thus to spread these small animals throughout this broken archipelago! - -In all parts of Chiloe and Chonos, two very strange birds occur, which -are allied to, and replace, the Turco and Tapacolo of central Chile. -One is called by the inhabitants "Cheucau" (Pteroptochos rubecula): it -frequents the most gloomy and retired spots within the damp forests. -Sometimes, although its cry may be heard close at hand, let a person -watch ever so attentively he will not see the cheucau; at other times, -let him stand motionless and the red-breasted little bird will approach -within a few feet in the most familiar manner. It then busily hops -about the entangled mass of rotting cones and branches, with its little -tail cocked upwards. The cheucau is held in superstitious fear by the -Chilotans, on account of its strange and varied cries. There are three -very distinct cries: One is called "chiduco," and is an omen of good; -another, "huitreu," which is extremely unfavourable; and a third, which -I have forgotten. These words are given in imitation of the noises; -and the natives are in some things absolutely governed by them. The -Chilotans assuredly have chosen a most comical little creature for -their prophet. An allied species, but rather larger, is called by the -natives "Guid-guid" (Pteroptochos Tarnii), and by the English the -barking-bird. This latter name is well given; for I defy any one at -first to feel certain that a small dog is not yelping somewhere in the -forest. Just as with the cheucau, a person will sometimes hear the -bark close by, but in vain many endeavour by watching, and with still -less chance by beating the bushes, to see the bird; yet at other times -the guid-guid fearlessly comes near. Its manner of feeding and its -general habits are very similar to those of the cheucau. - -On the coast, [4] a small dusky-coloured bird (Opetiorhynchus -Patagonicus) is very common. It is remarkable from its quiet habits; -it lives entirely on the sea-beach, like a sandpiper. Besides these -birds only few others inhabit this broken land. In my rough notes I -describe the strange noises, which, although frequently heard within -these gloomy forests, yet scarcely disturb the general silence. The -yelping of the guid-guid, and the sudden whew-whew of the cheucau, -sometimes come from afar off, and sometimes from close at hand; the -little black wren of Tierra del Fuego occasionally adds its cry; the -creeper (Oxyurus) follows the intruder screaming and twittering; the -humming-bird may be seen every now and then darting from side to side, -and emitting, like an insect, its shrill chirp; lastly, from the top of -some lofty tree the indistinct but plaintive note of the white-tufted -tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius) may be noticed. From the great -preponderance in most countries of certain common genera of birds, such -as the finches, one feels at first surprised at meeting with the -peculiar forms above enumerated, as the commonest birds in any -district. In central Chile two of them, namely, the Oxyurus and -Scytalopus, occur, although most rarely. When finding, as in this -case, animals which seem to play so insignificant a part in the great -scheme of nature, one is apt to wonder why they were created. - -But it should always be recollected, that in some other country perhaps -they are essential members of society, or at some former period may -have been so. If America south of 37 degs. were sunk beneath the -waters of the ocean, these two birds might continue to exist in central -Chile for a long period, but it is very improbable that their numbers -would increase. We should then see a case which must inevitably have -happened with very many animals. - -These southern seas are frequented by several species of Petrels: the -largest kind, Procellaria gigantea, or nelly (quebrantahuesos, or -break-bones, of the Spaniards), is a common bird, both in the inland -channels and on the open sea. In its habits and manner of flight, there -is a very close resemblance with the albatross; and as with the -albatross, a person may watch it for hours together without seeing on -what it feeds. The "break-bones" is, however, a rapacious bird, for it -was observed by some of the officers at Port St. Antonio chasing a -diver, which tried to escape by diving and flying, but was continually -struck down, and at last killed by a blow on its head. At Port St. -Julian these great petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls. -A second species (Puffinus cinereus), which is common to Europe, Cape -Horn, and the coast of Peru, is of much smaller size than the P. -gigantea, but, like it, of a dirty black colour. It generally -frequents the inland sounds in very large flocks: I do not think I ever -saw so many birds of any other sort together, as I once saw of these -behind the island of Chiloe. Hundreds of thousands flew in an irregular -line for several hours in one direction. When part of the flock -settled on the water the surface was blackened, and a noise proceeded -from them as of human beings talking in the distance. - -There are several other species of petrels, but I will only mention one -other kind, the Pelacanoides Berardi which offers an example of those -extraordinary cases, of a bird evidently belonging to one well-marked -family, yet both in its habits and structure allied to a very distinct -tribe. This bird never leaves the quiet inland sounds. When disturbed -it dives to a distance, and on coming to the surface, with the same -movement takes flight. After flying by a rapid movement of its short -wings for a space in a straight line, it drops, as if struck dead, and -dives again. The form of its beak and nostrils, length of foot, and -even the colouring of its plumage, show that this bird is a petrel: on -the other hand, its short wings and consequent little power of flight, -its form of body and shape of tail, the absence of a hind toe to its -foot, its habit of diving, and its choice of situation, make it at -first doubtful whether its relationship is not equally close with the -auks. It would undoubtedly be mistaken for an auk, when seen from a -distance, either on the wing, or when diving and quietly swimming about -the retired channels of Tierra del Fuego. - -[1] Horticultural Transact., vol. v. p. 249. Mr. Caldeleugh sent home -two tubers, which, being well manured, even the first season produced -numerous potatoes and an abundance of leaves. See Humboldt's -interesting discussion on this plant, which it appears was unknown in -Mexico,--in Polit. Essay on New Spain, book iv. chap. ix. - -[2] By sweeping with my insect-net, I procured from these situations a -considerable number of minute insects, of the family of Staphylinidae, -and others allied to Pselaphus, and minute Hymenoptera. But the most -characteristic family in number, both of individuals and species, -throughout the more open parts of Chiloe and Chonos is that of -Telephoridae. - -[3] It is said that some rapacious birds bring their prey alive to -their nests. If so, in the course of centuries, every now and then, -one might escape from the young birds. Some such agency is necessary, -to account for the distribution of the smaller gnawing animals on -islands not very near each other. - -[4] I may mention, as a proof of how great a difference there is -between the seasons of the wooded and the open parts of this coast, -that on September 20th, in lat. 34 degs., these birds had young ones in -the nest, while among the Chonos Islands, three months later in the -summer, they were only laying, the difference in latitude between these -two places being about 700 miles. - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -CHILOE AND CONCEPCION: GREAT EARTHQUAKE - -San Carlos, Chiloe--Osorno in eruption, contemporaneously with -Aconcagua and Coseguina--Ride to Cucao--Impenetrable Forests--Valdivia -Indians--Earthquake--Concepcion--Great Earthquake--Rocks -fissured--Appearance of the former Towns--The Sea Black and -Boiling--Direction of the Vibrations--Stones twisted round--Great -Wave--Permanent Elevation of the Land--Area of Volcanic Phenomena--The -connection between the Elevatory and Eruptive Forces--Cause of -Earthquakes--Slow Elevation of Mountain-chains. - - -ON JANUARY the 15th we sailed from Low's Harbour, and three days -afterwards anchored a second time in the bay of S. Carlos in Chiloe. On -the night of the 19th the volcano of Osorno was in action. At midnight -the sentry observed something like a large star, which gradually -increased in size till about three o'clock, when it presented a very -magnificent spectacle. By the aid of a glass, dark objects, in -constant succession, were seen, in the midst of a great glare of red -light, to be thrown up and to fall down. The light was sufficient to -cast on the water a long bright reflection. Large masses of molten -matter seem very commonly to be cast out of the craters in this part of -the Cordillera. I was assured that when the Corcovado is in eruption, -great masses are projected upwards and are seen to burst in the air, -assuming many fantastical forms, such as trees: their size must be -immense, for they can be distinguished from the high land behind S. -Carlos, which is no less than ninety-three miles from the Corcovado. In -the morning the volcano became tranquil. - -I was surprised at hearing afterwards that Aconcagua in Chile, 480 -miles northwards, was in action on the same night; and still more -surprised to hear that the great eruption of Coseguina (2700 miles -north of Aconcagua), accompanied by an earthquake felt over a 1000 -miles, also occurred within six hours of this same time. This -coincidence is the more remarkable, as Coseguina had been dormant for -twenty-six years; and Aconcagua most rarely shows any signs of action. -It is difficult even to conjecture whether this coincidence was -accidental, or shows some subterranean connection. If Vesuvius, Etna, -and Hecla in Iceland (all three relatively nearer each other than the -corresponding points in South America), suddenly burst forth in -eruption on the same night, the coincidence would be thought -remarkable; but it is far more remarkable in this case, where the three -vents fall on the same great mountain-chain, and where the vast plains -along the entire eastern coast, and the upraised recent shells along -more than 2000 miles on the western coast, show in how equable and -connected a manner the elevatory forces have acted. - -Captain Fitz Roy being anxious that some bearings should be taken on -the outer coast of Chiloe, it was planned that Mr. King and myself -should ride to Castro, and thence across the island to the Capella de -Cucao, situated on the west coast. Having hired horses and a guide, we -set out on the morning of the 22nd. We had not proceeded far, before -we were joined by a woman and two boys, who were bent on the same -journey. Every one on this road acts on a "hail fellow well met" -fashion; and one may here enjoy the privilege, so rare in South -America, of travelling without fire-arms. At first, the country -consisted of a succession of hills and valleys: nearer to Castro it -became very level. The road itself is a curious affair; it consists in -its whole length, with the exception of very few parts, of great logs -of wood, which are either broad and laid longitudinally, or narrow and -placed transversely. In summer the road is not very bad; but in -winter, when the wood is rendered slippery from rain, travelling is -exceedingly difficult. At that time of the year, the ground on each -side becomes a morass, and is often overflowed: hence it is necessary -that the longitudinal logs should be fastened down by transverse poles, -which are pegged on each side into the earth. These pegs render a fall -from a horse dangerous, as the chance of alighting on one of them is -not small. It is remarkable, however, how active custom has made the -Chilotan horses. In crossing bad parts, where the logs had been -displaced, they skipped from one to the other, almost with the -quickness and certainty of a dog. On both hands the road is bordered -by the lofty forest-trees, with their bases matted together by canes. -When occasionally a long reach of this avenue could be beheld, it -presented a curious scene of uniformity: the white line of logs, -narrowing in perspective, became hidden by the gloomy forest, or -terminated in a zigzag which ascended some steep hill. - -Although the distance from S. Carlos to Castro is only twelve leagues -in a straight line, the formation of the road must have been a great -labour. I was told that several people had formerly lost their lives -in attempting to cross the forest. The first who succeeded was an -Indian, who cut his way through the canes in eight days, and reached S. -Carlos: he was rewarded by the Spanish government with a grant of land. -During the summer, many of the Indians wander about the forests (but -chiefly in the higher parts, where the woods are not quite so thick) in -search of the half-wild cattle which live on the leaves of the cane and -certain trees. It was one of these huntsmen who by chance discovered, -a few years since, an English vessel, which had been wrecked on the -outer coast. The crew were beginning to fail in provisions, and it is -not probable that, without the aid of this man, they would ever have -extricated themselves from these scarcely penetrable woods. As it was, -one seaman died on the march, from fatigue. The Indians in these -excursions steer by the sun; so that if there is a continuance of -cloudy weather, they can not travel. - -The day was beautiful, and the number of trees which were in full -flower perfumed the air; yet even this could hardly dissipate the -effects of the gloomy dampness of the forest. Moreover, the many dead -trunks that stand like skeletons, never fail to give to these primeval -woods a character of solemnity, absent in those of countries long -civilized. Shortly after sunset we bivouacked for the night. Our -female companion, who was rather good-looking, belonged to one of the -most respectable families in Castro: she rode, however, astride, and -without shoes or stockings. I was surprised at the total want of pride -shown by her and her brother. They brought food with them, but at all -our meals sat watching Mr. King and myself whilst eating, till we were -fairly shamed into feeding the whole party. The night was cloudless; -and while lying in our beds, we enjoyed the sight (and it is a high -enjoyment) of the multitude of stars which illumined the darkness of -the forest. - -January 23rd.--We rose early in the morning, and reached the pretty -quiet town of Castro by two o'clock. The old governor had died since -our last visit, and a Chileno was acting in his place. We had a letter -of introduction to Don Pedro, whom we found exceedingly hospitable and -kind, and more disinterested than is usual on this side of the -continent. The next day Don Pedro procured us fresh horses, and -offered to accompany us himself. We proceeded to the south--generally -following the coast, and passing through several hamlets, each with its -large barn-like chapel built of wood. At Vilipilli, Don Pedro asked -the commandant to give us a guide to Cucao. The old gentleman offered -to come himself; but for a long time nothing would persuade him that -two Englishmen really wished to go to such an out-of-the-way place as -Cucao. We were thus accompanied by the two greatest aristocrats in the -country, as was plainly to be seen in the manner of all the poorer -Indians towards them. At Chonchi we struck across the island, -following intricate winding paths, sometimes passing through -magnificent forests, and sometimes through pretty cleared spots, -abounding with corn and potato crops. This undulating woody country, -partially cultivated, reminded me of the wilder parts of England, and -therefore had to my eye a most fascinating aspect. At Vilinco, which -is situated on the borders of the lake of Cucao, only a few fields were -cleared; and all the inhabitants appeared to be Indians. This lake is -twelve miles long, and runs in an east and west direction. From local -circumstances, the sea-breeze blows very regularly during the day, and -during the night it falls calm: this has given rise to strange -exaggerations, for the phenomenon, as described to us at S. Carlos, was -quite a prodigy. - -The road to Cucao was so very bad that we determined to embark in a -_periagua_. The commandant, in the most authoritative manner, ordered -six Indians to get ready to pull us over, without deigning to tell them -whether they would be paid. The periagua is a strange rough boat, but -the crew were still stranger: I doubt if six uglier little men ever got -into a boat together. They pulled, however, very well and cheerfully. -The stroke-oarsman gabbled Indian, and uttered strange cries, much -after the fashion of a pig-driver driving his pigs. We started with a -light breeze against us, but yet reached the Capella de Cucao before it -was late. The country on each side of the lake was one unbroken -forest. In the same periagua with us, a cow was embarked. To get so -large an animal into a small boat appears at first a difficulty, but -the Indians managed it in a minute. They brought the cow alongside the -boat, which was heeled towards her; then placing two oars under her -belly, with their ends resting on the gunwale, by the aid of these -levers they fairly tumbled the poor beast heels over head into the -bottom of the boat, and then lashed her down with ropes. At Cucao we -found an uninhabited hovel (which is the residence of the padre when he -pays this Capella a visit), where, lighting a fire, we cooked our -supper, and were very comfortable. - -The district of Cucao is the only inhabited part on the whole west -coast of Chiloe. It contains about thirty or forty Indian families, -who are scattered along four or five miles of the shore. They are very -much secluded from the rest of Chiloe, and have scarcely any sort of -commerce, except sometimes in a little oil, which they get from -seal-blubber. They are tolerably dressed in clothes of their own -manufacture, and they have plenty to eat. They seemed, however, -discontented, yet humble to a degree which it was quite painful to -witness. These feelings are, I think, chiefly to be attributed to the -harsh and authoritative manner in which they are treated by their -rulers. Our companions, although so very civil to us, behaved to the -poor Indians as if they had been slaves, rather than free men. They -ordered provisions and the use of their horses, without ever -condescending to say how much, or indeed whether the owners should be -paid at all. In the morning, being left alone with these poor people, -we soon ingratiated ourselves by presents of cigars and mate. A lump -of white sugar was divided between all present, and tasted with the -greatest curiosity. The Indians ended all their complaints by saying, -"And it is only because we are poor Indians, and know nothing; but it -was not so when we had a King." - -The next day after breakfast, we rode a few miles northward to Punta -Huantamo. The road lay along a very broad beach, on which, even after -so many fine days, a terrible surf was breaking. I was assured that -after a heavy gale, the roar can be heard at night even at Castro, a -distance of no less than twenty-one sea-miles across a hilly and wooded -country. We had some difficulty in reaching the point, owing to the -intolerably bad paths; for everywhere in the shade the ground soon -becomes a perfect quagmire. The point itself is a bold rocky hill. It -is covered by a plant allied, I believe, to Bromelia, and called by the -inhabitants Chepones. In scrambling through the beds, our hands were -very much scratched. I was amused by observing the precaution our -Indian guide took, in turning up his trousers, thinking that they were -more delicate than his own hard skin. This plant bears a fruit, in -shape like an artichoke, in which a number of seed-vessels are packed: -these contain a pleasant sweet pulp, here much esteemed. I saw at -Low's Harbour the Chilotans making chichi, or cider, with this fruit: -so true is it, as Humboldt remarks, that almost everywhere man finds -means of preparing some kind of beverage from the vegetable kingdom. -The savages, however, of Tierra del Fuego, and I believe of Australia, -have not advanced thus far in the arts. - -The coast to the north of Punta Huantamo is exceedingly rugged and -broken, and is fronted by many breakers, on which the sea is eternally -roaring. Mr. King and myself were anxious to return, if it had been -possible, on foot along this coast; but even the Indians said it was -quite impracticable. We were told that men have crossed by striking -directly through the woods from Cucao to S. Carlos, but never by the -coast. On these expeditions, the Indians carry with them only roasted -corn, and of this they eat sparingly twice a day. - -26th.--Re-embarking in the periagua, we returned across the lake, and -then mounted our horses. The whole of Chiloe took advantage of this -week of unusually fine weather, to clear the ground by burning. In -every direction volumes of smoke were curling upwards. Although the -inhabitants were so assiduous in setting fire to every part of the -wood, yet I did not see a single fire which they had succeeded in -making extensive. We dined with our friend the commandant, and did not -reach Castro till after dark. The next morning we started very early. -After having ridden for some time, we obtained from the brow of a steep -hill an extensive view (and it is a rare thing on this road) of the -great forest. Over the horizon of trees, the volcano of Corcovado, and -the great flat-topped one to the north, stood out in proud -pre-eminence: scarcely another peak in the long range showed its snowy -summit. I hope it will be long before I forget this farewell view of -the magnificent Cordillera fronting Chiloe. At night we bivouacked -under a cloudless sky, and the next morning reached S. Carlos. We -arrived on the right day, for before evening heavy rain commenced. - -February 4th.--Sailed from Chiloe. During the last week I made several -short excursions. One was to examine a great bed of now-existing -shells, elevated 350 feet above the level of the sea: from among these -shells, large forest-trees were growing. Another ride was to P. -Huechucucuy. I had with me a guide who knew the country far too well; -for he would pertinaciously tell me endless Indian names for every -little point, rivulet, and creek. In the same manner as in Tierra del -Fuego, the Indian language appears singularly well adapted for -attaching names to the most trivial features of the land. I believe -every one was glad to say farewell to Chiloe; yet if we could forget -the gloom and ceaseless rain of winter, Chiloe might pass for a -charming island. There is also something very attractive in the -simplicity and humble politeness of the poor inhabitants. - -We steered northward along shore, but owing to thick weather did not -reach Valdivia till the night of the 8th. The next morning the boat -proceeded to the town, which is distant about ten miles. We followed -the course of the river, occasionally passing a few hovels, and patches -of ground cleared out of the otherwise unbroken forest; and sometimes -meeting a canoe with an Indian family. The town is situated on the low -banks of the stream, and is so completely buried in a wood of -apple-trees that the streets are merely paths in an orchard. I have -never seen any country, where apple-trees appeared to thrive so well as -in this damp part of South America: on the borders of the roads there -were many young trees evidently self-grown. In Chiloe the inhabitants -possess a marvellously short method of making an orchard. At the lower -part of almost every branch, small, conical, brown, wrinkled points -project: these are always ready to change into roots, as may sometimes -be seen, where any mud has been accidentally splashed against the tree. -A branch as thick as a man's thigh is chosen in the early spring, and -is cut off just beneath a group of these points, all the smaller -branches are lopped off, and it is then placed about two feet deep in -the ground. During the ensuing summer the stump throws out long -shoots, and sometimes even bears fruit: I was shown one which had -produced as many as twenty-three apples, but this was thought very -unusual. In the third season the stump is changed (as I have myself -seen) into a well-wooded tree, loaded with fruit. An old man near -Valdivia illustrated his motto, "Necesidad es la madre del invencion," -by giving an account of the several useful things he manufactured from -his apples. After making cider, and likewise wine, he extracted from -the refuse a white and finely flavoured spirit; by another process he -procured a sweet treacle, or, as he called it, honey. His children and -pigs seemed almost to live, during this season of the year, in his -orchard. - -February 11th.--I set out with a guide on a short ride, in which, -however, I managed to see singularly little, either of the geology of -the country or of its inhabitants. There is not much cleared land near -Valdivia: after crossing a river at the distance of a few miles, we -entered the forest, and then passed only one miserable hovel, before -reaching our sleeping-place for the night. The short difference in -latitude, of 150 miles, has given a new aspect to the forest compared -with that of Chiloe. This is owing to a slightly different proportion -in the kinds of trees. The evergreens do not appear to be quite so -numerous, and the forest in consequence has a brighter tint. As in -Chiloe, the lower parts are matted together by canes: here also another -kind (resembling the bamboo of Brazil and about twenty feet in height) -grows in clusters, and ornaments the banks of some of the streams in a -very pretty manner. It is with this plant that the Indians make their -chuzos, or long tapering spears. Our resting-house was so dirty that I -preferred sleeping outside: on these journeys the first night is -generally very uncomfortable, because one is not accustomed to the -tickling and biting of the fleas. I am sure, in the morning, there was -not a space on my legs the size of a shilling which had not its little -red mark where the flea had feasted. - -12th.--We continued to ride through the uncleared forest; only -occasionally meeting an Indian on horseback, or a troop of fine mules -bringing alerce-planks and corn from the southern plains. In the -afternoon one of the horses knocked up: we were then on a brow of a -hill, which commanded a fine view of the Llanos. The view of these -open plains was very refreshing, after being hemmed in and buried in -the wilderness of trees. The uniformity of a forest soon becomes very -wearisome. This west coast makes me remember with pleasure the free, -unbounded plains of Patagonia; yet, with the true spirit of -contradiction, I cannot forget how sublime is the silence of the -forest. The Llanos are the most fertile and thickly peopled parts of -the country, as they possess the immense advantage of being nearly free -from trees. Before leaving the forest we crossed some flat little -lawns, around which single trees stood, as in an English park: I have -often noticed with surprise, in wooded undulatory districts, that the -quite level parts have been destitute of trees. On account of the -tired horse, I determined to stop at the Mission of Cudico, to the -friar of which I had a letter of introduction. Cudico is an -intermediate district between the forest and the Llanos. There are a -good many cottages, with patches of corn and potatoes, nearly all -belonging to Indians. The tribes dependent on Valdivia are "reducidos y -cristianos." The Indians farther northward, about Arauco and Imperial, -are still very wild, and not converted; but they have all much -intercourse with the Spaniards. The padre said that the Christian -Indians did not much like coming to mass, but that otherwise they -showed respect for religion. The greatest difficulty is in making them -observe the ceremonies of marriage. The wild Indians take as many -wives as they can support, and a cacique will sometimes have more than -ten: on entering his house, the number may be told by that of the -separate fires. Each wife lives a week in turn with the cacique; but -all are employed in weaving ponchos, etc., for his profit. To be the -wife of a cacique, is an honour much sought after by the Indian women. - -The men of all these tribes wear a coarse woolen poncho: those south of -Valdivia wear short trousers, and those north of it a petticoat, like -the chilipa of the Gauchos. All have their long hair bound by a -scarlet fillet, but with no other covering on their heads. These -Indians are good-sized men; their cheek-bones are prominent, and in -general appearance they resemble the great American family to which -they belong; but their physiognomy seemed to me to be slightly -different from that of any other tribe which I had before seen. Their -expression is generally grave, and even austere, and possesses much -character: this may pass either for honest bluntness or fierce -determination. The long black hair, the grave and much-lined features, -and the dark complexion, called to my mind old portraits of James I. On -the road we met with none of that humble politeness so universal in -Chiloe. Some gave their "mari-mari" (good morning) with promptness, -but the greater number did not seem inclined to offer any salute. This -independence of manners is probably a consequence of their long wars, -and the repeated victories which they alone, of all the tribes in -America, have gained over the Spaniards. - -I spent the evening very pleasantly, talking with the padre. He was -exceedingly kind and hospitable; and coming from Santiago, had -contrived to surround himself with some few comforts. Being a man of -some little education, he bitterly complained of the total want of -society. With no particular zeal for religion, no business or pursuit, -how completely must this man's life be wasted! The next day, on our -return, we met seven very wild-looking Indians, of whom some were -caciques that had just received from the Chilian government their -yearly small stipend for having long remained faithful. They were -fine-looking men, and they rode one after the other, with most gloomy -faces. An old cacique, who headed them, had been, I suppose, more -excessively drunk than the rest, for he seemed extremely grave and very -crabbed. Shortly before this, two Indians joined us, who were -travelling from a distant mission to Valdivia concerning some lawsuit. -One was a good-humoured old man, but from his wrinkled beardless face -looked more like an old woman than a man. I frequently presented both -of them with cigars; and though ready to receive them, and I dare say -grateful, they would hardly condescend to thank me. A Chilotan Indian -would have taken off his hat, and given his "Dios le page!" The -travelling was very tedious, both from the badness of the roads, and -from the number of great fallen trees, which it was necessary either to -leap over or to avoid by making long circuits. We slept on the road, -and next morning reached Valdivia, whence I proceeded on board. - -A few days afterwards I crossed the bay with a party of officers, and -landed near the fort called Niebla. The buildings were in a most -ruinous state, and the gun-carriages quite rotten. Mr. Wickham -remarked to the commanding officer, that with one discharge they would -certainly all fall to pieces. The poor man, trying to put a good face -upon it, gravely replied, "No, I am sure, sir, they would stand two!" -The Spaniards must have intended to have made this place impregnable. -There is now lying in the middle of the courtyard a little mountain of -mortar, which rivals in hardness the rock on which it is placed. It -was brought from Chile, and cost 7000 dollars. The revolution having -broken out, prevented its being applied to any purpose, and now it -remains a monument of the fallen greatness of Spain. - -I wanted to go to a house about a mile and a half distant, but my guide -said it was quite impossible to penetrate the wood in a straight line. -He offered, however, to lead me, by following obscure cattle-tracks, -the shortest way: the walk, nevertheless, took no less than three -hours! This man is employed in hunting strayed cattle; yet, well as he -must know the woods, he was not long since lost for two whole days, and -had nothing to eat. These facts convey a good idea of the -impracticability of the forests of these countries. A question often -occurred to me--how long does any vestige of a fallen tree remain? This -man showed me one which a party of fugitive royalists had cut down -fourteen years ago; and taking this as a criterion, I should think a -bole a foot and a half in diameter would in thirty years be changed -into a heap of mould. - -February 20th.--This day has been memorable in the annals of Valdivia, -for the most severe earthquake experienced by the oldest inhabitant. I -happened to be on shore, and was lying down in the wood to rest myself. -It came on suddenly, and lasted two minutes, but the time appeared much -longer. The rocking of the ground was very sensible. The undulations -appeared to my companion and myself to come from due east, whilst -others thought they proceeded from south-west: this shows how difficult -it sometimes is to perceive the directions of the vibrations. There -was no difficulty in standing upright, but the motion made me almost -giddy: it was something like the movement of a vessel in a little -cross-ripple, or still more like that felt by a person skating over -thin ice, which bends under the weight of his body. A bad earthquake at -once destroys our oldest associations: the earth, the very emblem of -solidity, has moved beneath our feet like a thin crust over a -fluid;--one second of time has created in the mind a strange idea of -insecurity, which hours of reflection would not have produced. In the -forest, as a breeze moved the trees, I felt only the earth tremble, but -saw no other effect. Captain Fitz Roy and some officers were at the -town during the shock, and there the scene was more striking; for -although the houses, from being built of wood, did not fall, they were -violently shaken, and the boards creaked and rattled together. The -people rushed out of doors in the greatest alarm. It is these -accompaniments that create that perfect horror of earthquakes, -experienced by all who have thus seen, as well as felt, their effects. -Within the forest it was a deeply interesting, but by no means an -awe-exciting phenomenon. The tides were very curiously affected. The -great shock took place at the time of low water; and an old woman who -was on the beach told me that the water flowed very quickly, but not in -great waves, to high-water mark, and then as quickly returned to its -proper level; this was also evident by the line of wet sand. The same -kind of quick but quiet movement in the tide happened a few years since -at Chiloe, during a slight earthquake, and created much causeless -alarm. In the course of the evening there were many weaker shocks, -which seemed to produce in the harbour the most complicated currents, -and some of great strength. - - -March 4th.--We entered the harbour of Concepcion. While the ship was -beating up to the anchorage, I landed on the island of Quiriquina. The -mayor-domo of the estate quickly rode down to tell me the terrible news -of the great earthquake of the 20th:--"That not a house in Concepcion -or Talcahuano (the port) was standing; that seventy villages were -destroyed; and that a great wave had almost washed away the ruins of -Talcahuano." Of this latter statement I soon saw abundant proofs--the -whole coast being strewed over with timber and furniture as if a -thousand ships had been wrecked. Besides chairs, tables, book-shelves, -etc., in great numbers, there were several roofs of cottages, which had -been transported almost whole. The storehouses at Talcahuano had been -burst open, and great bags of cotton, yerba, and other valuable -merchandise were scattered on the shore. During my walk round the -island, I observed that numerous fragments of rock, which, from the -marine productions adhering to them, must recently have been lying in -deep water, had been cast up high on the beach; one of these was six -feet long, three broad, and two thick. - -The island itself as plainly showed the overwhelming power of the -earthquake, as the beach did that of the consequent great wave. The -ground in many parts was fissured in north and south lines, perhaps -caused by the yielding of the parallel and steep sides of this narrow -island. Some of the fissures near the cliffs were a yard wide. Many -enormous masses had already fallen on the beach; and the inhabitants -thought that when the rains commenced far greater slips would happen. -The effect of the vibration on the hard primary slate, which composes -the foundation of the island, was still more curious: the superficial -parts of some narrow ridges were as completely shivered as if they had -been blasted by gunpowder. This effect, which was rendered conspicuous -by the fresh fractures and displaced soil, must be confined to near the -surface, for otherwise there would not exist a block of solid rock -throughout Chile; nor is this improbable, as it is known that the -surface of a vibrating body is affected differently from the central -part. It is, perhaps, owing to this same reason, that earthquakes do -not cause quite such terrific havoc within deep mines as would be -expected. I believe this convulsion has been more effectual in -lessening the size of the island of Quiriquina, than the ordinary -wear-and-tear of the sea and weather during the course of a whole -century. - -The next day I landed at Talcahuano, and afterwards rode to Concepcion. -Both towns presented the most awful yet interesting spectacle I ever -beheld. To a person who had formerly known them, it possibly might have -been still more impressive; for the ruins were so mingled together, and -the whole scene possessed so little the air of a habitable place, that -it was scarcely possible to imagine its former condition. The -earthquake commenced at half-past eleven o'clock in the forenoon. If -it had happened in the middle of the night, the greater number of the -inhabitants (which in this one province must amount to many thousands) -must have perished, instead of less than a hundred: as it was, the -invariable practice of running out of doors at the first trembling of -the ground, alone saved them. In Concepcion each house, or row of -houses, stood by itself, a heap or line of ruins; but in Talcahuano, -owing to the great wave, little more than one layer of bricks, tiles, -and timber with here and there part of a wall left standing, could be -distinguished. From this circumstance Concepcion, although not so -completely desolated, was a more terrible, and if I may so call it, -picturesque sight. The first shock was very sudden. The mayor-domo at -Quiriquina told me, that the first notice he received of it, was -finding both the horse he rode and himself, rolling together on the -ground. Rising up, he was again thrown down. He also told me that -some cows which were standing on the steep side of the island were -rolled into the sea. The great wave caused the destruction of many -cattle; on one low island near the head of the bay, seventy animals -were washed off and drowned. It is generally thought that this has -been the worst earthquake ever recorded in Chile; but as the very -severe ones occur only after long intervals, this cannot easily be -known; nor indeed would a much worse shock have made any difference, -for the ruin was now complete. Innumerable small tremblings followed -the great earthquake, and within the first twelve days no less than -three hundred were counted. - -After viewing Concepcion, I cannot understand how the greater number of -inhabitants escaped unhurt. The houses in many parts fell outwards; -thus forming in the middle of the streets little hillocks of brickwork -and rubbish. Mr. Rouse, the English consul, told us that he was at -breakfast when the first movement warned him to run out. He had -scarcely reached the middle of the courtyard, when one side of his -house came thundering down. He retained presence of mind to remember, -that if he once got on the top of that part which had already fallen, -he would be safe. Not being able from the motion of the ground to -stand, he crawled up on his hands and knees; and no sooner had he -ascended this little eminence, than the other side of the house fell -in, the great beams sweeping close in front of his head. With his eyes -blinded, and his mouth choked with the cloud of dust which darkened the -sky, at last he gained the street. As shock succeeded shock, at the -interval of a few minutes, no one dared approach the shattered ruins, -and no one knew whether his dearest friends and relations were not -perishing from the want of help. Those who had saved any property were -obliged to keep a constant watch, for thieves prowled about, and at -each little trembling of the ground, with one hand they beat their -breasts and cried "Misericordia!" and then with the other filched what -they could from the ruins. The thatched roofs fell over the fires, and -flames burst forth in all parts. Hundreds knew themselves ruined, and -few had the means of providing food for the day. - -Earthquakes alone are sufficient to destroy the prosperity of any -country. If beneath England the now inert subterranean forces should -exert those powers, which most assuredly in former geological ages they -have exerted, how completely would the entire condition of the country -be changed! What would become of the lofty houses, thickly packed -cities, great manufactories, the beautiful public and private edifices? -If the new period of disturbance were first to commence by some great -earthquake in the dead of the night, how terrific would be the carnage! -England would at once be bankrupt; all papers, records, and accounts -would from that moment be lost. Government being unable to collect the -taxes, and failing to maintain its authority, the hand of violence and -rapine would remain uncontrolled. In every large town famine would go -forth, pestilence and death following in its train. - -Shortly after the shock, a great wave was seen from the distance of -three or four miles, approaching in the middle of the bay with a smooth -outline; but along the shore it tore up cottages and trees, as it swept -onwards with irresistible force. At the head of the bay it broke in a -fearful line of white breakers, which rushed up to a height of 23 -vertical feet above the highest spring-tides. Their force must have -been prodigious; for at the Fort a cannon with its carriage, estimated -at four tons in weight, was moved 15 feet inwards. A schooner was left -in the midst of the ruins, 200 yards from the beach. The first wave -was followed by two others, which in their retreat carried away a vast -wreck of floating objects. In one part of the bay, a ship was pitched -high and dry on shore, was carried off, again driven on shore, and -again carried off. In another part, two large vessels anchored near -together were whirled about, and their cables were thrice wound round -each other; though anchored at a depth of 36 feet, they were for some -minutes aground. The great wave must have travelled slowly, for the -inhabitants of Talcahuano had time to run up the hills behind the town; -and some sailors pulled out seaward, trusting successfully to their -boat riding securely over the swell, if they could reach it before it -broke. One old woman with a little boy, four or five years old, ran -into a boat, but there was nobody to row it out: the boat was -consequently dashed against an anchor and cut in twain; the old woman -was drowned, but the child was picked up some hours afterwards clinging -to the wreck. Pools of salt-water were still standing amidst the ruins -of the houses, and children, making boats with old tables and chairs, -appeared as happy as their parents were miserable. It was, however, -exceedingly interesting to observe, how much more active and cheerful -all appeared than could have been expected. It was remarked with much -truth, that from the destruction being universal, no one individual was -humbled more than another, or could suspect his friends of -coldness--that most grievous result of the loss of wealth. Mr. Rouse, -and a large party whom he kindly took under his protection, lived for -the first week in a garden beneath some apple-trees. At first they were -as merry as if it had been a picnic; but soon afterwards heavy rain -caused much discomfort, for they were absolutely without shelter. - -In Captain Fitz Roy's excellent account of the earthquake, it is said -that two explosions, one like a column of smoke and another like the -blowing of a great whale, were seen in the bay. The water also -appeared everywhere to be boiling; and it "became black, and exhaled a -most disagreeable sulphureous smell." These latter circumstances were -observed in the Bay of Valparaiso during the earthquake of 1822; they -may, I think, be accounted for, by the disturbance of the mud at the -bottom of the sea containing organic matter in decay. In the Bay of -Callao, during a calm day, I noticed, that as the ship dragged her -cable over the bottom, its course was marked by a line of bubbles. The -lower orders in Talcahuano thought that the earthquake was caused by -some old Indian women, who two years ago, being offended, stopped the -volcano of Antuco. This silly belief is curious, because it shows that -experience has taught them to observe, that there exists a relation -between the suppressed action of the volcanos, and the trembling of the -ground. It was necessary to apply the witchcraft to the point where -their perception of cause and effect failed; and this was the closing -of the volcanic vent. This belief is the more singular in this -particular instance, because, according to Captain Fitz Roy, there is -reason to believe that Antuco was noways affected. - -The town of Concepcion was built in the usual Spanish fashion, with all -the streets running at right angles to each other; one set ranging S.W. -by W., and the other set N.W. by N. The walls in the former direction -certainly stood better than those in the latter; the greater number of -the masses of brickwork were thrown down towards the N.E. Both these -circumstances perfectly agree with the general idea, of the undulations -having come from the S.W., in which quarter subterranean noises were -also heard; for it is evident that the walls running S.W. and N.E. -which presented their ends to the point whence the undulations came, -would be much less likely to fall than those walls which, running N.W. -and S.E., must in their whole lengths have been at the same instant -thrown out of the perpendicular; for the undulations, coming from the -S.W., must have extended in N.W. and S.E. waves, as they passed under -the foundations. This may be illustrated by placing books edgeways on -a carpet, and then, after the manner suggested by Michell, imitating -the undulations of an earthquake: it will be found that they fall with -more or less readiness, according as their direction more or less -nearly coincides with the line of the waves. The fissures in the -ground generally, though not uniformly, extended in a S.E. and N.W. -direction, and therefore corresponded to the lines of undulation or of -principal flexure. Bearing in mind all these circumstances, which so -clearly point to the S.W. as the chief focus of disturbance, it is a -very interesting fact that the island of S. Maria, situated in that -quarter, was, during the general uplifting of the land, raised to -nearly three times the height of any other part of the coast. - -The different resistance offered by the walls, according to their -direction, was well exemplified in the case of the Cathedral. The side -which fronted the N.E. presented a grand pile of ruins, in the midst of -which door-cases and masses of timber stood up, as if floating in a -stream. Some of the angular blocks of brickwork were of great -dimensions; and they were rolled to a distance on the level plaza, like -fragments of rock at the base of some high mountain. The side walls -(running S.W. and N.E.), though exceedingly fractured, yet remained -standing; but the vast buttresses (at right angles to them, and -therefore parallel to the walls that fell) were in many cases cut clean -off, as if by a chisel, and hurled to the ground. Some square -ornaments on the coping of these same walls, were moved by the -earthquake into a diagonal position. A similar circumstance was -observed after an earthquake at Valparaiso, Calabria, and other places, -including some of the ancient Greek temples. [1] This twisting -displacement, at first appears to indicate a vorticose movement beneath -each point thus affected; but this is highly improbable. May it not be -caused by a tendency in each stone to arrange itself in some particular -position, with respect to the lines of vibration,--in a manner somewhat -similar to pins on a sheet of paper when shaken? Generally speaking, -arched doorways or windows stood much better than any other part of the -buildings. Nevertheless, a poor lame old man, who had been in the -habit, during trifling shocks, of crawling to a certain doorway, was -this time crushed to pieces. - -I have not attempted to give any detailed description of the appearance -of Concepcion, for I feel that it is quite impossible to convey the -mingled feelings which I experienced. Several of the officers visited -it before me, but their strongest language failed to give a just idea -of the scene of desolation. It is a bitter and humiliating thing to -see works, which have cost man so much time and labour, overthrown in -one minute; yet compassion for the inhabitants was almost instantly -banished, by the surprise in seeing a state of things produced in a -moment of time, which one was accustomed to attribute to a succession -of ages. In my opinion, we have scarcely beheld, since leaving -England, any sight so deeply interesting. - -In almost every severe earthquake, the neighbouring waters of the sea -are said to have been greatly agitated. The disturbance seems -generally, as in the case of Concepcion, to have been of two kinds: -first, at the instant of the shock, the water swells high up on the -beach with a gentle motion, and then as quietly retreats; secondly, -some time afterwards, the whole body of the sea retires from the coast, -and then returns in waves of overwhelming force. The first movement -seems to be an immediate consequence of the earthquake affecting -differently a fluid and a solid, so that their respective levels are -slightly deranged: but the second case is a far more important -phenomenon. During most earthquakes, and especially during those on -the west coast of America, it is certain that the first great movement -of the waters has been a retirement. Some authors have attempted to -explain this, by supposing that the water retains its level, whilst the -land oscillates upwards; but surely the water close to the land, even -on a rather steep coast, would partake of the motion of the bottom: -moreover, as urged by Mr. Lyell, similar movements of the sea have -occurred at islands far distant from the chief line of disturbance, as -was the case with Juan Fernandez during this earthquake, and with -Madeira during the famous Lisbon shock. I suspect (but the subject is -a very obscure one) that a wave, however produced, first draws the -water from the shore, on which it is advancing to break: I have -observed that this happens with the little waves from the paddles of a -steam-boat. It is remarkable that whilst Talcahuano and Callao (near -Lima), both situated at the head of large shallow bays, have suffered -during every severe earthquake from great waves, Valparaiso, seated -close to the edge of profoundly deep water, has never been overwhelmed, -though so often shaken by the severest shocks. From the great wave not -immediately following the earthquake, but sometimes after the interval -of even half an hour, and from distant islands being affected similarly -with the coasts near the focus of the disturbance, it appears that the -wave first rises in the offing; and as this is of general occurrence, -the cause must be general: I suspect we must look to the line, where -the less disturbed waters of the deep ocean join the water nearer the -coast, which has partaken of the movements of the land, as the place -where the great wave is first generated; it would also appear that the -wave is larger or smaller, according to the extent of shoal water which -has been agitated together with the bottom on which it rested. - - -The most remarkable effect of this earthquake was the permanent -elevation of the land, it would probably be far more correct to speak -of it as the cause. There can be no doubt that the land round the Bay -of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet; but it deserves notice, -that owing to the wave having obliterated the old lines of tidal action -on the sloping sandy shores, I could discover no evidence of this fact, -except in the united testimony of the inhabitants, that one little -rocky shoal, now exposed, was formerly covered with water. At the -island of S. Maria (about thirty miles distant) the elevation was -greater; on one part, Captain Fitz Roy founds beds of putrid -mussel-shells _still adhering to the rocks_, ten feet above high-water -mark: the inhabitants had formerly dived at lower-water spring-tides -for these shells. The elevation of this province is particularly -interesting, from its having been the theatre of several other violent -earthquakes, and from the vast numbers of sea-shells scattered over the -land, up to a height of certainly 600, and I believe, of 1000 feet. At -Valparaiso, as I have remarked, similar shells are found at the height -of 1300 feet: it is hardly possible to doubt that this great elevation -has been effected by successive small uprisings, such as that which -accompanied or caused the earthquake of this year, and likewise by an -insensibly slow rise, which is certainly in progress on some parts of -this coast. - -The island of Juan Fernandez, 360 miles to the N.E., was, at the time -of the great shock of the 20th, violently shaken, so that the trees -beat against each other, and a volcano burst forth under water close to -the shore: these facts are remarkable because this island, during the -earthquake of 1751, was then also affected more violently than other -places at an equal distance from Concepcion, and this seems to show -some subterranean connection between these two points. Chiloe, about -340 miles southward of Concepcion, appears to have been shaken more -strongly than the intermediate district of Valdivia, where the volcano -of Villarica was noways affected, whilst in the Cordillera in front of -Chiloe, two of the volcanos burst-forth at the same instant in violent -action. These two volcanos, and some neighbouring ones, continued for -a long time in eruption, and ten months afterwards were again -influenced by an earthquake at Concepcion. Some men, cutting wood near -the base of one of these volcanos, did not perceive the shock of the -20th, although the whole surrounding Province was then trembling; here -we have an eruption relieving and taking the place of an earthquake, as -would have happened at Concepcion, according to the belief of the lower -orders, if the volcano at Antuco had not been closed by witchcraft. Two -years and three-quarters afterwards, Valdivia and Chiloe were again -shaken, more violently than on the 20th, and an island in the Chonos -Archipelago was permanently elevated more than eight feet. It will give -a better idea of the scale of these phenomena, if (as in the case of -the glaciers) we suppose them to have taken place at corresponding -distances in Europe:--then would the land from the North Sea to the -Mediterranean have been violently shaken, and at the same instant of -time a large tract of the eastern coast of England would have been -permanently elevated, together with some outlying islands,--a train of -volcanos on the coast of Holland would have burst forth in action, and -an eruption taken place at the bottom of the sea, near the northern -extremity of Ireland--and lastly, the ancient vents of Auvergne, -Cantal, and Mont d'Or would each have sent up to the sky a dark column -of smoke, and have long remained in fierce action. Two years and -three-quarters afterwards, France, from its centre to the English -Channel, would have been again desolated by an earthquake and an island -permanently upraised in the Mediterranean. - -The space, from under which volcanic matter on the 20th was actually -erupted, is 720 miles in one line, and 400 miles in another line at -right angles to the first: hence, in all probability, a subterranean -lake of lava is here stretched out, of nearly double the area of the -Black Sea. From the intimate and complicated manner in which the -elevatory and eruptive forces were shown to be connected during this -train of phenomena, we may confidently come to the conclusion, that the -forces which slowly and by little starts uplift continents, and those -which at successive periods pour forth volcanic matter from open -orifices, are identical. From many reasons, I believe that the -frequent quakings of the earth on this line of coast are caused by the -rending of the strata, necessarily consequent on the tension of the -land when upraised, and their injection by fluidified rock. This -rending and injection would, if repeated often enough (and we know that -earthquakes repeatedly affect the same areas in the same manner), form -a chain of hills;--and the linear island of S. Mary, which was upraised -thrice the height of the neighbouring country, seems to be undergoing -this process. I believe that the solid axis of a mountain, differs in -its manner of formation from a volcanic hill, only in the molten stone -having been repeatedly injected, instead of having been repeatedly -ejected. Moreover, I believe that it is impossible to explain the -structure of great mountain-chains, such as that of the Cordillera, -were the strata, capping the injected axis of plutonic rock, have been -thrown on their edges along several parallel and neighbouring lines of -elevation, except on this view of the rock of the axis having been -repeatedly injected, after intervals sufficiently long to allow the -upper parts or wedges to cool and become solid;--for if the strata had -been thrown into their present highly inclined, vertical, and even -inverted positions, by a single blow, the very bowels of the earth -would have gushed out; and instead of beholding abrupt mountain-axes of -rock solidified under great pressure, deluges of lava would have flowed -out at innumerable points on every line of elevation. [2] - -[1] M. Arago in L'Institut, 1839, p. 337. See also Miers's Chile, vol. -i. p. 392; also Lyell's Principles of Geology, chap. xv., book ii. - -[2] For a full account of the volcanic phenomena which accompanied the -earthquake of the 20th, and for the conclusions deducible from them, I -must refer to Volume V. of the Geological Transactions. - - - -CHAPTER XV - -PASSAGE OF THE CORDILLERA - -Valparaiso--Portillo Pass--Sagacity of Mules--Mountain-torrents--Mines, -how discovered--Proofs of the gradual Elevation of the -Cordillera--Effect of Snow on Rocks--Geological Structure of the two -main Ranges, their distinct Origin and Upheaval--Great Subsidence--Red -Snow--Winds--Pinnacles of Snow--Dry and clear -Atmosphere--Electricity--Pampas--Zoology of the opposite Side of the -Andes--Locusts--Great Bugs--Mendoza--Uspallata Pass--Silicified Trees -buried as they grew--Incas Bridge--Badness of the Passes -exaggerated--Cumbre--Casuchas--Valparaiso. - - -MARCH 7th, 1835.--We stayed three days at Concepcion, and then sailed -for Valparaiso. The wind being northerly, we only reached the mouth of -the harbour of Concepcion before it was dark. Being very near the -land, and a fog coming on, the anchor was dropped. Presently a large -American whaler appeared alongside of us; and we heard the Yankee -swearing at his men to keep quiet, whilst he listened for the breakers. -Captain Fitz Roy hailed him, in a loud clear voice, to anchor where he -then was. The poor man must have thought the voice came from the -shore: such a Babel of cries issued at once from the ship--every one -hallooing out, "Let go the anchor! veer cable! shorten sail!" It was -the most laughable thing I ever heard. If the ship's crew had been all -captains, and no men, there could not have been a greater uproar of -orders. We afterwards found that the mate stuttered: I suppose all -hands were assisting him in giving his orders. - -On the 11th we anchored at Valparaiso, and two days afterwards I set -out to cross the Cordillera. I proceeded to Santiago, where Mr. -Caldcleugh most kindly assisted me in every possible way in making the -little preparations which were necessary. In this part of Chile there -are two passes across the Andes to Mendoza: the one most commonly used, -namely, that of Aconcagua or Uspallata--is situated some way to the -north; the other, called the Portillo, is to the south, and nearer, but -more lofty and dangerous. - -March 18th.--We set out for the Portillo pass. Leaving Santiago we -crossed the wide burnt-up plain on which that city stands, and in the -afternoon arrived at the Maypu, one of the principal rivers in Chile. -The valley, at the point where it enters the first Cordillera, is -bounded on each side by lofty barren mountains; and although not broad, -it is very fertile. Numerous cottages were surrounded by vines, and by -orchards of apple, nectarine, and peach-trees--their boughs breaking -with the weight of the beautiful ripe fruit. In the evening we passed -the custom-house, where our luggage was examined. The frontier of -Chile is better guarded by the Cordillera, than by the waters of the -sea. There are very few valleys which lead to the central ranges, and -the mountains are quite impassable in other parts by beasts of burden. -The custom-house officers were very civil, which was perhaps partly -owing to the passport which the President of the Republic had given me; -but I must express my admiration at the natural politeness of almost -every Chileno. In this instance, the contrast with the same class of -men in most other countries was strongly marked. I may mention an -anecdote with which I was at the time much pleased: we met near Mendoza -a little and very fat negress, riding astride on a mule. She had a -_goitre_ so enormous that it was scarcely possible to avoid gazing at -her for a moment; but my two companions almost instantly, by way of -apology, made the common salute of the country by taking off their -hats. Where would one of the lower or higher classes in Europe, have -shown such feeling politeness to a poor and miserable object of a -degraded race? - -At night we slept at a cottage. Our manner of travelling was -delightfully independent. In the inhabited parts we bought a little -firewood, hired pasture for the animals, and bivouacked in the corner -of the same field with them. Carrying an iron pot, we cooked and ate -our supper under a cloudless sky, and knew no trouble. My companions -were Mariano Gonzales, who had formerly accompanied me in Chile, and an -"arriero," with his ten mules and a "madrina." The madrina (or -godmother) is a most important personage: - -She is an old steady mare, with a little bell round her neck; and -wherever she goes, the mules, like good children, follow her. The -affection of these animals for their madrinas saves infinite trouble. -If several large troops are turned into one field to graze, in the -morning the muleteers have only to lead the madrinas a little apart, -and tinkle their bells; although there may be two or three hundred -together, each mule immediately knows the bell of its own madrina, and -comes to her. It is nearly impossible to lose an old mule; for if -detained for several hours by force, she will, by the power of smell, -like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the madrina, for, -according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of affection. The -feeling, however, is not of an individual nature; for I believe I am -right in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as a madrina. In -a troop each animal carries on a level road, a cargo weighing 416 -pounds (more than 29 stone), but in a mountainous country 100 pounds -less; yet with what delicate slim limbs, without any proportional bulk -of muscle, these animals support so great a burden! The mule always -appears to me a most surprising animal. That a hybrid should possess -more reason, memory, obstinacy, social affection, powers of muscular -endurance, and length of life, than either of its parents, seems to -indicate that art has here outdone nature. Of our ten animals, six -were intended for riding, and four for carrying cargoes, each taking -turn about. We carried a good deal of food in case we should be snowed -up, as the season was rather late for passing the Portillo. - -March 19th.--We rode during this day to the last, and therefore most -elevated, house in the valley. The number of inhabitants became -scanty; but wherever water could be brought on the land, it was very -fertile. All the main valleys in the Cordillera are characterized by -having, on both sides, a fringe or terrace of shingle and sand, rudely -stratified, and generally of considerable thickness. These fringes -evidently once extended across the valleys and were united; and the -bottoms of the valleys in northern Chile, where there are no streams, -are thus smoothly filled up. On these fringes the roads are generally -carried, for their surfaces are even, and they rise, with a very gentle -slope up the valleys: hence, also, they are easily cultivated by -irrigation. They may be traced up to a height of between 7000 and 9000 -feet, where they become hidden by the irregular piles of debris. At -the lower end or mouths of the valleys, they are continuously united to -those land-locked plains (also formed of shingle) at the foot of the -main Cordillera, which I have described in a former chapter as -characteristic of the scenery of Chile, and which were undoubtedly -deposited when the sea penetrated Chile, as it now does the more -southern coasts. No one fact in the geology of South America, -interested me more than these terraces of rudely-stratified shingle. -They precisely resemble in composition the matter which the torrents in -each valley would deposit, if they were checked in their course by any -cause, such as entering a lake or arm of the sea; but the torrents, -instead of depositing matter, are now steadily at work wearing away -both the solid rock and these alluvial deposits, along the whole line -of every main valley and side valley. It is impossible here to give -the reasons, but I am convinced that the shingle terraces were -accumulated, during the gradual elevation of the Cordillera, by the -torrents delivering, at successive levels, their detritus on the -beachheads of long narrow arms of the sea, first high up the valleys, -then lower and lower down as the land slowly rose. If this be so, and -I cannot doubt it, the grand and broken chain of the Cordillera, -instead of having been suddenly thrown up, as was till lately the -universal, and still is the common opinion of geologists, has been -slowly upheaved in mass, in the same gradual manner as the coasts of -the Atlantic and Pacific have risen within the recent period. A -multitude of facts in the structure of the Cordillera, on this view -receive a simple explanation. - -The rivers which flow in these valleys ought rather to be called -mountain-torrents. Their inclination is very great, and their water -the colour of mud. The roar which the Maypu made, as it rushed over -the great rounded fragments, was like that of the sea. Amidst the din -of rushing waters, the noise from the stones, as they rattled one over -another, was most distinctly audible even from a distance. This -rattling noise, night and day, may be heard along the whole course of -the torrent. The sound spoke eloquently to the geologist; the -thousands and thousands of stones, which, striking against each other, -made the one dull uniform sound, were all hurrying in one direction. It -was like thinking on time, where the minute that now glides past is -irrevocable. So was it with these stones; the ocean is their eternity, -and each note of that wild music told of one more step towards their -destiny. - -It is not possible for the mind to comprehend, except by a slow -process, any effect which is produced by a cause repeated so often, -that the multiplier itself conveys an idea, not more definite than the -savage implies when he points to the hairs of his head. As often as I -have seen beds of mud, sand, and shingle, accumulated to the thickness -of many thousand feet, I have felt inclined to exclaim that causes, -such as the present rivers and the present beaches, could never have -ground down and produced such masses. But, on the other hand, when -listening to the rattling noise of these torrents, and calling to mind -that whole races of animals have passed away from the face of the -earth, and that during this whole period, night and day, these stones -have gone rattling onwards in their course, I have thought to myself, -can any mountains, any continent, withstand such waste? - -In this part of the valley, the mountains on each side were from 3000 -to 6000 or 8000 feet high, with rounded outlines and steep bare flanks. -The general colour of the rock was dullish purple, and the -stratification very distinct. If the scenery was not beautiful, it was -remarkable and grand. We met during the day several herds of cattle, -which men were driving down from the higher valleys in the Cordillera. -This sign of the approaching winter hurried our steps, more than was -convenient for geologizing. The house where we slept was situated at -the foot of a mountain, on the summit of which are the mines of S. -Pedro de Nolasko. Sir F. Head marvels how mines have been discovered -in such extraordinary situations, as the bleak summit of the mountain -of S. Pedro de Nolasko. In the first place, metallic veins in this -country are generally harder than the surrounding strata: hence, during -the gradual wear of the hills, they project above the surface of the -ground. Secondly, almost every labourer, especially in the northern -parts of Chile, understands something about the appearance of ores. In -the great mining provinces of Coquimbo and Copiapo, firewood is very -scarce, and men search for it over every hill and dale; and by this -means nearly all the richest mines have there been discovered. -Chanuncillo, from which silver to the value of many hundred thousand -pounds has been raised in the course of a few years, was discovered by -a man who threw a stone at his loaded donkey, and thinking that it was -very heavy, he picked it up, and found it full of pure silver: the vein -occurred at no great distance, standing up like a wedge of metal. The -miners, also, taking a crowbar with them, often wander on Sundays over -the mountains. In this south part of Chile, the men who drive cattle -into the Cordillera, and who frequent every ravine where there is a -little pasture, are the usual discoverers. - -20th.--As we ascended the valley, the vegetation, with the exception of -a few pretty alpine flowers, became exceedingly scanty, and of -quadrupeds, birds, or insects, scarcely one could be seen. The lofty -mountains, their summits marked with a few patches of snow, stood well -separated from each other, the valleys being filled up with an immense -thickness of stratified alluvium. The features in the scenery of the -Andes which struck me most, as contrasted with the other mountain -chains with which I am acquainted, were,--the flat fringes sometimes -expanding into narrow plains on each side of the valleys,--the bright -colours, chiefly red and purple, of the utterly bare and precipitous -hills of porphyry, the grand and continuous wall-like dykes,--the -plainly-divided strata which, where nearly vertical, formed the -picturesque and wild central pinnacles, but where less inclined, -composed the great massive mountains on the outskirts of the -range,--and lastly, the smooth conical piles of fine and brightly -coloured detritus, which sloped up at a high angle from the base of the -mountains, sometimes to a height of more than 2000 feet. - -I frequently observed, both in Tierra del Fuego and within the Andes, -that where the rock was covered during the greater part of the year -with snow, it was shivered in a very extraordinary manner into small -angular fragments. Scoresby [1] has observed the same fact in -Spitzbergen. The case appears to me rather obscure: for that part of -the mountain which is protected by a mantle of snow, must be less -subject to repeated and great changes of temperature than any other -part. I have sometimes thought, that the earth and fragments of stone -on the surface, were perhaps less effectually removed by slowly -percolating snow-water [2] than by rain, and therefore that the -appearance of a quicker disintegration of the solid rock under the -snow, was deceptive. Whatever the cause may be, the quantity of -crumbling stone on the Cordillera is very great. Occasionally in the -spring, great masses of this detritus slide down the mountains, and -cover the snow-drifts in the valleys, thus forming natural ice-houses. -We rode over one, the height of which was far below the limit of -perpetual snow. - -As the evening drew to a close, we reached a singular basin-like plain, -called the Valle del Yeso. It was covered by a little dry pasture, and -we had the pleasant sight of a herd of cattle amidst the surrounding -rocky deserts. The valley takes its name of Yeso from a great bed, I -should think at least 2000 feet thick, of white, and in some parts -quite pure, gypsum. We slept with a party of men, who were employed in -loading mules with this substance, which is used in the manufacture of -wine. We set out early in the morning (21st), and continued to follow -the course of the river, which had become very small, till we arrived -at the foot of the ridge, that separates the waters flowing into the -Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The road, which as yet had been good with -a steady but very gradual ascent, now changed into a steep zigzag track -up the great range, dividing the republics of Chile and Mendoza. - -I will here give a very brief sketch of the geology of the several -parallel lines forming the Cordillera. Of these lines, there are two -considerably higher than the others; namely, on the Chilian side, the -Peuquenes ridge, which, where the road crosses it, is 13,210 feet above -the sea; and the Portillo ridge, on the Mendoza side, which is 14,305 -feet. The lower beds of the Peuquenes ridge, and of the several great -lines to the westward of it, are composed of a vast pile, many thousand -feet in thickness, of porphyries which have flowed as submarine lavas, -alternating with angular and rounded fragments of the same rocks, -thrown out of the submarine craters. These alternating masses are -covered in the central parts, by a great thickness of red sandstone, -conglomerate, and calcareous clay-slate, associated with, and passing -into, prodigious beds of gypsum. In these upper beds shells are -tolerably frequent; and they belong to about the period of the lower -chalk of Europe. It is an old story, but not the less wonderful, to -hear of shells which were once crawling on the bottom of the sea, now -standing nearly 14,000 feet above its level. The lower beds in this -great pile of strata, have been dislocated, baked, crystallized and -almost blended together, through the agency of mountain masses of a -peculiar white soda-granitic rock. - -The other main line, namely, that of the Portillo, is of a totally -different formation: it consists chiefly of grand bare pinnacles of a -red potash-granite, which low down on the western flank are covered by -a sandstone, converted by the former heat into a quartz-rock. On the -quartz, there rest beds of a conglomerate several thousand feet in -thickness, which have been upheaved by the red granite, and dip at an -angle of 45 degs. towards the Peuquenes line. I was astonished to find -that this conglomerate was partly composed of pebbles, derived from the -rocks, with their fossil shells, of the Peuquenes range; and partly of -red potash-granite, like that of the Portillo. Hence we must conclude, -that both the Peuquenes and Portillo ranges were partially upheaved and -exposed to wear and tear, when the conglomerate was forming; but as the -beds of the conglomerate have been thrown off at an angle of 45 degs. -by the red Portillo granite (with the underlying sandstone baked by -it), we may feel sure, that the greater part of the injection and -upheaval of the already partially formed Portillo line, took place -after the accumulation of the conglomerate, and long after the -elevation of the Peuquenes ridge. So that the Portillo, the loftiest -line in this part of the Cordillera, is not so old as the less lofty -line of the Peuquenes. Evidence derived from an inclined stream of -lava at the eastern base of the Portillo, might be adduced to show, -that it owes part of its great height to elevations of a still later -date. Looking to its earliest origin, the red granite seems to have -been injected on an ancient pre-existing line of white granite and -mica-slate. In most parts, perhaps in all parts, of the Cordillera, it -may be concluded that each line has been formed by repeated upheavals -and injections; and that the several parallel lines are of different -ages. Only thus can we gain time, at all sufficient to explain the -truly astonishing amount of denudation, which these great, though -comparatively with most other ranges recent, mountains have suffered. - -Finally, the shells in the Peuquenes or oldest ridge, prove, as before -remarked, that it has been upraised 14,000 feet since a Secondary -period, which in Europe we are accustomed to consider as far from -ancient; but since these shells lived in a moderately deep sea, it can -be shown that the area now occupied by the Cordillera, must have -subsided several thousand feet--in northern Chile as much as 6000 -feet--so as to have allowed that amount of submarine strata to have -been heaped on the bed on which the shells lived. The proof is the -same with that by which it was shown, that at a much later period, -since the tertiary shells of Patagonia lived, there must have been -there a subsidence of several hundred feet, as well as an ensuing -elevation. Daily it is forced home on the mind of the geologist, that -nothing, not even the wind that blows, is so unstable as the level of -the crust of this earth. - -I will make only one other geological remark: although the Portillo -chain is here higher than the Peuquenes, the waters draining the -intermediate valleys, have burst through it. The same fact, on a -grander scale, has been remarked in the eastern and loftiest line of -the Bolivian Cordillera, through which the rivers pass: analogous facts -have also been observed in other quarters of the world. On the -supposition of the subsequent and gradual elevation of the Portillo -line, this can be understood; for a chain of islets would at first -appear, and, as these were lifted up, the tides would be always wearing -deeper and broader channels between them. At the present day, even in -the most retired Sounds on the coast of Tierra del Fuego, the currents -in the transverse breaks which connect the longitudinal channels, are -very strong, so that in one transverse channel even a small vessel -under sail was whirled round and round. - - -About noon we began the tedious ascent of the Peuquenes ridge, and then -for the first time experienced some little difficulty in our -respiration. The mules would halt every fifty yards, and after resting -for a few seconds the poor willing animals started of their own accord -again. The short breathing from the rarefied atmosphere is called by -the Chilenos "puna;" and they have most ridiculous notions concerning -its origin. Some say "all the waters here have puna;" others that -"where there is snow there is puna;"--and this no doubt is true. The -only sensation I experienced was a slight tightness across the head and -chest, like that felt on leaving a warm room and running quickly in -frosty weather. There was some imagination even in this; for upon -finding fossil shells on the highest ridge, I entirely forgot the puna -in my delight. Certainly the exertion of walking was extremely great, -and the respiration became deep and laborious: I am told that in Potosi -(about 13,000 feet above the sea) strangers do not become thoroughly -accustomed to the atmosphere for an entire year. The inhabitants all -recommend onions for the puna; as this vegetable has sometimes been -given in Europe for pectoral complaints, it may possibly be of real -service:--for my part I found nothing so good as the fossil shells! - -When about half-way up we met a large party with seventy loaded mules. -It was interesting to hear the wild cries of the muleteers, and to -watch the long descending string of the animals; they appeared so -diminutive, there being nothing but the black mountains with which they -could be compared. When near the summit, the wind, as generally -happens, was impetuous and extremely cold. On each side of the ridge, -we had to pass over broad bands of perpetual snow, which were now soon -to be covered by a fresh layer. When we reached the crest and looked -backwards, a glorious view was presented. The atmosphere resplendently -clear; the sky an intense blue; the profound valleys; the wild broken -forms: the heaps of ruins, piled up during the lapse of ages; the -bright-coloured rocks, contrasted with the quiet mountains of snow, all -these together produced a scene no one could have imagined. Neither -plant nor bird, excepting a few condors wheeling around the higher -pinnacles, distracted my attention from the inanimate mass. I felt -glad that I was alone: it was like watching a thunderstorm, or hearing -in full orchestra a chorus of the Messiah. - -On several patches of the snow I found the Protococcus nivalis, or red -snow, so well known from the accounts of Arctic navigators. My -attention was called to it, by observing the footsteps of the mules -stained a pale red, as if their hoofs had been slightly bloody. I at -first thought that it was owing to dust blown from the surrounding -mountains of red porphyry; for from the magnifying power of the -crystals of snow, the groups of these microscopical plants appeared -like coarse particles. The snow was coloured only where it had thawed -very rapidly, or had been accidentally crushed. A little rubbed on -paper gave it a faint rose tinge mingled with a little brick-red. I -afterwards scraped some off the paper, and found that it consisted of -groups of little spheres in colourless cases, each of the thousandth -part of an inch in diameter. - -The wind on the crest of the Peuquenes, as just remarked, is generally -impetuous and very cold: it is said [3] to blow steadily from the -westward or Pacific side. As the observations have been chiefly made -in summer, this wind must be an upper and return current. The Peak of -Teneriffe, with a less elevation, and situated in lat. 28 degs., in -like manner falls within an upper return stream. At first it appears -rather surprising, that the trade-wind along the northern parts of -Chile and on the coast of Peru, should blow in so very southerly a -direction as it does; but when we reflect that the Cordillera, running -in a north and south line, intercepts, like a great wall, the entire -depth of the lower atmospheric current, we can easily see that the -trade-wind must be drawn northward, following the line of mountains, -towards the equatorial regions, and thus lose part of that easterly -movement which it otherwise would have gained from the earth's -rotation. At Mendoza, on the eastern foot of the Andes, the climate is -said to be subject to long calms, and to frequent though false -appearances of gathering rain-storms: we may imagine that the wind, -which coming from the eastward is thus banked up by the line of -mountains, would become stagnant and irregular in its movements. - -Having crossed the Peuquenes, we descended into a mountainous country, -intermediate between the two main ranges, and then took up our quarters -for the night. We were now in the republic of Mendoza. The elevation -was probably not under 11,000 feet, and the vegetation in consequence -exceedingly scanty. The root of a small scrubby plant served as fuel, -but it made a miserable fire, and the wind was piercingly cold. Being -quite tired with my days work, I made up my bed as quickly as I could, -and went to sleep. About midnight I observed the sky became suddenly -clouded: I awakened the arriero to know if there was any danger of bad -weather; but he said that without thunder and lightning there was no -risk of a heavy snow-storm. The peril is imminent, and the difficulty -of subsequent escape great, to any one overtaken by bad weather between -the two ranges. A certain cave offers the only place of refuge: Mr. -Caldcleugh, who crossed on this same day of the month, was detained -there for some time by a heavy fall of snow. Casuchas, or houses of -refuge, have not been built in this pass as in that of Uspallata, and, -therefore, during the autumn, the Portillo is little frequented. I may -here remark that within the main Cordillera rain never falls, for -during the summer the sky is cloudless, and in winter snow-storms alone -occur. - -At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the -diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it -does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of that of a -Papin's digester. Hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours -in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on -the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the -potatoes were not cooked. I found out this, by overhearing my two -companions discussing the cause, they had come to the simple -conclusion, "that the cursed pot [which was a new one] did not choose -to boil potatoes." - -March 22nd.--After eating our potatoless breakfast, we travelled -across the intermediate tract to the foot of the Portillo range. In -the middle of summer cattle are brought up here to graze; but they had -now all been removed: even the greater number of the Guanacos had -decamped, knowing well that if overtaken here by a snow-storm, they -would be caught in a trap. We had a fine view of a mass of mountains -called Tupungato, the whole clothed with unbroken snow, in the midst of -which there was a blue patch, no doubt a glacier;--a circumstance of -rare occurrence in these mountains. Now commenced a heavy and long -climb, similar to that of the Peuquenes. Bold conical hills of red -granite rose on each hand; in the valleys there were several broad -fields of perpetual snow. These frozen masses, during the process of -thawing, had in some parts been converted into pinnacles or columns, -[4] which, as they were high and close together, made it difficult for -the cargo mules to pass. On one of these columns of ice, a frozen horse -was sticking as on a pedestal, but with its hind legs straight up in -the air. The animal, I suppose, must have fallen with its head -downward into a hole, when the snow was continuous, and afterwards the -surrounding parts must have been removed by the thaw. - -When nearly on the crest of the Portillo, we were enveloped in a -falling cloud of minute frozen spicula. This was very unfortunate, as -it continued the whole day, and quite intercepted our view. The pass -takes its name of Portillo, from a narrow cleft or doorway on the -highest ridge, through which the road passes. From this point, on a -clear day, those vast plains which uninterruptedly extend to the -Atlantic Ocean can be seen. We descended to the upper limit of -vegetation, and found good quarters for the night under the shelter of -some large fragments of rock. We met here some passengers, who made -anxious inquiries about the state of the road. Shortly after it was -dark the clouds suddenly cleared away, and the effect was quite -magical. The great mountains, bright with the full moon, seemed -impending over us on all sides, as over a deep crevice: one morning, -very early, I witnessed the same striking effect. As soon as the -clouds were dispersed it froze severely; but as there was no wind, we -slept very comfortably. - -The increased brilliancy of the moon and stars at this elevation, owing -to the perfect transparency of the atmosphere, was very remarkable. -Travelers having observed the difficulty of judging heights and -distances amidst lofty mountains, have generally attributed it to the -absence of objects of comparison. It appears to me, that it is fully -as much owing to the transparency of the air confounding objects at -different distances, and likewise partly to the novelty of an unusual -degree of fatigue arising from a little exertion,--habit being thus -opposed to the evidence of the senses. I am sure that this extreme -clearness of the air gives a peculiar character to the landscape, all -objects appearing to be brought nearly into one plane, as in a drawing -or panorama. The transparency is, I presume, owing to the equable and -high state of atmospheric dryness. This dryness was shown by the -manner in which woodwork shrank (as I soon found by the trouble my -geological hammer gave me); by articles of food, such as bread and -sugar, becoming extremely hard; and by the preservation of the skin and -parts of the flesh of the beasts, which had perished on the road. To -the same cause we must attribute the singular facility with which -electricity is excited. My flannel waistcoat, when rubbed in the dark, -appeared as if it had been washed with phosphorus,--every hair on a -dog's back crackled;--even the linen sheets, and leathern straps of the -saddle, when handled, emitted sparks. - -March 23rd.--The descent on the eastern side of the Cordillera is much -shorter or steeper than on the Pacific side; in other words, the -mountains rise more abruptly from the plains than from the alpine -country of Chile. A level and brilliantly white sea of clouds was -stretched out beneath our feet, shutting out the view of the equally -level Pampas. We soon entered the band of clouds, and did not again -emerge from it that day. About noon, finding pasture for the animals -and bushes for firewood at Los Arenales, we stopped for the night. This -was near the uppermost limit of bushes, and the elevation, I suppose, -was between seven and eight thousand feet. - -I was much struck with the marked difference between the vegetation of -these eastern valleys and those on the Chilian side: yet the climate, -as well as the kind of soil, is nearly the same, and the difference of -longitude very trifling. The same remark holds good with the -quadrupeds, and in a lesser degree with the birds and insects. I may -instance the mice, of which I obtained thirteen species on the shores -of the Atlantic, and five on the Pacific, and not one of them is -identical. We must except all those species, which habitually or -occasionally frequent elevated mountains; and certain birds, which -range as far south as the Strait of Magellan. This fact is in perfect -accordance with the geological history of the Andes; for these -mountains have existed as a great barrier since the present races of -animals have appeared; and therefore, unless we suppose the same -species to have been created in two different places, we ought not to -expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on the opposite -sides of the Andes than on the opposite shores of the ocean. In both -cases, we must leave out of the question those kinds which have been -able to cross the barrier, whether of solid rock or salt-water. [5] - -A great number of the plants and animals were absolutely the same as, -or most closely allied to, those of Patagonia. We here have the agouti, -bizcacha, three species of armadillo, the ostrich, certain kinds of -partridges and other birds, none of which are ever seen in Chile, but -are the characteristic animals of the desert plains of Patagonia. We -have likewise many of the same (to the eyes of a person who is not a -botanist) thorny stunted bushes, withered grass, and dwarf plants. Even -the black slowly crawling beetles are closely similar, and some, I -believe, on rigorous examination, absolutely identical. It had always -been to me a subject of regret, that we were unavoidably compelled to -give up the ascent of the S. Cruz river before reaching the mountains: -I always had a latent hope of meeting with some great change in the -features of the country; but I now feel sure, that it would only have -been following the plains of Patagonia up a mountainous ascent. - -March 24th.--Early in the morning I climbed up a mountain on one side -of the valley, and enjoyed a far extended view over the Pampas. This -was a spectacle to which I had always looked forward with interest, but -I was disappointed: at the first glance it much resembled a distant -view of the ocean, but in the northern parts many irregularities were -soon distinguishable. The most striking feature consisted in the -rivers, which, facing the rising sun, glittered like silver threads, -till lost in the immensity of the distance. At midday we descended the -valley, and reached a hovel, where an officer and three soldiers were -posted to examine passports. One of these men was a thoroughbred Pampas -Indian: he was kept much for the same purpose as a bloodhound, to track -out any person who might pass by secretly, either on foot or horseback. -Some years ago, a passenger endeavoured to escape detection, by making -a long circuit over a neighbouring mountain; but this Indian, having by -chance crossed his track, followed it for the whole day over dry and -very stony hills, till at last he came on his prey hidden in a gully. -We here heard that the silvery clouds, which we had admired from the -bright region above, had poured down torrents of rain. The valley from -this point gradually opened, and the hills became mere water-worn -hillocks compared to the giants behind: it then expanded into a gently -sloping plain of shingle, covered with low trees and bushes. This -talus, although appearing narrow, must be nearly ten miles wide before -it blends into the apparently dead level Pampas. We passed the only -house in this neighbourhood, the Estancia of Chaquaio: and at sunset we -pulled up in the first snug corner, and there bivouacked. - -March 25th.--I was reminded of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, by seeing -the disk of the rising sun, intersected by an horizon level as that of -the ocean. During the night a heavy dew fell, a circumstance which we -did not experience within the Cordillera. The road proceeded for some -distance due east across a low swamp; then meeting the dry plain, it -turned to the north towards Mendoza. The distance is two very long -days' journey. Our first day's journey was called fourteen leagues to -Estacado, and the second seventeen to Luxan, near Mendoza. The whole -distance is over a level desert plain, with not more than two or three -houses. The sun was exceedingly powerful, and the ride devoid of all -interest. There is very little water in this "traversia," and in our -second day's journey we found only one little pool. Little water flows -from the mountains, and it soon becomes absorbed by the dry and porous -soil; so that, although we travelled at the distance of only ten or -fifteen miles from the outer range of the Cordillera, we did not cross -a single stream. In many parts the ground was incrusted with a saline -efflorescence; hence we had the same salt-loving plants which are -common near Bahia Blanca. The landscape has a uniform character from -the Strait of Magellan, along the whole eastern coast of Patagonia, to -the Rio Colorado; and it appears that the same kind of country extends -inland from this river, in a sweeping line as far as San Luis and -perhaps even further north. To the eastward of this curved line lies -the basin of the comparatively damp and green plains of Buenos Ayres. -The sterile plains of Mendoza and Patagonia consist of a bed of -shingle, worn smooth and accumulated by the waves of the sea while the -Pampas, covered by thistles, clover, and grass, have been formed by the -ancient estuary mud of the Plata. - -After our two days' tedious journey, it was refreshing to see in the -distance the rows of poplars and willows growing round the village and -river of Luxan. Shortly before we arrived at this place, we observed -to the south a ragged cloud of dark reddish-brown colour. At first we -thought that it was smoke from some great fire on the plains; but we -soon found that it was a swarm of locusts. They were flying northward; -and with the aid of a light breeze, they overtook us at a rate of ten -or fifteen miles an hour. The main body filled the air from a height -of twenty feet, to that, as it appeared, of two or three thousand above -the ground; "and the sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots -of many horses running to battle:" or rather, I should say, like a -strong breeze passing through the rigging of a ship. The sky, seen -through the advanced guard, appeared like a mezzotinto engraving, but -the main body was impervious to sight; they were not, however, so thick -together, but that they could escape a stick waved backwards and -forwards. When they alighted, they were more numerous than the leaves -in the field, and the surface became reddish instead of being green: -the swarm having once alighted, the individuals flew from side to side -in all directions. Locusts are not an uncommon pest in this country: -already during the season, several smaller swarms had come up from the -south, where, as apparently in all other parts of the world, they are -bred in the deserts. The poor cottagers in vain attempted by lighting -fires, by shouts, and by waving branches to avert the attack. This -species of locust closely resembles, and perhaps is identical with, the -famous Gryllus migratorius of the East. - -We crossed the Luxan, which is a river of considerable size, though its -course towards the sea-coast is very imperfectly known: it is even -doubtful whether, in passing over the plains, it is not evaporated and -lost. We slept in the village of Luxan, which is a small place -surrounded by gardens, and forms the most southern cultivated district -in the Province of Mendoza; it is five leagues south of the capital. At -night I experienced an attack (for it deserves no less a name) of the -_Benchuca_, a species of Reduvius, the great black bug of the Pampas. -It is most disgusting to feel soft wingless insects, about an inch -long, crawling over one's body. Before sucking they are quite thin, -but afterwards they become round and bloated with blood, and in this -state are easily crushed. One which I caught at Iquique, (for they are -found in Chile and Peru,) was very empty. When placed on a table, and -though surrounded by people, if a finger was presented, the bold insect -would immediately protrude its sucker, make a charge, and if allowed, -draw blood. No pain was caused by the wound. It was curious to watch -its body during the act of sucking, as in less than ten minutes it -changed from being as flat as a wafer to a globular form. This one -feast, for which the benchuca was indebted to one of the officers, kept -it fat during four whole months; but, after the first fortnight, it was -quite ready to have another suck. - -March 27th.--We rode on to Mendoza. The country was beautifully -cultivated, and resembled Chile. This neighbourhood is celebrated for -its fruit; and certainly nothing could appear more flourishing than the -vineyards and the orchards of figs, peaches, and olives. We bought -water-melons nearly twice as large as a man's head, most deliciously -cool and well-flavoured, for a halfpenny apiece; and for the value of -threepence, half a wheelbarrowful of peaches. The cultivated and -enclosed part of this province is very small; there is little more than -that which we passed through between Luxan and the capital. The land, -as in Chile, owes its fertility entirely to artificial irrigation; and -it is really wonderful to observe how extraordinarily productive a -barren traversia is thus rendered. - -We stayed the ensuing day in Mendoza. The prosperity of the place has -much declined of late years. The inhabitants say "it is good to live -in, but very bad to grow rich in." The lower orders have the lounging, -reckless manners of the Gauchos of the Pampas; and their dress, -riding-gear, and habits of life, are nearly the same. To my mind the -town had a stupid, forlorn aspect. Neither the boasted alameda, nor -the scenery, is at all comparable with that of Santiago; but to those -who, coming from Buenos Ayres, have just crossed the unvaried Pampas, -the gardens and orchards must appear delightful. Sir F. Head, speaking -of the inhabitants, says, "They eat their dinners, and it is so very -hot, they go to sleep--and could they do better?" I quite agree with -Sir F. Head: the happy doom of the Mendozinos is to eat, sleep and be -idle. - - -March 29th.--We set out on our return to Chile, by the Uspallata pass -situated north of Mendoza. We had to cross a long and most sterile -traversia of fifteen leagues. The soil in parts was absolutely bare, -in others covered by numberless dwarf cacti, armed with formidable -spines, and called by the inhabitants "little lions." There were, also, -a few low bushes. Although the plain is nearly three thousand feet -above the sea, the sun was very powerful; and the heat as well as the -clouds of impalpable dust, rendered the travelling extremely irksome. -Our course during the day lay nearly parallel to the Cordillera, but -gradually approaching them. Before sunset we entered one of the wide -valleys, or rather bays, which open on the plain: this soon narrowed -into a ravine, where a little higher up the house of Villa Vicencio is -situated. As we had ridden all day without a drop of water, both our -mules and selves were very thirsty, and we looked out anxiously for the -stream which flows down this valley. It was curious to observe how -gradually the water made its appearance: on the plain the course was -quite dry; by degrees it became a little damper; then puddles of water -appeared; these soon became connected; and at Villa Vicencio there was -a nice little rivulet. - -30th.--The solitary hovel which bears the imposing name of Villa -Vicencio, has been mentioned by every traveller who has crossed the -Andes. I stayed here and at some neighbouring mines during the two -succeeding days. The geology of the surrounding country is very -curious. The Uspallata range is separated from the main Cordillera by -a long narrow plain or basin, like those so often mentioned in Chile, -but higher, being six thousand feet above the sea. This range has -nearly the same geographical position with respect to the Cordillera, -which the gigantic Portillo line has, but it is of a totally different -origin: it consists of various kinds of submarine lava, alternating -with volcanic sandstones and other remarkable sedimentary deposits; the -whole having a very close resemblance to some of the tertiary beds on -the shores of the Pacific. From this resemblance I expected to find -silicified wood, which is generally characteristic of those formations. -I was gratified in a very extraordinary manner. In the central part of -the range, at an elevation of about seven thousand feet, I observed on -a bare slope some snow-white projecting columns. These were petrified -trees, eleven being silicified, and from thirty to forty converted into -coarsely-crystallized white calcareous spar. They were abruptly broken -off, the upright stumps projecting a few feet above the ground. The -trunks measured from three to five feet each in circumference. They -stood a little way apart from each other, but the whole formed one -group. Mr. Robert Brown has been kind enough to examine the wood: he -says it belongs to the fir tribe, partaking of the character of the -Araucarian family, but with some curious points of affinity with the -yew. The volcanic sandstone in which the trees were embedded, and from -the lower part of which they must have sprung, had accumulated in -successive thin layers around their trunks; and the stone yet retained -the impression of the bark. - -It required little geological practice to interpret the marvellous -story which this scene at once unfolded; though I confess I was at -first so much astonished that I could scarcely believe the plainest -evidence. I saw the spot where a cluster of fine trees once waved -their branches on the shores of the Atlantic, when that ocean (now -driven back 700 miles) came to the foot of the Andes. I saw that they -had sprung from a volcanic soil which had been raised above the level -of the sea, and that subsequently this dry land, with its upright -trees, had been let down into the depths of the ocean. In these -depths, the formerly dry land was covered by sedimentary beds, and -these again by enormous streams of submarine lava--one such mass -attaining the thickness of a thousand feet; and these deluges of molten -stone and aqueous deposits five times alternately had been spread out. -The ocean which received such thick masses, must have been profoundly -deep; but again the subterranean forces exerted themselves, and I now -beheld the bed of that ocean, forming a chain of mountains more than -seven thousand feet in height. Nor had those antagonistic forces been -dormant, which are always at work wearing down the surface of the land; -the great piles of strata had been intersected by many wide valleys, -and the trees now changed into silex, were exposed projecting from the -volcanic soil, now changed into rock, whence formerly, in a green and -budding state, they had raised their lofty heads. Now, all is utterly -irreclaimable and desert; even the lichen cannot adhere to the stony -casts of former trees. Vast, and scarcely comprehensible as such -changes must ever appear, yet they have all occurred within a period, -recent when compared with the history of the Cordillera; and the -Cordillera itself is absolutely modern as compared with many of the -fossiliferous strata of Europe and America. - -April 1st.--We crossed the Upsallata range, and at night slept at the -custom-house--the only inhabited spot on the plain. Shortly before -leaving the mountains, there was a very extraordinary view; red, -purple, green, and quite white sedimentary rocks, alternating with -black lavas, were broken up and thrown into all kinds of disorder by -masses of porphyry of every shade of colour, from dark brown to the -brightest lilac. It was the first view I ever saw, which really -resembled those pretty sections which geologists make of the inside of -the earth. - -The next day we crossed the plain, and followed the course of the same -great mountain stream which flows by Luxan. Here it was a furious -torrent, quite impassable, and appeared larger than in the low country, -as was the case with the rivulet of Villa Vicencio. On the evening of -the succeeding day, we reached the Rio de las Vacas, which is -considered the worst stream in the Cordillera to cross. As all these -rivers have a rapid and short course, and are formed by the melting of -the snow, the hour of the day makes a considerable difference in their -volume. In the evening the stream is muddy and full, but about -daybreak it becomes clearer, and much less impetuous. This we found to -be the case with the Rio Vacas, and in the morning we crossed it with -little difficulty. - -The scenery thus far was very uninteresting, compared with that of the -Portillo pass. Little can be seen beyond the bare walls of the one -grand flat-bottomed valley, which the road follows up to the highest -crest. The valley and the huge rocky mountains are extremely barren: -during the two previous nights the poor mules had absolutely nothing to -eat, for excepting a few low resinous bushes, scarcely a plant can be -seen. In the course of this day we crossed some of the worst passes in -the Cordillera, but their danger has been much exaggerated. I was told -that if I attempted to pass on foot, my head would turn giddy, and that -there was no room to dismount; but I did not see a place where any one -might not have walked over backwards, or got off his mule on either -side. One of the bad passes, called _las Animas_ (the souls), I had -crossed, and did not find out till a day afterwards, that it was one of -the awful dangers. No doubt there are many parts in which, if the mule -should stumble, the rider would be hurled down a great precipice; but -of this there is little chance. I dare say, in the spring, the -"laderas," or roads, which each year are formed anew across the piles -of fallen detritus, are very bad; but from what I saw, I suspect the -real danger is nothing. With cargo-mules the case is rather different, -for the loads project so far, that the animals, occasionally running -against each other, or against a point of rock, lose their balance, and -are thrown down the precipices. In crossing the rivers I can well -believe that the difficulty may be very great: at this season there was -little trouble, but in the summer they must be very hazardous. I can -quite imagine, as Sir F. Head describes, the different expressions of -those who _have_ passed the gulf, and those who _are_ passing. I never -heard of any man being drowned, but with loaded mules it frequently -happens. The arriero tells you to show your mule the best line, and -then allow her to cross as she likes: the cargo-mule takes a bad line, -and is often lost. - -April 4th.--From the Rio de las Vacas to the Puente del Incas, half a -day's journey. As there was pasture for the mules, and geology for me, -we bivouacked here for the night. When one hears of a natural Bridge, -one pictures to one's self some deep and narrow ravine, across which a -bold mass of rock has fallen; or a great arch hollowed out like the -vault of a cavern. Instead of this, the Incas Bridge consists of a -crust of stratified shingle cemented together by the deposits of the -neighbouring hot springs. It appears, as if the stream had scooped out -a channel on one side, leaving an overhanging ledge, which was met by -earth and stones falling down from the opposite cliff. Certainly an -oblique junction, as would happen in such a case, was very distinct on -one side. The Bridge of the Incas is by no means worthy of the great -monarchs whose name it bears. - -5th.--We had a long day's ride across the central ridge, from the Incas -Bridge to the Ojos del Agua, which are situated near the lowest -_casucha_ on the Chilian side. These casuchas are round little towers, -with steps outside to reach the floor, which is raised some feet above -the ground on account of the snow-drifts. They are eight in number, -and under the Spanish government were kept during the winter well -stored with food and charcoal, and each courier had a master-key. Now -they only answer the purpose of caves, or rather dungeons. Seated on -some little eminence, they are not, however, ill suited to the -surrounding scene of desolation. The zigzag ascent of the Cumbre, or -the partition of the waters, was very steep and tedious; its height, -according to Mr. Pentland, is 12,454 feet. The road did not pass over -any perpetual snow, although there were patches of it on both hands. -The wind on the summit was exceedingly cold, but it was impossible not -to stop for a few minutes to admire, again and again, the colour of the -heavens, and the brilliant transparency of the atmosphere. The scenery -was grand: to the westward there was a fine chaos of mountains, divided -by profound ravines. Some snow generally falls before this period of -the season, and it has even happened that the Cordillera have been -finally closed by this time. But we were most fortunate. The sky, by -night and by day, was cloudless, excepting a few round little masses of -vapour, that floated over the highest pinnacles. I have often seen -these islets in the sky, marking the position of the Cordillera, when -the far-distant mountains have been hidden beneath the horizon. - -April 6th.--In the morning we found some thief had stolen one of our -mules, and the bell of the madrina. We therefore rode only two or -three miles down the valley, and stayed there the ensuing day in hopes -of recovering the mule, which the arriero thought had been hidden in -some ravine. The scenery in this part had assumed a Chilian character: -the lower sides of the mountains, dotted over with the pale evergreen -Quillay tree, and with the great chandelier-like cactus, are certainly -more to be admired than the bare eastern valleys; but I cannot quite -agree with the admiration expressed by some travellers. The extreme -pleasure, I suspect, is chiefly owing to the prospect of a good fire -and of a good supper, after escaping from the cold regions above: and I -am sure I most heartily participated in these feelings. - -8th.--We left the valley of the Aconcagua, by which we had descended, -and reached in the evening a cottage near the Villa del St. Rosa. The -fertility of the plain was delightful: the autumn being advanced, the -leaves of many of the fruit-trees were falling; and of the -labourers,--some were busy in drying figs and peaches on the roofs of -their cottages, while others were gathering the grapes from the -vineyards. It was a pretty scene; but I missed that pensive stillness -which makes the autumn in England indeed the evening of the year. On -the 10th we reached Santiago, where I received a very kind and -hospitable reception from Mr. Caldcleugh. My excursion only cost me -twenty-four days, and never did I more deeply enjoy an equal space of -time. A few days afterwards I returned to Mr. Corfield's house at -Valparaiso. - -[1] Scoresby's Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 122. - -[2] I have heard it remarked in Shropshire that the water, when the -Severn is flooded from long-continued rain, is much more turbid than -when it proceeds from the snow melting in the Welsh mountains. -D'Orbigny (tom. i. p. 184), in explaining the cause of the various -colours of the rivers in South America, remarks that those with blue or -clear water have there source in the Cordillera, where the snow melts. - -[3] Dr. Gillies in Journ. of Nat. and Geograph. Science, Aug., 1830. -This author gives the heights of the Passes. - -[4] This structure in frozen snow was long since observed by Scoresby -in the icebergs near Spitzbergen, and, lately, with more care, by -Colonel Jackson (Journ. of Geograph. Soc., vol. v. p. 12) on the Neva. -Mr. Lyell (Principles, vol. iv. p. 360) has compared the fissures by -which the columnar structure seems to be determined, to the joints that -traverse nearly all rocks, but which are best seen in the -non-stratified masses. I may observe, that in the case of the frozen -snow, the columnar structure must be owing to a "metamorphic" action, -and not to a process during deposition. - -[5] This is merely an illustration of the admirable laws, first laid -down by Mr. Lyell, on the geographical distribution of animals, as -influenced by geological changes. The whole reasoning, of course, is -founded on the assumption of the immutability of species; otherwise the -difference in the species in the two regions might be considered as -superinduced during a length of time. - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -NORTHERN CHILE AND PERU - -Coast-road to Coquimbo--Great Loads carried by the -Miners--Coquimbo--Earthquake--Step-formed Terrace--Absence of recent -Deposits--Contemporaneousness of the Tertiary Formations--Excursion up -the Valley--Road to Guasco--Deserts--Valley of Copiapo--Rain and -Earthquakes--Hydrophobia--The Despoblado--Indian Ruins--Probable Change -of Climate--River-bed arched by an Earthquake--Cold Gales of -Wind--Noises from a Hill--Iquique--Salt Alluvium--Nitrate of -Soda--Lima--Unhealthy Country--Ruins of Callao, overthrown by an -Earthquake--Recent Subsidence--Elevated Shells on San Lorenzo, their -decomposition--Plain with embedded Shells and fragments of -Pottery--Antiquity of the Indian Race. - - -APRIL 27th.--I set out on a journey to Coquimbo, and thence through -Guasco to Copiapo, where Captain Fitz Roy kindly offered to pick me up -in the Beagle. The distance in a straight line along the shore -northward is only 420 miles; but my mode of travelling made it a very -long journey. I bought four horses and two mules, the latter carrying -the luggage on alternate days. The six animals together only cost the -value of twenty-five pounds sterling, and at Copiapo I sold them again -for twenty-three. We travelled in the same independent manner as -before, cooking our own meals, and sleeping in the open air. As we -rode towards the Vino del Mar, I took a farewell view of Valparaiso, -and admired its picturesque appearance. For geological purposes I made -a detour from the high road to the foot of the Bell of Quillota. We -passed through an alluvial district rich in gold, to the neighbourhood -of Limache, where we slept. Washing for gold supports the inhabitants -of numerous hovels, scattered along the sides of each little rivulet; -but, like all those whose gains are uncertain, they are unthrifty in -all their habits, and consequently poor. - -28th.--In the afternoon we arrived at a cottage at the foot of the Bell -mountain. The inhabitants were freeholders, which is not very usual in -Chile. They supported themselves on the produce of a garden and a -little field, but were very poor. Capital is here so deficient, that -the people are obliged to sell their green corn while standing in the -field, in order to buy necessaries for the ensuing year. Wheat in -consequence was dearer in the very district of its production than at -Valparaiso, where the contractors live. The next day we joined the -main road to Coquimbo. At night there was a very light shower of rain: -this was the first drop that had fallen since the heavy rain of -September 11th and 12th, which detained me a prisoner at the Baths of -Cauquenes. The interval was seven and a half months; but the rain this -year in Chile was rather later than usual. The distant Andes were now -covered by a thick mass of snow, and were a glorious sight. - -May 2nd.--The road continued to follow the coast, at no great distance -from the sea. The few trees and bushes which are common in central -Chile decreased rapidly in numbers, and were replaced by a tall plant, -something like a yucca in appearance. The surface of the country, on a -small scale, was singularly broken and irregular; abrupt little peaks -of rock rising out of small plains or basins. The indented coast and -the bottom of the neighbouring sea, studded with breakers, would, if -converted into dry land, present similar forms; and such a conversion -without doubt has taken place in the part over which we rode. - -3rd.--Quilimari to Conchalee. The country became more and more barren. -In the valleys there was scarcely sufficient water for any irrigation; -and the intermediate land was quite bare, not supporting even goats. In -the spring, after the winter showers, a thin pasture rapidly springs -up, and cattle are then driven down from the Cordillera to graze for a -short time. It is curious to observe how the seeds of the grass and -other plants seem to accommodate themselves, as if by an acquired -habit, to the quantity of rain which falls upon different parts of this -coast. One shower far northward at Copiapo produces as great an effect -on the vegetation, as two at Guasco, and three or four in this -district. At Valparaiso a winter so dry as greatly to injure the -pasture, would at Guasco produce the most unusual abundance. Proceeding -northward, the quantity of rain does not appear to decrease in strict -proportion to the latitude. At Conchalee, which is only 67 miles north -of Valparaiso, rain is not expected till the end of May; whereas at -Valparaiso some generally falls early in April: the annual quantity is -likewise small in proportion to the lateness of the season at which it -commences. - -4th.--Finding the coast-road devoid of interest of any kind, we turned -inland towards the mining district and valley of Illapel. This valley, -like every other in Chile, is level, broad, and very fertile: it is -bordered on each side, either by cliffs of stratified shingle, or by -bare rocky mountains. Above the straight line of the uppermost -irrigating ditch, all is brown as on a high road; while all below is of -as bright a green as verdigris, from the beds of alfalfa, a kind of -clover. We proceeded to Los Hornos, another mining district, where the -principal hill was drilled with holes, like a great ants'-nest. The -Chilian miners are a peculiar race of men in their habits. Living for -weeks together in the most desolate spots, when they descend to the -villages on feast-days, there is no excess of extravagance into which -they do not run. They sometimes gain a considerable sum, and then, -like sailors with prize-money, they try how soon they can contrive to -squander it. They drink excessively, buy quantities of clothes, and in -a few days return penniless to their miserable abodes, there to work -harder than beasts of burden. This thoughtlessness, as with sailors, -is evidently the result of a similar manner of life. Their daily food -is found them, and they acquire no habits of carefulness: moreover, -temptation and the means of yielding to it are placed in their power at -the same time. On the other hand, in Cornwall, and some other parts of -England, where the system of selling part of the vein is followed, the -miners, from being obliged to act and think for themselves, are a -singularly intelligent and well-conducted set of men. - -The dress of the Chilian miner is peculiar and rather picturesque He -wears a very long shirt of some dark-coloured baize, with a leathern -apron; the whole being fastened round his waist by a bright-coloured -sash. His trousers are very broad, and his small cap of scarlet cloth -is made to fit the head closely. We met a party of these miners in -full costume, carrying the body of one of their companions to be -buried. They marched at a very quick trot, four men supporting the -corpse. One set having run as hard as they could for about two hundred -yards, were relieved by four others, who had previously dashed on ahead -on horseback. Thus they proceeded, encouraging each other by wild -cries: altogether the scene formed a most strange funeral. - -We continued travelling northward, in a zigzag line; sometimes stopping -a day to geologize. The country was so thinly inhabited, and the track -so obscure, that we often had difficulty in finding our way. On the -12th I stayed at some mines. The ore in this case was not considered -particularly good, but from being abundant it was supposed the mine -would sell for about thirty or forty thousand dollars (that is, 6000 or -8000 pounds sterling); yet it had been bought by one of the English -Associations for an ounce of gold (3l. 8s.). The ore is yellow -pyrites, which, as I have already remarked, before the arrival of the -English, was not supposed to contain a particle of copper. On a scale -of profits nearly as great as in the above instance, piles of cinders, -abounding with minute globules of metallic copper, were purchased; yet -with these advantages, the mining associations, as is well known, -contrived to lose immense sums of money. The folly of the greater -number of the commissioners and shareholders amounted to -infatuation;--a thousand pounds per annum given in some cases to -entertain the Chilian authorities; libraries of well-bound geological -books; miners brought out for particular metals, as tin, which are not -found in Chile; contracts to supply the miners with milk, in parts -where there are no cows; machinery, where it could not possibly be -used; and a hundred similar arrangements, bore witness to our -absurdity, and to this day afford amusement to the natives. Yet there -can be no doubt, that the same capital well employed in these mines -would have yielded an immense return, a confidential man of business, a -practical miner and assayer, would have been all that was required. - -Captain Head has described the wonderful load which the "Apires," truly -beasts of burden, carry up from the deepest mines. I confess I thought -the account exaggerated: so that I was glad to take an opportunity of -weighing one of the loads, which I picked out by hazard. It required -considerable exertion on my part, when standing directly over it, to -lift it from the ground. The load was considered under weight when -found to be 197 pounds. The apire had carried this up eighty -perpendicular yards,--part of the way by a steep passage, but the -greater part up notched poles, placed in a zigzag line up the shaft. -According to the general regulation, the apire is not allowed to halt -for breath, except the mine is six hundred feet deep. The average load -is considered as rather more than 200 pounds, and I have been assured -that one of 300 pounds (twenty-two stone and a half) by way of a trial -has been brought up from the deepest mine! At this time the apires were -bringing up the usual load twelve times in the day; that is 2400 pounds -from eighty yards deep; and they were employed in the intervals in -breaking and picking ore. - -These men, excepting from accidents, are healthy, and appear cheerful. -Their bodies are not very muscular. They rarely eat meat once a week, -and never oftener, and then only the hard dry charqui. Although with a -knowledge that the labour was voluntary, it was nevertheless quite -revolting to see the state in which they reached the mouth of the mine; -their bodies bent forward, leaning with their arms on the steps, their -legs bowed, their muscles quivering, the perspiration streaming from -their faces over their breasts, their nostrils distended, the corners -of their mouth forcibly drawn back, and the expulsion of their breath -most laborious. Each time they draw their breath, they utter an -articulate cry of "ay-ay," which ends in a sound rising from deep in -the chest, but shrill like the note of a fife. After staggering to the -pile of ore, they emptied the "carpacho;" in two or three seconds -recovering their breath, they wiped the sweat from their brows, and -apparently quite fresh descended the mine again at a quick pace. This -appears to me a wonderful instance of the amount of labour which habit, -for it can be nothing else, will enable a man to endure. - -In the evening, talking with the _mayor-domo_ of these mines about the -number of foreigners now scattered over the whole country, he told me -that, though quite a young man, he remembers when he was a boy at -school at Coquimbo, a holiday being given to see the captain of an -English ship, who was brought to the city to speak to the governor. He -believes that nothing would have induced any boy in the school, himself -included, to have gone close to the Englishman; so deeply had they been -impressed with an idea of the heresy, contamination, and evil to be -derived from contact with such a person. To this day they relate the -atrocious actions of the bucaniers; and especially of one man, who took -away the figure of the Virgin Mary, and returned the year after for -that of St. Joseph, saying it was a pity the lady should not have a -husband. I heard also of an old lady who, at a dinner at Coquimbo, -remarked how wonderfully strange it was that she should have lived to -dine in the same room with an Englishman; for she remembered as a girl, -that twice, at the mere cry of "Los Ingleses," every soul, carrying -what valuables they could, had taken to the mountains. - -14th.--We reached Coquimbo, where we stayed a few days. The town is -remarkable for nothing but its extreme quietness. It is said to -contain from 6000 to 8000 inhabitants. On the morning of the 17th it -rained lightly, the first time this year, for about five hours. The -farmers, who plant corn near the sea-coast where the atmosphere is most -humid, taking advantage of this shower, would break up the ground; -after a second they would put the seed in; and if a third shower should -fall, they would reap a good harvest in the spring. It was interesting -to watch the effect of this trifling amount of moisture. Twelve hours -afterwards the ground appeared as dry as ever; yet after an interval of -ten days, all the hills were faintly tinged with green patches; the -grass being sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres a full inch in -length. Before this shower every part of the surface was bare as on a -high road. - -In the evening, Captain Fitz Roy and myself were dining with Mr. -Edwards, an English resident well known for his hospitality by all who -have visited Coquimbo, when a sharp earthquake happened. I heard the -forecoming rumble, but from the screams of the ladies, the running of -the servants, and the rush of several of the gentlemen to the doorway, -I could not distinguish the motion. Some of the women afterwards were -crying with terror, and one gentleman said he should not be able to -sleep all night, or if he did, it would only be to dream of falling -houses. The father of this person had lately lost all his property at -Talcahuano, and he himself had only just escaped a falling roof at -Valparaiso, in 1822. He mentioned a curious coincidence which then -happened: he was playing at cards, when a German, one of the party, got -up, and said he would never sit in a room in these countries with the -door shut, as owing to his having done so, he had nearly lost his life -at Copiapo. Accordingly he opened the door; and no sooner had he done -this, than he cried out, "Here it comes again!" and the famous shock -commenced. The whole party escaped. The danger in an earthquake is -not from the time lost in opening the door, but from the chance of its -becoming jammed by the movement of the walls. - -It is impossible to be much surprised at the fear which natives and old -residents, though some of them known to be men of great command of -mind, so generally experience during earthquakes. I think, however, -this excess of panic may be partly attributed to a want of habit in -governing their fear, as it is not a feeling they are ashamed of. -Indeed, the natives do not like to see a person indifferent. I heard -of two Englishmen who, sleeping in the open air during a smart shock, -knowing that there was no danger, did not rise. The natives cried out -indignantly, "Look at those heretics, they do not even get out of their -beds!" - - -I spent some days in examining the step-formed terraces of shingle, -first noticed by Captain B. Hall, and believed by Mr. Lyell to have -been formed by the sea, during the gradual rising of the land. This -certainly is the true explanation, for I found numerous shells of -existing species on these terraces. Five narrow, gently sloping, -fringe-like terraces rise one behind the other, and where best -developed are formed of shingle: they front the bay, and sweep up both -sides of the valley. At Guasco, north of Coquimbo, the phenomenon is -displayed on a much grander scale, so as to strike with surprise even -some of the inhabitants. The terraces are there much broader, and may -be called plains, in some parts there are six of them, but generally -only five; they run up the valley for thirty-seven miles from the -coast. These step-formed terraces or fringes closely resemble those in -the valley of S. Cruz, and, except in being on a smaller scale, those -great ones along the whole coast-line of Patagonia. They have -undoubtedly been formed by the denuding power of the sea, during long -periods of rest in the gradual elevation of the continent. - -Shells of many existing species not only lie on the surface of the -terraces at Coquimbo (to a height of 250 feet), but are embedded in a -friable calcareous rock, which in some places is as much as between -twenty and thirty feet in thickness, but is of little extent. These -modern beds rest on an ancient tertiary formation containing shells, -apparently all extinct. Although I examined so many hundred miles of -coast on the Pacific, as well as Atlantic side of the continent, I -found no regular strata containing sea-shells of recent species, -excepting at this place, and at a few points northward on the road to -Guasco. This fact appears to me highly remarkable; for the explanation -generally given by geologists, of the absence in any district of -stratified fossiliferous deposits of a given period, namely, that the -surface then existed as dry land, is not here applicable; for we know -from the shells strewed on the surface and embedded in loose sand or -mould that the land for thousands of miles along both coasts has lately -been submerged. The explanation, no doubt, must be sought in the fact, -that the whole southern part of the continent has been for a long time -slowly rising; and therefore that all matter deposited along shore in -shallow water, must have been soon brought up and slowly exposed to the -wearing action of the sea-beach; and it is only in comparatively -shallow water that the greater number of marine organic beings can -flourish, and in such water it is obviously impossible that strata of -any great thickness can accumulate. To show the vast power of the -wearing action of sea-beaches, we need only appeal to the great cliffs -along the present coast of Patagonia, and to the escarpments or ancient -sea-cliffs at different levels, one above another, on that same line of -coast. - -The old underlying tertiary formation at Coquimbo, appears to be of -about the same age with several deposits on the coast of Chile (of -which that of Navedad is the principal one), and with the great -formation of Patagonia. Both at Navedad and in Patagonia there is -evidence, that since the shells (a list of which has been seen by -Professor E. Forbes) there entombed were living, there has been a -subsidence of several hundred feet, as well as an ensuing elevation. It -may naturally be asked, how it comes that, although no extensive -fossiliferous deposits of the recent period, nor of any period -intermediate between it and the ancient tertiary epoch, have been -preserved on either side of the continent, yet that at this ancient -tertiary epoch, sedimentary matter containing fossil remains, should -have been deposited and preserved at different points in north and -south lines, over a space of 1100 miles on the shores of the Pacific, -and of at least 1350 miles on the shores of the Atlantic, and in an -east and west line of 700 miles across the widest part of the -continent? I believe the explanation is not difficult, and that it is -perhaps applicable to nearly analogous facts observed in other quarters -of the world. Considering the enormous power of denudation which the -sea possesses, as shown by numberless facts, it is not probable that a -sedimentary deposit, when being upraised, could pass through the ordeal -of the beach, so as to be preserved in sufficient masses to last to a -distant period, without it were originally of wide extent and of -considerable thickness: now it is impossible on a moderately shallow -bottom, which alone is favourable to most living creatures, that a -thick and widely extended covering of sediment could be spread out, -without the bottom sank down to receive the successive layers. This -seems to have actually taken place at about the same period in southern -Patagonia and Chile, though these places are a thousand miles apart. -Hence, if prolonged movements of approximately contemporaneous -subsidence are generally widely extensive, as I am strongly inclined to -believe from my examination of the Coral Reefs of the great oceans--or -if, confining our view to South America, the subsiding movements have -been co-extensive with those of elevation, by which, within the same -period of existing shells, the shores of Peru, Chile, Tierra del Fuego, -Patagonia, and La Plata have been upraised--then we can see that at the -same time, at far distant points, circumstances would have been -favourable to the formation of fossiliferous deposits of wide extent -and of considerable thickness; and such deposits, consequently, would -have a good chance of resisting the wear and tear of successive -beach-lines, and of lasting to a future epoch. - - -May 21st.--I set out in company with Don Jose Edwards to the -silver-mine of Arqueros, and thence up the valley of Coquimbo. Passing -through a mountainous country, we reached by nightfall the mines -belonging to Mr. Edwards. I enjoyed my night's rest here from a reason -which will not be fully appreciated in England, namely, the absence of -fleas! The rooms in Coquimbo swarm with them; but they will not live -here at the height of only three or four thousand feet: it can scarcely -be the trifling diminution of temperature, but some other cause which -destroys these troublesome insects at this place. The mines are now in -a bad state, though they formerly yielded about 2000 pounds in weight -of silver a year. It has been said that "a person with a copper-mine -will gain; with silver he may gain; but with gold he is sure to lose." -This is not true: all the large Chilian fortunes have been made by -mines of the more precious metals. A short time since an English -physician returned to England from Copiapo, taking with him the profits -of one share of a silver-mine, which amounted to about 24,000 pounds -sterling. No doubt a copper-mine with care is a sure game, whereas the -other is gambling, or rather taking a ticket in a lottery. The owners -lose great quantities of rich ores; for no precautions can prevent -robberies. I heard of a gentleman laying a bet with another, that one -of his men should rob him before his face. The ore when brought out of -the mine is broken into pieces, and the useless stone thrown on one -side. A couple of the miners who were thus employed, pitched, as if by -accident, two fragments away at the same moment, and then cried out for -a joke "Let us see which rolls furthest." The owner, who was standing -by, bet a cigar with his friend on the race. The miner by this means -watched the very point amongst the rubbish where the stone lay. In the -evening he picked it up and carried it to his master, showing him a -rich mass of silver-ore, and saying, "This was the stone on which you -won a cigar by its rolling so far." - -May 23rd.--We descended into the fertile valley of Coquimbo, and -followed it till we reached an Hacienda belonging to a relation of Don -Jose, where we stayed the next day. I then rode one day's journey -further, to see what were declared to be some petrified shells and -beans, which latter turned out to be small quartz pebbles. We passed -through several small villages; and the valley was beautifully -cultivated, and the whole scenery very grand. We were here near the -main Cordillera, and the surrounding hills were lofty. In all parts of -northern Chile, fruit trees produce much more abundantly at a -considerable height near the Andes than in the lower country. The figs -and grapes of this district are famous for their excellence, and are -cultivated to a great extent. This valley is, perhaps, the most -productive one north of Quillota. I believe it contains, including -Coquimbo, 25,000 inhabitants. The next day I returned to the Hacienda, -and thence, together with Don Jose, to Coquimbo. - -June 2nd.--We set out for the valley of Guasco, following the -coast-road, which was considered rather less desert than the other. Our -first day's ride was to a solitary house, called Yerba Buena, where -there was pasture for our horses. The shower mentioned as having -fallen, a fortnight ago, only reached about half-way to Guasco; we had, -therefore, in the first part of our journey a most faint tinge of -green, which soon faded quite away. Even where brightest, it was -scarcely sufficient to remind one of the fresh turf and budding flowers -of the spring of other countries. While travelling through these -deserts one feels like a prisoner shut up in a gloomy court, who longs -to see something green and to smell a moist atmosphere. - -June 3rd.--Yerba Buena to Carizal. During the first part of the day we -crossed a mountainous rocky desert, and afterwards a long deep sandy -plain, strewed with broken sea-shells. There was very little water, and -that little saline: the whole country, from the coast to the -Cordillera, is an uninhabited desert. I saw traces only of one living -animal in abundance, namely, the shells of a Bulimus, which were -collected together in extraordinary numbers on the driest spots. In -the spring one humble little plant sends out a few leaves, and on these -the snails feed. As they are seen only very early in the morning, when -the ground is slightly damp with dew, the Guascos believe that they are -bred from it. I have observed in other places that extremely dry and -sterile districts, where the soil is calcareous, are extraordinarily -favourable to land-shells. At Carizal there were a few cottages, some -brackish water, and a trace of cultivation: but it was with difficulty -that we purchased a little corn and straw for our horses. - -4th.--Carizal to Sauce. We continued to ride over desert plains, -tenanted by large herds of guanaco. We crossed also the valley of -Chaneral; which, although the most fertile one between Guasco and -Coquimbo, is very narrow, and produces so little pasture, that we could -not purchase any for our horses. At Sauce we found a very civil old -gentleman, superintendent of a copper-smelting furnace. As an especial -favour, he allowed me to purchase at a high price an armful of dirty -straw, which was all the poor horses had for supper after their long -day's journey. Few smelting-furnaces are now at work in any part of -Chile; it is found more profitable, on account of the extreme scarcity -of firewood, and from the Chilian method of reduction being so -unskilful, to ship the ore for Swansea. The next day we crossed some -mountains to Freyrina, in the valley of Guasco. During each day's ride -further northward, the vegetation became more and more scanty; even the -great chandelier-like cactus was here replaced by a different and much -smaller species. During the winter months, both in northern Chile and -in Peru, a uniform bank of clouds hangs, at no great height, over the -Pacific. From the mountains we had a very striking view of this white -and brilliant aerial-field, which sent arms up the valleys, leaving -islands and promontories in the same manner, as the sea does in the -Chonos archipelago and in Tierra del Fuego. - -We stayed two days at Freyrina. In the valley of Guasco there are four -small towns. At the mouth there is the port, a spot entirely desert, -and without any water in the immediate neighbourhood. Five leagues -higher up stands Freyrina, a long straggling village, with decent -whitewashed houses. Again, ten leagues further up Ballenar is situated, -and above this Guasco Alto, a horticultural village, famous for its -dried fruit. On a clear day the view up the valley is very fine; the -straight opening terminates in the far-distant snowy Cordillera; on -each side an infinity of crossing-lines are blended together in a -beautiful haze. The foreground is singular from the number of parallel -and step-formed terraces; and the included strip of green valley, with -its willow-bushes, is contrasted on both hands with the naked hills. -That the surrounding country was most barren will be readily believed, -when it is known that a shower of rain had not fallen during the last -thirteen months. The inhabitants heard with the greatest envy of the -rain at Coquimbo; from the appearance of the sky they had hopes of -equally good fortune, which, a fortnight afterwards, were realized. I -was at Copiapo at the time; and there the people, with equal envy, -talked of the abundant rain at Guasco. After two or three very dry -years, perhaps with not more than one shower during the whole time, a -rainy year generally follows; and this does more harm than even the -drought. The rivers swell, and cover with gravel and sand the narrow -strips of ground, which alone are fit for cultivation. The floods also -injure the irrigating ditches. Great devastation had thus been caused -three years ago. - -June 8th.--We rode on to Ballenar, which takes its name from Ballenagh -in Ireland, the birthplace of the family of O'Higgins, who, under the -Spanish government, were presidents and generals in Chile. As the rocky -mountains on each hand were concealed by clouds, the terrace-like -plains gave to the valley an appearance like that of Santa Cruz in -Patagonia. After spending one day at Ballenar I set out, on the 10th, -for the upper part of the valley of Copiapo. We rode all day over an -uninteresting country. I am tired of repeating the epithets barren and -sterile. These words, however, as commonly used, are comparative; I -have always applied them to the plains of Patagonia, which can boast of -spiny bushes and some tufts of grass; and this is absolute fertility, -as compared with northern Chile. Here again, there are not many spaces -of two hundred yards square, where some little bush, cactus or lichen, -may not be discovered by careful examination; and in the soil seeds lie -dormant ready to spring up during the first rainy winter. In Peru real -deserts occur over wide tracts of country. In the evening we arrived at -a valley, in which the bed of the streamlet was damp: following it up, -we came to tolerably good water. During the night, the stream, from not -being evaporated and absorbed so quickly, flows a league lower down -than during the day. Sticks were plentiful for firewood, so that it -was a good place to bivouac for us; but for the poor animals there was -not a mouthful to eat. - -June 11th.--We rode without stopping for twelve hours till we reached -an old smelting-furnace, where there was water and firewood; but our -horses again had nothing to eat, being shut up in an old courtyard. The -line of road was hilly, and the distant views interesting, from the -varied colours of the bare mountains. It was almost a pity to see the -sun shining constantly over so useless a country; such splendid weather -ought to have brightened fields and pretty gardens. The next day we -reached the valley of Copiapo. I was heartily glad of it; for the whole -journey was a continued source of anxiety; it was most disagreeable to -hear, whilst eating our own suppers, our horses gnawing the posts to -which they were tied, and to have no means of relieving their hunger. -To all appearance, however, the animals were quite fresh; and no one -could have told that they had eaten nothing for the last fifty-five -hours. - -I had a letter of introduction to Mr. Bingley, who received me very -kindly at the Hacienda of Potrero Seco. This estate is between twenty -and thirty miles long, but very narrow, being generally only two fields -wide, one on each side the river. In some parts the estate is of no -width, that is to say, the land cannot be irrigated, and therefore is -valueless, like the surrounding rocky desert. The small quantity of -cultivated land in the whole line of valley, does not so much depend on -inequalities of level, and consequent unfitness for irrigation, as on -the small supply of water. The river this year was remarkably full: -here, high up the valley, it reached to the horse's belly, and was -about fifteen yards wide, and rapid; lower down it becomes smaller and -smaller, and is generally quite lost, as happened during one period of -thirty years, so that not a drop entered the sea. The inhabitants -watch a storm over the Cordillera with great interest; as one good fall -of snow provides them with water for the ensuing year. This is of -infinitely more consequence than rain in the lower country. Rain, as -often as it falls, which is about once in every two or three years, is -a great advantage, because the cattle and mules can for some time -afterwards find a little pasture in the mountains. But without snow on -the Andes, desolation extends throughout the valley. It is on record -that three times nearly all the inhabitants have been obliged to -emigrate to the south. This year there was plenty of water, and every -man irrigated his ground as much as he chose; but it has frequently -been necessary to post soldiers at the sluices, to see that each estate -took only its proper allowance during so many hours in the week. The -valley is said to contain 12,000 souls, but its produce is sufficient -only for three months in the year; the rest of the supply being drawn -from Valparaiso and the south. Before the discovery of the famous -silver-mines of Chanuncillo, Copiapo was in a rapid state of decay; but -now it is in a very thriving condition; and the town, which was -completely overthrown by an earthquake, has been rebuilt. - -The valley of Copiapo, forming a mere ribbon of green in a desert, runs -in a very southerly direction; so that it is of considerable length to -its source in the Cordillera. The valleys of Guasco and Copiapo may -both be considered as long narrow islands, separated from the rest of -Chile by deserts of rock instead of by salt water. Northward of these, -there is one other very miserable valley, called Paposo, which contains -about two hundred souls; and then there extends the real desert of -Atacama--a barrier far worse than the most turbulent ocean. After -staying a few days at Potrero Seco, I proceeded up the valley to the -house of Don Benito Cruz, to whom I had a letter of introduction. I -found him most hospitable; indeed it is impossible to bear too strong -testimony to the kindness with which travellers are received in almost -every part of South America. The next day I hired some mules to take -me by the ravine of Jolquera into the central Cordillera. On the -second night the weather seemed to foretell a storm of snow or rain, -and whilst lying in our beds we felt a trifling shock of an earthquake. - -The connection between earthquakes and the weather has been often -disputed: it appears to me to be a point of great interest, which is -little understood. Humboldt has remarked in one part of the Personal -Narrative, [1] that it would be difficult for any person who had long -resided in New Andalusia, or in Lower Peru, to deny that there exists -some connection between these phenomena: in another part, however he -seems to think the connection fanciful. At Guayaquil it is said that a -heavy shower in the dry season is invariably followed by an earthquake. -In Northern Chile, from the extreme infrequency of rain, or even of -weather foreboding rain, the probability of accidental coincidences -becomes very small; yet the inhabitants are here most firmly convinced -of some connection between the state of the atmosphere and of the -trembling of the ground: I was much struck by this when mentioning to -some people at Copiapo that there had been a sharp shock at Coquimbo: -they immediately cried out, "How fortunate! there will be plenty of -pasture there this year." To their minds an earthquake foretold rain as -surely as rain foretold abundant pasture. Certainly it did so happen -that on the very day of the earthquake, that shower of rain fell, which -I have described as in ten days' time producing a thin sprinkling of -grass. At other times rain has followed earthquakes at a period of the -year when it is a far greater prodigy than the earthquake itself: this -happened after the shock of November, 1822, and again in 1829, at -Valparaiso; also after that of September, 1833, at Tacna. A person must -be somewhat habituated to the climate of these countries to perceive -the extreme improbability of rain falling at such seasons, except as a -consequence of some law quite unconnected with the ordinary course of -the weather. In the cases of great volcanic eruptions, as that of -Coseguina, where torrents of rain fell at a time of the year most -unusual for it, and "almost unprecedented in Central America," it is -not difficult to understand that the volumes of vapour and clouds of -ashes might have disturbed the atmospheric equilibrium. Humboldt -extends this view to the case of earthquakes unaccompanied by -eruptions; but I can hardly conceive it possible, that the small -quantity of aeriform fluids which then escape from the fissured ground, -can produce such remarkable effects. There appears much probability in -the view first proposed by Mr. P. Scrope, that when the barometer is -low, and when rain might naturally be expected to fall, the diminished -pressure of the atmosphere over a wide extent of country, might well -determine the precise day on which the earth, already stretched to the -utmost by the subterranean forces, should yield, crack, and -consequently tremble. It is, however, doubtful how far this idea will -explain the circumstances of torrents of rain falling in the dry season -during several days, after an earthquake unaccompanied by an eruption; -such cases seem to bespeak some more intimate connection between the -atmospheric and subterranean regions. - -Finding little of interest in this part of the ravine, we retraced our -steps to the house of Don Benito, where I stayed two days collecting -fossil shells and wood. Great prostrate silicified trunks of trees, -embedded in a conglomerate, were extraordinarily numerous. I measured -one, which was fifteen feet in circumference: how surprising it is that -every atom of the woody matter in this great cylinder should have been -removed and replaced by silex so perfectly, that each vessel and pore -is preserved! These trees flourished at about the period of our lower -chalk; they all belonged to the fir-tribe. It was amusing to hear the -inhabitants discussing the nature of the fossil shells which I -collected, almost in the same terms as were used a century ago in -Europe,--namely, whether or not they had been thus "born by nature." My -geological examination of the country generally created a good deal of -surprise amongst the Chilenos: it was long before they could be -convinced that I was not hunting for mines. This was sometimes -troublesome: I found the most ready way of explaining my employment, -was to ask them how it was that they themselves were not curious -concerning earthquakes and volcanos?--why some springs were hot and -others cold?--why there were mountains in Chile, and not a hill in La -Plata? These bare questions at once satisfied and silenced the greater -number; some, however (like a few in England who are a century -behindhand), thought that all such inquiries were useless and impious; -and that it was quite sufficient that God had thus made the mountains. - -An order had recently been issued that all stray dogs should be killed, -and we saw many lying dead on the road. A great number had lately gone -mad, and several men had been bitten and had died in consequence. On -several occasions hydrophobia has prevailed in this valley. It is -remarkable thus to find so strange and dreadful a disease, appearing -time after time in the same isolated spot. It has been remarked that -certain villages in England are in like manner much more subject to -this visitation than others. Dr. Unanue states that hydrophobia was -first known in South America in 1803: this statement is corroborated by -Azara and Ulloa having never heard of it in their time. Dr. Unanue -says that it broke out in Central America, and slowly travelled -southward. It reached Arequipa in 1807; and it is said that some men -there, who had not been bitten, were affected, as were some negroes, -who had eaten a bullock which had died of hydrophobia. At Ica -forty-two people thus miserably perished. The disease came on between -twelve and ninety days after the bite; and in those cases where it did -come on, death ensued invariably within five days. After 1808, a long -interval ensued without any cases. On inquiry, I did not hear of -hydrophobia in Van Diemen's Land, or in Australia; and Burchell says, -that during the five years he was at the Cape of Good Hope, he never -heard of an instance of it. Webster asserts that at the Azores -hydrophobia has never occurred; and the same assertion has been made -with respect to Mauritius and St. Helena. [2] In so strange a disease -some information might possibly be gained by considering the -circumstances under which it originates in distant climates; for it is -improbable that a dog already bitten, should have been brought to these -distant countries. - -At night, a stranger arrived at the house of Don Benito, and asked -permission to sleep there. He said he had been wandering about the -mountains for seventeen days, having lost his way. He started from -Guasco, and being accustomed to travelling in the Cordillera, did not -expect any difficulty in following the track to Copiapo; but he soon -became involved in a labyrinth of mountains, whence he could not -escape. Some of his mules had fallen over precipices, and he had been -in great distress. His chief difficulty arose from not knowing where -to find water in the lower country, so that he was obliged to keep -bordering the central ranges. - -We returned down the valley, and on the 22nd reached the town of -Copiapo. The lower part of the valley is broad, forming a fine plain -like that of Quillota. The town covers a considerable space of ground, -each house possessing a garden: but it is an uncomfortable place, and -the dwellings are poorly furnished. Every one seems bent on the one -object of making money, and then migrating as quickly as possible. All -the inhabitants are more or less directly concerned with mines; and -mines and ores are the sole subjects of conversation. Necessaries of -all sorts are extremely dear; as the distance from the town to the port -is eighteen leagues, and the land carriage very expensive. A fowl -costs five or six shillings; meat is nearly as dear as in England; -firewood, or rather sticks, are brought on donkeys from a distance of -two and three days' journey within the Cordillera; and pasturage for -animals is a shilling a day: all this for South America is wonderfully -exorbitant. - - -June 26th.--I hired a guide and eight mules to take me into the -Cordillera by a different line from my last excursion. As the country -was utterly desert, we took a cargo and a half of barley mixed with -chopped straw. About two leagues above the town a broad valley called -the "Despoblado," or uninhabited, branches off from that one by which -we had arrived. Although a valley of the grandest dimensions, and -leading to a pass across the Cordillera, yet it is completely dry, -excepting perhaps for a few days during some very rainy winter. The -sides of the crumbling mountains were furrowed by scarcely any ravines; -and the bottom of the main valley, filled with shingle, was smooth and -nearly level. No considerable torrent could ever have flowed down this -bed of shingle; for if it had, a great cliff-bounded channel, as in all -the southern valleys, would assuredly have been formed. I feel little -doubt that this valley, as well as those mentioned by travellers in -Peru, were left in the state we now see them by the waves of the sea, -as the land slowly rose. I observed in one place, where the Despoblado -was joined by a ravine (which in almost any other chain would have been -called a grand valley), that its bed, though composed merely of sand -and gravel, was higher than that of its tributary. A mere rivulet of -water, in the course of an hour, would have cut a channel for itself; -but it was evident that ages had passed away, and no such rivulet had -drained this great tributary. It was curious to behold the machinery, -if such a term may be used, for the drainage, all, with the last -trifling exception, perfect, yet without any signs of action. Every -one must have remarked how mud-banks, left by the retiring tide, -imitate in miniature a country with hill and dale; and here we have the -original model in rock, formed as the continent rose during the secular -retirement of the ocean, instead of during the ebbing and flowing of -the tides. If a shower of rain falls on the mud-bank, when left dry, -it deepens the already-formed shallow lines of excavation; and so it is -with the rain of successive centuries on the bank of rock and soil, -which we call a continent. - -We rode on after it was dark, till we reached a side ravine with a -small well, called "Agua amarga." The water deserved its name, for -besides being saline it was most offensively putrid and bitter; so that -we could not force ourselves to drink either tea or mate. I suppose -the distance from the river of Copiapo to this spot was at least -twenty-five or thirty English miles; in the whole space there was not a -single drop of water, the country deserving the name of desert in the -strictest sense. Yet about half way we passed some old Indian ruins -near Punta Gorda: I noticed also in front of some of the valleys, which -branch off from the Despoblado, two piles of stones placed a little way -apart, and directed so as to point up the mouths of these small -valleys. My companions knew nothing about them, and only answered my -queries by their imperturbable "quien sabe?" - -I observed Indian ruins in several parts of the Cordillera: the most -perfect which I saw, were the Ruinas de Tambillos, in the Uspallata -Pass. Small square rooms were there huddled together in separate -groups: some of the doorways were yet standing; they were formed by a -cross slab of stone only about three feet high. Ulloa has remarked on -the lowness of the doors in the ancient Peruvian dwellings. These -houses, when perfect, must have been capable of containing a -considerable number of persons. Tradition says, that they were used as -halting-places for the Incas, when they crossed the mountains. Traces -of Indian habitations have been discovered in many other parts, where -it does not appear probable that they were used as mere resting-places, -but yet where the land is as utterly unfit for any kind of cultivation, -as it is near the Tambillos or at the Incas Bridge, or in the Portillo -Pass, at all which places I saw ruins. In the ravine of Jajuel, near -Aconcagua, where there is no pass, I heard of remains of houses -situated at a great height, where it is extremely cold and sterile. At -first I imagined that these buildings had been places of refuge, built -by the Indians on the first arrival of the Spaniards; but I have since -been inclined to speculate on the probability of a small change of -climate. - -In this northern part of Chile, within the Cordillera, old Indian -houses are said to be especially numerous: by digging amongst the -ruins, bits of woollen articles, instruments of precious metals, and -heads of Indian corn, are not unfrequently discovered: an arrow-head -made of agate, and of precisely the same form with those now used in -Tierra del Fuego, was given me. I am aware that the Peruvian Indians -now frequently inhabit most lofty and bleak situations; but at Copiapo -I was assured by men who had spent their lives in travelling through -the Andes, that there were very many (muchisimas) buildings at heights -so great as almost to border upon the perpetual snow, and in parts -where there exist no passes, and where the land produces absolutely -nothing, and what is still more extraordinary, where there is no water. -Nevertheless it is the opinion of the people of the country (although -they are much puzzled by the circumstance), that, from the appearance -of the houses, the Indians must have used them as places of residence. -In this valley, at Punta Gorda, the remains consisted of seven or eight -square little rooms, which were of a similar form with those at -Tambillos, but built chiefly of mud, which the present inhabitants -cannot, either here or, according to Ulloa, in Peru, imitate in -durability. They were situated in the most conspicuous and defenceless -position, at the bottom of the flat broad valley. There was no water -nearer than three or four leagues, and that only in very small -quantity, and bad: the soil was absolutely sterile; I looked in vain -even for a lichen adhering to the rocks. At the present day, with the -advantage of beasts of burden, a mine, unless it were very rich, could -scarcely be worked here with profit. Yet the Indians formerly chose it -as a place of residence! If at the present time two or three showers -of rain were to fall annually, instead of one, as now is the case -during as many years, a small rill of water would probably be formed in -this great valley; and then, by irrigation (which was formerly so well -understood by the Indians), the soil would easily be rendered -sufficiently productive to support a few families. - -I have convincing proofs that this part of the continent of South -America has been elevated near the coast at least from 400 to 500, and -in some parts from 1000 to 1300 feet, since the epoch of existing -shells; and further inland the rise possibly may have been greater. As -the peculiarly arid character of the climate is evidently a consequence -of the height of the Cordillera, we may feel almost sure that before -the later elevations, the atmosphere could not have been so completely -drained of its moisture as it now is; and as the rise has been gradual, -so would have been the change in climate. On this notion of a change -of climate since the buildings were inhabited, the ruins must be of -extreme antiquity, but I do not think their preservation under the -Chilian climate any great difficulty. We must also admit on this -notion (and this perhaps is a greater difficulty) that man has -inhabited South America for an immensely long period, inasmuch as any -change of climate effected by the elevation of the land must have been -extremely gradual. At Valparaiso, within the last 220 years, the rise -has been somewhat less than 19 feet: at Lima a sea-beach has certainly -been upheaved from 80 to 90 feet, within the Indo-human period: but -such small elevations could have had little power in deflecting the -moisture-bringing atmospheric currents. Dr. Lund, however, found human -skeletons in the caves of Brazil, the appearance of which induced him -to believe that the Indian race has existed during a vast lapse of time -in South America. - -When at Lima, I conversed on these subjects [3] with Mr. Gill, a civil -engineer, who had seen much of the interior country. He told me that a -conjecture of a change of climate had sometimes crossed his mind; but -that he thought that the greater portion of land, now incapable of -cultivation, but covered with Indian ruins, had been reduced to this -state by the water-conduits, which the Indians formerly constructed on -so wonderful a scale, having been injured by neglect and by -subterranean movements. I may here mention, that the Peruvians -actually carried their irrigating streams in tunnels through hills of -solid rock. Mr. Gill told me, he had been employed professionally to -examine one: he found the passage low, narrow, crooked, and not of -uniform breadth, but of very considerable length. Is it not most -wonderful that men should have attempted such operations, without the -use of iron or gunpowder? Mr. Gill also mentioned to me a most -interesting, and, as far as I am aware, quite unparalleled case, of a -subterranean disturbance having changed the drainage of a country. -Travelling from Casma to Huaraz (not very far distant from Lima), he -found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation but -now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable river, -whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted. There was -nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that the -river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts, beds -of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had been -worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about 40 yards in -breadth and 8 feet deep. It is self-evident that a person following up -the course of a stream, will always ascend at a greater or less -inclination: Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walking up -the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down -hill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about 40 or 50 -feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge had -been uplifted right across the old bed of a stream. From the moment -the river-course was thus arched, the water must necessarily have been -thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that moment, also, the -neighbouring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a -desert. - -June 27th.--We set out early in the morning, and by midday reached the -ravine of Paypote, where there is a tiny rill of water, with a little -vegetation, and even a few algarroba trees, a kind of mimosa. From -having firewood, a smelting-furnace had formerly been built here: we -found a solitary man in charge of it, whose sole employment was hunting -guanacos. At night it froze sharply; but having plenty of wood for our -fire, we kept ourselves warm. - -28th.--We continued gradually ascending, and the valley now changed -into a ravine. During the day we saw several guanacos, and the track -of the closely-allied species, the Vicuna: this latter animal is -pre-eminently alpine in its habits; it seldom descends much below the -limit of perpetual snow, and therefore haunts even a more lofty and -sterile situation than the guanaco. The only other animal which we saw -in any number was a small fox: I suppose this animal preys on the mice -and other small rodents, which, as long as there is the least -vegetation, subsist in considerable numbers in very desert places. In -Patagonia, even on the borders of the salinas, where a drop of fresh -water can never be found, excepting dew, these little animals swarm. -Next to lizards, mice appear to be able to support existence on the -smallest and driest portions of the earth--even on islets in the midst -of great oceans. - -The scene on all sides showed desolation, brightened and made palpable -by a clear, unclouded sky. For a time such scenery is sublime, but -this feeling cannot last, and then it becomes uninteresting. We -bivouacked at the foot of the "primera linea," or the first line of the -partition of waters. The streams, however, on the east side do not flow -to the Atlantic, but into an elevated district, in the middle of which -there is a large saline, or salt lake; thus forming a little Caspian -Sea at the height, perhaps, of ten thousand feet. Where we slept, -there were some considerable patches of snow, but they do not remain -throughout the year. The winds in these lofty regions obey very -regular laws. Every day a fresh breeze blows up the valley, and at -night, an hour or two after sunset, the air from the cold regions above -descends as through a funnel. This night it blew a gale of wind, and -the temperature must have been considerably below the freezing-point, -for water in a vessel soon became a block of ice. No clothes seemed to -pose any obstacle to the air; I suffered very much from the cold, so -that I could not sleep, and in the morning rose with my body quite dull -and benumbed. - -In the Cordillera further southward, people lose their lives from -snow-storms; here, it sometimes happens from another cause. My guide, -when a boy of fourteen years old, was passing the Cordillera with a -party in the month of May; and while in the central parts, a furious -gale of wind arose, so that the men could hardly cling on their mules, -and stones were flying along the ground. The day was cloudless, and -not a speck of snow fell, but the temperature was low. It is probable -that the thermometer could not have stood very many degrees below the -freezing-point, but the effect on their bodies, ill protected by -clothing, must have been in proportion to the rapidity of the current -of cold air. The gale lasted for more than a day; the men began to -lose their strength, and the mules would not move onwards. My guide's -brother tried to return, but he perished, and his body was found two -years afterwards. Lying by the side of his mule near the road, with the -bridle still in his hand. Two other men in the party lost their -fingers and toes; and out of two hundred mules and thirty cows, only -fourteen mules escaped alive. Many years ago the whole of a large -party are supposed to have perished from a similar cause, but their -bodies to this day have never been discovered. The union of a -cloudless sky, low temperature, and a furious gale of wind, must be, I -should think, in all parts of the world an unusual occurrence. - -June 29th--We gladly travelled down the valley to our former night's -lodging, and thence to near the Agua amarga. On July 1st we reached the -valley of Copiapo. The smell of the fresh clover was quite delightful, -after the scentless air of the dry, sterile Despoblado. Whilst staying -in the town I heard an account from several of the inhabitants, of a -hill in the neighbourhood which they called "El Bramador,"--the roarer -or bellower. I did not at the time pay sufficient attention to the -account; but, as far as I understood, the hill was covered by sand, and -the noise was produced only when people, by ascending it, put the sand -in motion. The same circumstances are described in detail on the -authority of Seetzen and Ehrenberg, [4] as the cause of the sounds -which have been heard by many travellers on Mount Sinai near the Red -Sea. One person with whom I conversed had himself heard the noise: he -described it as very surprising; and he distinctly stated that, -although he could not understand how it was caused, yet it was -necessary to set the sand rolling down the acclivity. A horse walking -over dry coarse sand, causes a peculiar chirping noise from the -friction of the particles; a circumstance which I several times noticed -on the coast of Brazil. - -Three days afterwards I heard of the Beagle's arrival at the Port, -distant eighteen leagues from the town. There is very little land -cultivated down the valley; its wide expanse supports a wretched wiry -grass, which even the donkeys can hardly eat. This poorness of the -vegetation is owing to the quantity of saline matter with which the -soil is impregnated. The Port consists of an assemblage of miserable -little hovels, situated at the foot of a sterile plain. At present, as -the river contains water enough to reach the sea, the inhabitants enjoy -the advantage of having fresh water within a mile and a half. On the -beach there were large piles of merchandise, and the little place had -an air of activity. In the evening I gave my adios, with a hearty -good-will, to my companion Mariano Gonzales, with whom I had ridden so -many leagues in Chile. The next morning the Beagle sailed for Iquique. - -July 12th.--We anchored in the port of Iquique, in lat. 20 degs. 12', -on the coast of Peru. The town contains about a thousand inhabitants, -and stands on a little plain of sand at the foot of a great wall of -rock, 2000 feet in height, here forming the coast. The whole is -utterly desert. A light shower of rain falls only once in very many -years; and the ravines consequently are filled with detritus, and the -mountain-sides covered by piles of fine white sand, even to a height of -a thousand feet. During this season of the year a heavy bank of -clouds, stretched over the ocean, seldom rises above the wall of rocks -on the coast. The aspect of the place was most gloomy; the little -port, with its few vessels, and small group of wretched houses, seemed -overwhelmed and out of all proportion with the rest of the scene. - -The inhabitants live like persons on board a ship: every necessary -comes from a distance: water is brought in boats from Pisagua, about -forty miles northward, and is sold at the rate of nine reals (4s. 6d.) -an eighteen-gallon cask: I bought a wine-bottle full for threepence. In -like manner firewood, and of course every article of food, is imported. -Very few animals can be maintained in such a place: on the ensuing -morning I hired with difficulty, at the price of four pounds sterling, -two mules and a guide to take me to the nitrate of soda works. These -are at present the support of Iquique. This salt was first exported in -1830: in one year an amount in value of one hundred thousand pounds -sterling, was sent to France and England. It is principally used as a -manure and in the manufacture of nitric acid: owing to its deliquescent -property it will not serve for gunpowder. Formerly there were two -exceedingly rich silver-mines in this neighbourhood, but their produce -is now very small. - -Our arrival in the offing caused some little apprehension. Peru was in -a state of anarchy; and each party having demanded a contribution, the -poor town of Iquique was in tribulation, thinking the evil hour was -come. The people had also their domestic troubles; a short time -before, three French carpenters had broken open, during the same night, -the two churches, and stolen all the plate: one of the robbers, -however, subsequently confessed, and the plate was recovered. The -convicts were sent to Arequipa, which though the capital of this -province, is two hundred leagues distant, the government there thought -it a pity to punish such useful workmen, who could make all sorts of -furniture; and accordingly liberated them. Things being in this state, -the churches were again broken open, but this time the plate was not -recovered. The inhabitants became dreadfully enraged, and declaring -that none but heretics would thus "eat God Almighty," proceeded to -torture some Englishmen, with the intention of afterwards shooting -them. At last the authorities interfered, and peace was established. - - -13th.--In the morning I started for the saltpetre-works, a distance of -fourteen leagues. Having ascended the steep coast-mountains by a -zigzag sandy track, we soon came in view of the mines of Guantajaya and -St. Rosa. These two small villages are placed at the very mouths of -the mines; and being perched up on hills, they had a still more -unnatural and desolate appearance than the town of Iquique. We did not -reach the saltpetre-works till after sunset, having ridden all day -across an undulating country, a complete and utter desert. The road -was strewed with the bones and dried skins of many beasts of burden -which had perished on it from fatigue. Excepting the Vultur aura, -which preys on the carcasses, I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, -nor insect. On the coast-mountains, at the height of about 2000 feet -where during this season the clouds generally hang, a very few cacti -were growing in the clefts of rock; and the loose sand was strewed over -with a lichen, which lies on the surface quite unattached. This plant -belongs to the genus Cladonia, and somewhat resembles the reindeer -lichen. In some parts it was in sufficient quantity to tinge the sand, -as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour. Further inland, -during the whole ride of fourteen leagues, I saw only one other -vegetable production, and that was a most minute yellow lichen, growing -on the bones of the dead mules. This was the first true desert which I -had seen: the effect on me was not impressive; but I believe this was -owing to my having become gradually accustomed to such scenes, as I -rode northward from Valparaiso, through Coquimbo, to Copiapo. The -appearance of the country was remarkable, from being covered by a thick -crust of common salt, and of a stratified saliferous alluvium, which -seems to have been deposited as the land slowly rose above the level of -the sea. The salt is white, very hard, and compact: it occurs in water -worn nodules projecting from the agglutinated sand, and is associated -with much gypsum. The appearance of this superficial mass very closely -resembled that of a country after snow, before the last dirty patches -are thawed. The existence of this crust of a soluble substance over -the whole face of the country, shows how extraordinarily dry the -climate must have been for a long period. - -At night I slept at the house of the owner of one of the saltpetre -mines. The country is here as unproductive as near the coast; but -water, having rather a bitter and brackish taste, can be procured by -digging wells. The well at this house was thirty-six yards deep: as -scarcely any rain falls, it is evident the water is not thus derived; -indeed if it were, it could not fail to be as salt as brine, for the -whole surrounding country is incrusted with various saline substances. -We must therefore conclude that it percolates under ground from the -Cordillera, though distant many leagues. In that direction there are a -few small villages, where the inhabitants, having more water, are -enabled to irrigate a little land, and raise hay, on which the mules -and asses, employed in carrying the saltpetre, are fed. The nitrate of -soda was now selling at the ship's side at fourteen shillings per -hundred pounds: the chief expense is its transport to the sea-coast. -The mine consists of a hard stratum, between two and three feet thick, -of the nitrate mingled with a little of the sulphate of soda and a good -deal of common salt. It lies close beneath the surface, and follows -for a length of one hundred and fifty miles the margin of a grand basin -or plain; this, from its outline, manifestly must once have been a -lake, or more probably an inland arm of the sea, as may be inferred -from the presence of iodic salts in the saline stratum. The surface of -the plain is 3300 feet above the Pacific. - - -19th.--We anchored in the Bay of Callao, the seaport of Lima, the -capital of Peru. We stayed here six weeks but from the troubled state -of public affairs, I saw very little of the country. During our whole -visit the climate was far from being so delightful, as it is generally -represented. A dull heavy bank of clouds constantly hung over the -land, so that during the first sixteen days I had only one view of the -Cordillera behind Lima. These mountains, seen in stages, one above the -other, through openings in the clouds, had a very grand appearance. It -is almost become a proverb, that rain never falls in the lower part of -Peru. Yet this can hardly be considered correct; for during almost -every day of our visit there was a thick drizzling mist, which was -sufficient to make the streets muddy and one's clothes damp: this the -people are pleased to call Peruvian dew. That much rain does not fall -is very certain, for the houses are covered only with flat roofs made -of hardened mud; and on the mole shiploads of wheat were piled up, -being thus left for weeks together without any shelter. - -I cannot say I liked the very little I saw of Peru: in summer, however, -it is said that the climate is much pleasanter. In all seasons, both -inhabitants and foreigners suffer from severe attacks of ague. This -disease is common on the whole coast of Peru, but is unknown in the -interior. The attacks of illness which arise from miasma never fail to -appear most mysterious. So difficult is it to judge from the aspect of -a country, whether or not it is healthy, that if a person had been told -to choose within the tropics a situation appearing favourable for -health, very probably he would have named this coast. The plain round -the outskirts of Callao is sparingly covered with a coarse grass, and -in some parts there are a few stagnant, though very small, pools of -water. The miasma, in all probability, arises from these: for the town -of Arica was similarly circumstanced, and its healthiness was much -improved by the drainage of some little pools. Miasma is not always -produced by a luxuriant vegetation with an ardent climate; for many -parts of Brazil, even where there are marshes and a rank vegetation, -are much more healthy than this sterile coast of Peru. The densest -forests in a temperate climate, as in Chiloe, do not seem in the -slightest degree to affect the healthy condition of the atmosphere. - -The island of St. Jago, at the Cape de Verds, offers another strongly -marked instance of a country, which any one would have expected to find -most healthy, being very much the contrary. I have described the bare -and open plains as supporting, during a few weeks after the rainy -season, a thin vegetation, which directly withers away and dries up: at -this period the air appears to become quite poisonous; both natives and -foreigners often being affected with violent fevers. On the other hand, -the Galapagos Archipelago, in the Pacific, with a similar soil, and -periodically subject to the same process of vegetation, is perfectly -healthy. Humboldt has observed, that, "under the torrid zone, the -smallest marshes are the most dangerous, being surrounded, as at Vera -Cruz and Carthagena, with an arid and sandy soil, which raises the -temperature of the ambient air." [5] On the coast of Peru, however, the -temperature is not hot to any excessive degree; and perhaps in -consequence, the intermittent fevers are not of the most malignant -order. In all unhealthy countries the greatest risk is run by sleeping -on shore. Is this owing to the state of the body during sleep, or to a -greater abundance of miasma at such times? It appears certain that -those who stay on board a vessel, though anchored at only a short -distance from the coast, generally suffer less than those actually on -shore. On the other hand, I have heard of one remarkable case where a -fever broke out among the crew of a man-of-war some hundred miles off -the coast of Africa, and at the same time one of those fearful periods -[6] of death commenced at Sierra Leone. - -No state in South America, since the declaration of independence, has -suffered more from anarchy than Peru. At the time of our visit, there -were four chiefs in arms contending for supremacy in the government: if -one succeeded in becoming for a time very powerful, the others -coalesced against him; but no sooner were they victorious, than they -were again hostile to each other. The other day, at the Anniversary of -the Independence, high mass was performed, the President partaking of -the sacrament: during the _Te Deum laudamus_, instead of each regiment -displaying the Peruvian flag, a black one with death's head was -unfurled. Imagine a government under which such a scene could be -ordered, on such an occasion, to be typical of their determination of -fighting to death! This state of affairs happened at a time very -unfortunately for me, as I was precluded from taking any excursions -much beyond the limits of the town. The barren island of St. Lorenzo, -which forms the harbour, was nearly the only place where one could walk -securely. The upper part, which is upwards of 1000 feet in height, -during this season of the year (winter), comes within the lower limit -of the clouds; and in consequence, an abundant cryptogamic vegetation, -and a few flowers cover the summit. On the hills near Lima, at a -height but little greater, the ground is carpeted with moss, and beds -of beautiful yellow lilies, called Amancaes. This indicates a very -much greater degree of humidity, than at a corresponding height at -Iquique. Proceeding northward of Lima, the climate becomes damper, till -on the banks of the Guayaquil, nearly under the equator, we find the -most luxuriant forests. The change, however, from the sterile coast of -Peru to that fertile land is described as taking place rather abruptly -in the latitude of Cape Blanco, two degrees south of Guayaquil. - -Callao is a filthy, ill-built, small seaport. The inhabitants, both -here and at Lima, present every imaginable shade of mixture, between -European, Negro, and Indian blood. They appear a depraved, drunken set -of people. The atmosphere is loaded with foul smells, and that -peculiar one, which may be perceived in almost every town within the -tropics, was here very strong. The fortress, which withstood Lord -Cochrane's long siege, has an imposing appearance. But the President, -during our stay, sold the brass guns, and proceeded to dismantle parts -of it. The reason assigned was, that he had not an officer to whom he -could trust so important a charge. He himself had good reason for -thinking so, as he had obtained the presidentship by rebelling while in -charge of this same fortress. After we left South America, he paid the -penalty in the usual manner, by being conquered, taken prisoner, and -shot. - -Lima stands on a plain in a valley, formed during the gradual retreat -of the sea. It is seven miles from Callao, and is elevated 500 feet -above it; but from the slope being very gradual, the road appears -absolutely level; so that when at Lima it is difficult to believe one -has ascended even one hundred feet: Humboldt has remarked on this -singularly deceptive case. Steep barren hills rise like islands from -the plain, which is divided, by straight mud-walls, into large green -fields. In these scarcely a tree grows excepting a few willows, and an -occasional clump of bananas and of oranges. The city of Lima is now in -a wretched state of decay: the streets are nearly unpaved; and heaps of -filth are piled up in all directions, where the black gallinazos, tame -as poultry, pick up bits of carrion. The houses have generally an -upper story, built on account of the earthquakes, of plastered woodwork -but some of the old ones, which are now used by several families, are -immensely large, and would rival in suites of apartments the most -magnificent in any place. Lima, the City of the Kings, must formerly -have been a splendid town. The extraordinary number of churches gives -it, even at the present day, a peculiar and striking character, -especially when viewed from a short distance. - -One day I went out with some merchants to hunt in the immediate -vicinity of the city. Our sport was very poor; but I had an -opportunity of seeing the ruins of one of the ancient Indian villages, -with its mound like a natural hill in the centre. The remains of -houses, enclosures, irrigating streams, and burial mounds, scattered -over this plain, cannot fail to give one a high idea of the condition -and number of the ancient population. When their earthenware, woollen -clothes, utensils of elegant forms cut out of the hardest rocks, tools -of copper, ornaments of precious stones, palaces, and hydraulic works, -are considered, it is impossible not to respect the considerable -advance made by them in the arts of civilization. The burial mounds, -called Huacas, are really stupendous; although in some places they -appear to be natural hills incased and modelled. - -There is also another and very different class of ruins, which -possesses some interest, namely, those of old Callao, overwhelmed by -the great earthquake of 1746, and its accompanying wave. The -destruction must have been more complete even than at Talcahuano. -Quantities of shingle almost conceal the foundations of the walls, and -vast masses of brickwork appear to have been whirled about like pebbles -by the retiring waves. It has been stated that the land subsided -during this memorable shock: I could not discover any proof of this; -yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast must -certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the old -town; as no people in their senses would willingly have chosen for -their building place, the narrow spit of shingle on which the ruins now -stand. Since our voyage, M. Tschudi has come to the conclusion, by the -comparison of old and modern maps, that the coast both north and south -of Lima has certainly subsided. - -On the island of San Lorenzo, there are very satisfactory proofs of -elevation within the recent period; this of course is not opposed to -the belief, of a small sinking of the ground having subsequently taken -place. The side of this island fronting the Bay of Callao, is worn -into three obscure terraces, the lower one of which is covered by a bed -a mile in length, almost wholly composed of shells of eighteen species, -now living in the adjoining sea. The height of this bed is eighty-five -feet. Many of the shells are deeply corroded, and have a much older -and more decayed appearance than those at the height of 500 or 600 feet -on the coast of Chile. These shells are associated with much common -salt, a little sulphate of lime (both probably left by the evaporation -of the spray, as the land slowly rose), together with sulphate of soda -and muriate of lime. They rest on fragments of the underlying -sandstone, and are covered by a few inches thick of detritus. The -shells, higher up on this terrace could be traced scaling off in -flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an upper terrace, -at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at some considerably higher -points, I found a layer of saline powder of exactly similar appearance, -and lying in the same relative position. I have no doubt that this -upper layer originally existed as a bed of shells, like that on the -eighty-five-feet ledge; but it does not now contain even a trace of -organic structure. The powder has been analyzed for me by Mr. T. -Reeks; it consists of sulphates and muriates both of lime and soda, -with very little carbonate of lime. It is known that common salt and -carbonate of lime left in a mass for some time together, partly -decompose each other; though this does not happen with small quantities -in solution. As the half-decomposed shells in the lower parts are -associated with much common salt, together with some of the saline -substances composing the upper saline layer, and as these shells are -corroded and decayed in a remarkable manner, I strongly suspect that -this double decomposition has here taken place. The resultant salts, -however, ought to be carbonate of soda and muriate of lime, the latter -is present, but not the carbonate of soda. Hence I am led to imagine -that by some unexplained means, the carbonate of soda becomes changed -into the sulphate. It is obvious that the saline layer could not have -been preserved in any country in which abundant rain occasionally fell: -on the other hand, this very circumstance, which at first sight appears -so highly favourable to the long preservation of exposed shells, has -probably been the indirect means, through the common salt not having -been washed away, of their decomposition and early decay. - -I was much interested by finding on the terrace, at the height of -eighty-five feet, _embedded_ amidst the shells and much sea-drifted -rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited rush, and the head of a -stalk of Indian corn: I compared these relics with similar ones taken -out of the Huacas, or old Peruvian tombs, and found them identical in -appearance. On the mainland in front of San Lorenzo, near Bellavista, -there is an extensive and level plain about a hundred feet high, of -which the lower part is formed of alternating layers of sand and impure -clay, together with some gravel, and the surface, to the depth of from -three to six feet, of a reddish loam, containing a few scattered -sea-shells and numerous small fragments of coarse red earthenware, more -abundant at certain spots than at others. At first I was inclined to -believe that this superficial bed, from its wide extent and smoothness, -must have been deposited beneath the sea; but I afterwards found in one -spot, that it lay on an artificial floor of round stones. It seems, -therefore, most probable that at a period when the land stood at a -lower level there was a plain very similar to that now surrounding -Callao, which being protected by a shingle beach, is raised but very -little above the level of the sea. On this plain, with its underlying -red-clay beds, I imagine that the Indians manufactured their earthen -vessels; and that, during some violent earthquake, the sea broke over -the beach, and converted the plain into a temporary lake, as happened -round Callao in 1713 and 1746. The water would then have deposited -mud, containing fragments of pottery from the kilns, more abundant at -some spots than at others, and shells from the sea. This bed, with -fossil earthenware, stands at about the same height with the shells on -the lower terrace of San Lorenzo, in which the cotton-thread and other -relics were embedded. - -Hence we may safely conclude, that within the Indo-human period there -has been an elevation, as before alluded to, of more than eighty-five -feet; for some little elevation must have been lost by the coast having -subsided since the old maps were engraved. At Valparaiso, although in -the 220 years before our visit, the elevation cannot have exceeded -nineteen feet, yet subsequently to 1817, there has been a rise, partly -insensible and partly by a start during the shock of 1822, of ten or -eleven feet. The antiquity of the Indo-human race here, judging by the -eighty-five feet rise of the land since the relics were embedded, is -the more remarkable, as on the coast of Patagonia, when the land stood -about the same number of feet lower, the Macrauchenia was a living -beast; but as the Patagonian coast is some way distant from the -Cordillera, the rising there may have been slower than here. At Bahia -Blanca, the elevation has been only a few feet since the numerous -gigantic quadrupeds were there entombed; and, according to the -generally received opinion, when these extinct animals were living, man -did not exist. But the rising of that part of the coast of Patagonia, -is perhaps no way connected with the Cordillera, but rather with a line -of old volcanic rocks in Banda Oriental, so that it may have been -infinitely slower than on the shores of Peru. All these speculations, -however, must be vague; for who will pretend to say that there may not -have been several periods of subsidence, intercalated between the -movements of elevation; for we know that along the whole coast of -Patagonia, there have certainly been many and long pauses in the upward -action of the elevatory forces. - -[1] Vol. iv. p. 11, and vol. ii. p. 217. For the remarks on Guayaquil, -see Silliman's Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 384. For those on Tacna by Mr. -Hamilton, see Trans. of British Association, 1840. For those on -Coseguina see Mr. Caldcleugh in Phil. Trans., 1835. In the former -edition I collected several references on the coincidences between -sudden falls in the barometer and earthquakes; and between earthquakes -and meteors. - -[2] Observa. sobre el Clima de Lima, p. 67.--Azara's Travels, vol. i. -p. 381.--Ulloa's Voyage, vol. ii. p. 28.--Burchell's Travels, vol. ii. -p. 524.--Webster's Description of the Azores, p. 124.--Voyage a l'Isle -de France par un Officer du Roi, tom. i. p. 248.--Description of St. -Helena, p. 123. - -[3] Temple, in his travels through Upper Peru, or Bolivia, in going -from Potosi to Oruro, says, "I saw many Indian villages or dwellings in -ruins, up even to the very tops of the mountains, attesting a former -population where now all is desolate." He makes similar remarks in -another place; but I cannot tell whether this desolation has been -caused by a want of population, or by an altered condition of the land. - -[4] Edinburgh, Phil. Journ., Jan., 1830, p. 74; and April, 1830, p. -258--also Daubeny on Volcanoes, p. 438; and Bengal Journ., vol. vii. p. -324. - -[5] Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, vol. iv. p. 199. - -[6] A similar interesting case is recorded in the Madras Medical Quart. -Journ., 1839, p. 340. Dr. Ferguson, in his admirable Paper (see 9th -vol. of Edinburgh Royal Trans.), shows clearly that the poison is -generated in the drying process; and hence that dry hot countries are -often the most unhealthy. - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO - -The whole Group Volcanic--Numbers of Craters--Leafless Bushes Colony at -Charles Island--James Island--Salt-lake in Crater--Natural History of -the Group--Ornithology, curious Finches--Reptiles--Great Tortoises, -habits of--Marine Lizard, feeds on Sea-weed--Terrestrial Lizard, -burrowing habits, herbivorous--Importance of Reptiles in the -Archipelago--Fish, Shells, Insects--Botany--American Type of -Organization--Differences in the Species or Races on different -Islands--Tameness of the Birds--Fear of Man, an acquired Instinct. - - -SEPTEMBER 15th.--This archipelago consists of ten principal islands, of -which five exceed the others in size. They are situated under the -Equator, and between five and six hundred miles westward of the coast -of America. They are all formed of volcanic rocks; a few fragments of -granite curiously glazed and altered by the heat, can hardly be -considered as an exception. Some of the craters, surmounting the -larger islands, are of immense size, and they rise to a height of -between three and four thousand feet. Their flanks are studded by -innumerable smaller orifices. I scarcely hesitate to affirm, that -there must be in the whole archipelago at least two thousand craters. -These consist either of lava or scoriae, or of finely-stratified, -sandstone-like tuff. Most of the latter are beautifully symmetrical; -they owe their origin to eruptions of volcanic mud without any lava: it -is a remarkable circumstance that every one of the twenty-eight -tuff-craters which were examined, had their southern sides either much -lower than the other sides, or quite broken down and removed. As all -these craters apparently have been formed when standing in the sea, and -as the waves from the trade wind and the swell from the open Pacific -here unite their forces on the southern coasts of all the islands, this -singular uniformity in the broken state of the craters, composed of the -soft and yielding tuff, is easily explained. - -Considering that these islands are placed directly under the equator, -the climate is far from being excessively hot; this seems chiefly -caused by the singularly low temperature of the surrounding water, -brought here by the great southern - - -[map] - - -Polar current. Excepting during one short season, very little rain -falls, and even then it is irregular; but the clouds generally hang -low. Hence, whilst the lower parts of the islands are very sterile, -the upper parts, at a height of a thousand feet and upwards, possess a -damp climate and a tolerably luxuriant vegetation. This is especially -the case on the windward sides of the islands, which first receive and -condense the moisture from the atmosphere. - -In the morning (17th) we landed on Chatham Island, which, like the -others, rises with a tame and rounded outline, broken here and there by -scattered hillocks, the remains of former craters. Nothing could be -less inviting than the first appearance. A broken field of black -basaltic lava, thrown into the most rugged waves, and crossed by great -fissures, is everywhere covered by stunted, sun-burnt brushwood, which -shows little signs of life. The dry and parched surface, being heated -by the noon-day sun, gave to the air a close and sultry feeling, like -that from a stove: we fancied even that the bushes smelt unpleasantly. -Although I diligently tried to collect as many plants as possible, I -succeeded in getting very few; and such wretched-looking little weeds -would have better become an arctic than an equatorial Flora. The -brushwood appears, from a short distance, as leafless as our trees -during winter; and it was some time before I discovered that not only -almost every plant was now in full leaf, but that the greater number -were in flower. The commonest bush is one of the Euphorbiaceae: an -acacia and a great odd-looking cactus are the only trees which afford -any shade. After the season of heavy rains, the islands are said to -appear for a short time partially green. The volcanic island of -Fernando Noronha, placed in many respects under nearly similar -conditions, is the only other country where I have seen a vegetation at -all like this of the Galapagos Islands. - -The Beagle sailed round Chatham Island, and anchored in several bays. -One night I slept on shore on a part of the island, where black -truncated cones were extraordinarily numerous: from one small eminence -I counted sixty of them, all surmounted by craters more or less -perfect. The greater number consisted merely of a ring of red scoriae -or slags, cemented together: and their height above the plain of lava -was not more than from fifty to a hundred feet; none had been very -lately active. The entire surface of this part of the island seems to -have been permeated, like a sieve, by the subterranean vapours: here -and there the lava, whilst soft, has been blown into great bubbles; and -in other parts, the tops of caverns similarly formed have fallen in, -leaving circular pits with steep sides. From the regular form of the -many craters, they gave to the country an artificial appearance, which -vividly reminded me of those parts of Staffordshire, where the great -iron-foundries are most numerous. The day was glowing hot, and the -scrambling over the rough surface and through the intricate thickets, -was very fatiguing; but I was well repaid by the strange Cyclopean -scene. As I was walking along I met two large tortoises, each of which -must have weighed at least two hundred pounds: one was eating a piece -of cactus, and as I approached, it stared at me and slowly walked away; -the other gave a deep hiss, and drew in its head. These huge reptiles, -surrounded by the black lava, the leafless shrubs, and large cacti, -seemed to my fancy like some antediluvian animals. The few -dull-coloured birds cared no more for me than they did for the great -tortoises. - -23rd.--The Beagle proceeded to Charles Island. This archipelago has -long been frequented, first by the bucaniers, and latterly by whalers, -but it is only within the last six years, that a small colony has been -established here. The inhabitants are between two and three hundred in -number; they are nearly all people of colour, who have been banished -for political crimes from the Republic of the Equator, of which Quito -is the capital. The settlement is placed about four and a half miles -inland, and at a height probably of a thousand feet. In the first part -of the road we passed through leafless thickets, as in Chatham Island. -Higher up, the woods gradually became greener; and as soon as we -crossed the ridge of the island, we were cooled by a fine southerly -breeze, and our sight refreshed by a green and thriving vegetation. In -this upper region coarse grasses and ferns abound; but there are no -tree-ferns: I saw nowhere any member of the palm family, which is the -more singular, as 360 miles northward, Cocos Island takes its name from -the number of cocoa-nuts. The houses are irregularly scattered over a -flat space of ground, which is cultivated with sweet potatoes and -bananas. It will not easily be imagined how pleasant the sight of -black mud was to us, after having been so long, accustomed to the -parched soil of Peru and northern Chile. The inhabitants, although -complaining of poverty, obtain, without much trouble, the means of -subsistence. In the woods there are many wild pigs and goats; but the -staple article of animal food is supplied by the tortoises. Their -numbers have of course been greatly reduced in this island, but the -people yet count on two days' hunting giving them food for the rest of -the week. It is said that formerly single vessels have taken away as -many as seven hundred, and that the ship's company of a frigate some -years since brought down in one day two hundred tortoises to the beach. - -September 29th.--We doubled the south-west extremity of Albemarle -Island, and the next day were nearly becalmed between it and Narborough -Island. Both are covered with immense deluges of black naked lava, -which have flowed either over the rims of the great caldrons, like -pitch over the rim of a pot in which it has been boiled, or have burst -forth from smaller orifices on the flanks; in their descent they have -spread over miles of the sea-coast. On both of these islands, -eruptions are known to have taken place; and in Albemarle, we saw a -small jet of smoke curling from the summit of one of the great craters. -In the evening we anchored in Bank's Cove, in Albemarle Island. The -next morning I went out walking. To the south of the broken -tuff-crater, in which the Beagle was anchored, there was another -beautifully symmetrical one of an elliptic form; its longer axis was a -little less than a mile, and its depth about 500 feet. At its bottom -there was a shallow lake, in the middle of which a tiny crater formed -an islet. The day was overpoweringly hot, and the lake looked clear -and blue: I hurried down the cindery slope, and, choked with dust, -eagerly tasted the water--but, to my sorrow, I found it salt as brine. - -The rocks on the coast abounded with great black lizards, between three -and four feet long; and on the hills, an ugly yellowish-brown species -was equally common. We saw many of this latter kind, some clumsily -running out of the way, and others shuffling into their burrows. I -shall presently describe in more detail the habits of both these -reptiles. The whole of this northern part of Albemarle Island is -miserably sterile. - -October 8th.--We arrived at James Island: this island, as well as -Charles Island, were long since thus named after our kings of the -Stuart line. Mr. Bynoe, myself, and our servants were left here for a -week, with provisions and a tent, whilst the Beagle went for water. We -found here a party of Spaniards, who had been sent from Charles Island -to dry fish, and to salt tortoise-meat. About six miles inland, and at -the height of nearly 2000 feet, a hovel had been built in which two men -lived, who were employed in catching tortoises, whilst the others were -fishing on the coast. I paid this party two visits, and slept there -one night. As in the other islands, the lower region was covered by -nearly leafless bushes, but the trees were here of a larger growth than -elsewhere, several being two feet and some even two feet nine inches in -diameter. The upper region being kept damp by the clouds, supports a -green and flourishing vegetation. So damp was the ground, that there -were large beds of a coarse cyperus, in which great numbers of a very -small water-rail lived and bred. While staying in this upper region, -we lived entirely upon tortoise-meat: the breast-plate roasted (as the -Gauchos do _carne con cuero_), with the flesh on it, is very good; and -the young tortoises make excellent soup; but otherwise the meat to my -taste is indifferent. - -One day we accompanied a party of the Spaniards in their whale-boat to -a salina, or lake from which salt is procured. After landing, we had a -very rough walk over a rugged field of recent lava, which has almost -surrounded a tuff-crater, at the bottom of which the salt-lake lies. -The water is only three or four inches deep, and rests on a layer of -beautifully crystallized, white salt. The lake is quite circular, and -is fringed with a border of bright green succulent plants; the almost -precipitous walls of the crater are clothed with wood, so that the -scene was altogether both picturesque and curious. A few years since, -the sailors belonging to a sealing-vessel murdered their captain in -this quiet spot; and we saw his skull lying among the bushes. - -During the greater part of our stay of a week, the sky was cloudless, -and if the trade-wind failed for an hour, the heat became very -oppressive. On two days, the thermometer within the tent stood for -some hours at 93 degs.; but in the open air, in the wind and sun, at -only 85 degs. The sand was extremely hot; the thermometer placed in -some of a brown colour immediately rose to 137 degs., and how much -above that it would have risen, I do not know, for it was not graduated -any higher. The black sand felt much hotter, so that even in thick -boots it was quite disagreeable to walk over it. - - -The natural history of these islands is eminently curious, and well -deserves attention. Most of the organic productions are aboriginal -creations, found nowhere else; there is even a difference between the -inhabitants of the different islands; yet all show a marked -relationship with those of America, though separated from that -continent by an open space of ocean, between 500 and 600 miles in -width. The archipelago is a little world within itself, or rather a -satellite attached to America, whence it has derived a few stray -colonists, and has received the general character of its indigenous -productions. Considering the small size of the islands, we feel the -more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings, and at their -confined range. Seeing every height crowned with its crater, and the -boundaries of most of the lava-streams still distinct, we are led to -believe that within a period geologically recent the unbroken ocean was -here spread out. Hence, both in space and time, we seem to be brought -somewhat near to that great fact--that mystery of mysteries--the first -appearance of new beings on this earth. - -Of terrestrial mammals, there is only one which must be considered as -indigenous, namely, a mouse (Mus Galapagoensis), and this is confined, -as far as I could ascertain, to Chatham Island, the most easterly -island of the group. It belongs, as I am informed by Mr. Waterhouse, -to a division of the family of mice characteristic of America. At -James Island, there is a rat sufficiently distinct from the common kind -to have been named and described by Mr. Waterhouse; but as it belongs -to the old-world division of the family, and as this island has been -frequented by ships for the last hundred and fifty years, I can hardly -doubt that this rat is merely a variety produced by the new and -peculiar climate, food, and soil, to which it has been subjected. -Although no one has a right to speculate without distinct facts, yet -even with respect to the Chatham Island mouse, it should be borne in -mind, that it may possibly be an American species imported here; for I -have seen, in a most unfrequented part of the Pampas, a native mouse -living in the roof of a newly built hovel, and therefore its -transportation in a vessel is not improbable: analogous facts have been -observed by Dr. Richardson in North America. - -Of land-birds I obtained twenty-six kinds, all peculiar to the group -and found nowhere else, with the exception of one lark-like finch from -North America (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), which ranges on that continent -as far north as 54 degs., and generally frequents marshes. The other -twenty-five birds consist, firstly, of a hawk, curiously intermediate -in structure between a buzzard and the American group of -carrion-feeding Polybori; and with these latter birds it agrees most -closely in every habit and even tone of voice. Secondly, there are two -owls, representing the short-eared and white barn-owls of Europe. -Thirdly, a wren, three tyrant-flycatchers (two of them species of -Pyrocephalus, one or both of which would be ranked by some -ornithologists as only varieties), and a dove--all analogous to, but -distinct from, American species. Fourthly, a swallow, which though -differing from the Progne purpurea of both Americas, only in being -rather duller colored, smaller, and slenderer, is considered by Mr. -Gould as specifically distinct. Fifthly, there are three species of -mocking thrush--a form highly characteristic of America. The remaining -land-birds form a most singular group of finches, related to each other -in the structure of their beaks, short tails, form of body and plumage: -there are thirteen species, which Mr. Gould has divided into four -sub-groups. All these species are peculiar to this archipelago; and so -is the whole group, with the exception of one species of the sub-group -Cactornis, lately brought from Bow Island, in the Low Archipelago. Of -Cactornis, the two species may be often seen climbing about the flowers -of the great cactus-trees; but all the other species of this group of -finches, mingled together in flocks, feed on the dry and sterile ground -of the lower districts. The males of all, or certainly of the greater -number, are jet black; and the females (with perhaps one or two -exceptions) are brown. The most curious fact is the perfect gradation -in the size of the beaks in the different species of Geospiza, from one -as large as that of a hawfinch to that of a chaffinch, and (if Mr. -Gould is right in including his sub-group, Certhidea, in the main -group) even to that of a warbler. The largest beak in the genus -Geospiza is shown in Fig. 1, and the smallest in Fig. 3; but instead of -there being only one intermediate species, with a beak of the size -shown in Fig. 2, there are no less than six species with insensibly -graduated beaks. The beak of the sub-group Certhidea, is shown in Fig. -4. The beak of Cactornis is - - -[picture] - -1. Geospiza magnirostris. 2. Geospiza fortis. 3. Geospiza parvula. -4. Certhidea olivasea. - - -somewhat like that of a starling, and that of the fourth sub-group, -Camarhynchus, is slightly parrot-shaped. Seeing this gradation and -diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, -one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this -archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different -ends. In a like manner it might be fancied that a bird originally a -buzzard, had been induced here to undertake the office of the -carrion-feeding Polybori of the American continent. - -Of waders and water-birds I was able to get only eleven kinds, and of -these only three (including a rail confined to the damp summits of the -islands) are new species. Considering the wandering habits of the -gulls, I was surprised to find that the species inhabiting these -islands is peculiar, but allied to one from the southern parts of South -America. The far greater peculiarity of the land-birds, namely, -twenty-five out of twenty-six, being new species, or at least new -races, compared with the waders and web-footed birds, is in accordance -with the greater range which these latter orders have in all parts of -the world. We shall hereafter see this law of aquatic forms, whether -marine or fresh-water, being less peculiar at any given point of the -earth's surface than the terrestrial forms of the same classes, -strikingly illustrated in the shells, and in a lesser degree in the -insects of this archipelago. - -Two of the waders are rather smaller than the same species brought from -other places: the swallow is also smaller, though it is doubtful -whether or not it is distinct from its analogue. The two owls, the two -tyrant-catchers (Pyrocephalus) and the dove, are also smaller than the -analogous but distinct species, to which they are most nearly related; -on the other hand, the gull is rather larger. The two owls, the -swallow, all three species of mocking-thrush, the dove in its separate -colours though not in its whole plumage, the Totanus, and the gull, are -likewise duskier coloured than their analogous species; and in the case -of the mocking-thrush and Totanus, than any other species of the two -genera. With the exception of a wren with a fine yellow breast, and of -a tyrant-flycatcher with a scarlet tuft and breast, none of the birds -are brilliantly coloured, as might have been expected in an equatorial -district. Hence it would appear probable, that the same causes which -here make the immigrants of some peculiar species smaller, make most of -the peculiar Galapageian species also smaller, as well as very -generally more dusky coloured. All the plants have a wretched, weedy -appearance, and I did not see one beautiful flower. The insects, -again, are small-sized and dull-coloured, and, as Mr. Waterhouse -informs me, there is nothing in their general appearance which would -have led him to imagine that they had come from under the equator. [1] -The birds, plants, and insects have a desert character, and are not -more brilliantly coloured than those from southern Patagonia; we may, -therefore, conclude that the usual gaudy colouring of the intertropical -productions, is not related either to the heat or light of those zones, -but to some other cause, perhaps to the conditions of existence being -generally favourable to life. - - -We will now turn to the order of reptiles, which gives the most -striking character to the zoology of these islands. The species are not -numerous, but the numbers of individuals of each species are -extraordinarily great. There is one small lizard belonging to a South -American genus, and two species (and probably more) of the -Amblyrhynchus--a genus confined to the Galapagos Islands. There is one -snake which is numerous; it is identical, as I am informed by M. -Bibron, with the Psammophis Temminckii from Chile. [2] Of sea-turtle I -believe there are more than one species, and of tortoises there are, as -we shall presently show, two or three species or races. Of toads and -frogs there are none: I was surprised at this, considering how well -suited for them the temperate and damp upper woods appeared to be. It -recalled to my mind the remark made by Bory St. Vincent, [3] namely, -that none of this family are found on any of the volcanic islands in -the great oceans. As far as I can ascertain from various works, this -seems to hold good throughout the Pacific, and even in the large -islands of the Sandwich archipelago. Mauritius offers an apparent -exception, where I saw the Rana Mascariensis in abundance: this frog is -said now to inhabit the Seychelles, Madagascar, and Bourbon; but on the -other hand, Du Bois, in his voyage in 1669, states that there were no -reptiles in Bourbon except tortoises; and the Officier du Roi asserts -that before 1768 it had been attempted, without success, to introduce -frogs into Mauritius--I presume for the purpose of eating: hence it may -be well doubted whether this frog is an aboriginal of these islands. -The absence of the frog family in the oceanic islands is the more -remarkable, when contrasted with the case of lizards, which swarm on -most of the smallest islands. May this difference not be caused, by -the greater facility with which the eggs of lizards, protected by -calcareous shells might be transported through salt-water, than could -the slimy spawn of frogs? - -I will first describe the habits of the tortoise (Testudo nigra, -formerly called Indica), which has been so frequently alluded to. These -animals are found, I believe, on all the islands of the archipelago; -certainly on the greater number. They frequent in preference the high -damp parts, but they likewise live in the lower and arid districts. I -have already shown, from the numbers which have been caught in a single -day, how very numerous they must be. Some grow to an immense size: Mr. -Lawson, an Englishman, and vice-governor of the colony, told us that he -had seen several so large, that it required six or eight men to lift -them from the ground; and that some had afforded as much as two hundred -pounds of meat. The old males are the largest, the females rarely -growing to so great a size: the male can readily be distinguished from -the female by the greater length of its tail. The tortoises which live -on those islands where there is no water, or in the lower and arid -parts of the others, feed chiefly on the succulent cactus. Those which -frequent the higher and damp regions, eat the leaves of various trees, -a kind of berry (called guayavita) which is acid and austere, and -likewise a pale green filamentous lichen (Usnera plicata), that hangs -from the boughs of the trees. - -The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, and -wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs, and -these are always situated towards the central parts, and at a -considerable height. The tortoises, therefore, which frequent the -lower districts, when thirsty, are obliged to travel from a long -distance. Hence broad and well-beaten paths branch off in every -direction from the wells down to the sea-coast; and the Spaniards by -following them up, first discovered the watering-places. When I landed -at Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal travelled so -methodically along well-chosen tracks. Near the springs it was a -curious spectacle to behold many of these huge creatures, one set -eagerly travelling onwards with outstretched necks, and another set -returning, after having drunk their fill. When the tortoise arrives at -the spring, quite regardless of any spectator, he buries his head in -the water above his eyes, and greedily swallows great mouthfuls, at the -rate of about ten in a minute. The inhabitants say each animal stays -three or four days in the neighbourhood of the water, and then returns -to the lower country; but they differed respecting the frequency of -these visits. The animal probably regulates them according to the -nature of the food on which it has lived. It is, however, certain, -that tortoises can subsist even on these islands where there is no -other water than what falls during a few rainy days in the year. - -I believe it is well ascertained, that the bladder of the frog acts as -a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence: such seems to -be the case with the tortoise. For some time after a visit to the -springs, their urinary bladders are distended with fluid, which is said -gradually to decrease in volume, and to become less pure. The -inhabitants, when walking in the lower district, and overcome with -thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance, and drink the -contents of the bladder if full: in one I saw killed, the fluid was -quite limpid, and had only a very slightly bitter taste. The -inhabitants, however, always first drink the water in the pericardium, -which is described as being best. - -The tortoises, when purposely moving towards any point, travel by night -and day, and arrive at their journey's end much sooner than would be -expected. The inhabitants, from observing marked individuals, consider -that they travel a distance of about eight miles in two or three days. -One large tortoise, which I watched, walked at the rate of sixty yards -in ten minutes, that is 360 yards in the hour, or four miles a -day,--allowing a little time for it to eat on the road. During the -breeding season, when the male and female are together, the male utters -a hoarse roar or bellowing, which, it is said, can be heard at the -distance of more than a hundred yards. The female never uses her voice, -and the male only at these times; so that when the people hear this -noise, they know that the two are together. They were at this time -(October) laying their eggs. The female, where the soil is sandy, -deposits them together, and covers them up with sand; but where the -ground is rocky she drops them indiscriminately in any hole: Mr. Bynoe -found seven placed in a fissure. The egg is white and spherical; one -which I measured was seven inches and three-eighths in circumference, -and therefore larger than a hen's egg. The young tortoises, as soon as -they are hatched, fall a prey in great numbers to the carrion-feeding -buzzard. The old ones seem generally to die from accidents, as from -falling down precipices: at least, several of the inhabitants told me, -that they never found one dead without some evident cause. - -The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; -certainly they do not overhear a person walking close behind them. I -was always amused when overtaking one of these great monsters, as it -was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it -would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the -ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently got on -their backs, and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their -shells, they would rise up and walk away;--but I found it very -difficult to keep my balance. The flesh of this animal is largely -employed, both fresh and salted; and a beautifully clear oil is -prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit -in the skin near its tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the -fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is -liberated and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation. -In order to secure the tortoise, it is not sufficient to turn them like -turtle, for they are often able to get on their legs again. - -There can be little doubt that this tortoise is an aboriginal -inhabitant of the Galapagos; for it is found on all, or nearly all, the -islands, even on some of the smaller ones where there is no water; had -it been an imported species, this would hardly have been the case in a -group which has been so little frequented. Moreover, the old Bucaniers -found this tortoise in greater numbers even than at present: Wood and -Rogers also, in 1708, say that it is the opinion of the Spaniards, that -it is found nowhere else in this quarter of the world. It is now -widely distributed; but it may be questioned whether it is in any other -place an aboriginal. The bones of a tortoise at Mauritius, associated -with those of the extinct Dodo, have generally been considered as -belonging to this tortoise; if this had been so, undoubtedly it must -have been there indigenous; but M. Bibron informs me that he believes -that it was distinct, as the species now living there certainly is. - -The Amblyrhynchus, a remarkable genus of lizards, is confined to this -archipelago; there are two species, resembling - -[picture] - -each other in general form, one being terrestrial and the other -aquatic. This latter species (A. cristatus) was first characterized by -Mr. Bell, who well foresaw, from its short, broad head, and strong -claws of equal length, that its habits of life would turn out very -peculiar, and different from those of its nearest ally, the Iguana. It -is extremely common on all the islands throughout the group, and lives -exclusively on the rocky sea-beaches, being never found, at least I -never saw one, even ten yards in-shore. It is a hideous-looking -creature, of a dirty black colour, stupid, and sluggish in its -movements. The usual length of a full-grown one is about a yard, but -there are some even four feet long; a large one weighed twenty pounds: -on the island of Albemarle they seem to grow to a greater size than -elsewhere. Their tails are flattened sideways, and all four feet -partially webbed. They are occasionally seen some hundred yards from -the shore, swimming about; and Captain Collnett, in his Voyage says, -"They go to sea in herds a-fishing, and sun themselves on the rocks; -and may be called alligators in miniature." It must not, however, be -supposed that they live on fish. When in the water this lizard swims -with perfect ease and quickness, by a serpentine movement of its body -and flattened tail--the legs being motionless and closely collapsed on -its sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a heavy weight attached to -it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when, an hour afterwards, he -drew up the line, it was quite active. Their limbs and strong claws -are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses -of lava, which everywhere form the coast. In such situations, a group -of six or seven of these hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the -black rocks, a few feet above the surf, basking in the sun with -outstretched legs. - -I opened the stomachs of several, and found them largely distended with -minced sea-weed (Ulvae), which grows in thin foliaceous expansions of a -bright green or a dull red colour. I do not recollect having observed -this sea-weed in any quantity on the tidal rocks; and I have reason to -believe it grows at the bottom of the sea, at some little distance from -the coast. If such be the case, the object of these animals -occasionally going out to sea is explained. The stomach contained -nothing but the sea-weed. Mr. Baynoe, however, found a piece of crab -in one; but this might have got in accidentally, in the same manner as -I have seen a caterpillar, in the midst of some lichen, in the paunch -of a tortoise. The intestines were large, as in other herbivorous -animals. The nature of this lizard's food, as well as the structure of -its tail and feet, and the fact of its having been seen voluntarily -swimming out at sea, absolutely prove its aquatic habits; yet there is -in this respect one strange anomaly, namely, that when frightened it -will not enter the water. Hence it is easy to drive these lizards down -to any little point overhanging the sea, where they will sooner allow a -person to catch hold of their tails than jump into the water. They do -not seem to have any notion of biting; but when much frightened they -squirt a drop of fluid from each nostril. I threw one several times as -far as I could, into a deep pool left by the retiring tide; but it -invariably returned in a direct line to the spot where I stood. It -swam near the bottom, with a very graceful and rapid movement, and -occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As -soon as it arrived near the edge, but still being under water, it tried -to conceal itself in the tufts of sea-weed, or it entered some crevice. -As soon as it thought the danger was past, it crawled out on the dry -rocks, and shuffled away as quickly as it could. I several times -caught this same lizard, by driving it down to a point, and though -possessed of such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing would -induce it to enter the water; and as often as I threw it in, it -returned in the manner above described. Perhaps this singular piece of -apparent stupidity may be accounted for by the circumstance, that this -reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas at sea it must often -fall a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence, probably, urged by a fixed -and hereditary instinct that the shore is its place of safety, whatever -the emergency may be, it there takes refuge. - -During our visit (in October), I saw extremely few small individuals of -this species, and none I should think under a year old. From this -circumstance it seems probable that the breeding season had not then -commenced. I asked several of the inhabitants if they knew where it -laid its eggs: they said that they knew nothing of its propagation, -although well acquainted with the eggs of the land kind--a fact, -considering how very common this lizard is, not a little extraordinary. - -We will now turn to the terrestrial species (A. Demarlii), with a round -tail, and toes without webs. This lizard, instead of being found like -the other on all the islands, is confined to the central part of the -archipelago, namely to Albemarle, James, Barrington, and Indefatigable -islands. To the southward, in Charles, Hood, and Chatham islands, and -to the northward, in Towers, Bindloes, and Abingdon, I neither saw nor -heard of any. It would appear as if it had been created in the centre -of the archipelago, and thence had been dispersed only to a certain -distance. Some of these lizards inhabit the high and damp parts of the -islands, but they are much more numerous in the lower and sterile -districts near the coast. I cannot give a more forcible proof of their -numbers, than by stating that when we were left at James Island, we -could not for some time find a spot free from their burrows on which to -pitch our single tent. Like their brothers the sea-kind, they are ugly -animals, of a yellowish orange beneath, and of a brownish red colour -above: from their low facial angle they have a singularly stupid -appearance. They are, perhaps, of a rather less size than the marine -species; but several of them weighed between ten and fifteen pounds. In -their movements they are lazy and half torpid. When not frightened, -they slowly crawl along with their tails and bellies dragging on the -ground. They often stop, and doze for a minute or two, with closed -eyes and hind legs spread out on the parched soil. - -They inhabit burrows, which they sometimes make between fragments of -lava, but more generally on level patches of the soft sandstone-like -tuff. The holes do not appear to be very deep, and they enter the -ground at a small angle; so that when walking over these -lizard-warrens, the soil is constantly giving way, much to the -annoyance of the tired walker. This animal, when making its burrow, -works alternately the opposite sides of its body. One front leg for a -short time scratches up the soil, and throws it towards the hind foot, -which is well placed so as to heave it beyond the mouth of the hole. -That side of the body being tired, the other takes up the task, and so -on alternately. I watched one for a long time, till half its body was -buried; I then walked up and pulled it by the tail, at this it was -greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what was the matter; -and then stared me in the face, as much as to say, "What made you pull -my tail?" - -They feed by day, and do not wander far from their burrows; if -frightened, they rush to them with a most awkward gait. Except when -running down hill, they cannot move very fast, apparently from the -lateral position of their legs. They are not at all timorous: when -attentively watching any one, they curl their tails, and, raising -themselves on their front legs, nod their heads vertically, with a -quick movement, and try to look very fierce; but in reality they are -not at all so: if one just stamps on the ground, down go their tails, -and off they shuffle as quickly as they can. I have frequently -observed small fly-eating lizards, when watching anything, nod their -heads in precisely the same manner; but I do not at all know for what -purpose. If this Amblyrhynchus is held and plagued with a stick, it -will bite it very severely; but I caught many by the tail, and they -never tried to bite me. If two are placed on the ground and held -together, they will fight, and bite each other till blood is drawn. - -The individuals, and they are the greater number, which inhabit the -lower country, can scarcely taste a drop of water throughout the year; -but they consume much of the succulent cactus, the branches of which -are occasionally broken off by the wind. I several times threw a piece -to two or three of them when together; and it was amusing enough to see -them trying to seize and carry it away in their mouths, like so many -hungry dogs with a bone. They eat very deliberately, but do not chew -their food. The little birds are aware how harmless these creatures -are: I have seen one of the thick-billed finches picking at one end of -a piece of cactus (which is much relished by all the animals of the -lower region), whilst a lizard was eating at the other end; and -afterwards the little bird with the utmost indifference hopped on the -back of the reptile. - -I opened the stomachs of several, and found them full of vegetable -fibres and leaves of different trees, especially of an acacia. In the -upper region they live chiefly on the acid and astringent berries of -the guayavita, under which trees I have seen these lizards and the huge -tortoises feeding together. To obtain the acacia-leaves they crawl up -the low stunted trees; and it is not uncommon to see a pair quietly -browsing, whilst seated on a branch several feet above the ground. -These lizards, when cooked, yield a white meat, which is liked by those -whose stomachs soar above all prejudices. - -Humboldt has remarked that in intertropical South America, all lizards -which inhabit dry regions are esteemed delicacies for the table. The -inhabitants state that those which inhabit the upper damp parts drink -water, but that the others do not, like the tortoises, travel up for it -from the lower sterile country. At the time of our visit, the females -had within their bodies numerous, large, elongated eggs, which they lay -in their burrows: the inhabitants seek them for food. - -These two species of Amblyrhynchus agree, as I have already stated, in -their general structure, and in many of their habits. Neither have -that rapid movement, so characteristic of the genera Lacerta and -Iguana. They are both herbivorous, although the kind of vegetation on -which they feed is so very different. Mr. Bell has given the name to -the genus from the shortness of the snout: indeed, the form of the -mouth may almost be compared to that of the tortoise: one is led to -suppose that this is an adaptation to their herbivorous appetites. It -is very interesting thus to find a well-characterized genus, having its -marine and terrestrial species, belonging to so confined a portion of -the world. The aquatic species is by far the most remarkable, because -it is the only existing lizard which lives on marine vegetable -productions. As I at first observed, these islands are not so -remarkable for the number of the species of reptiles, as for that of -the individuals, when we remember the well-beaten paths made by the -thousands of huge tortoises--the many turtles--the great warrens of the -terrestrial Amblyrhynchus--and the groups of the marine species basking -on the coast-rocks of every island--we must admit that there is no -other quarter of the world where this Order replaces the herbivorous -mammalia in so extraordinary a manner. The geologist on hearing this -will probably refer back in his mind to the Secondary epochs, when -lizards, some herbivorous, some carnivorous, and of dimensions -comparable only with our existing whales, swarmed on the land and in -the sea. It is, therefore, worthy of his observation, that this -archipelago, instead of possessing a humid climate and rank vegetation, -cannot be considered otherwise than extremely arid, and, for an -equatorial region, remarkably temperate. - -To finish with the zoology: the fifteen kinds of sea-fish which I -procured here are all new species; they belong to twelve genera, all -widely distributed, with the exception of Prionotus, of which the four -previously known species live on the eastern side of America. Of -land-shells I collected sixteen kinds (and two marked varieties), of -which, with the exception of one Helix found at Tahiti, all are -peculiar to this archipelago: a single fresh-water shell (Paludina) is -common to Tahiti and Van Diemen's Land. Mr. Cuming, before our voyage -procured here ninety species of sea-shells, and this does not include -several species not yet specifically examined, of Trochus, Turbo, -Monodonta, and Nassa. He has been kind enough to give me the following -interesting results: Of the ninety shells, no less than forty-seven are -unknown elsewhere--a wonderful fact, considering how widely distributed -sea-shells generally are. Of the forty-three shells found in other -parts of the world, twenty-five inhabit the western coast of America, -and of these eight are distinguishable as varieties; the remaining -eighteen (including one variety) were found by Mr. Cuming in the Low -Archipelago, and some of them also at the Philippines. This fact of -shells from islands in the central parts of the Pacific occurring here, -deserves notice, for not one single sea-shell is known to be common to -the islands of that ocean and to the west coast of America. The space -of open sea running north and south off the west coast, separates two -quite distinct conchological provinces; but at the Galapagos -Archipelago we have a halting-place, where many new forms have been -created, and whither these two great conchological provinces have each -sent up several colonists. The American province has also sent here -representative species; for there is a Galapageian species of -Monoceros, a genus only found on the west coast of America; and there -are Galapageian species of Fissurella and Cancellaria, genera common on -the west coast, but not found (as I am informed by Mr. Cuming) in the -central islands of the Pacific. On the other hand, there are -Galapageian species of Oniscia and Stylifer, genera common to the West -Indies and to the Chinese and Indian seas, but not found either on the -west coast of America or in the central Pacific. I may here add, that -after the comparison by Messrs. Cuming and Hinds of about 2000 shells -from the eastern and western coasts of America, only one single shell -was found in common, namely, the Purpura patula, which inhabits the -West Indies, the coast of Panama, and the Galapagos. We have, -therefore, in this quarter of the world, three great conchological -sea-provinces, quite distinct, though surprisingly near each other, -being separated by long north and south spaces either of land or of -open sea. - -I took great pains in collecting the insects, but excepting Tierra del -Fuego, I never saw in this respect so poor a country. Even in the upper -and damp region I procured very few, excepting some minute Diptera and -Hymenoptera, mostly of common mundane forms. As before remarked, the -insects, for a tropical region, are of very small size and dull -colours. Of beetles I collected twenty-five species (excluding a -Dermestes and Corynetes imported, wherever a ship touches); of these, -two belong to the Harpalidae, two to the Hydrophilidae, nine to three -families of the Heteromera, and the remaining twelve to as many -different families. This circumstance of insects (and I may add -plants), where few in number, belonging to many different families, is, -I believe, very general. Mr. Waterhouse, who has published [4] an -account of the insects of this archipelago, and to whom I am indebted -for the above details, informs me that there are several new genera: -and that of the genera not new, one or two are American, and the rest -of mundane distribution. With the exception of a wood-feeding Apate, -and of one or probably two water-beetles from the American continent, -all the species appear to be new. - -The botany of this group is fully as interesting as the zoology. Dr. -J. Hooker will soon publish in the "Linnean Transactions" a full -account of the Flora, and I am much indebted to him for the following -details. Of flowering plants there are, as far as at present is known, -185 species, and 40 cryptogamic species, making altogether 225; of this -number I was fortunate enough to bring home 193. Of the flowering -plants, 100 are new species, and are probably confined to this -archipelago. Dr. Hooker conceives that, of the plants not so confined, -at least 10 species found near the cultivated ground at Charles Island, -have been imported. It is, I think, surprising that more American -species have not been introduced naturally, considering that the -distance is only between 500 and 600 miles from the continent, and that -(according to Collnet, p. 58) drift-wood, bamboos, canes, and the nuts -of a palm, are often washed on the south-eastern shores. The -proportion of 100 flowering plants out of 183 (or 175 excluding the -imported weeds) being new, is sufficient, I conceive, to make the -Galapagos Archipelago a distinct botanical province; but this Flora is -not nearly so peculiar as that of St. Helena, nor, as I am informed by -Dr. Hooker, of Juan Fernandez. The peculiarity of the Galapageian -Flora is best shown in certain families;--thus there are 21 species of -Compositae, of which 20 are peculiar to this archipelago; these belong -to twelve genera, and of these genera no less than ten are confined to -the archipelago! Dr. Hooker informs me that the Flora has an -undoubtedly Western American character; nor can he detect in it any -affinity with that of the Pacific. If, therefore, we except the -eighteen marine, the one fresh-water, and one land-shell, which have -apparently come here as colonists from the central islands of the -Pacific, and likewise the one distinct Pacific species of the -Galapageian group of finches, we see that this archipelago, though -standing in the Pacific Ocean, is zoologically part of America. - -If this character were owing merely to immigrants from America, there -would be little remarkable in it; but we see that a vast majority of -all the land animals, and that more than half of the flowering plants, -are aboriginal productions. It was most striking to be surrounded by new -birds, new reptiles, new shells, new insects, new plants, and yet by -innumerable trifling details of structure, and even by the tones of -voice and plumage of the birds, to have the temperate plains of -Patagonia, or rather the hot dry deserts of Northern Chile, vividly -brought before my eyes. Why, on these small points of land, which -within a late geological period must have been covered by the ocean, -which are formed by basaltic lava, and therefore differ in geological -character from the American continent, and which are placed under a -peculiar climate,--why were their aboriginal inhabitants, associated, I -may add, in different proportions both in kind and number from those on -the continent, and therefore acting on each other in a different -manner--why were they created on American types of organization? It is -probable that the islands of the Cape de Verd group resemble, in all -their physical conditions, far more closely the Galapagos Islands, than -these latter physically resemble the coast of America, yet the -aboriginal inhabitants of the two groups are totally unlike; those of -the Cape de Verd Islands bearing the impress of Africa, as the -inhabitants of the Galapagos Archipelago are stamped with that of -America. - -I have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature in the -natural history of this archipelago; it is, that the different islands -to a considerable extent are inhabited by a different set of beings. My -attention was first called to this fact by the Vice-Governor, Mr. -Lawson, declaring that the tortoises differed from the different -islands, and that he could with certainty tell from which island any -one was brought. I did not for some time pay sufficient attention to -this statement, and I had already partially mingled together the -collections from two of the islands. I never dreamed that islands, -about 50 or 60 miles apart, and most of them in sight of each other, -formed of precisely the same rocks, placed under a quite similar -climate, rising to a nearly equal height, would have been differently -tenanted; but we shall soon see that this is the case. It is the fate -of most voyagers, no sooner to discover what is most interesting in any -locality, than they are hurried from it; but I ought, perhaps, to be -thankful that I obtained sufficient materials to establish this most -remarkable fact in the distribution of organic beings. - -The inhabitants, as I have said, state that they can distinguish the -tortoises from the different islands; and that they differ not only in -size, but in other characters. Captain Porter has described [5] those -from Charles and from the nearest island to it, namely, Hood Island, as -having their shells in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle, -whilst the tortoises from James Island are rounder, blacker, and have a -better taste when cooked. M. Bibron, moreover, informs me that he has -seen what he considers two distinct species of tortoise from the -Galapagos, but he does not know from which islands. The specimens that -I brought from three islands were young ones: and probably owing to -this cause neither Mr. Gray nor myself could find in them any specific -differences. I have remarked that the marine Amblyrhynchus was larger -at Albemarle Island than elsewhere; and M. Bibron informs me that he -has seen two distinct aquatic species of this genus; so that the -different islands probably have their representative species or races -of the Amblyrhynchus, as well as of the tortoise. My attention was -first thoroughly aroused, by comparing together the numerous specimens, -shot by myself and several other parties on board, of the -mocking-thrushes, when, to my astonishment, I discovered that all those -from Charles Island belonged to one species (Mimus trifasciatus) all -from Albemarle Island to M. parvulus; and all from James and Chatham -Islands (between which two other islands are situated, as connecting -links) belonged to M. melanotis. These two latter species are closely -allied, and would by some ornithologists be considered as only -well-marked races or varieties; but the Mimus trifasciatus is very -distinct. Unfortunately most of the specimens of the finch tribe were -mingled together; but I have strong reasons to suspect that some of the -species of the sub-group Geospiza are confined to separate islands. If -the different islands have their representatives of Geospiza, it may -help to explain the singularly large number of the species of this -sub-group in this one small archipelago, and as a probable consequence -of their numbers, the perfectly graduated series in the size of their -beaks. Two species of the sub-group Cactornis, and two of the -Camarhynchus, were procured in the archipelago; and of the numerous -specimens of these two sub-groups shot by four collectors at James -Island, all were found to belong to one species of each; whereas the -numerous specimens shot either on Chatham or Charles Island (for the -two sets were mingled together) all belonged to the two other species: -hence we may feel almost sure that these islands possess their -respective species of these two sub-groups. In land-shells this law of -distribution does not appear to hold good. In my very small collection -of insects, Mr. Waterhouse remarks, that of those which were ticketed -with their locality, not one was common to any two of the islands. - -If we now turn to the Flora, we shall find the aboriginal plants of the -different islands wonderfully different. I give all the following -results on the high authority of my friend Dr. J. Hooker. I may -premise that I indiscriminately collected everything in flower on the -different islands, and fortunately kept my collections separate. Too -much confidence, however, must not be placed in the proportional -results, as the small collections brought home by some other -naturalists though in some respects confirming the results, plainly -show that much remains to be done in the botany of this group: the -Leguminosae, moreover, has as yet been only approximately worked out:-- - - ---------------------------------------------------------------- - Number of - Species - confined - to the - Number of Number of Galapagos - species species Number Archipelago - Total found in confined confined but found - Name Number other to the to the on more - of of parts of Galapagos one than the - Island Species the world Archipelago island one island - ---------------------------------------------------------------- - James 71 33 38 30 8 - Albemarle 46 18 26 22 4 - Chatham 32 16 16 12 4 - Charles 68 39 29 21 8 - (or 29, if - the probably - imported - plants be - subtracted.) - ---------------------------------------------------------------- - -Hence we have the truly wonderful fact, that in James Island, of the -thirty-eight Galapageian plants, or those found in no other part of the -world, thirty are exclusively confined to this one island; and in -Albemarle Island, of the twenty-six aboriginal Galapageian plants, -twenty-two are confined to this one island, that is, only four are at -present known to grow in the other islands of the archipelago; and so -on, as shown in the above table, with the plants from Chatham and -Charles Islands. This fact will, perhaps, be rendered even more -striking, by giving a few illustrations:--thus, Scalesia, a remarkable -arborescent genus of the Compositae, is confined to the archipelago: it -has six species: one from Chatham, one from Albemarle, one from Charles -Island, two from James Island, and the sixth from one of the three -latter islands, but it is not known from which: not one of these six -species grows on any two islands. Again, Euphorbia, a mundane or -widely distributed genus, has here eight species, of which seven are -confined to the archipelago, and not one found on any two islands: -Acalypha and Borreria, both mundane genera, have respectively six and -seven species, none of which have the same species on two islands, with -the exception of one Borreria, which does occur on two islands. The -species of the Compositae are particularly local; and Dr. Hooker has -furnished me with several other most striking illustrations of the -difference of the species on the different islands. He remarks that -this law of distribution holds good both with those genera confined to -the archipelago, and those distributed in other quarters of the world: -in like manner we have seen that the different islands have their -proper species of the mundane genus of tortoise, and of the widely -distributed American genus of the mocking-thrush, as well as of two of -the Galapageian sub-groups of finches, and almost certainly of the -Galapageian genus Amblyrhynchus. - -The distribution of the tenants of this archipelago would not be nearly -so wonderful, if, for instance, one island had a mocking-thrush, and a -second island some other quite distinct genus,--if one island had its -genus of lizard, and a second island another distinct genus, or none -whatever;--or if the different islands were inhabited, not by -representative species of the same genera of plants, but by totally -different genera, as does to a certain extent hold good: for, to give -one instance, a large berry-bearing tree at James Island has no -representative species in Charles Island. But it is the circumstance, -that several of the islands possess their own species of the tortoise, -mocking-thrush, finches, and numerous plants, these species having the -same general habits, occupying analogous situations, and obviously -filling the same place in the natural economy of this archipelago, that -strikes me with wonder. It may be suspected that some of these -representative species, at least in the case of the tortoise and of -some of the birds, may hereafter prove to be only well-marked races; -but this would be of equally great interest to the philosophical -naturalist. I have said that most of the islands are in sight of each -other: I may specify that Charles Island is fifty miles from the -nearest part of Chatham Island, and thirty-three miles from the nearest -part of Albemarle Island. Chatham Island is sixty miles from the -nearest part of James Island, but there are two intermediate islands -between them which were not visited by me. James Island is only ten -miles from the nearest part of Albemarle Island, but the two points -where the collections were made are thirty-two miles apart. I must -repeat, that neither the nature of the soil, nor height of the land, -nor the climate, nor the general character of the associated beings, -and therefore their action one on another, can differ much in the -different islands. If there be any sensible difference in their -climates, it must be between the Windward group (namely, Charles and -Chatham Islands), and that to leeward; but there seems to be no -corresponding difference in the productions of these two halves of the -archipelago. - -The only light which I can throw on this remarkable difference in the -inhabitants of the different islands, is, that very strong currents of -the sea running in a westerly and W.N.W. direction must separate, as -far as transportal by the sea is concerned, the southern islands from -the northern ones; and between these northern islands a strong N.W. -current was observed, which must effectually separate James and -Albemarle Islands. As the archipelago is free to a most remarkable -degree from gales of wind, neither the birds, insects, nor lighter -seeds, would be blown from island to island. And lastly, the profound -depth of the ocean between the islands, and their apparently recent (in -a geological sense) volcanic origin, render it highly unlikely that -they were ever united; and this, probably, is a far more important -consideration than any other, with respect to the geographical -distribution of their inhabitants. Reviewing the facts here given, one -is astonished at the amount of creative force, if such an expression -may be used, displayed on these small, barren, and rocky islands; and -still more so, at its diverse yet analogous action on points so near -each other. I have said that the Galapagos Archipelago might be called -a satellite attached to America, but it should rather be called a group -of satellites, physically similar, organically distinct, yet intimately -related to each other, and all related in a marked, though much lesser -degree, to the great American continent. - -I will conclude my description of the natural history of these islands, -by giving an account of the extreme tameness of the birds. - -This disposition is common to all the terrestrial species; namely, to -the mocking-thrushes, the finches, wrens, tyrant-flycatchers, the dove, -and carrion-buzzard. All of them are often approached sufficiently -near to be killed with a switch, and sometimes, as I myself tried, with -a cap or hat. A gun is here almost superfluous; for with the muzzle I -pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree. One day, whilst lying down, a -mocking-thrush alighted on the edge of a pitcher, made of the shell of -a tortoise, which I held in my hand, and began very quietly to sip the -water; it allowed me to lift it from the ground whilst seated on the -vessel: I often tried, and very nearly succeeded, in catching these -birds by their legs. Formerly the birds appear to have been even tamer -than at present. Cowley (in the year 1684) says that the "Turtledoves -were so tame, that they would often alight on our hats and arms, so as -that we could take them alive, they not fearing man, until such time as -some of our company did fire at them, whereby they were rendered more -shy." Dampier also, in the same year, says that a man in a morning's -walk might kill six or seven dozen of these doves. At present, -although certainly very tame, they do not alight on people's arms, nor -do they suffer themselves to be killed in such large numbers. It is -surprising that they have not become wilder; for these islands during -the last hundred and fifty years have been frequently visited by -bucaniers and whalers; and the sailors, wandering through the wood in -search of tortoises, always take cruel delight in knocking down the -little birds. These birds, although now still more persecuted, do not -readily become wild. In Charles Island, which had then been colonized -about six years, I saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his -hand, with which he killed the doves and finches as they came to drink. -He had already procured a little heap of them for his dinner, and he -said that he had constantly been in the habit of waiting by this well -for the same purpose. It would appear that the birds of this -archipelago, not having as yet learnt that man is a more dangerous -animal than the tortoise or the Amblyrhynchus, disregard him, in the -same manner as in England shy birds, such as magpies, disregard the -cows and horses grazing in our fields. - -The Falkland Islands offer a second instance of birds with a similar -disposition. The extraordinary tameness of the little Opetiorhynchus -has been remarked by Pernety, Lesson, and other voyagers. It is not, -however, peculiar to that bird: the Polyborus, snipe, upland and -lowland goose, thrush, bunting, and even some true hawks, are all more -or less tame. As the birds are so tame there, where foxes, hawks, and -owls occur, we may infer that the absence of all rapacious animals at -the Galapagos, is not the cause of their tameness here. The upland -geese at the Falklands show, by the precaution they take in building on -the islets, that they are aware of their danger from the foxes; but -they are not by this rendered wild towards man. This tameness of the -birds, especially of the water-fowl, is strongly contrasted with the -habits of the same species in Tierra del Fuego, where for ages past -they have been persecuted by the wild inhabitants. In the Falklands, -the sportsman may sometimes kill more of the upland geese in one day -than he can carry home; whereas in Tierra del Fuego it is nearly as -difficult to kill one, as it is in England to shoot the common wild -goose. - -In the time of Pernety (1763), all the birds there appear to have been -much tamer than at present; he states that the Opetiorhynchus would -almost perch on his finger; and that with a wand he killed ten in half -an hour. At that period the birds must have been about as tame as they -now are at the Galapagos. They appear to have learnt caution more -slowly at these latter islands than at the Falklands, where they have -had proportionate means of experience; for besides frequent visits from -vessels, those islands have been at intervals colonized during the -entire period. Even formerly, when all the birds were so tame, it was -impossible by Pernety's account to kill the black-necked swan--a bird -of passage, which probably brought with it the wisdom learnt in foreign -countries. - -I may add that, according to Du Bois, all the birds at Bourbon in -1571-72, with the exception of the flamingoes and geese, were so -extremely tame, that they could be caught by the hand, or killed in any -number with a stick. Again, at Tristan d'Acunha in the Atlantic, -Carmichael [6] states that the only two land-birds, a thrush and a -bunting, were "so tame as to suffer themselves to be caught with a -hand-net." From these several facts we may, I think, conclude, first, -that the wildness of birds with regard to man, is a particular instinct -directed against _him_, and not dependent upon any general degree of -caution arising from other sources of danger; secondly, that it is not -acquired by individual birds in a short time, even when much -persecuted; but that in the course of successive generations it becomes -hereditary. With domesticated animals we are accustomed to see new -mental habits or instincts acquired or rendered hereditary; but with -animals in a state of nature, it must always be most difficult to -discover instances of acquired hereditary knowledge. In regard to the -wildness of birds towards man, there is no way of accounting for it, -except as an inherited habit: comparatively few young birds, in any one -year, have been injured by man in England, yet almost all, even -nestlings, are afraid of him; many individuals, on the other hand, both -at the Galapagos and at the Falklands, have been pursued and injured by -man, yet have not learned a salutary dread of him. We may infer from -these facts, what havoc the introduction of any new beast of prey must -cause in a country, before the instincts of the indigenous inhabitants -have become adapted to the stranger's craft or power. - -[1] The progress of research has shown that some of these birds, which -were then thought to be confined to the islands, occur on the American -continent. The eminent ornithologist, Mr. Sclater, informs me that -this is the case with the Strix punctatissima and Pyrocephalus nanus; -and probably with the Otus Galapagoensis and Zenaida Galapagoensis: so -that the number of endemic birds is reduced to twenty-three, or -probably to twenty-one. Mr. Sclater thinks that one or two of these -endemic forms should be ranked rather as varieties than species, which -always seemed to me probable. - -[2] This is stated by Dr. Gunther (Zoolog. Soc. Jan 24th, 1859) to be a -peculiar species, not known to inhabit any other country. - -[3] Voyage aux Quatre Iles d'Afrique. With respect to the Sandwich -Islands, see Tyerman and Bennett's Journal, vol. i. p. 434. For -Mauritius, see Voyage par un Officier, etc., part i. p. 170. There are -no frogs in the Canary Islands (Webb et Berthelot, Hist. Nat. des Iles -Canaries). I saw none at St. Jago in the Cape de Verds. There are -none at St. Helena. - -[4] Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. xvi. p. 19. - -[5] Voyage in the U. S. ship Essex, vol. i. p. 215. - -[6] Linn. Trans., vol. xii. p. 496. The most anomalous fact on this -subject which I have met with is the wildness of the small birds in the -Arctic parts of North America (as described by Richardson, Fauna Bor., -vol. ii. p. 332), where they are said never to be persecuted. This -case is the more strange, because it is asserted that some of the same -species in their winter-quarters in the United States are tame. There -is much, as Dr. Richardson well remarks, utterly inexplicable connected -with the different degrees of shyness and care with which birds conceal -their nests. How strange it is that the English wood-pigeon, generally -so wild a bird, should very frequently rear its young in shrubberies -close to houses! - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -TAHITI AND NEW ZEALAND - -Pass through the Low Archipelago--Tahiti--Aspect--Vegetation on the -Mountains--View of Eimeo--Excursion into the Interior--Profound -Ravines--Succession of Waterfalls--Number of wild useful -Plants--Temperance of the Inhabitants--Their moral state--Parliament -convened--New Zealand--Bay of Islands--Hippahs--Excursion to -Waimate--Missionary Establishment--English Weeds now run -wild--Waiomio--Funeral of a New Zealand Woman--Sail for Australia. - - -OCTOBER 20th.--The survey of the Galapagos Archipelago being concluded, -we steered towards Tahiti and commenced our long passage of 3200 miles. -In the course of a few days we sailed out of the gloomy and clouded -ocean-district which extends during the winter far from the coast of -South America. We then enjoyed bright and clear weather, while running -pleasantly along at the rate of 150 or 160 miles a day before the -steady trade-wind. The temperature in this more central part of the -Pacific is higher than near the American shore. The thermometer in the -poop cabin, by night and day, ranged between 80 and 83 degs., which -feels very pleasant; but with one degree or two higher, the heat -becomes oppressive. We passed through the Low or Dangerous -Archipelago, and saw several of those most curious rings of coral land, -just rising above the water's edge, which have been called Lagoon -Islands. A long and brilliantly white beach is capped by a margin of -green vegetation; and the strip, looking either way, rapidly narrows -away in the distance, and sinks beneath the horizon From the mast-head -a wide expanse of smooth water can be seen within the ring. These low -hollow coral islands bear no proportion to the vast ocean out of which -they abruptly rise; and it seems wonderful, that such weak invaders are -not overwhelmed, by the all-powerful and never-tiring waves of that -great sea, miscalled the Pacific. - -November 15th.--At daylight, Tahiti, an island which must for ever -remain classical to the voyager in the South Sea, was in view. At a -distance the appearance was not attractive. The luxuriant vegetation -of the lower part could not yet be seen, and as the clouds rolled past, -the wildest and most precipitous peaks showed themselves towards the -centre of the island. As soon as we anchored in Matavai Bay, we were -surrounded by canoes. This was our Sunday, but the Monday of Tahiti: -if the case had been reversed, we should not have received a single -visit; for the injunction not to launch a canoe on the sabbath is -rigidly obeyed. After dinner we landed to enjoy all the delights -produced by the first impressions of a new country, and that country -the charming Tahiti. A crowd of men, women, and children, was -collected on the memorable Point Venus, ready to receive us with -laughing, merry faces. They marshalled us towards the house of Mr. -Wilson, the missionary of the district, who met us on the road, and -gave us a very friendly reception. After sitting a very short time in -his house, we separated to walk about, but returned there in the -evening. - -The land capable of cultivation, is scarcely in any part more than a -fringe of low alluvial soil, accumulated round the base of the -mountains, and protected from the waves of the sea by a coral reef, -which encircles the entire line of coast. Within the reef there is an -expanse of smooth water, like that of a lake, where the canoes of the -natives can ply with safety and where ships anchor. The low land which -comes down to the beach of coral-sand, is covered by the most beautiful -productions of the intertropical regions. In the midst of bananas, -orange, cocoa-nut, and bread-fruit trees, spots are cleared where yams, -sweet potatoes, and sugar-cane, and pine-apples are cultivated. Even -the brushwood is an imported fruit-tree, namely, the guava, which from -its abundance has become as noxious as a weed. In Brazil I have often -admired the varied beauty of the bananas, palms, and orange-trees -contrasted together; and here we also have the bread-fruit, conspicuous -from its large, glossy, and deeply digitated leaf. It is admirable to -behold groves of a tree, sending forth its branches with the vigour of -an English oak, loaded with large and most nutritious fruit. However -seldom the usefulness of an object can account for the pleasure of -beholding it, in the case of these beautiful woods, the knowledge of -their high productiveness no doubt enters largely into the feeling of -admiration. The little winding paths, cool from the surrounding shade, -led to the scattered houses; the owners of which everywhere gave us a -cheerful and most hospitable reception. - -I was pleased with nothing so much as with the inhabitants. There is a -mildness in the expression of their countenances which at once banishes -the idea of a savage; and intelligence which shows that they are -advancing in civilization. The common people, when working, keep the -upper part of their bodies quite naked; and it is then that the -Tahitians are seen to advantage. They are very tall, broad-shouldered, -athletic, and well-proportioned. It has been remarked, that it -requires little habit to make a dark skin more pleasing and natural to -the eye of an European than his own colour. A white man bathing by the -side of a Tahitian, was like a plant bleached by the gardener's art -compared with a fine dark green one growing vigorously in the open -fields. Most of the men are tattooed, and the ornaments follow the -curvature of the body so gracefully, that they have a very elegant -effect. One common pattern, varying in its details, is somewhat like -the crown of a palm-tree. It springs from the central line of the back, -and gracefully curls round both sides. The simile may be a fanciful -one, but I thought the body of a man thus ornamented was like the trunk -of a noble tree embraced by a delicate creeper. - -Many of the elder people had their feet covered with small figures, so -placed as to resemble a sock. This fashion, however, is partly gone -by, and has been succeeded by others. Here, although fashion is far -from immutable, every one must abide by that prevailing in his youth. -An old man has thus his age for ever stamped on his body, and he cannot -assume the airs of a young dandy. The women are tattooed in the same -manner as the men, and very commonly on their fingers. One unbecoming -fashion is now almost universal: namely, shaving the hair from the -upper part of the head, in a circular form, so as to leave only an -outer ring. The missionaries have tried to persuade the people to -change this habit; but it is the fashion, and that is a sufficient -answer at Tahiti, as well as at Paris. I was much disappointed in the -personal appearance of the women: they are far inferior in every -respect to the men. The custom of wearing a white or scarlet flower in -the back of the head, or through a small hole in each ear, is pretty. A -crown of woven cocoa-nut leaves is also worn as a shade for the eyes. -The women appear to be in greater want of some becoming costume even -than the men. - -Nearly all the natives understand a little English--that is, they know -the names of common things; and by the aid of this, together with -signs, a lame sort of conversation could be carried on. In returning -in the evening to the boat, we stopped to witness a very pretty scene. -Numbers of children were playing on the beach, and had lighted bonfires -which illumined the placid sea and surrounding trees; others, in -circles, were singing Tahitian verses. We seated ourselves on the -sand, and joined their party. The songs were impromptu, and I believe -related to our arrival: one little girl sang a line, which the rest -took up in parts, forming a very pretty chorus. The whole scene made -us unequivocally aware that we were seated on the shores of an island -in the far-famed South Sea. - -17th.--This day is reckoned in the log-book as Tuesday the 17th, -instead of Monday the 16th, owing to our, so far, successful chase of -the sun. Before breakfast the ship was hemmed in by a flotilla of -canoes; and when the natives were allowed to come on board, I suppose -there could not have been less than two hundred. It was the opinion of -every one that it would have been difficult to have picked out an equal -number from any other nation, who would have given so little trouble. -Everybody brought something for sale: shells were the main articles of -trade. The Tahitians now fully understand the value of money, and -prefer it to old clothes or other articles. The various coins, -however, of English and Spanish denomination puzzle them, and they -never seemed to think the small silver quite secure until changed into -dollars. Some of the chiefs have accumulated considerable sums of -money. One chief, not long since, offered 800 dollars (about 160 -pounds sterling) for a small vessel; and frequently they purchase -whale-boats and horses at the rate of from 50 to 100 dollars. - -After breakfast I went on shore, and ascended the nearest slope to a -height of between two and three thousand feet. The outer mountains are -smooth and conical, but steep; and the old volcanic rocks, of which -they are formed, have been cut through by many profound ravines, -diverging from the central broken parts of the island to the coast. -Having crossed the narrow low girt of inhabited and fertile land, I -followed a smooth steep ridge between two of the deep ravines. The -vegetation was singular, consisting almost exclusively of small dwarf -ferns, mingled higher up, with coarse grass; it was not very dissimilar -from that on some of the Welsh hills, and this so close above the -orchard of tropical plants on the coast was very surprising. At the -highest point, which I reached, trees again appeared. Of the three -zones of comparative luxuriance, the lower one owes its moisture, and -therefore fertility, to its flatness; for, being scarcely raised above -the level of the sea, the water from the higher land drains away -slowly. The intermediate zone does not, like the upper one, reach into -a damp and cloudy atmosphere, and therefore remains sterile. The woods -in the upper zone are very pretty, tree-ferns replacing the cocoa-nuts -on the coast. It must not, however, be supposed that these woods at -all equal in splendour the forests of Brazil. The vast numbers of -productions, which characterize a continent, cannot be expected to -occur in an island. - -From the highest point which I attained, there was a good view of the -distant island of Eimeo, dependent on the same sovereign with Tahiti. -On the lofty and broken pinnacles, white massive clouds were piled up, -which formed an island in the blue sky, as Eimeo itself did in the blue -ocean. The island, with the exception of one small gateway, is -completely encircled by a reef. At this distance, a narrow but -well-defined brilliantly white line was alone visible, where the waves -first encountered the wall of coral. The mountains rose abruptly out -of the glassy expanse of the lagoon, included within this narrow white -line, outside which the heaving waters of the ocean were dark-coloured. -The view was striking: it may aptly be compared to a framed engraving, -where the frame represents the breakers, the marginal paper the smooth -lagoon, and the drawing the island itself. When in the evening I -descended from the mountain, a man, whom I had pleased with a trifling -gift, met me, bringing with him hot roasted bananas, a pine-apple, and -cocoa-nuts. After walking under a burning sun, I do not know anything -more delicious than the milk of a young cocoa-nut. Pine-apples are -here so abundant that the people eat them in the same wasteful manner -as we might turnips. They are of an excellent flavor--perhaps even -better than those cultivated in England; and this I believe is the -highest compliment which can be paid to any fruit. Before going on -board, Mr. Wilson interpreted for me to the Tahitian who had paid me so -adroit an attention, that I wanted him and another man to accompany me -on a short excursion into the mountains. - -18th.--In the morning I came on shore early, bringing with me some -provisions in a bag, and two blankets for myself and servant. These -were lashed to each end of a long pole, which was alternately carried -by my Tahitian companions on their shoulders. These men are accustomed -thus to carry, for a whole day, as much as fifty pounds at each end of -their poles. I told my guides to provide themselves with food and -clothing; but they said that there was plenty of food in the mountains, -and for clothing, that their skins were sufficient. Our line of march -was the valley of Tiaauru, down which a river flows into the sea by -Point Venus. This is one of the principal streams in the island, and -its source lies at the base of the loftiest central pinnacles, which -rise to a height of about 7000 feet. The whole island is so -mountainous that the only way to penetrate into the interior is to -follow up the valleys. Our road, at first, lay through woods which -bordered each side of the river; and the glimpses of the lofty central -peaks, seen as through an avenue, with here and there a waving -cocoa-nut tree on one side, were extremely picturesque. The valley -soon began to narrow, and the sides to grow lofty and more precipitous. -After having walked between three and four hours, we found the width of -the ravine scarcely exceeded that of the bed of the stream. On each -hand the walls were nearly vertical, yet from the soft nature of the -volcanic strata, trees and a rank vegetation sprung from every -projecting ledge. These precipices must have been some thousand feet -high; and the whole formed a mountain gorge far more magnificent than -anything which I had ever before beheld. Until the midday sun stood -vertically over the ravine, the air felt cool and damp, but now it -became very sultry. Shaded by a ledge of rock, beneath a facade of -columnar lava, we ate our dinner. My guides had already procured a -dish of small fish and fresh-water prawns. They carried with them a -small net stretched on a hoop; and where the water was deep and in -eddies, they dived, and like otters, with their eyes open followed the -fish into holes and corners, and thus caught them. - -The Tahitians have the dexterity of amphibious animals in the water. An -anecdote mentioned by Ellis shows how much they feel at home in this -element. When a horse was landing for Pomarre in 1817, the slings -broke, and it fell into the water; immediately the natives jumped -overboard, and by their cries and vain efforts at assistance almost -drowned it. As soon, however, as it reached the shore, the whole -population took to flight, and tried to hide themselves from the -man-carrying pig, as they christened the horse. - -A little higher up, the river divided itself into three little streams. -The two northern ones were impracticable, owing to a succession of -waterfalls which descended from the jagged summit of the highest -mountain; the other to all appearance was equally inaccessible, but we -managed to ascend it by a most extraordinary road. The sides of the -valley were here nearly precipitous, but, as frequently happens with -stratified rocks, small ledges projected, which were thickly covered by -wild bananas, lilaceous plants, and other luxuriant productions of the -tropics. The Tahitians, by climbing amongst these ledges, searching -for fruit, had discovered a track by which the whole precipice could be -scaled. The first ascent from the valley was very dangerous; for it was -necessary to pass a steeply inclined face of naked rock, by the aid of -ropes which we brought with us. How any person discovered that this -formidable spot was the only point where the side of the mountain was -practicable, I cannot imagine. We then cautiously walked along one of -the ledges till we came to one of the three streams. This ledge formed -a flat spot, above which a beautiful cascade, some hundred feet in -height, poured down its waters, and beneath, another high cascade fell -into the main stream in the valley below. From this cool and shady -recess we made a circuit to avoid the overhanging waterfall. As -before, we followed little projecting ledges, the danger being partly -concealed by the thickness of the vegetation. In passing from one of -the ledges to another, there was a vertical wall of rock. One of the -Tahitians, a fine active man, placed the trunk of a tree against this, -climbed up it, and then by the aid of crevices reached the summit. He -fixed the ropes to a projecting point, and lowered them for our dog and -luggage, and then we clambered up ourselves. Beneath the ledge on -which the dead tree was placed, the precipice must have been five or -six hundred feet deep; and if the abyss had not been partly concealed -by the overhanging ferns and lilies my head would have turned giddy, -and nothing should have induced me to have attempted it. We continued -to ascend, sometimes along ledges, and sometimes along knife-edged -ridges, having on each hand profound ravines. In the Cordillera I have -seen mountains on a far grander scale, but for abruptness, nothing at -all comparable with this. In the evening we reached a flat little spot -on the banks of the same stream, which we had continued to follow, and -which descends in a chain of waterfalls: here we bivouacked for the -night. On each side of the ravine there were great beds of the -mountain-banana, covered with ripe fruit. Many of these plants were -from twenty to twenty-five feet high, and from three to four in -circumference. By the aid of strips of bark for rope, the stems of -bamboos for rafters, and the large leaf of the banana for a thatch, the -Tahitians in a few minutes built us an excellent house; and with -withered leaves made a soft bed. - -They then proceeded to make a fire, and cook our evening meal. A light -was procured, by rubbing a blunt pointed stick in a groove made in -another, as if with intention of deepening it, until by the friction -the dust became ignited. A peculiarly white and very light wood (the -Hibiscus tiliareus) is alone used for this purpose: it is the same -which serves for poles to carry any burden, and for the floating -out-riggers to their canoes. The fire was produced in a few seconds: -but to a person who does not understand the art, it requires, as I -found, the greatest exertion; but at last, to my great pride, I -succeeded in igniting the dust. The Gaucho in the Pampas uses a -different method: taking an elastic stick about eighteen inches long, -he presses one end on his breast, and the other pointed end into a hole -in a piece of wood, and then rapidly turns the curved part, like a -carpenter's centre-bit. The Tahitians having made a small fire of -sticks, placed a score of stones, of about the size of cricket-balls, -on the burning wood. In about ten minutes the sticks were consumed, -and the stones hot. They had previously folded up in small parcels of -leaves, pieces of beef, fish, ripe and unripe bananas, and the tops of -the wild arum. These green parcels were laid in a layer between two -layers of the hot stones, and the whole then covered up with earth, so -that no smoke or steam could escape. In about a quarter of an hour, -the whole was most deliciously cooked. The choice green parcels were -now laid on a cloth of banana leaves, and with a cocoa-nut shell we -drank the cool water of the running stream; and thus we enjoyed our -rustic meal. - -I could not look on the surrounding plants without admiration. On every -side were forests of banana; the fruit of which, though serving for -food in various ways, lay in heaps decaying on the ground. In front of -us there was an extensive brake of wild sugar-cane; and the stream was -shaded by the dark green knotted stem of the Ava,--so famous in former -days for its powerful intoxicating effects. I chewed a piece, and -found that it had an acrid and unpleasant taste, which would have -induced any one at once to have pronounced it poisonous. Thanks to the -missionaries, this plant now thrives only in these deep ravines, -innocuous to every one. Close by I saw the wild arum, the roots of -which, when well baked, are good to eat, and the young leaves better -than spinach. There was the wild yam, and a liliaceous plant called -Ti, which grows in abundance, and has a soft brown root, in shape and -size like a huge log of wood: this served us for dessert, for it is as -sweet as treacle, and with a pleasant taste. There were, moreover, -several other wild fruits, and useful vegetables. The little stream, -besides its cool water, produced eels, and cray-fish. I did indeed -admire this scene, when I compared it with an uncultivated one in the -temperate zones. I felt the force of the remark, that man, at least -savage man, with his reasoning powers only partly developed, is the -child of the tropics. - -As the evening drew to a close, I strolled beneath the gloomy shade of -the bananas up the course of the stream. My walk was soon brought to a -close, by coming to a waterfall between two and three hundred feet -high; and again above this there was another. I mention all these -waterfalls in this one brook, to give a general idea of the inclination -of the land. In the little recess where the water fell, it did not -appear that a breath of wind had ever blown. The thin edges of the -great leaves of the banana, damp with spray, were unbroken, instead of -being, as is so generally the case, split into a thousand shreds. From -our position, almost suspended on the mountain side, there were -glimpses into the depths of the neighbouring valleys; and the lofty -points of the central mountains, towering up within sixty degrees of -the zenith, hid half the evening sky. Thus seated, it was a sublime -spectacle to watch the shades of night gradually obscuring the last and -highest pinnacles. - -Before we laid ourselves down to sleep, the elder Tahitian fell on his -knees, and with closed eyes repeated a long prayer in his native -tongue. He prayed as a Christian should do, with fitting reverence, -and without the fear of ridicule or any ostentation of piety. At our -meals neither of the men would taste food, without saying beforehand a -short grace. Those travellers who think that a Tahitian prays only when -the eyes of the missionary are fixed on him, should have slept with us -that night on the mountain-side. Before morning it rained very -heavily; but the good thatch of banana-leaves kept us dry. - -November 19th.--At daylight my friends, after their morning prayer, -prepared an excellent breakfast in the same manner as in the evening. -They themselves certainly partook of it largely; indeed I never saw any -men eat near so much. I suppose such enormously capacious stomachs -must be the effect of a large part of their diet consisting of fruit -and vegetables, which contain, in a given bulk, a comparatively small -portion of nutriment. Unwittingly, I was the means of my companions -breaking, as I afterwards learned, one of their own laws, and -resolutions: I took with me a flask of spirits, which they could not -refuse to partake of; but as often as they drank a little, they put -their fingers before their mouths, and uttered the word "Missionary." -About two years ago, although the use of the ava was prevented, -drunkenness from the introduction of spirits became very prevalent. The -missionaries prevailed on a few good men, who saw that their country -was rapidly going to ruin, to join with them in a Temperance Society. -From good sense or shame, all the chiefs and the queen were at last -persuaded to join. Immediately a law was passed, that no spirits -should be allowed to be introduced into the island, and that he who -sold and he who bought the forbidden article should be punished by a -fine. With remarkable justice, a certain period was allowed for stock -in hand to be sold, before the law came into effect. But when it did, -a general search was made, in which even the houses of the missionaries -were not exempted, and all the ava (as the natives call all ardent -spirits) was poured on the ground. When one reflects on the effect of -intemperance on the aborigines of the two Americas, I think it will be -acknowledged that every well-wisher of Tahiti owes no common debt of -gratitude to the missionaries. As long as the little island of St. -Helena remained under the government of the East India Company, -spirits, owing to the great injury they had produced, were not allowed -to be imported; but wine was supplied from the Cape of Good Hope. It -is rather a striking and not very gratifying fact, that in the same -year that spirits were allowed to be sold in Helena, their use was -banished from Tahiti by the free will of the people. - -After breakfast we proceeded on our Journey. As my object was merely -to see a little of the interior scenery, we returned by another track, -which descended into the main valley lower down. For some distance we -wound, by a most intricate path, along the side of the mountain which -formed the valley. In the less precipitous parts we passed through -extensive groves of the wild banana. The Tahitians, with their naked, -tattooed bodies, their heads ornamented with flowers, and seen in the -dark shade of these groves, would have formed a fine picture of man -inhabiting some primeval land. In our descent we followed the line of -ridges; these were exceedingly narrow, and for considerable lengths -steep as a ladder; but all clothed with vegetation. The extreme care -necessary in poising each step rendered the walk fatiguing. I did not -cease to wonder at these ravines and precipices: when viewing the -country from one of the knife-edged ridges, the point of support was so -small, that the effect was nearly the same as it must be from a -balloon. In this descent we had occasion to use the ropes only once, -at the point where we entered the main valley. We slept under the same -ledge of rock where we had dined the day before: the night was fine, -but from the depth and narrowness of the gorge, profoundly dark. - -Before actually seeing this country, I found it difficult to understand -two facts mentioned by Ellis; namely, that after the murderous battles -of former times, the survivors on the conquered side retired into the -mountains, where a handful of men could resist a multitude. Certainly -half a dozen men, at the spot where the Tahitian reared the old tree, -could easily have repulsed thousands. Secondly, that after the -introduction of Christianity, there were wild men who lived in the -mountains, and whose retreats were unknown to the more civilized -inhabitants. - -November 20th.--In the morning we started early, and reached Matavai at -noon. On the road we met a large party of noble athletic men, going -for wild bananas. I found that the ship, on account of the difficulty -in watering, had moved to the harbour of Papawa, to which place I -immediately walked. This is a very pretty spot. The cove is -surrounded by reefs, and the water as smooth as in a lake. The -cultivated ground, with its beautiful productions, interspersed with -cottages, comes close down to the water's edge. From the varying -accounts which I had read before reaching these islands, I was very -anxious to form, from my own observation, a judgment of their moral -state,--although such judgment would necessarily be very imperfect. -First impressions at all times very much depend on one's previously -acquired ideas. My notions were drawn from Ellis's "Polynesian -Researches"--an admirable and most interesting work, but naturally -looking at everything under a favourable point of view, from Beechey's -Voyage; and from that of Kotzebue, which is strongly adverse to the -whole missionary system. He who compares these three accounts will, I -think, form a tolerably accurate conception of the present state of -Tahiti. One of my impressions which I took from the two last -authorities, was decidedly incorrect; viz., that the Tahitians had -become a gloomy race, and lived in fear of the missionaries. Of the -latter feeling I saw no trace, unless, indeed, fear and respect be -confounded under one name. Instead of discontent being a common -feeling, it would be difficult in Europe to pick out of a crowd half so -many merry and happy faces. The prohibition of the flute and dancing -is inveighed against as wrong and foolish;--the more than presbyterian -manner of keeping the sabbath is looked at in a similar light. On -these points I will not pretend to offer any opinion to men who have -resided as many years as I was days on the island. - -On the whole, it appears to me that the morality and religion of the -inhabitants are highly creditable. There are many who attack, even -more acrimoniously than Kotzebue, both the missionaries, their system, -and the effects produced by it. Such reasoners never compare the -present state with that of the island only twenty years ago; nor even -with that of Europe at this day; but they compare it with the high -standard of Gospel perfection. They expect the missionaries to effect -that which the Apostles themselves failed to do. Inasmuch as the -condition of the people falls short of this high standard, blame is -attached to the missionary, instead of credit for that which he has -effected. They forget, or will not remember, that human sacrifices, -and the power of an idolatrous priesthood--a system of profligacy -unparalleled in any other part of the world--infanticide a consequence -of that system--bloody wars, where the conquerors spared neither women -nor children--that all these have been abolished; and that dishonesty, -intemperance, and licentiousness have been greatly reduced by the -introduction of Christianity. In a voyager to forget these things is -base ingratitude; for should he chance to be at the point of shipwreck -on some unknown coast, he will most devoutly pray that the lesson of -the missionary may have extended thus far. - -In point of morality, the virtue of the women, it has been often said, -is most open to exception. But before they are blamed too severely, it -will be well distinctly to call to mind the scenes described by Captain -Cook and Mr. Banks, in which the grandmothers and mothers of the -present race played a part. Those who are most severe, should consider -how much of the morality of the women in Europe is owing to the system -early impressed by mothers on their daughters, and how much in each -individual case to the precepts of religion. But it is useless to -argue against such reasoners;--I believe that, disappointed in not -finding the field of licentiousness quite so open as formerly, they -will not give credit to a morality which they do not wish to practise, -or to a religion which they undervalue, if not despise. - -Sunday, 22nd.--The harbour of Papiete, where the queen resides, may be -considered as the capital of the island: it is also the seat of -government, and the chief resort of shipping. Captain Fitz Roy took a -party there this day to hear divine service, first in the Tahitian -language, and afterwards in our own. Mr. Pritchard, the leading -missionary in the island, performed the service. The chapel consisted -of a large airy framework of wood; and it was filled to excess by tidy, -clean people, of all ages and both sexes. I was rather disappointed in -the apparent degree of attention; but I believe my expectations were -raised too high. At all events the appearance was quite equal to that -in a country church in England. The singing of the hymns was decidedly -very pleasing, but the language from the pulpit, although fluently -delivered, did not sound well: a constant repetition of words, like -"tata ta, mata mai," rendered it monotonous. After English service, a -party returned on foot to Matavai. It was a pleasant walk, sometimes -along the sea-beach and sometimes under the shade of the many beautiful -trees. - -About two years ago, a small vessel under English colours was plundered -by some of the inhabitants of the Low Islands, which were then under -the dominion of the Queen of Tahiti. It was believed that the -perpetrators were instigated to this act by some indiscreet laws issued -by her majesty. The British government demanded compensation; which -was acceded to, and the sum of nearly three thousand dollars was agreed -to be paid on the first of last September. The Commodore at Lima -ordered Captain Fitz Roy to inquire concerning this debt, and to demand -satisfaction if it were not paid. Captain Fitz Roy accordingly -requested an interview with the Queen Pomarre, since famous from the -ill-treatment she had received from the French; and a parliament was -held to consider the question, at which all the principal chiefs of the -island and the queen were assembled. I will not attempt to describe -what took place, after the interesting account given by Captain Fitz -Roy. The money, it appeared, had not been paid; perhaps the alleged -reasons were rather equivocal; but otherwise I cannot sufficiently -express our general surprise at the extreme good sense, the reasoning -powers, moderation, candour, and prompt resolution, which were -displayed on all sides. I believe we all left the meeting with a very -different opinion of the Tahitians, from what we entertained when we -entered. The chiefs and people resolved to subscribe and complete the -sum which was wanting; Captain Fitz Roy urged that it was hard that -their private property should be sacrificed for the crimes of distant -islanders. They replied, that they were grateful for his -consideration, but that Pomarre was their Queen, and that they were -determined to help her in this her difficulty. This resolution and its -prompt execution, for a book was opened early the next morning, made a -perfect conclusion to this very remarkable scene of loyalty and good -feeling. - -After the main discussion was ended, several of the chiefs took the -opportunity of asking Captain Fitz Roy many intelligent questions on -international customs and laws, relating to the treatment of ships and -foreigners. On some points, as soon as the decision was made, the law -was issued verbally on the spot. This Tahitian parliament lasted for -several hours; and when it was over Captain Fitz Roy invited Queen -Pomarre to pay the Beagle a visit. - -November 25th.--In the evening four boats were sent for her majesty; -the ship was dressed with flags, and the yards manned on her coming on -board. She was accompanied by most of the chiefs. The behaviour of -all was very proper: they begged for nothing, and seemed much pleased -with Captain Fitz Roy's presents. The queen is a large awkward woman, -without any beauty, grace or dignity. She has only one royal -attribute: a perfect immovability of expression under all -circumstances, and that rather a sullen one. The rockets were most -admired, and a deep "Oh!" could be heard from the shore, all round the -dark bay, after each explosion. The sailors' songs were also much -admired; and the queen said she thought that one of the most boisterous -ones certainly could not be a hymn! The royal party did not return on -shore till past midnight. - -26th.--In the evening, with a gentle land-breeze, a course was steered -for New Zealand; and as the sun set, we had a farewell view of the -mountains of Tahiti--the island to which every voyager has offered up -his tribute of admiration. - -December 19th.--In the evening we saw in the distance New Zealand. We -may now consider that we have nearly crossed the Pacific. It is -necessary to sail over this great ocean to comprehend its immensity. -Moving quickly onwards for weeks together, we meet with nothing but the -same blue, profoundly deep, ocean. Even within the archipelagoes, the -islands are mere specks, and far distant one from the other. Accustomed -to look at maps drawn on a small scale, where dots, shading, and names -are crowded together, we do not rightly judge how infinitely small the -proportion of dry land is to water of this vast expanse. The meridian -of the Antipodes has likewise been passed; and now every league, it -made us happy to think, was one league nearer to England. These -Antipodes call to one's mind old recollections of childish doubt and -wonder. Only the other day I looked forward to this airy barrier as a -definite point in our voyage homewards; but now I find it, and all such -resting-places for the imagination, are like shadows, which a man -moving onwards cannot catch. A gale of wind lasting for some days, has -lately given us full leisure to measure the future stages in our -homeward voyage, and to wish most earnestly for its termination. - -December 21st.--Early in the morning we entered the Bay of Islands, and -being becalmed for some hours near the mouth, we did not reach the -anchorage till the middle of the day. The country is hilly, with a -smooth outline, and is deeply intersected by numerous arms of the sea -extending from the bay. The surface appears from a distance as if -clothed with coarse pasture, but this in truth is nothing but fern. On -the more distant hills, as well as in parts of the valleys, there is a -good deal of woodland. The general tint of the landscape is not a -bright green; and it resembles the country a short distance to the -south of Concepcion in Chile. In several parts of the bay, little -villages of square tidy looking houses are scattered close down to the -water's edge. Three whaling-ships were lying at anchor, and a canoe -every now and then crossed from shore to shore; with these exceptions, -an air of extreme quietness reigned over the whole district. Only a -single canoe came alongside. This, and the aspect of the whole scene, -afforded a remarkable, and not very pleasing contrast, with our joyful -and boisterous welcome at Tahiti. - -In the afternoon we went on shore to one of the larger groups of -houses, which yet hardly deserves the title of a village. Its name is -Pahia: it is the residence of the missionaries; and there are no native -residents except servants and labourers. In the vicinity of the Bay of -Islands, the number of Englishmen, including their families, amounts to -between two and three hundred. All the cottages, many of which are -whitewashed and look very neat, are the property of the English. The -hovels of the natives are so diminutive and paltry, that they can -scarcely be perceived from a distance. At Pahia, it was quite pleasing -to behold the English flowers in the gardens before the houses; there -were roses of several kinds, honeysuckle, jasmine, stocks, and whole -hedges of sweetbrier. - -December 22nd.--In the morning I went out walking; but I soon found -that the country was very impracticable. All the hills are thickly -covered with tall fern, together with a low bush which grows like a -cypress; and very little ground has been cleared or cultivated. I then -tried the sea-beach; but proceeding towards either hand, my walk was -soon stopped by salt-water creeks and deep brooks. The communication -between the inhabitants of the different parts of the bay, is (as in -Chiloe) almost entirely kept up by boats. I was surprised to find that -almost every hill which I ascended, had been at some former time more -or less fortified. The summits were cut into steps or successive -terraces, and frequently they had been protected by deep trenches. I -afterwards observed that the principal hills inland in like manner -showed an artificial outline. These are the Pas, so frequently -mentioned by Captain Cook under the name of "hippah;" the difference of -sound being owing to the prefixed article. - -That the Pas had formerly been much used, was evident from the piles of -shells, and the pits in which, as I was informed, sweet potatoes used -to be kept as a reserve. As there was no water on these hills, the -defenders could never have anticipated a long siege, but only a hurried -attack for plunder, against which the successive terraces would have -afforded good protection. The general introduction of fire-arms has -changed the whole system of warfare; and an exposed situation on the -top of a hill is now worse than useless. The Pas in consequence are, at -the present day, always built on a level piece of ground. They consist -of a double stockade of thick and tall posts, placed in a zigzag line, -so that every part can be flanked. Within the stockade a mound of -earth is thrown up, behind which the defenders can rest in safety, or -use their fire-arms over it. On the level of the ground little -archways sometimes pass through this breastwork, by which means the -defenders can crawl out to the stockade and reconnoitre their enemies. -The Rev. W. Williams, who gave me this account, added, that in one Pas -he had noticed spurs or buttresses projecting on the inner and -protected side of the mound of earth. On asking the chief the use of -them, he replied, that if two or three of his men were shot, their -neighbours would not see the bodies, and so be discouraged. - -These Pas are considered by the New Zealanders as very perfect means of -defence: for the attacking force is never so well disciplined as to -rush in a body to the stockade, cut it down, and effect their entry. -When a tribe goes to war, the chief cannot order one party to go here -and another there; but every man fights in the manner which best -pleases himself; and to each separate individual to approach a stockade -defended by fire-arms must appear certain death. I should think a more -warlike race of inhabitants could not be found in any part of the world -than the New Zealanders. Their conduct on first seeing a ship, as -described by Captain Cook, strongly illustrates this: the act of -throwing volleys of stones at so great and novel an object, and their -defiance of "Come on shore and we will kill and eat you all," shows -uncommon boldness. This warlike spirit is evident in many of their -customs, and even in their smallest actions. If a New Zealander is -struck, although but in joke, the blow must be returned and of this I -saw an instance with one of our officers. - -At the present day, from the progress of civilization, there is much -less warfare, except among some of the southern tribes. I heard a -characteristic anecdote of what took place some time ago in the south. -A missionary found a chief and his tribe in preparation for war;--their -muskets clean and bright, and their ammunition ready. He reasoned long -on the inutility of the war, and the little provocation which had been -given for it. The chief was much shaken in his resolution, and seemed -in doubt: but at length it occurred to him that a barrel of his -gunpowder was in a bad state, and that it would not keep much longer. -This was brought forward as an unanswerable argument for the necessity -of immediately declaring war: the idea of allowing so much good -gunpowder to spoil was not to be thought of; and this settled the -point. I was told by the missionaries that in the life of Shongi, the -chief who visited England, the love of war was the one and lasting -spring of every action. The tribe in which he was a principal chief -had at one time been oppressed by another tribe from the Thames River. -A solemn oath was taken by the men that when their boys should grow up, -and they should be powerful enough, they would never forget or forgive -these injuries. To fulfil this oath appears to have been Shongi's -chief motive for going to England; and when there it was his sole -object. Presents were valued only as they could be converted into -arms; of the arts, those alone interested him which were connected with -the manufacture of arms. When at Sydney, Shongi, by a strange -coincidence, met the hostile chief of the Thames River at the house of -Mr. Marsden: their conduct was civil to each other; but Shongi told him -that when again in New Zealand he would never cease to carry war into -his country. The challenge was accepted; and Shongi on his return -fulfilled the threat to the utmost letter. The tribe on the Thames -River was utterly overthrown, and the chief to whom the challenge had -been given was himself killed. Shongi, although harbouring such deep -feelings of hatred and revenge, is described as having been a -good-natured person. - -In the evening I went with Captain Fitz Roy and Mr. Baker, one of the -missionaries, to pay a visit to Kororadika: we wandered about the -village, and saw and conversed with many of the people, both men, -women, and children. Looking at the New Zealander, one naturally -compares him with the Tahitian; both belonging to the same family of -mankind. The comparison, however, tells heavily against the New -Zealander. He may, perhaps be superior in energy, but in every other -respect his character is of a much lower order. One glance at their -respective expressions, brings conviction to the mind that one is a -savage, the other a civilized man. It would be vain to seek in the -whole of New Zealand a person with the face and mien of the old -Tahitian chief Utamme. No doubt the extraordinary manner in which -tattooing is here practised, gives a disagreeable expression to their -countenances. The complicated but symmetrical figures covering the -whole face, puzzle and mislead an unaccustomed eye: it is moreover -probable, that the deep incisions, by destroying the play of the -superficial muscles, give an air of rigid inflexibility. But, besides -this, there is a twinkling in the eye, which cannot indicate anything -but cunning and ferocity. Their figures are tall and bulky; but not -comparable in elegance with those of the working-classes in Tahiti. - -But their persons and houses are filthily dirty and offensive: the idea -of washing either their bodies or their clothes never seems to enter -their heads. I saw a chief, who was wearing a shirt black and matted -with filth, and when asked how it came to be so dirty, he replied, with -surprise, "Do not you see it is an old one?" Some of the men have -shirts; but the common dress is one or two large blankets, generally -black with dirt, which are thrown over their shoulders in a very -inconvenient and awkward fashion. A few of the principal chiefs have -decent suits of English clothes; but these are only worn on great -occasions. - -December 23rd.--At a place called Waimate, about fifteen miles from the -Bay of Islands, and midway between the eastern and western coasts, the -missionaries have purchased some land for agricultural purposes. I had -been introduced to the Rev. W. Williams, who, upon my expressing a -wish, invited me to pay him a visit there. Mr. Bushby, the British -resident, offered to take me in his boat by a creek, where I should see -a pretty waterfall, and by which means my walk would be shortened. He -likewise procured for me a guide. - -Upon asking a neighbouring chief to recommend a man, the chief himself -offered to go; but his ignorance of the value of money was so complete, -that at first he asked how many pounds I would give him, but afterwards -was well contented with two dollars. When I showed the chief a very -small bundle, which I wanted carried, it became absolutely necessary -for him to take a slave. These feelings of pride are beginning to wear -away; but formerly a leading man would sooner have died, than undergone -the indignity of carrying the smallest burden. My companion was a -light active man, dressed in a dirty blanket, and with his face -completely tattooed. He had formerly been a great warrior. He -appeared to be on very cordial terms with Mr. Bushby; but at various -times they had quarrelled violently. Mr. Bushby remarked that a little -quiet irony would frequently silence any one of these natives in their -most blustering moments. This chief has come and harangued Mr. Bushby -in a hectoring manner, saying, "great chief, a great man, a friend of -mine, has come to pay me a visit--you must give him something good to -eat, some fine presents, etc." Mr. Bushby has allowed him to finish his -discourse, and then has quietly replied by some answer such as, "What -else shall your slave do for you?" The man would then instantly, with a -very comical expression, cease his braggadocio. - -Some time ago, Mr. Bushby suffered a far more serious attack. A chief -and a party of men tried to break into his house in the middle of the -night, and not finding this so easy, commenced a brisk firing with -their muskets. Mr. Bushby was slightly wounded, but the party was at -length driven away. Shortly afterwards it was discovered who was the -aggressor; and a general meeting of the chiefs was convened to consider -the case. It was considered by the New Zealanders as very atrocious, -inasmuch as it was a night attack, and that Mrs. Bushby was lying ill -in the house: this latter circumstance, much to their honour, being -considered in all cases as a protection. The chiefs agreed to -confiscate the land of the aggressor to the King of England. The whole -proceeding, however, in thus trying and punishing a chief was entirely -without precedent. The aggressor, moreover, lost caste in the -estimation of his equals and this was considered by the British as of -more consequence than the confiscation of his land. - -As the boat was shoving off, a second chief stepped into her, who only -wanted the amusement of the passage up and down the creek. I never saw -a more horrid and ferocious expression than this man had. It -immediately struck me I had somewhere seen his likeness: it will be -found in Retzch's outlines to Schiller's ballad of Fridolin, where two -men are pushing Robert into the burning iron furnace. It is the man -who has his arm on Robert's breast. Physiognomy here spoke the truth; -this chief had been a notorious murderer, and was an arrant coward to -boot. At the point where the boat landed, Mr. Bushby accompanied me a -few hundred yards on the road: I could not help admiring the cool -impudence of the hoary old villain, whom we left lying in the boat, -when he shouted to Mr. Bushby, "Do not you stay long, I shall be tired -of waiting here." - -We now commenced our walk. The road lay along a well beaten path, -bordered on each side by the tall fern, which covers the whole country. -After travelling some miles, we came to a little country village, where -a few hovels were collected together, and some patches of ground -cultivated with potatoes. The introduction of the potato has been the -most essential benefit to the island; it is now much more used than any -native vegetable. New Zealand is favoured by one great natural -advantage; namely, that the inhabitants can never perish from famine. -The whole country abounds with fern: and the roots of this plant, if -not very palatable, yet contain much nutriment. A native can always -subsist on these, and on the shell-fish, which are abundant on all -parts of the sea-coast. The villages are chiefly conspicuous by the -platforms which are raised on four posts ten or twelve feet above the -ground, and on which the produce of the fields is kept secure from all -accidents. - -On coming near one of the huts I was much amused by seeing in due form -the ceremony of rubbing, or, as it ought to be called, pressing noses. -The women, on our first approach, began uttering something in a most -dolorous voice; they then squatted themselves down and held up their -faces; my companion standing over them, one after another, placed the -bridge of his nose at right angles to theirs, and commenced pressing. -This lasted rather longer than a cordial shake of the hand with us, and -as we vary the force of the grasp of the hand in shaking, so do they in -pressing. During the process they uttered comfortable little grunts, -very much in the same manner as two pigs do, when rubbing against each -other. I noticed that the slave would press noses with any one he met, -indifferently either before or after his master the chief. Although -among the savages, the chief has absolute power of life and death over -his slave, yet there is an entire absence of ceremony between them. Mr. -Burchell has remarked the same thing in Southern Africa, with the rude -Bachapins. Where civilization has arrived at a certain point, complex -formalities soon arise between the different grades of society: thus at -Tahiti all were formerly obliged to uncover themselves as low as the -waist in presence of the king. - -The ceremony of pressing noses having been duly completed with all -present, we seated ourselves in a circle in the front of one of the -hovels, and rested there half-an-hour. All the hovels have nearly the -same form and dimensions, and all agree in being filthily dirty. They -resemble a cow-shed with one end open, but having a partition a little -way within, with a square hole in it, making a small gloomy chamber. In -this the inhabitants keep all their property, and when the weather is -cold they sleep there. They eat, however, and pass their time in the -open part in front. My guides having finished their pipes, we -continued our walk. The path led through the same undulating country, -the whole uniformly clothed as before with fern. On our right hand we -had a serpentine river, the banks of which were fringed with trees, and -here and there on the hill sides there was a clump of wood. The whole -scene, in spite of its green colour, had rather a desolate aspect. The -sight of so much fern impresses the mind with an idea of sterility: -this, however, is not correct; for wherever the fern grows thick and -breast-high, the land by tillage becomes productive. Some of the -residents think that all this extensive open country originally was -covered with forests, and that it has been cleared by fire. It is said, -that by digging in the barest spots, lumps of the kind of resin which -flows from the kauri pine are frequently found. The natives had an -evident motive in clearing the country; for the fern, formerly a staple -article of food, flourishes only in the open cleared tracks. The -almost entire absence of associated grasses, which forms so remarkable -a feature in the vegetation of this island, may perhaps be accounted -for by the land having been aboriginally covered with forest-trees. - -The soil is volcanic; in several parts we passed over shaggy lavas, and -craters could clearly be distinguished on several of the neighbouring -hills. Although the scenery is nowhere beautiful, and only -occasionally pretty, I enjoyed my walk. I should have enjoyed it more, -if my companion, the chief, had not possessed extraordinary -conversational powers. I knew only three words: "good," "bad," and -"yes:" and with these I answered all his remarks, without of course -having understood one word he said. This, however, was quite -sufficient: I was a good listener, an agreeable person, and he never -ceased talking to me. - -At length we reached Waimate. After having passed over so many miles -of an uninhabited useless country, the sudden appearance of an English -farm-house, and its well-dressed fields, placed there as if by an -enchanter's wand, was exceedingly pleasant. Mr. Williams not being at -home, I received in Mr. Davies's house a cordial welcome. After -drinking tea with his family party, we took a stroll about the farm. At -Waimate there are three large houses, where the missionary gentlemen, -Messrs. Williams, Davies, and Clarke, reside; and near them are the -huts of the native labourers. On an adjoining slope, fine crops of -barley and wheat were standing in full ear; and in another part, fields -of potatoes and clover. But I cannot attempt to describe all I saw; -there were large gardens, with every fruit and vegetable which England -produces; and many belonging to a warmer clime. I may instance -asparagus, kidney beans, cucumbers, rhubarb, apples, pears, figs, -peaches, apricots, grapes, olives, gooseberries, currants, hops, gorse -for fences, and English oaks; also many kinds of flowers. Around the -farm-yard there were stables, a thrashing-barn with its winnowing -machine, a blacksmith's forge, and on the ground ploughshares and other -tools: in the middle was that happy mixture of pigs and poultry, lying -comfortably together, as in every English farm-yard. At the distance -of a few hundred yards, where the water of a little rill had been -dammed up into a pool, there was a large and substantial water-mill. - -All this is very surprising, when it is considered that five years ago -nothing but the fern flourished here. Moreover, native workmanship, -taught by the missionaries, has effected this change;--the lesson of -the missionary is the enchanter's wand. The house had been built, the -windows framed, the fields ploughed, and even the trees grafted, by a -New Zealander. At the mill, a New Zealander was seen powdered white -with flower, like his brother miller in England. When I looked at this -whole scene, I thought it admirable. It was not merely that England -was brought vividly before my mind; yet, as the evening drew to a -close, the domestic sounds, the fields of corn, the distant undulating -country with its trees might well have been mistaken for our -fatherland: nor was it the triumphant feeling at seeing what Englishmen -could effect; but rather the high hopes thus inspired for the future -progress of this fine island. - - -Several young men, redeemed by the missionaries from slavery, were -employed on the farm. They were dressed in a shirt, jacket, and -trousers, and had a respectable appearance. Judging from one trifling -anecdote, I should think they must be honest. When walking in the -fields, a young labourer came up to Mr. Davies, and gave him a knife -and gimlet, saying that he had found them on the road, and did not know -to whom they belonged! These young men and boys appeared very merry -and good-humoured. In the evening I saw a party of them at cricket: -when I thought of the austerity of which the missionaries have been -accused, I was amused by observing one of their own sons taking an -active part in the game. A more decided and pleasing change was -manifested in the young women, who acted as servants within the houses. -Their clean, tidy, and healthy appearance, like that of the dairy-maids -in England, formed a wonderful contrast with the women of the filthy -hovels in Kororadika. The wives of the missionaries tried to persuade -them not to be tattooed; but a famous operator having arrived from the -south, they said, "We really must just have a few lines on our lips; -else when we grow old, our lips will shrivel, and we shall be so very -ugly." There is not nearly so much tattooing as formerly; but as it is -a badge of distinction between the chief and the slave, it will -probably long be practised. So soon does any train of ideas become -habitual, that the missionaries told me that even in their eyes a plain -face looked mean, and not like that of a New Zealand gentleman. - -Late in the evening I went to Mr. Williams's house, where I passed the -night. I found there a large party of children, collected together for -Christmas Day, and all sitting round a table at tea. I never saw a -nicer or more merry group; and to think that this was in the centre of -the land of cannibalism, murder, and all atrocious crimes! The -cordiality and happiness so plainly pictured in the faces of the little -circle, appeared equally felt by the older persons of the mission. - -December 24th.--In the morning, prayers were read in the native tongue -to the whole family. After breakfast I rambled about the gardens and -farm. This was a market-day, when the natives of the surrounding -hamlets bring their potatoes, Indian corn, or pigs, to exchange for -blankets, tobacco, and sometimes, through the persuasions of the -missionaries, for soap. Mr. Davies's eldest son, who manages a farm of -his own, is the man of business in the market. The children of the -missionaries, who came while young to the island, understand the -language better than their parents, and can get anything more readily -done by the natives. - -A little before noon Messrs. Williams and Davies walked with me to a -part of a neighbouring forest, to show me the famous kauri pine. I -measured one of the noble trees, and found it thirty-one feet in -circumference above the roots. There was another close by, which I did -not see, thirty-three feet; and I heard of one no less than forty feet. -These trees are remarkable for their smooth cylindrical boles, which -run up to a height of sixty, and even ninety feet, with a nearly equal -diameter, and without a single branch. The crown of branches at the -summit is out of all proportion small to the trunk; and the leaves are -likewise small compared with the branches. The forest was here almost -composed of the kauri; and the largest trees, from the parallelism of -their sides, stood up like gigantic columns of wood. The timber of the -kauri is the most valuable production of the island; moreover, a -quantity of resin oozes from the bark, which is sold at a penny a pound -to the Americans, but its use was then unknown. Some of the New -Zealand forest must be impenetrable to an extraordinary degree. Mr. -Matthews informed me that one forest only thirty-four miles in width, -and separating two inhabited districts, had only lately, for the first -time, been crossed. He and another missionary, each with a party of -about fifty men, undertook to open a road, but it cost more than a -fortnight's labour! In the woods I saw very few birds. With regard to -animals, it is a most remarkable fact, that so large an island, -extending over more than 700 miles in latitude, and in many parts -ninety broad, with varied stations, a fine climate, and land of all -heights, from 14,000 feet downwards, with the exception of a small rat, -did not possess one indigenous animal. The several species of that -gigantic genus of birds, the Deinornis seem here to have replaced -mammiferous quadrupeds, in the same manner as the reptiles still do at -the Galapagos archipelago. It is said that the common Norway rat, in -the short space of two years, annihilated in this northern end of the -island, the New Zealand species. In many places I noticed several -sorts of weeds, which, like the rats, I was forced to own as -countrymen. A leek has overrun whole districts, and will prove very -troublesome, but it was imported as a favour by a French vessel. The -common dock is also widely disseminated, and will, I fear, for ever -remain a proof of the rascality of an Englishman, who sold the seeds -for those of the tobacco plant. - -On returning from our pleasant walk to the house, I dined with Mr. -Williams; and then, a horse being lent me, I returned to the Bay of -Islands. I took leave of the missionaries with thankfulness for their -kind welcome, and with feelings of high respect for their -gentlemanlike, useful, and upright characters. I think it would be -difficult to find a body of men better adapted for the high office -which they fulfil. - -Christmas Day.--In a few more days the fourth year of our absence from -England will be completed. Our first Christmas Day was spent at -Plymouth, the second at St. Martin's Cove, near Cape Horn; the third at -Port Desire, in Patagonia; the fourth at anchor in a wild harbour in -the peninsula of Tres Montes, this fifth here, and the next, I trust in -Providence, will be in England. We attended divine service in the -chapel of Pahia; part of the service being read in English, and part in -the native language. Whilst at New Zealand we did not hear of any -recent acts of cannibalism; but Mr. Stokes found burnt human bones -strewed round a fire-place on a small island near the anchorage; but -these remains of a comfortable banquet might have been lying there for -several years. It is probable that the moral state of the people will -rapidly improve. Mr. Bushby mentioned one pleasing anecdote as a proof -of the sincerity of some, at least, of those who profess Christianity. -One of his young men left him, who had been accustomed to read prayers -to the rest of the servants. Some weeks afterwards, happening to pass -late in the evening by an outhouse, he saw and heard one of his men -reading the Bible with difficulty by the light of the fire, to the -others. After this the party knelt and prayed: in their prayers they -mentioned Mr. Bushby and his family, and the missionaries, each -separately in his respective district. - -December 26th.--Mr. Bushby offered to take Mr. Sulivan and myself in -his boat some miles up the river to Cawa-Cawa, and proposed afterwards -to walk on to the village of Waiomio, where there are some curious -rocks. Following one of the arms of the bay, we enjoyed a pleasant -row, and passed through pretty scenery, until we came to a village, -beyond which the boat could not pass. From this place a chief and a -party of men volunteered to walk with us to Waiomio, a distance of four -miles. The chief was at this time rather notorious from having lately -hung one of his wives and a slave for adultery. When one of the -missionaries remonstrated with him he seemed surprised, and said he -thought he was exactly following the English method. Old Shongi, who -happened to be in England during the Queen's trial, expressed great -disapprobation at the whole proceeding: he said he had five wives, and -he would rather cut off all their heads than be so much troubled about -one. Leaving this village, we crossed over to another, seated on a -hill-side at a little distance. The daughter of a chief, who was still -a heathen, had died there five days before. The hovel in which she had -expired had been burnt to the ground: her body being enclosed between -two small canoes, was placed upright on the ground, and protected by an -enclosure bearing wooden images of their gods, and the whole was -painted bright red, so as to be conspicuous from afar. Her gown was -fastened to the coffin, and her hair being cut off was cast at its -foot. The relatives of the family had torn the flesh of their arms, -bodies, and faces, so that they were covered with clotted blood; and -the old women looked most filthy, disgusting objects. On the following -day some of the officers visited this place, and found the women still -howling and cutting themselves. - -We continued our walk, and soon reached Waiomio. Here there are some -singular masses of limestone, resembling ruined castles. These rocks -have long served for burial places, and in consequence are held too -sacred to be approached. One of the young men, however, cried out, "Let -us all be brave," and ran on ahead; but when within a hundred yards, -the whole party thought better of it, and stopped short. With perfect -indifference, however, they allowed us to examine the whole place. At -this village we rested some hours, during which time there was a long -discussion with Mr. Bushby, concerning the right of sale of certain -lands. One old man, who appeared a perfect genealogist, illustrated the -successive possessors by bits of stick driven into the ground. Before -leaving the houses a little basketful of roasted sweet potatoes was -given to each of our party; and we all, according to the custom, -carried them away to eat on the road. I noticed that among the women -employed in cooking, there was a man-slave: it must be a humiliating -thing for a man in this warlike country to be employed in doing that -which is considered as the lowest woman's work. Slaves are not allowed -to go to war; but this perhaps can hardly be considered as a hardship. -I heard of one poor wretch who, during hostilities, ran away to the -opposite party; being met by two men, he was immediately seized; but as -they could not agree to whom he should belong, each stood over him with -a stone hatchet, and seemed determined that the other at least should -not take him away alive. The poor man, almost dead with fright, was -only saved by the address of a chief's wife. We afterwards enjoyed a -pleasant walk back to the boat, but did not reach the ship till late in -the evening. - -December 30th.--In the afternoon we stood out of the Bay of Islands, on -our course to Sydney. I believe we were all glad to leave New Zealand. -It is not a pleasant place. Amongst the natives there is absent that -charming simplicity which is found in Tahiti; and the greater part of -the English are the very refuse of society. Neither is the country -itself attractive. I look back but to one bright spot, and that is -Waimate, with its Christian inhabitants. - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -AUSTRALIA - -Sydney--Excursion to Bathurst--Aspect of the Woods--Party of -Natives--Gradual Extinction of the Aborigines--Infection generated by -associated Men in health--Blue Mountains--View of the grand gulf-like -Valleys--Their origin and formation--Bathurst, general civility of the -Lower Orders--State of Society--Van Diemen's Land--Hobart -Town--Aborigines all banished--Mount Wellington--King George's -Sound--Cheerless Aspect of the Country--Bald Head, calcareous casts of -branches of Trees--Party of Natives--Leave Australia. - - -JANUARY 12th, 1836.--Early in the morning a light air carried us -towards the entrance of Port Jackson. Instead of beholding a verdant -country, interspersed with fine houses, a straight line of yellowish -cliff brought to our minds the coast of Patagonia. A solitary -lighthouse, built of white stone, alone told us that we were near a -great and populous city. Having entered the harbour, it appears fine -and spacious, with cliff-formed shores of horizontally stratified -sandstone. The nearly level country is covered with thin scrubby -trees, bespeaking the curse of sterility. Proceeding further inland, -the country improves: beautiful villas and nice cottages are here and -there scattered along the beach. In the distance stone houses, two and -three stories high, and windmills standing on the edge of a bank, -pointed out to us the neighbourhood of the capital of Australia. - -At last we anchored within Sydney Cove. We found the little basin -occupied by many large ships, and surrounded by warehouses. In the -evening I walked through the town, and returned full of admiration at -the whole scene. It is a most magnificent testimony to the power of -the British nation. Here, in a less promising country, scores of years -have done many more times more than an equal number of centuries have -effected in South America. My first feeling was to congratulate myself -that I was born an Englishman. Upon seeing more of the town -afterwards, perhaps my admiration fell a little; but yet it is a fine -town. The streets are regular, broad, clean, and kept in excellent -order; the houses are of a good size, and the shops well furnished. It -may be faithfully compared to the large suburbs which stretch out from -London and a few other great towns in England; but not even near London -or Birmingham is there an appearance of such rapid growth. The number -of large houses and other buildings just finished was truly surprising; -nevertheless, every one complained of the high rents and difficulty in -procuring a house. Coming from South America, where in the towns every -man of property is known, no one thing surprised me more than not being -able to ascertain at once to whom this or that carriage belonged. - -I hired a man and two horses to take me to Bathurst, a village about -one hundred and twenty miles in the interior, and the centre of a great -pastoral district. By this means I hoped to gain a general idea of the -appearance of the country. On the morning of the 16th (January) I set -out on my excursion. The first stage took us to Paramatta, a small -country town, next to Sydney in importance. The roads were excellent, -and made upon the MacAdam principle, whinstone having been brought for -the purpose from the distance of several miles. In all respects there -was a close resemblance to England: perhaps the alehouses here were -more numerous. The iron gangs, or parties of convicts who have -committed here some offense, appeared the least like England: they were -working in chains, under the charge of sentries with loaded arms. - -The power which the government possesses, by means of forced labour, of -at once opening good roads throughout the country, has been, I believe, -one main cause of the early prosperity of this colony. I slept at -night at a very comfortable inn at Emu ferry, thirty-five miles from -Sydney, and near the ascent of the Blue Mountains. This line of road -is the most frequented, and has been the longest inhabited of any in -the colony. The whole land is enclosed with high railings, for the -farmers have not succeeded in rearing hedges. There are many -substantial houses and good cottages scattered about; but although -considerable pieces of land are under cultivation, the greater part yet -remains as when first discovered. - -The extreme uniformity of the vegetation is the most remarkable feature -in the landscape of the greater part of New South Wales. Everywhere we -have an open woodland, the ground being partially covered with a very -thin pasture, with little appearance of verdure. The trees nearly all -belong to one family, and mostly have their leaves placed in a -vertical, instead of as in Europe, in a nearly horizontal position: the -foliage is scanty, and of a peculiar pale green tint, without any -gloss. Hence the woods appear light and shadowless: this, although a -loss of comfort to the traveller under the scorching rays of summer, is -of importance to the farmer, as it allows grass to grow where it -otherwise would not. The leaves are not shed periodically: this -character appears common to the entire southern hemisphere, namely, -South America, Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope. The inhabitants -of this hemisphere, and of the intertropical regions, thus lose perhaps -one of the most glorious, though to our eyes common, spectacles in the -world--the first bursting into full foliage of the leafless tree. They -may, however, say that we pay dearly for this by having the land -covered with mere naked skeletons for so many months. This is too true -but our senses thus acquire a keen relish for the exquisite green of -the spring, which the eyes of those living within the tropics, sated -during the long year with the gorgeous productions of those glowing -climates, can never experience. The greater number of the trees, with -the exception of some of the Blue-gums, do not attain a large size; but -they grow tall and tolerably straight, and stand well apart. The bark -of some of the Eucalypti falls annually, or hangs dead in long shreds -which swing about with the wind, and give to the woods a desolate and -untidy appearance. I cannot imagine a more complete contrast, in every -respect, than between the forests of Valdivia or Chiloe, and the woods -of Australia. - -At sunset, a party of a score of the black aborigines passed by, each -carrying, in their accustomed manner, a bundle of spears and other -weapons. By giving a leading young man a shilling, they were easily -detained, and threw their spears for my amusement. They were all -partly clothed, and several could speak a little English: their -countenances were good-humoured and pleasant, and they appeared far -from being such utterly degraded beings as they have usually been -represented. In their own arts they are admirable. A cap being fixed -at thirty yards distance, they transfixed it with a spear, delivered by -the throwing-stick with the rapidity of an arrow from the bow of a -practised archer. In tracking animals or men they show most wonderful -sagacity; and I heard of several of their remarks which manifested -considerable acuteness. They will not, however, cultivate the ground, -or build houses and remain stationary, or even take the trouble of -tending a flock of sheep when given to them. On the whole they appear -to me to stand some few degrees higher in the scale of civilization -than the Fuegians. - -It is very curious thus to see in the midst of a civilized people, a -set of harmless savages wandering about without knowing where they -shall sleep at night, and gaining their livelihood by hunting in the -woods. As the white man has travelled onwards, he has spread over the -country belonging to several tribes. These, although thus enclosed by -one common people, keep up their ancient distinctions, and sometimes go -to war with each other. In an engagement which took place lately, the -two parties most singularly chose the centre of the village of Bathurst -for the field of battle. This was of service to the defeated side, for -the runaway warriors took refuge in the barracks. - -The number of aborigines is rapidly decreasing. In my whole ride, with -the exception of some boys brought up by Englishmen, I saw only one -other party. This decrease, no doubt, must be partly owing to the -introduction of spirits, to European diseases (even the milder ones of -which, such as the measles, [1] prove very destructive), and to the -gradual extinction of the wild animals. It is said that numbers of -their children invariably perish in very early infancy from the effects -of their wandering life; and as the difficulty of procuring food -increases, so must their wandering habits increase; and hence the -population, without any apparent deaths from famine, is repressed in a -manner extremely sudden compared to what happens in civilized -countries, where the father, though in adding to his labour he may -injure himself, does not destroy his offspring. - -Besides the several evident causes of destruction, there appears to be -some more mysterious agency generally at work. Wherever the European -has trod, death seems to pursue the aboriginal. We may look to the -wide extent of the Americas, Polynesia, the Cape of Good Hope, and -Australia, and we find the same result. Nor is it the white man alone -that thus acts the destroyer; the Polynesian of Malay extraction has in -parts of the East Indian archipelago, thus driven before him the -dark-coloured native. The varieties of man seem to act on each other -in the same way as different species of animals--the stronger always -extirpating the weaker. It was melancholy at New Zealand to hear the -fine energetic natives saying that they knew the land was doomed to -pass from their children. Every one has heard of the inexplicable -reduction of the population in the beautiful and healthy island of -Tahiti since the date of Captain Cook's voyages: although in that case -we might have expected that it would have been increased; for -infanticide, which formerly prevailed to so extraordinary a degree, has -ceased; profligacy has greatly diminished, and the murderous wars -become less frequent. - -The Rev. J. Williams, in his interesting work, [2] says, that the first -intercourse between natives and Europeans, "is invariably attended with -the introduction of fever, dysentery, or some other disease, which -carries off numbers of the people." Again he affirms, "It is certainly -a fact, which cannot be controverted, that most of the diseases which -have raged in the islands during my residence there, have been -introduced by ships; [3] and what renders this fact remarkable is, that -there might be no appearance of disease among the crew of the ship -which conveyed this destructive importation." This statement is not -quite so extraordinary as it at first appears; for several cases are on -record of the most malignant fevers having broken out, although the -parties themselves, who were the cause, were not affected. In the -early part of the reign of George III., a prisoner who had been -confined in a dungeon, was taken in a coach with four constables before -a magistrate; and although the man himself was not ill, the four -constables died from a short putrid fever; but the contagion extended -to no others. From these facts it would almost appear as if the -effluvium of one set of men shut up for some time together was -poisonous when inhaled by others; and possibly more so, if the men be -of different races. Mysterious as this circumstance appears to be, it -is not more surprising than that the body of one's fellow-creature, -directly after death, and before putrefaction has commenced, should -often be of so deleterious a quality, that the mere puncture from an -instrument used in its dissection, should prove fatal. - -17th.--Early in the morning we passed the Nepean in a ferry-boat. The -river, although at this spot both broad and deep, had a very small body -of running water. Having crossed a low piece of land on the opposite -side, we reached the slope of the Blue Mountains. The ascent is not -steep, the road having been cut with much care on the side of a -sandstone cliff. On the summit an almost level plain extends, which, -rising imperceptibly to the westward, at last attains a height of more -than 3000 feet. From so grand a title as Blue Mountains, and from -their absolute altitude, I expected to have seen a bold chain of -mountains crossing the country; but instead of this, a sloping plain -presents merely an inconsiderable front to the low land near the coast. -From this first slope, the view of the extensive woodland to the east -was striking, and the surrounding trees grew bold and lofty. But when -once on the sandstone platform, the scenery becomes exceedingly -monotonous; each side of the road is bordered by scrubby trees of the -never-failing Eucalyptus family; and with the exception of two or three -small inns, there are no houses or cultivated land: the road, moreover, -is solitary; the most frequent object being a bullock-waggon, piled up -with bales of wool. - -In the middle of the day we baited our horses at a little inn, called -the Weatherboard. The country here is elevated 2800 feet above the -sea. About a mile and a half from this place there is a view -exceedingly well worth visiting. Following down a little valley and -its tiny rill of water, an immense gulf unexpectedly opens through the -trees which border the pathway, at the depth of perhaps 1500 feet. -Walking on a few yards, one stands on the brink of a vast precipice, -and below one sees a grand bay or gulf, for I know not what other name -to give it, thickly covered with forest. The point of view is situated -as if at the head of a bay, the line of cliff diverging on each side, -and showing headland behind headland, as on a bold sea-coast. These -cliffs are composed of horizontal strata of whitish sandstone; and are -so absolutely vertical, that in many places a person standing on the -edge and throwing down a stone, can see it strike the trees in the -abyss below. So unbroken is the line of cliff, that in order to reach -the foot of the waterfall, formed by this little stream, it is said to -be necessary to go sixteen miles round. About five miles distant in -front, another line of cliff extends, which thus appears completely to -encircle the valley; and hence the name of bay is justified, as applied -to this grand amphitheatrical depression. If we imagine a winding -harbour, with its deep water surrounded by bold cliff-like shores, to -be laid dry, and a forest to spring up on its sandy bottom, we should -then have the appearance and structure here exhibited. This kind of -view was to me quite novel, and extremely magnificent. - -In the evening we reached the Blackheath. The sandstone plateau has -here attained the height of 3400 feet; and is covered, as before, with -the same scrubby woods. From the road, there were occasional glimpses -into a profound valley, of the same character as the one described; but -from the steepness and depth of its sides, the bottom was scarcely ever -to be seen. The Blackheath is a very comfortable inn, kept by an old -soldier; and it reminded me of the small inns in North Wales. - -18th.--Very early in the morning, I walked about three miles to see -Govett's Leap; a view of a similar character with that near the -Weatherboard, but perhaps even more stupendous. So early in the day -the gulf was filled with a thin blue haze, which, although destroying -the general effect of the view added to the apparent depth at which the -forest was stretched out beneath our feet. These valleys, which so -long presented an insuperable barrier to the attempts of the most -enterprising of the colonists to reach the interior, are most -remarkable. Great arm-like bays, expanding at their upper ends, often -branch from the main valleys and penetrate the sandstone platform; on -the other hand, the platform often sends promontories into the valleys, -and even leaves in them great, almost insulated, masses. To descend -into some of these valleys, it is necessary to go round twenty miles; -and into others, the surveyors have only lately penetrated, and the -colonists have not yet been able to drive in their cattle. But the -most remarkable feature in their structure is, that although several -miles wide at their heads, they generally contract towards their mouths -to such a degree as to become impassable. The Surveyor-General, Sir T. -Mitchell, [4] endeavoured in vain, first walking and then by crawling -between the great fallen fragments of sandstone, to ascend through the -gorge by which the river Grose joins the Nepean, yet the valley of the -Grose in its upper part, as I saw, forms a magnificent level basin some -miles in width, and is on all sides surrounded by cliffs, the summits -of which are believed to be nowhere less than 3000 feet above the level -of the sea. When cattle are driven into the valley of the Wolgan by a -path (which I descended), partly natural and partly made by the owner -of the land, they cannot escape; for this valley is in every other part -surrounded by perpendicular cliffs, and eight miles lower down, it -contracts from an average width of half a mile, to a mere chasm, -impassable to man or beast. Sir T. Mitchell states that the great -valley of the Cox river with all its branches, contracts, where it -unites with the Nepean, into a gorge 2200 yards in width, and about -1000 feet in depth. Other similar cases might have been added. - -The first impression, on seeing the correspondence of the horizontal -strata on each side of these valleys and great amphitheatrical -depressions, is that they have been hollowed out, like other valleys, -by the action of water; but when one reflects on the enormous amount of -stone, which on this view must have been removed through mere gorges or -chasms, one is led to ask whether these spaces may not have subsided. -But considering the form of the irregularly branching valleys, and of -the narrow promontories projecting into them from the platforms, we are -compelled to abandon this notion. To attribute these hollows to the -present alluvial action would be preposterous; nor does the drainage -from the summit-level always fall, as I remarked near the Weatherboard, -into the head of these valleys, but into one side of their bay-like -recesses. Some of the inhabitants remarked to me that they never -viewed one of those bay-like recesses, with the headlands receding on -both hands, without being struck with their resemblance to a bold -sea-coast. This is certainly the case; moreover, on the present coast -of New South Wales, the numerous, fine, widely-branching harbours, -which are generally connected with the sea by a narrow mouth worn -through the sandstone coast-cliffs, varying from one mile in width to a -quarter of a mile, present a likeness, though on a miniature scale, to -the great valleys of the interior. But then immediately occurs the -startling difficulty, why has the sea worn out these great, though -circumscribed depressions on a wide platform, and left mere gorges at -the openings, through which the whole vast amount of triturated matter -must have been carried away? The only light I can throw upon this -enigma, is by remarking that banks of the most irregular forms appear -to be now forming in some seas, as in parts of the West Indies and in -the Red Sea, and that their sides are exceedingly steep. Such banks, I -have been led to suppose, have been formed by sediment heaped by strong -currents on an irregular bottom. That in some cases the sea, instead -of spreading out sediment in a uniform sheet, heaps it round submarine -rocks and islands, it is hardly possible to doubt, after examining the -charts of the West Indies; and that the waves have power to form high -and precipitous cliffs, even in land-locked harbours, I have noticed in -many parts of South America. To apply these ideas to the sandstone -platforms of New South Wales, I imagine that the strata were heaped by -the action of strong currents, and of the undulations of an open sea, -on an irregular bottom; and that the valley-like spaces thus left -unfilled had their steeply sloping flanks worn into cliffs, during a -slow elevation of the land; the worn-down sandstone being removed, -either at the time when the narrow gorges were cut by the retreating -sea, or subsequently by alluvial action. - - -Soon after leaving the Blackheath, we descended from the sandstone -platform by the pass of Mount Victoria. To effect this pass, an -enormous quantity of stone has been cut through; the design, and its -manner of execution, being worthy of any line of road in England. We -now entered upon a country less elevated by nearly a thousand feet, and -consisting of granite. With the change of rock, the vegetation -improved, the trees were both finer and stood farther apart; and the -pasture between them was a little greener and more plentiful. At -Hassan's Walls, I left the high road, and made a short detour to a farm -called Walerawang; to the superintendent of which I had a letter of -introduction from the owner in Sydney. Mr. Browne had the kindness to -ask me to stay the ensuing day, which I had much pleasure in doing. -This place offers an example of one of the large farming, or rather -sheep-grazing establishments of the colony. Cattle and horses are, -however, in this case rather more numerous than usual, owing to some of -the valleys being swampy and producing a coarser pasture. Two or three -flat pieces of ground near the house were cleared and cultivated with -corn, which the harvest-men were now reaping: but no more wheat is sown -than sufficient for the annual support of the labourers employed on the -establishment. The usual number of assigned convict-servants here is -about forty, but at the present time there were rather more. Although -the farm was well stocked with every necessary, there was an apparent -absence of comfort; and not one single woman resided here. The sunset -of a fine day will generally cast an air of happy contentment on any -scene; but here, at this retired farm-house, the brightest tints on the -surrounding woods could not make me forget that forty hardened, -profligate men were ceasing from their daily labours, like the slaves -from Africa, yet without their holy claim for compassion. - -Early on the next morning, Mr. Archer, the joint superintendent, had -the kindness to take me out kangaroo-hunting. We continued riding the -greater part of the day, but had very bad sport, not seeing a kangaroo, -or even a wild dog. The greyhounds pursued a kangaroo rat into a hollow -tree, out of which we dragged it: it is an animal as large as a rabbit, -but with the figure of a kangaroo. A few years since this country -abounded with wild animals; but now the emu is banished to a long -distance, and the kangaroo is become scarce; to both the English -greyhound has been highly destructive. It may be long before these -animals are altogether exterminated, but their doom is fixed. The -aborigines are always anxious to borrow the dogs from the farm-houses: -the use of them, the offal when an animal is killed, and some milk from -the cows, are the peace-offerings of the settlers, who push farther and -farther towards the interior. The thoughtless aboriginal, blinded by -these trifling advantages, is delighted at the approach of the white -man, who seems predestined to inherit the country of his children. - -Although having poor sport, we enjoyed a pleasant ride. The woodland is -generally so open that a person on horseback can gallop through it. It -is traversed by a few flat-bottomed valleys, which are green and free -from trees: in such spots the scenery was pretty like that of a park. -In the whole country I scarcely saw a place without the marks of a -fire; whether these had been more or less recent--whether the stumps -were more or less black, was the greatest change which varied the -uniformity, so wearisome to the traveller's eye. In these woods there -are not many birds; I saw, however, some large flocks of the white -cockatoo feeding in a corn-field, and a few most beautiful parrots; -crows, like our jackdaws were not uncommon, and another bird something -like the magpie. In the dusk of the evening I took a stroll along a -chain of ponds, which in this dry country represented the course of a -river, and had the good fortune to see several of the famous -Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. They were diving and playing about the -surface of the water, but showed so little of their bodies, that they -might easily have been mistaken for water-rats. Mr. Browne shot one: -certainly it is a most extraordinary animal; a stuffed specimen does -not at all give a good idea of the appearance of the head and beak when -fresh; the latter becoming hard and contracted. [5] - -20th.--A long day's ride to Bathurst. Before joining the highroad we -followed a mere path through the forest; and the country, with the -exception of a few squatters' huts, was very solitary. We experienced -this day the sirocco-like wind of Australia, which comes from the -parched deserts of the interior. Clouds of dust were travelling in -every direction; and the wind felt as if it had passed over a fire. I -afterwards heard that the thermometer out of doors had stood at 119 -degs., and in a closed room at 96 degs. In the afternoon we came in -view of the downs of Bathurst. These undulating but nearly smooth -plains are very remarkable in this country, from being absolutely -destitute of trees. They support only a thin brown pasture. We rode -some miles over this country, and then reached the township of -Bathurst, seated in the middle of what may be called either a very -broad valley, or narrow plain. I was told at Sydney not to form too -bad an opinion of Australia by judging of the country from the -roadside, nor too good a one from Bathurst; in this latter respect, I -did not feel myself in the least danger of being prejudiced. The -season, it must be owned, had been one of great drought, and the -country did not wear a favourable aspect; although I understand it was -incomparably worse two or three months before. The secret of the -rapidly growing prosperity of Bathurst is, that the brown pasture which -appears to the stranger's eye so wretched, is excellent for -sheep-grazing. The town stands, at the height of 2200 feet above the -sea, on the banks of the Macquarie. This is one of the rivers flowing -into the vast and scarcely known interior. The line of water-shed, -which divides the inland streams from those on the coast, has a height -of about 3000 feet, and runs in a north and south direction at the -distance of from eighty to a hundred miles from the sea-side. The -Macquarie figures in the map as a respectable river, and it is the -largest of those draining this part of the water-shed; yet to my -surprise I found it a mere chain of ponds, separated from each other by -spaces almost dry. Generally a small stream is running; and sometimes -there are high and impetuous floods. Scanty as the supply of the water -is throughout this district, it becomes still scantier further inland. - -22nd.--I commenced my return, and followed a new road called Lockyer's -Line, along which the country is rather more hilly and picturesque. -This was a long day's ride; and the house where I wished to sleep was -some way off the road, and not easily found. I met on this occasion, -and indeed on all others, a very general and ready civility among the -lower orders, which, when one considers what they are, and what they -have been, would scarcely have been expected. The farm where I passed -the night, was owned by two young men who had only lately come out, and -were beginning a settler's life. The total want of almost every -comfort was not attractive; but future and certain prosperity was -before their eyes, and that not far distant. - -The next day we passed through large tracts of country in flames, -volumes of smoke sweeping across the road. Before noon we joined our -former road, and ascended Mount Victoria. I slept at the Weatherboard, -and before dark took another walk to the amphitheatre. On the road to -Sydney I spent a very pleasant evening with Captain King at Dunheved; -and thus ended my little excursion in the colony of New South Wales. - -Before arriving here the three things which interested me most -were--the state of society amongst the higher classes, the condition of -the convicts, and the degree of attraction sufficient to induce persons -to emigrate. Of course, after so very short a visit, one's opinion is -worth scarcely anything; but it is as difficult not to form some -opinion, as it is to form a correct judgment. On the whole, from what -I heard, more than from what I saw, I was disappointed in the state of -society. The whole community is rancorously divided into parties on -almost every subject. Among those who, from their station in life, -ought to be the best, many live in such open profligacy that -respectable people cannot associate with them. There is much jealousy -between the children of the rich emancipist and the free settlers, the -former being pleased to consider honest men as interlopers. The whole -population, poor and rich, are bent on acquiring wealth: amongst the -higher orders, wool and sheep-grazing form the constant subject of -conversation. There are many serious drawbacks to the comforts of a -family, the chief of which, perhaps, is being surrounded by convict -servants. How thoroughly odious to every feeling, to be waited on by a -man who the day before, perhaps, was flogged, from your representation, -for some trifling misdemeanor. The female servants are of course, much -worse: hence children learn the vilest expressions, and it is -fortunate, if not equally vile ideas. - -On the other hand, the capital of a person, without any trouble on his -part, produces him treble interest to what it will in England; and with -care he is sure to grow rich. The luxuries of life are in abundance, -and very little dearer than in England, and most articles of food are -cheaper. The climate is splendid, and perfectly healthy; but to my -mind its charms are lost by the uninviting aspect of the country. -Settlers possess a great advantage in finding their sons of service -when very young. At the age of from sixteen to twenty, they frequently -take charge of distant farming stations. This, however, must happen at -the expense of their boys associating entirely with convict servants. I -am not aware that the tone of society has assumed any peculiar -character; but with such habits, and without intellectual pursuits, it -can hardly fail to deteriorate. My opinion is such, that nothing but -rather sharp necessity should compel me to emigrate. - -The rapid prosperity and future prospects of this colony are to me, not -understanding these subjects, very puzzling. The two main exports are -wool and whale-oil, and to both of these productions there is a limit. -The country is totally unfit for canals, therefore there is a not very -distant point, beyond which the land-carriage of wool will not repay -the expense of shearing and tending sheep. Pasture everywhere is so -thin that settlers have already pushed far into the interior: moreover, -the country further inland becomes extremely poor. Agriculture, on -account of the droughts, can never succeed on an extended scale: -therefore, so far as I can see, Australia must ultimately depend upon -being the centre of commerce for the southern hemisphere, and perhaps -on her future manufactories. Possessing coal, she always has the -moving power at hand. From the habitable country extending along the -coast, and from her English extraction, she is sure to be a maritime -nation. I formerly imagined that Australia would rise to be as grand -and powerful a country as North America, but now it appears to me that -such future grandeur is rather problematical. - -With respect to the state of the convicts, I had still fewer -opportunities of judging than on other points. The first question is, -whether their condition is at all one of punishment: no one will -maintain that it is a very severe one. This, however, I suppose, is of -little consequence as long as it continues to be an object of dread to -criminals at home. The corporeal wants of the convicts are tolerably -well supplied: their prospect of future liberty and comfort is not -distant, and, after good conduct, certain. A "ticket of leave," which, -as long as a man keeps clear of suspicion as well as of crime, makes -him free within a certain district, is given upon good conduct, after -years proportional to the length of the sentence; yet with all this, -and overlooking the previous imprisonment and wretched passage out, I -believe the years of assignment are passed away with discontent and -unhappiness. As an intelligent man remarked to me, the convicts know -no pleasure beyond sensuality, and in this they are not gratified. The -enormous bribe which Government possesses in offering free pardons, -together with the deep horror of the secluded penal settlements, -destroys confidence between the convicts, and so prevents crime. As to -a sense of shame, such a feeling does not appear to be known, and of -this I witnessed some very singular proofs. Though it is a curious -fact, I was universally told that the character of the convict -population is one of arrant cowardice: not unfrequently some become -desperate, and quite indifferent as to life, yet a plan requiring cool -or continued courage is seldom put into execution. The worst feature -in the whole case is, that although there exists what may be called a -legal reform, and comparatively little is committed which the law can -touch, yet that any moral reform should take place appears to be quite -out of the question. I was assured by well-informed people, that a man -who should try to improve, could not while living with other assigned -servants;--his life would be one of intolerable misery and persecution. -Nor must the contamination of the convict-ships and prisons, both here -and in England, be forgotten. On the whole, as a place of punishment, -the object is scarcely gained; as a real system of reform it has -failed, as perhaps would every other plan; but as a means of making men -outwardly honest,--of converting vagabonds, most useless in one -hemisphere, into active citizens of another, and thus giving birth to a -new and splendid country--a grand centre of civilization--it has -succeeded to a degree perhaps unparalleled in history. - - -30th.--The Beagle sailed for Hobart Town in Van Diemen's Land. On the -5th of February, after a six days' passage, of which the first part was -fine, and the latter very cold and squally, we entered the mouth of -Storm Bay: the weather justified this awful name. The bay should -rather be called an estuary, for it receives at its head the waters of -the Derwent. Near the mouth, there are some extensive basaltic -platforms; but higher up the land becomes mountainous, and is covered -by a light wood. The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are -cleared; and the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of -potatoes, appear very luxuriant. Late in the evening we anchored in the -snug cove, on the shores of which stands the capital of Tasmania. The -first aspect of the place was very inferior to that of Sydney; the -latter might be called a city, this is only a town. It stands at the -base of Mount Wellington, a mountain 3100 feet high, but of little -picturesque beauty; from this source, however, it receives a good -supply of water. Round the cove there are some fine warehouses and on -one side a small fort. Coming from the Spanish settlements, where such -magnificent care has generally been paid to the fortifications, the -means of defence in these colonies appeared very contemptible. -Comparing the town with Sydney, I was chiefly struck with the -comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. -Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, and -the whole of Tasmania 36,505. - -All the aborigines have been removed to an island in Bass's Straits, so -that Van Diemen's Land enjoys the great advantage of being free from a -native population. This most cruel step seems to have been quite -unavoidable, as the only means of stopping a fearful succession of -robberies, burnings, and murders, committed by the blacks; and which -sooner or later would have ended in their utter destruction. I fear -there is no doubt, that this train of evil and its consequences, -originated in the infamous conduct of some of our countrymen. Thirty -years is a short period, in which to have banished the last aboriginal -from his native island,--and that island nearly as large as Ireland. -The correspondence on this subject, which took place between the -government at home and that of Van Diemen's Land, is very interesting. -Although numbers of natives were shot and taken prisoners in the -skirmishing, which was going on at intervals for several years; nothing -seems fully to have impressed them with the idea of our overwhelming -power, until the whole island, in 1830, was put under martial law, and -by proclamation the whole population commanded to assist in one great -attempt to secure the entire race. The plan adopted was nearly similar -to that of the great hunting-matches in India: a line was formed -reaching across the island, with the intention of driving the natives -into a _cul-de-sac_ on Tasman's peninsula. The attempt failed; the -natives, having tied up their dogs, stole during one night through the -lines. This is far from surprising, when their practised senses, and -usual manner of crawling after wild animals is considered. I have been -assured that they can conceal themselves on almost bare ground, in a -manner which until witnessed is scarcely credible; their dusky bodies -being easily mistaken for the blackened stumps which are scattered all -over the country. I was told of a trial between a party of Englishmen -and a native, who was to stand in full view on the side of a bare hill; -if the Englishmen closed their eyes for less than a minute, he would -squat down, and then they were never able to distinguish him from the -surrounding stumps. But to return to the hunting-match; the natives -understanding this kind of warfare, were terribly alarmed, for they at -once perceived the power and numbers of the whites. Shortly afterwards -a party of thirteen belonging to two tribes came in; and, conscious of -their unprotected condition, delivered themselves up in despair. -Subsequently by the intrepid exertions of Mr. Robinson, an active and -benevolent man, who fearlessly visited by himself the most hostile of -the natives, the whole were induced to act in a similar manner. They -were then removed to an island, where food and clothes were provided -them. Count Strzelecki states, [6] that "at the epoch of their -deportation in 1835, the number of natives amounted to 210. In 1842, -that is, after the interval of seven years, they mustered only -fifty-four individuals; and, while each family of the interior of New -South Wales, uncontaminated by contact with the whites, swarms with -children, those of Flinders' Island had during eight years an accession -of only fourteen in number!" - -The Beagle stayed here ten days, and in this time I made several -pleasant little excursions, chiefly with the object of examining the -geological structure of the immediate neighbourhood. The main points -of interest consist, first in some highly fossiliferous strata, -belonging to the Devonian or Carboniferous period; secondly, in proofs -of a late small rise of the land; and lastly, in a solitary and -superficial patch of yellowish limestone or travertin, which contains -numerous impressions of leaves of trees, together with land-shells, not -now existing. It is not improbable that this one small quarry includes -the only remaining record of the vegetation of Van Diemen's Land during -one former epoch. - -The climate here is damper than in New South Wales, and hence the land -is more fertile. Agriculture flourishes; the cultivated fields look -well, and the gardens abound with thriving vegetables and fruit-trees. -Some of the farm-houses, situated in retired spots, had a very -attractive appearance. The general aspect of the vegetation is similar -to that of Australia; perhaps it is a little more green and cheerful; -and the pasture between the trees rather more abundant. One day I took -a long walk on the side of the bay opposite to the town: I crossed in a -steam-boat, two of which are constantly plying backwards and forwards. -The machinery of one of these vessels was entirely manufactured in this -colony, which, from its very foundation, then numbered only three and -thirty years! Another day I ascended Mount Wellington; I took with me -a guide, for I failed in a first attempt, from the thickness of the -wood. Our guide, however, was a stupid fellow, and conducted us to the -southern and damp side of the mountain, where the vegetation was very -luxuriant; and where the labour of the ascent, from the number of -rotten trunks, was almost as great as on a mountain in Tierra del Fuego -or in Chiloe. It cost us five and a half hours of hard climbing before -we reached the summit. In many parts the Eucalypti grew to a great -size, and composed a noble forest. In some of the dampest ravines, -tree-ferns flourished in an extraordinary manner; I saw one which must -have been at least twenty feet high to the base of the fronds, and was -in girth exactly six feet. The fronds forming the most elegant -parasols, produced a gloomy shade, like that of the first hour of the -night. The summit of the mountain is broad and flat, and is composed -of huge angular masses of naked greenstone. Its elevation is 3100 feet -above the level of the sea. The day was splendidly clear, and we -enjoyed a most extensive view; to the north, the country appeared a -mass of wooded mountains, of about the same height with that on which -we were standing, and with an equally tame outline: to the south the -broken land and water, forming many intricate bays, was mapped with -clearness before us. After staying some hours on the summit, we found -a better way to descend, but did not reach the Beagle till eight -o'clock, after a severe day's work. - -February 7th.--The Beagle sailed from Tasmania, and, on the 6th of the -ensuing month, reached King George's Sound, situated close to the S. W. -corner of Australia. We stayed there eight days; and we did not during -our voyage pass a more dull and uninteresting time. The country, -viewed from an eminence, appears a woody plain, with here and there -rounded and partly bare hills of granite protruding. One day I went out -with a party, in hopes of seeing a kangaroo hunt, and walked over a -good many miles of country. Everywhere we found the soil sandy, and -very poor; it supported either a coarse vegetation of thin, low -brushwood and wiry grass, or a forest of stunted trees. The scenery -resembled that of the high sandstone platform of the Blue Mountains; -the Casuarina (a tree somewhat resembling a Scotch fir) is, however, -here in greater number, and the Eucalyptus in rather less. In the open -parts there were many grass-trees,--a plant which, in appearance, has -some affinity with the palm; but, instead of being surmounted by a -crown of noble fronds, it can boast merely of a tuft of very coarse -grass-like leaves. The general bright green colour of the brushwood -and other plants, viewed from a distance, seemed to promise fertility. -A single walk, however, was enough to dispel such an illusion; and he -who thinks with me will never wish to walk again in so uninviting a -country. - -One day I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to Bald Head; the place -mentioned by so many navigators, where some imagined that they saw -corals, and others that they saw petrified trees, standing in the -position in which they had grown. According to our view, the beds have -been formed by the wind having heaped up fine sand, composed of minute -rounded particles of shells and corals, during which process branches -and roots of trees, together with many land-shells, became enclosed. -The whole then became consolidated by the percolation of calcareous -matter; and the cylindrical cavities left by the decaying of the wood, -were thus also filled up with a hard pseudo-stalactical stone. The -weather is now wearing away the softer parts, and in consequence the -hard casts of the roots and branches of the trees project above the -surface, and, in a singularly deceptive manner, resemble the stumps of -a dead thicket. - -A large tribe of natives, called the White Cockatoo men happened to pay -the settlement a visit while we were there. These men, as well as those -of the tribe belonging to King George's Sound, being tempted by the -offer of some tubs of rice and sugar, were persuaded to hold a -"corrobery," or great dancing-party. As soon as it grew dark, small -fires were lighted, and the men commenced their toilet, which consisted -in painting themselves white in spots and lines. As soon as all was -ready, large fires were kept blazing, round which the women and -children were collected as spectators; the Cockatoo and King George's -men formed two distinct parties, and generally danced in answer to each -other. The dancing consisted in their running either sideways or in -Indian file into an open space, and stamping the ground with great -force as they marched together. Their heavy footsteps were accompanied -by a kind of grunt, by beating their clubs and spears together, and by -various other gesticulations, such as extending their arms and -wriggling their bodies. It was a most rude, barbarous scene, and, to -our ideas, without any sort of meaning; but we observed that the black -women and children watched it with the greatest pleasure. Perhaps -these dances originally represented actions, such as wars and -victories; there was one called the Emu dance, in which each man -extended his arm in a bent manner, like the neck of that bird. In -another dance, one man imitated the movements of a kangaroo grazing in -the woods, whilst a second crawled up, and pretended to spear him. When -both tribes mingled in the dance, the ground trembled with the -heaviness of their steps, and the air resounded with their wild cries. -Every one appeared in high spirits, and the group of nearly naked -figures, viewed by the light of the blazing fires, all moving in -hideous harmony, formed a perfect display of a festival amongst the -lowest barbarians. In Tierra del Fuego, we have beheld many curious -scenes in savage life, but never, I think, one where the natives were -in such high spirits, and so perfectly at their ease. After the -dancing was over, the whole party formed a great circle on the ground, -and the boiled rice and sugar was distributed, to the delight of all. - -After several tedious delays from clouded weather, on the 14th of -March, we gladly stood out of King George's Sound on our course to -Keeling Island. Farewell, Australia! you are a rising child, and -doubtless some day will reign a great princess in the South: but you -are too great and ambitious for affection, yet not great enough for -respect. I leave your shores without sorrow or regret. - -[1] It is remarkable how the same disease is modified in different -climates. At the little island of St. Helena the introduction of -scarlet fever is dreaded as a plague. In some countries, foreigners -and natives are as differently affected by certain contagious disorders -as if they had been different animals; of which fact some instances -have occurred in Chile; and, according to Humboldt, in Mexico (Polit. -Essay, New Spain, vol. iv.). - -[2] Narrative of Missionary Enterprise, p. 282. - -[3] Captain Beechey (chap. iv., vol. i.) states that the inhabitants of -Pitcairn Island are firmly convinced that after the arrival of every -ship they suffer cutaneous and other disorders. Captain Beechey -attributes this to the change of diet during the time of the visit. Dr. -Macculloch (Western Isles, vol. ii. p. 32) says: "It is asserted, that -on the arrival of a stranger (at St. Kilda) all the inhabitants, in the -common phraseology, catch a cold." Dr. Macculloch considers the whole -case, although often previously affirmed, as ludicrous. He adds, -however, that "the question was put by us to the inhabitants who -unanimously agreed in the story." In Vancouver's Voyage, there is a -somewhat similar statement with respect to Otaheite. Dr. Dieffenbach, -in a note to his translation of the Journal, states that the same fact -is universally believed by the inhabitants of the Chatham Islands, and -in parts of New Zealand. It is impossible that such a belief should -have become universal in the northern hemisphere, at the Antipodes, and -in the Pacific, without some good foundation. Humboldt (Polit. Essay -on King of New Spain, vol. iv.) says, that the great epidemics of -Panama and Callao are "marked" by the arrival of ships from Chile, -because the people from that temperate region, first experience the -fatal effects of the torrid zones. I may add, that I have heard it -stated in Shropshire, that sheep, which have been imported from -vessels, although themselves in a healthy condition, if placed in the -same fold with others, frequently produce sickness in the flock. - -[4] Travels in Australia, vol. i. p. 154. I must express my obligation -to Sir T. Mitchell, for several interesting personal communications on -the subject of these great valleys of New South Wales. - -[5] I was interested by finding here the hollow conical pitfall of the -lion-ant, or some other insect; first a fly fell down the treacherous -slope and immediately disappeared; then came a large but unwary ant; -its struggles to escape being very violent, those curious little jets -of sand, described by Kirby and Spence (Entomol., vol. i. p. 425) as -being flirted by the insect's tail, were promptly directed against the -expected victim. But the ant enjoyed a better fate than the fly, and -escaped the fatal jaws which lay concealed at the base of the conical -hollow. This Australian pitfall was only about half the size of that -made by the European lion-ant. - -[6] Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, p. -354. - - - -CHAPTER XX - -KEELING ISLAND:--CORAL FORMATIONS - -Keeling Island--Singular appearance--Scanty Flora--Transport of -Seeds--Birds and Insects--Ebbing and flowing Springs--Fields of dead -Coral--Stones transported in the roots of Trees--Great Crab--Stinging -Corals--Coral eating Fish--Coral Formations--Lagoon Islands, or -Atolls--Depth at which reef-building Corals can live--Vast Areas -interspersed with low Coral Islands--Subsidence of their -foundations--Barrier Reefs--Fringing Reefs--Conversion of Fringing -Reefs into Barrier Reefs, and into Atolls--Evidence of changes in -Level--Breaches in Barrier Reefs--Maldiva Atolls, their peculiar -structure--Dead and submerged Reefs--Areas of subsidence and -elevation--Distribution of Volcanoes--Subsidence slow, and vast in -amount. - - -APRIL 1st.--We arrived in view of the Keeling or Cocos Islands, -situated in the Indian Ocean, and about six hundred miles distant from -the coast of Sumatra. This is one of the lagoon-islands (or atolls) of -coral formation, similar to those in the Low Archipelago which we -passed near. When the ship was in the channel at the entrance, Mr. -Liesk, an English resident, came off in his boat. The history of the -inhabitants of this place, in as few words as possible, is as follows. -About nine years ago, Mr. Hare, a worthless character, brought from the -East Indian archipelago a number of Malay slaves, which now including -children, amount to more than a hundred. Shortly afterwards, Captain -Ross, who had before visited these islands in his merchant-ship, -arrived from England, bringing with him his family and goods for -settlement: along with him came Mr. Liesk, who had been a mate in his -vessel. The Malay slaves soon ran away from the islet on which Mr. Hare -was settled, and joined Captain Ross's party. Mr. Hare upon this was -ultimately obliged to leave the place. - -The Malays are now nominally in a state of freedom, and certainly are -so, as far as regards their personal treatment; but in most other -points they are considered as slaves. From their discontented state, -from the repeated removals from islet to islet, and perhaps also from a -little mismanagement, things are not very prosperous. The island has -no domestic quadruped, excepting the pig, and the main vegetable -production is the cocoa-nut. The whole prosperity of the place depends -on this tree: the only exports being oil from the nut, and the nuts -themselves, which are taken to Singapore and Mauritius, where they are -chiefly used, when grated, in making curries. On the cocoa-nut, also, -the pigs, which are loaded with fat, almost entirely subsist, as do the -ducks and poultry. Even a huge land-crab is furnished by nature with -the means to open and feed on this most useful production. - -The ring-formed reef of the lagoon-island is surmounted in the greater -part of its length by linear islets. On the northern or leeward side, -there is an opening through which vessels can pass to the anchorage -within. On entering, the scene was very curious and rather pretty; its -beauty, however, entirely depended on the brilliancy of the surrounding -colours. The shallow, clear, and still water of the lagoon, resting in -its greater part on white sand, is, when illumined by a vertical sun, -of the most vivid green. This brilliant expanse, several miles in -width, is on all sides divided, either by a line of snow-white breakers -from the dark heaving waters of the ocean, or from the blue vault of -heaven by the strips of land, crowned by the level tops of the -cocoa-nut trees. As a white cloud here and there affords a pleasing -contrast with the azure sky, so in the lagoon, bands of living coral -darken the emerald green water. - -The next morning after anchoring, I went on shore on Direction Island. -The strip of dry land is only a few hundred yards in width; on the -lagoon side there is a white calcareous beach, the radiation from which -under this sultry climate was very oppressive; and on the outer coast, -a solid broad flat of coral-rock served to break the violence of the -open sea. Excepting near the lagoon, where there is some sand, the -land is entirely composed of rounded fragments of coral. In such a -loose, dry, stony soil, the climate of the intertropical regions alone -could produce a vigorous vegetation. On some of the smaller islets, -nothing could be more elegant than the manner in which the young and -full-grown cocoa-nut trees, without destroying each other's symmetry, -were mingled into one wood. A beach of glittering white sand formed a -border to these fairy spots. - -I will now give a sketch of the natural history of these islands, -which, from its very paucity, possesses a peculiar interest. The -cocoa-nut tree, at first glance, seems to compose the whole wood; there -are however, five or six other trees. One of these grows to a very -large size, but from the extremes of softness of its wood, is useless; -another sort affords excellent timber for ship-building. Besides the -trees, the number of plants is exceedingly limited, and consists of -insignificant weeds. In my collection, which includes, I believe, -nearly the perfect Flora, there are twenty species, without reckoning a -moss, lichen, and fungus. To this number two trees must be added; one -of which was not in flower, and the other I only heard of. The latter -is a solitary tree of its kind, and grows near the beach, where, -without doubt, the one seed was thrown up by the waves. A Guilandina -also grows on only one of the islets. I do not include in the above -list the sugar-cane, banana, some other vegetables, fruit-trees, and -imported grasses. As the islands consist entirely of coral, and at one -time must have existed as mere water-washed reefs, all their -terrestrial productions must have been transported here by the waves of -the sea. In accordance with this, the Florula has quite the character -of a refuge for the destitute: Professor Henslow informs me that of the -twenty species nineteen belong to different genera, and these again to -no less than sixteen families! [1] - -In Holman's [2] Travels an account is given, on the authority of Mr. A. -S. Keating, who resided twelve months on these islands, of the various -seeds and other bodies which have been known to have been washed on -shore. "Seeds and plants from Sumatra and Java have been driven up by -the surf on the windward side of the islands. Among them have been -found the Kimiri, native of Sumatra and the peninsula of Malacca; the -cocoa-nut of Balci, known by its shape and size; the Dadass, which is -planted by the Malays with the pepper-vine, the latter intwining round -its trunk, and supporting itself by the prickles on its stem; the -soap-tree; the castor-oil plant; trunks of the sago palm; and various -kinds of seeds unknown to the Malays settled on the islands. These are -all supposed to have been driven by the N. W. monsoon to the coast of -New Holland, and thence to these islands by the S. E. trade-wind. Large -masses of Java teak and Yellow wood have also been found, besides -immense trees of red and white cedar, and the blue gumwood of New -Holland, in a perfectly sound condition. All the hardy seeds, such as -creepers, retain their germinating power, but the softer kinds, among -which is the mangostin, are destroyed in the passage. Fishing-canoes, -apparently from Java, have at times been washed on shore." It is -interesting thus to discover how numerous the seeds are, which, coming -from several countries, are drifted over the wide ocean. Professor -Henslow tells me, he believes that nearly all the plants which I -brought from these islands, are common littoral species in the East -Indian archipelago. From the direction, however, of the winds and -currents, it seems scarcely possible that they could have come here in -a direct line. If, as suggested with much probability by Mr. Keating, -they were first carried towards the coast of New Holland, and thence -drifted back together with the productions of that country, the seeds, -before germinating, must have travelled between 1800 and 2400 miles. - -Chamisso, [3] when describing the Radack Archipelago, situated in the -western part of the Pacific, states that "the sea brings to these -islands the seeds and fruits of many trees, most of which have yet not -grown here. The greater part of these seeds appear to have not yet -lost the capability of growing." - -It is also said that palms and bamboos from somewhere in the torrid -zone, and trunks of northern firs, are washed on shore: these firs must -have come from an immense distance. These facts are highly -interesting. It cannot be doubted that if there were land-birds to -pick up the seeds when first cast on shore, and a soil better adapted -for their growth than the loose blocks of coral, that the most isolated -of the lagoon-islands would in time possess a far more abundant Flora -than they now have. - -The list of land animals is even poorer than that of the plants. Some -of the islets are inhabited by rats, which were brought in a ship from -the Mauritius, wrecked here. These rats are considered by Mr. -Waterhouse as identical with the English kind, but they are smaller, -and more brightly coloured. There are no true land-birds, for a snipe -and a rail (Rallus Phillippensis), though living entirely in the dry -herbage, belong to the order of Waders. Birds of this order are said -to occur on several of the small low islands in the Pacific. At -Ascension, where there is no land-bird, a rail (Porphyrio simplex) was -shot near the summit of the mountain, and it was evidently a solitary -straggler. At Tristan d'Acunha, where, according to Carmichael, there -are only two land-birds, there is a coot. From these facts I believe -that the waders, after the innumerable web-footed species, are -generally the first colonists of small isolated islands. I may add, -that whenever I noticed birds, not of oceanic species, very far out at -sea, they always belonged to this order; and hence they would naturally -become the earliest colonists of any remote point of land. - -Of reptiles I saw only one small lizard. Of insects I took pains to -collect every kind. Exclusive of spiders, which were numerous, there -were thirteen species. [4] Of these, one only was a beetle. A small -ant swarmed by thousands under the loose dry blocks of coral, and was -the only true insect which was abundant. Although the productions of -the land are thus scanty, if we look to the waters of the surrounding -sea, the number of organic beings is indeed infinite. Chamisso has -described [5] the natural history of a lagoon-island in the Radack -Archipelago; and it is remarkable how closely its inhabitants, in -number and kind, resemble those of Keeling Island. There is one lizard -and two waders, namely, a snipe and curlew. Of plants there are -nineteen species, including a fern; and some of these are the same with -those growing here, though on a spot so immensely remote, and in a -different ocean. - -The long strips of land, forming the linear islets, have been raised -only to that height to which the surf can throw fragments of coral, and -the wind heap up calcareous sand. The solid flat of coral rock on the -outside, by its breadth, breaks the first violence of the waves, which -otherwise, in a day, would sweep away these islets and all their -productions. The ocean and the land seem here struggling for mastery: -although terra firma has obtained a footing, the denizens of the water -think their claim at least equally good. In every part one meets -hermit crabs of more than one species, [6] carrying on their backs the -shells which they have stolen from the neighbouring beach. Overhead, -numerous gannets, frigate-birds, and terns, rest on the trees; and the -wood, from the many nests and from the smell of the atmosphere, might -be called a sea-rookery. The gannets, sitting on their rude nests, -gaze at one with a stupid yet angry air. The noddies, as their name -expresses, are silly little creatures. But there is one charming bird: -it is a small, snow-white tern, which smoothly hovers at the distance -of a few feet above one's head, its large black eye scanning, with -quiet curiosity, your expression. Little imagination is required to -fancy that so light and delicate a body must be tenanted by some -wandering fairy spirit. - -Sunday, April 3rd.--After service I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to the -settlement, situated at the distance of some miles, on the point of an -islet thickly covered with tall cocoa-nut trees. Captain Ross and Mr. -Liesk live in a large barn-like house open at both ends, and lined with -mats made of woven bark. The houses of the Malays are arranged along -the shore of the lagoon. The whole place had rather a desolate aspect, -for there were no gardens to show the signs of care and cultivation. -The natives belong to different islands in the East Indian archipelago, -but all speak the same language: we saw the inhabitants of Borneo, -Celebes, Java, and Sumatra. In colour they resemble the Tahitians, -from whom they do not widely differ in features. Some of the women, -however, show a good deal of the Chinese character. I liked both their -general expressions and the sound of their voices. They appeared poor, -and their houses were destitute of furniture; but it was evident, from -the plumpness of the little children, that cocoa-nuts and turtle afford -no bad sustenance. - -On this island the wells are situated, from which ships obtain water. -At first sight it appears not a little remarkable that the fresh water -should regularly ebb and flow with the tides; and it has even been -imagined, that sand has the power of filtering the salt from the -sea-water. These ebbing wells are common on some of the low islands in -the West Indies. The compressed sand, or porous coral rock, is -permeated like a sponge with the salt water, but the rain which falls -on the surface must sink to the level of the surrounding sea, and must -accumulate there, displacing an equal bulk of the salt water. As the -water in the lower part of the great sponge-like coral mass rises and -falls with the tides, so will the water near the surface; and this will -keep fresh, if the mass be sufficiently compact to prevent much -mechanical admixture; but where the land consists of great loose blocks -of coral with open interstices, if a well be dug, the water, as I have -seen, is brackish. - -After dinner we stayed to see a curious half superstitious scene acted -by the Malay women. A large wooden spoon dressed in garments, and -which had been carried to the grave of a dead man, they pretend becomes -inspired at the full of the moon, and will dance and jump about. After -the proper preparations, the spoon, held by two women, became -convulsed, and danced in good time to the song of the surrounding -children and women. It was a most foolish spectacle; but Mr. Liesk -maintained that many of the Malays believed in its spiritual movements. -The dance did not commence till the moon had risen, and it was well -worth remaining to behold her bright orb so quietly shining through the -long arms of the cocoa-nut trees as they waved in the evening breeze. -These scenes of the tropics are in themselves so delicious, that they -almost equal those dearer ones at home, to which we are bound by each -best feeling of the mind. - -The next day I employed myself in examining the very interesting, yet -simple structure and origin of these islands. The water being unusually -smooth, I waded over the outer flat of dead rock as far as the living -mounds of coral, on which the swell of the open sea breaks. In some of -the gullies and hollows there were beautiful green and other coloured -fishes, and the form and tints of many of the zoophytes were admirable. -It is excusable to grow enthusiastic over the infinite numbers of -organic beings with which the sea of the tropics, so prodigal of life, -teems; yet I must confess I think those naturalists who have described, -in well-known words, the submarine grottoes decked with a thousand -beauties, have indulged in rather exuberant language. - -April 6th.--I accompanied Captain Fitz Roy to an island at the head of -the lagoon: the channel was exceedingly intricate, winding through -fields of delicately branched corals. We saw several turtle and two -boats were then employed in catching them. The water was so clear and -shallow, that although at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight, -yet in a canoe or boat under sail, the pursuers after no very long -chase come up to it. A man standing ready in the bow, at this moment -dashes through the water upon the turtle's back; then clinging with -both hands by the shell of its neck, he is carried away till the animal -becomes exhausted and is secured. It was quite an interesting chase to -see the two boats thus doubling about, and the men dashing head -foremost into the water trying to seize their prey. Captain Moresby -informs me that in the Chagos archipelago in this same ocean, the -natives, by a horrible process, take the shell from the back of the -living turtle. "It is covered with burning charcoal, which causes the -outer shell to curl upwards, it is then forced off with a knife, and -before it becomes cold flattened between boards. After this barbarous -process the animal is suffered to regain its native element, where, -after a certain time, a new shell is formed; it is, however, too thin -to be of any service, and the animal always appears languishing and -sickly." - -When we arrived at the head of the lagoon, we crossed a narrow islet, -and found a great surf breaking on the windward coast. I can hardly -explain the reason, but there is to my mind much grandeur in the view -of the outer shores of these lagoon-islands. There is a simplicity in -the barrier-like beach, the margin of green bushes and tall cocoa-nuts, -the solid flat of dead coral-rock, strewed here and there with great -loose fragments, and the line of furious breakers, all rounding away -towards either hand. The ocean throwing its waters over the broad reef -appears an invincible, all-powerful enemy; yet we see it resisted, and -even conquered, by means which at first seem most weak and inefficient. -It is not that the ocean spares the rock of coral; the great fragments -scattered over the reef, and heaped on the beach, whence the tall -cocoa-nut springs, plainly bespeak the unrelenting power of the waves. -Nor are any periods of repose granted. The long swell caused by the -gentle but steady action of the trade-wind, always blowing in one -direction over a wide area, causes breakers, almost equalling in force -those during a gale of wind in the temperate regions, and which never -cease to rage. It is impossible to behold these waves without feeling -a conviction that an island, though built of the hardest rock, let it -be porphyry, granite, or quartz, would ultimately yield and be -demolished by such an irresistible power. Yet these low, insignificant -coral-islets stand and are victorious: for here another power, as an -antagonist, takes part in the contest. The organic forces separate the -atoms of carbonate of lime, one by one, from the foaming breakers, and -unite them into a symmetrical structure. Let the hurricane tear up its -thousand huge fragments; yet what will that tell against the -accumulated labour of myriads of architects at work night and day, -month after month? Thus do we see the soft and gelatinous body of a -polypus, through the agency of the vital laws, conquering the great -mechanical power of the waves of an ocean which neither the art of man -nor the inanimate works of nature could successfully resist. - -We did not return on board till late in the evening, for we stayed a -long time in the lagoon, examining the fields of coral and the gigantic -shells of the chama, into which, if a man were to put his hand, he -would not, as long as the animal lived, be able to withdraw it. Near -the head of the lagoon I was much surprised to find a wide area, -considerably more than a mile square, covered with a forest of -delicately branching corals, which, though standing upright, were all -dead and rotten. At first I was quite at a loss to understand the -cause afterwards it occurred to me that it was owing to the following -rather curious combination of circumstances. It should, however, first -be stated, that corals are not able to survive even a short exposure in -the air to the sun's rays, so that their upward limit of growth is -determined by that of lowest water at spring tides. It appears, from -some old charts, that the long island to windward was formerly -separated by wide channels into several islets; this fact is likewise -indicated by the trees being younger on these portions. Under the -former condition of the reef, a strong breeze, by throwing more water -over the barrier, would tend to raise the level of the lagoon. Now it -acts in a directly contrary manner; for the water within the lagoon not -only is not increased by currents from the outside, but is itself blown -outwards by the force of the wind. Hence it is observed, that the tide -near the head of the lagoon does not rise so high during a strong -breeze as it does when it is calm. This difference of level, although -no doubt very small, has, I believe, caused the death of those -coral-groves, which under the former and more open condition of the -outer reef has attained the utmost possible limit of upward growth. - -A few miles north of Keeling there is another small atoll, the lagoon -of which is nearly filled up with coral-mud. Captain Ross found -embedded in the conglomerate on the outer coast, a well-rounded -fragment of greenstone, rather larger than a man's head: he and the men -with him were so much surprised at this, that they brought it away and -preserved it as a curiosity. The occurrence of this one stone, where -every other particle of matter is calcareous, certainly is very -puzzling. The island has scarcely ever been visited, nor is it -probable that a ship had been wrecked there. From the absence of any -better explanation, I came to the conclusion that it must have come -entangled in the roots of some large tree: when, however, I considered -the great distance from the nearest land, the combination of chances -against a stone thus being entangled, the tree washed into the sea, -floated so far, then landed safely, and the stone finally so embedded -as to allow of its discovery, I was almost afraid of imagining a means -of transport apparently so improbable. It was therefore with great -interest that I found Chamisso, the justly distinguished naturalist who -accompanied Kotzebue, stating that the inhabitants of the Radack -archipelago, a group of lagoon-islands in the midst of the Pacific, -obtained stones for sharpening their instruments by searching the roots -of trees which are cast upon the beach. It will be evident that this -must have happened several times, since laws have been established that -such stones belong to the chief, and a punishment is inflicted on any -one who attempts to steal them. When the isolated position of these -small islands in the midst of a vast ocean--their great distance from -any land excepting that of coral formation, attested by the value which -the inhabitants, who are such bold navigators, attach to a stone of any -kind, [7]--and the slowness of the currents of the open sea, are all -considered, the occurrence of pebbles thus transported does appear -wonderful. Stones may often be thus carried; and if the island on -which they are stranded is constructed of any other substance besides -coral, they would scarcely attract attention, and their origin at least -would never be guessed. Moreover, this agency may long escape -discovery from the probability of trees, especially those loaded with -stones, floating beneath the surface. In the channels of Tierra del -Fuego large quantities of drift timber are cast upon the beach, yet it -is extremely rare to meet a tree swimming on the water. These facts -may possibly throw light on single stones, whether angular or rounded, -occasionally found embedded in fine sedimentary masses. - -During another day I visited West Islet, on which the vegetation was -perhaps more luxuriant than on any other. The cocoa-nut trees generally -grow separate, but here the young ones flourished beneath their tall -parents, and formed with their long and curved fronds the most shady -arbours. Those alone who have tried it, know how delicious it is to be -seated in such shade, and drink the cool pleasant fluid of the -cocoa-nut. In this island there is a large bay-like space, composed of -the finest white sand: it is quite level and is only covered by the -tide at high water; from this large bay smaller creeks penetrate the -surrounding woods. To see a field of glittering white sand, -representing water, with the cocoa-nut trees extending their tall and -waving trunks around the margin, formed a singular and very pretty view. - -I have before alluded to a crab which lives on the cocoa-nuts; it is -very common on all parts of the dry land, and grows to a monstrous -size: it is closely allied or identical with the Birgos latro. The -front pair of legs terminate in very strong and heavy pincers, and the -last pair are fitted with others weaker and much narrower. It would at -first be thought quite impossible for a crab to open a strong cocoa-nut -covered with the husk; but Mr. Liesk assures me that he has repeatedly -seen this effected. The crab begins by tearing the husk, fibre by -fibre, and always from that end under which the three eye-holes are -situated; when this is completed, the crab commences hammering with its -heavy claws on one of the eye-holes till an opening is made. Then -turning round its body, by the aid of its posterior and narrow pair of -pincers, it extracts the white albuminous substance. I think this is as -curious a case of instinct as ever I heard of, and likewise of -adaptation in structure between two objects apparently so remote from -each other in the scheme of nature, as a crab and a cocoa-nut tree. The -Birgos is diurnal in its habits; but every night it is said to pay a -visit to the sea, no doubt for the purpose of moistening its branchiae. -The young are likewise hatched, and live for some time, on the coast. -These crabs inhabit deep burrows, which they hollow out beneath the -roots of trees; and where they accumulate surprising quantities of the -picked fibres of the cocoa-nut husk, on which they rest as on a bed. -The Malays sometimes take advantage of this, and collect the fibrous -mass to use as junk. These crabs are very good to eat; moreover, under -the tail of the larger ones there is a mass of fat, which, when melted, -sometimes yields as much as a quart bottle full of limpid oil. It has -been stated by some authors that the Birgos crawls up the cocoa-nut -trees for the purpose of stealing the nuts: I very much doubt the -possibility of this; but with the Pandanus [8] the task would be very -much easier. I was told by Mr. Liesk that on these islands the Birgos -lives only on the nuts which have fallen to the ground. - -Captain Moresby informs me that this crab inhabits the Chagos and -Seychelle groups, but not the neighbouring Maldiva archipelago. It -formerly abounded at Mauritius, but only a few small ones are now found -there. In the Pacific, this species, or one with closely allied -habits, is said [9] to inhabit a single coral island, north of the -Society group. To show the wonderful strength of the front pair of -pincers, I may mention, that Captain Moresby confined one in a strong -tin-box, which had held biscuits, the lid being secured with wire; but -the crab turned down the edges and escaped. In turning down the edges, -it actually punched many small holes quite through the tin! - -I was a good deal surprised by finding two species of coral of the -genus Millepora (M. complanata and alcicornis), possessed of the power -of stinging. The stony branches or plates, when taken fresh from the -water, have a harsh feel and are not slimy, although possessing a -strong and disagreeable smell. The stinging property seems to vary in -different specimens: when a piece was pressed or rubbed on the tender -skin of the face or arm, a pricking sensation was usually caused, which -came on after the interval of a second, and lasted only for a few -minutes. One day, however, by merely touching my face with one of the -branches, pain was instantaneously caused; it increased as usual after -a few seconds, and remaining sharp for some minutes, was perceptible -for half an hour afterwards. The sensation was as bad as that from a -nettle, but more like that caused by the Physalia or Portuguese -man-of-war. Little red spots were produced on the tender skin of the -arm, which appeared as if they would have formed watery pustules, but -did not. M. Quoy mentions this case of the Millepora; and I have heard -of stinging corals in the West Indies. Many marine animals seem to -have this power of stinging: besides the Portuguese man-of-war, many -jelly-fish, and the Aplysia or sea-slug of the Cape de Verd Islands, it -is stated in the voyage of the Astrolabe, that an Actinia or -sea-anemone, as well as a flexible coralline allied to Sertularia, both -possess this means of offence or defence. In the East Indian sea, a -stinging sea-weed is said to be found. - -Two species of fish, of the genus Scarus, which are common here, -exclusively feed on coral: both are coloured of a splendid -bluish-green, one living invariably in the lagoon, and the other -amongst the outer breakers. Mr. Liesk assured us, that he had -repeatedly seen whole shoals grazing with their strong bony jaws on the -tops of the coral branches: I opened the intestines of several, and -found them distended with yellowish calcareous sandy mud. The slimy -disgusting Holuthuriae (allied to our star-fish), which the Chinese -gourmands are so fond of, also feed largely, as I am informed by Dr. -Allan, on corals; and the bony apparatus within their bodies seems well -adapted for this end. These Holuthuriae, the fish, the numerous -burrowing shells, and nereidous worms, which perforate every block of -dead coral, must be very efficient agents in producing the fine white -mud which lies at the bottom and on the shores of the lagoon. A -portion, however, of this mud, which when wet resembled pounded chalk, -was found by Professor Ehrenberg to be partly composed of -siliceous-shielded infusoria. - -April 12th.--In the morning we stood out of the lagoon on our passage -to the Isle of France. I am glad we have visited these islands: such -formations surely rank high amongst the wonderful objects of this -world. Captain Fitz Roy found no bottom with a line 7200 feet in -length, at the distance of only 2200 yards from the shore; hence this -island forms a lofty submarine mountain, with sides steeper even than -those of the most abrupt volcanic cone. The saucer-shaped summit is -nearly ten miles across; and every single atom, [10] from the least -particle to the largest fragment of rock, in this great pile, which -however is small compared with very many other lagoon-islands, bears -the stamp of having been subjected to organic arrangement. We feel -surprise when travellers tell us of the vast dimensions of the Pyramids -and other great ruins, but how utterly insignificant are the greatest -of these, when compared to these mountains of stone accumulated by the -agency of various minute and tender animals! This is a wonder which -does not at first strike the eye of the body, but, after reflection, -the eye of reason. - -I will now give a very brief account of the three great classes of -coral-reefs; namely, Atolls, Barrier, and Fringing-reefs, and will -explain my views [11] on their formation. Almost every voyager who has -crossed the Pacific has expressed his unbounded astonishment at the -lagoon-islands, or as I shall for the future call them by their Indian -name of atolls, and has attempted some explanation. Even as long ago -as the year 1605, Pyrard de Laval well exclaimed, "C'est - -[picture] - -une merveille de voir chacun de ces atollons, environne d'un grand banc -de pierre tout autour, n'y ayant point d'artifice humain." The -accompanying sketch of Whitsunday Island in the Pacific, copied from, -Capt. Beechey's admirable Voyage, gives but a faint idea of the -singular aspect of an atoll: it is one of the smallest size, and has -its narrow islets united together in a ring. The immensity of the -ocean, the fury of the breakers, contrasted with the lowness of the -land and the smoothness of the bright green water within the lagoon, -can hardly be imagined without having been seen. - -The earlier voyagers fancied that the coral-building animals -instinctively built up their great circles to afford themselves -protection in the inner parts; but so far is this from the truth, that -those massive kinds, to whose growth on the exposed outer shores the -very existence of the reef depends, cannot live within the lagoon, -where other delicately-branching kinds flourish. Moreover, on this -view, many species of distinct genera and families are supposed to -combine for one end; and of such a combination, not a single instance -can be found in the whole of nature. The theory that has been most -generally received is, that atolls are based on submarine craters; but -when we consider the form and size of some, the number, proximity, and -relative positions of others, this idea loses its plausible character: -thus Suadiva atoll is 44 geographical miles in diameter in one line, by -34 miles in another line; Rimsky is 54 by 20 miles across, and it has a -strangely sinuous margin; Bow atoll is 30 miles long, and on an average -only 6 in width; Menchicoff atoll consists of three atolls united or -tied together. This theory, moreover, is totally inapplicable to the -northern Maldiva atolls in the Indian Ocean (one of which is 88 miles -in length, and between 10 and 20 in breadth), for they are not bounded -like ordinary atolls by narrow reefs, but by a vast number of separate -little atolls; other little atolls rising out of the great central -lagoon-like spaces. A third and better theory was advanced by -Chamisso, who thought that from the corals growing more vigorously -where exposed to the open sea, as undoubtedly is the case, the outer -edges would grow up from the general foundation before any other part, -and that this would account for the ring or cup-shaped structure. But -we shall immediately see, that in this, as well as in the -crater-theory, a most important consideration has been overlooked, -namely, on what have the reef-building corals, which cannot live at a -great depth, based their massive structures? - -Numerous soundings were carefully taken by Captain Fitz Roy on the -steep outside of Keeling atoll, and it was found that within ten -fathoms, the prepared tallow at the bottom of the lead, invariably came -up marked with the impression of living corals, but as perfectly clean -as if it had been dropped on a carpet of turf; as the depth increased, -the impressions became less numerous, but the adhering particles of -sand more and more numerous, until at last it was evident that the -bottom consisted of a smooth sandy layer: to carry on the analogy of -the turf, the blades of grass grew thinner and thinner, till at last -the soil was so sterile, that nothing sprang from it. From these -observations, confirmed by many others, it may be safely inferred that -the utmost depth at which corals can construct reefs is between 20 and -30 fathoms. Now there are enormous areas in the Pacific and Indian -Ocean, in which every single island is of coral formation, and is -raised only to that height to which the waves can throw up fragments, -and the winds pile up sand. Thus Radack group of atolls is an -irregular square, 520 miles long and 240 broad; the Low Archipelago is -elliptic-formed, 840 miles in its longer, and 420 in its shorter axis: -there are other small groups and single low islands between these two -archipelagoes, making a linear space of ocean actually more than 4000 -miles in length, in which not one single island rises above the -specified height. Again, in the Indian Ocean there is a space of ocean -1500 miles in length, including three archipelagoes, in which every -island is low and of coral formation. From the fact of the -reef-building corals not living at great depths, it is absolutely -certain that throughout these vast areas, wherever there is now an -atoll, a foundation must have originally existed within a depth of from -20 to 30 fathoms from the surface. It is improbable in the highest -degree that broad, lofty, isolated, steep-sided banks of sediment, -arranged in groups and lines hundreds of leagues in length, could have -been deposited in the central and profoundest parts of the Pacific and -Indian Oceans, at an immense distance from any continent, and where the -water is perfectly limpid. It is equally improbable that the elevatory -forces should have uplifted throughout the above vast areas, -innumerable great rocky banks within 20 to 30 fathoms, or 120 to 180 -feet, of the surface of the sea, and not one single point above that -level; for where on the whole surface of the globe can we find a single -chain of mountains, even a few hundred miles in length, with their many -summits rising within a few feet of a given level, and not one pinnacle -above it? If then the foundations, whence the atoll-building corals -sprang, were not formed of sediment, and if they were not lifted up to -the required level, they must of necessity have subsided into it; and -this at once solves the difficulty. For as mountain after mountain, -and island after island, slowly sank beneath the water, fresh bases -would be successively afforded for the growth of the corals. It is -impossible here to enter into all the necessary details, but I venture -to defy [12] any one to explain in any other manner how it is possible -that numerous islands should be distributed throughout vast areas--all -the islands being low--all being built of corals, absolutely requiring -a foundation within a limited depth from the surface. - -Before explaining how atoll-formed reefs acquire their peculiar -structure, we must turn to the second great class, namely, -Barrier-reefs. These either extend in straight lines in front of the -shores of a continent or of a large island, or they encircle smaller -islands; in both cases, being separated from the land by a broad and -rather deep channel of water, analogous to the lagoon within an atoll. -It is remarkable how little attention has been paid to encircling -barrier-reefs; yet they are truly wonderful structures. The following -sketch represents part of the barrier encircling the island of Bolabola -in the Pacific, as seen from one of the central peaks. In this instance -the whole line of reef has been converted into land; but usually a -snow-white line of great breakers, with only here and there a single -low islet crowned with cocoa-nut trees, divides the dark heaving waters -of the ocean from the light-green expanse of the lagoon-channel. And -the quiet waters of this channel generally bathe a fringe of low -alluvial soil, loaded with the most beautiful productions of the -tropics, and lying at the foot of the wild, abrupt, central mountains. - -Encircling barrier-reefs are of all sizes, from three miles to no less -than forty-four miles in diameter; and that which fronts one side, and -encircles both ends, of New Caledonia, is 400 miles long. Each reef -includes one, two, or several rocky islands of various heights; and in -one instance, even as many as twelve separate islands. The reef runs -at a greater or less distance from the included land; in the Society -archipelago generally from one to three or four miles; but at Hogoleu -the reef is 20 miles on the southern side, and 14 miles on the opposite -or northern side, from the included islands. The depth within the -lagoon-channel also varies much; from 10 to 30 fathoms may be taken as -an average; but at Vanikoro there are spaces no less than 56 fathoms or -363 feet deep. Internally the reef either slopes gently into the -lagoon-channel, or ends in a perpendicular wall sometimes between two -and three hundred feet under water in height: externally the reef -rises, like an atoll, with extreme abruptness out of the profound -depths of the ocean. - -What can be more singular than these structures? We see - -[picture] - -an island, which may be compared to a castle situated on the summit of -a lofty submarine mountain, protected by a great wall of coral-rock, -always steep externally and sometimes internally, with a broad level -summit, here and there breached by a narrow gateway, through which the -largest ships can enter the wide and deep encircling moat. - -As far as the actual reef of coral is concerned, there is not the -smallest difference, in general size, outline, grouping, and even in -quite trifling details of structure, between a barrier and an atoll. -The geographer Balbi has well remarked, that an encircled island is an -atoll with high land rising out of its lagoon; remove the land from -within, and a perfect atoll is left. - -But what has caused these reefs to spring up at such great distances -from the shores of the included islands? It cannot be that the corals -will not grow close to the land; for the shores within the -lagoon-channel, when not surrounded by alluvial soil, are often fringed -by living reefs; and we shall presently see that there is a whole -class, which I have called Fringing Reefs from their close attachment -to the shores both of continents and of islands. Again, on what have -the reef-building corals, which cannot live at great depths, based -their encircling structures? This is a great apparent difficulty, -analogous to that in the case of atolls, which has generally been -overlooked. It will be perceived more clearly by inspecting the -following sections which are real ones, taken in north and south lines, -through the islands with their barrier-reefs, of Vanikoro, Gambier, and -Maurua; and they are laid down, both vertically and horizontally, on -the same scale of a quarter of an inch to a mile. - -It should be observed that the sections might have been taken in any -direction through these islands, or through - -[picture] - -many other encircled islands, and the general features would have been -the same. Now, bearing in mind that reef-building coral cannot live at -a greater depth than from 20 to 30 fathoms, and that the scale is so -small that the plummets on the right hand show a depth of 200 fathoms, -on what are these barrier-reefs based? Are we to suppose that each -island is surrounded by a collar-like submarine ledge of rock, or by a -great bank of sediment, ending abruptly where the reef ends? - -If the sea had formerly eaten deeply into the islands, before they were -protected by the reefs, thus having left a shallow ledge round them -under water, the present shores would have been invariably bounded by -great precipices, but this is most rarely the case. Moreover, on this -notion, it is not possible to explain why the corals should have sprung -up, like a wall, from the extreme outer margin of the ledge, often -leaving a broad space of water within, too deep for the growth of -corals. The accumulation of a wide bank of sediment all round these -islands, and generally widest where the included islands are smallest, -is highly improbable, considering their exposed positions in the -central and deepest parts of the ocean. In the case of the -barrier-reef of New Caledonia, which extends for 150 miles beyond the -northern point of the islands, in the same straight line with which it -fronts the west coast, it is hardly possible to believe that a bank of -sediment could thus have been straightly deposited in front of a lofty -island, and so far beyond its termination in the open sea. Finally, if -we look to other oceanic islands of about the same height and of -similar geological constitution, but not encircled by coral-reefs, we -may in vain search for so trifling a circumambient depth as 30 fathoms, -except quite near to their shores; for usually land that rises abruptly -out of water, as do most of the encircled and non-encircled oceanic -islands, plunges abruptly under it. On what then, I repeat, are these -barrier reefs based? Why, with their wide and deep moat-like channels, -do they stand so far from the included land? We shall soon see how -easily these difficulties disappear. - -We come now to our third class of Fringing-reefs, which will require a -very short notice. Where the land slopes abruptly under water, these -reefs are only a few yards in width, forming a mere ribbon or fringe -round the shores: where the land slopes gently under the water the reef -extends further, sometimes even as much as a mile from the land; but in -such cases the soundings outside the reef always show that the -submarine prolongation of the land is gently inclined. In fact, the -reefs extend only to that distance from the shore, at which a -foundation within the requisite depth from 20 to 30 fathoms is found. -As far as the actual reef is concerned, there is no essential -difference between it and that forming a barrier or an atoll: it is, -however, generally of less width, and consequently few islets have been -formed on it. From the corals growing more vigorously on the outside, -and from the noxious effect of the sediment washed inwards, the outer -edge of the reef is the highest part, and between it and the land there -is generally a shallow sandy channel a few feet in depth. Where banks -or sediments have accumulated near to the surface, as in parts of the -West Indies, they sometimes become fringed with corals, and hence in -some degree resemble lagoon-islands or atolls, in the same manner as -fringing-reefs, surrounding gently sloping islands, in some degree -resemble barrier-reefs. - - -No theory on the formation of coral-reefs can be considered -satisfactory which does not include the three great - -[picture] - -classes. We have seen that we are driven to believe in the subsidence -of those vast areas, interspersed with low islands, of which not one -rises above the height to which the wind and waves can throw up matter, -and yet are constructed by animals requiring a foundation, and that -foundation to lie at no great depth. Let us then take an island -surrounded by fringing-reefs, which offer no difficulty in their -structure; and let this island with its reefs, represented by the -unbroken lines in the woodcut, slowly subside. Now, as the island -sinks down, either a few feet at a time or quite insensibly, we may -safely infer, from what is known of the conditions favourable to the -growth of coral, that the living masses, bathed by the surf on the -margin of the reef, will soon regain the surface. The water, however, -will encroach little by little on the shore, the island becoming lower -and smaller, and the space between the inner edge of the reef and the -beach proportionately broader. A section of the reef and island in -this state, after a subsidence of several hundred feet, is given by the -dotted lines. Coral islets are supposed to have been formed on the -reef; and a ship is anchored in the lagoon-channel. This channel will -be more or less deep, according to the rate of subsidence, to the -amount of sediment accumulated in it, and to the growth of the -delicately branched corals which can live there. The section in this -state resembles in every respect one drawn through an encircled island: -in fact, it is a real section (on the scale of .517 of an inch to a -mile) through Bolabola in the Pacific. We can now at once see why -encircling barrier-reefs stand so far from the shores which they front. -We can also perceive, that a line drawn perpendicularly down from the -outer edge of the new reef, to the foundation of solid rock beneath the -old fringing-reef, will exceed by as many feet as there have been feet -of subsidence, that small limit of depth at which the effective corals -can live:--the little architects having built up their great wall-like -mass, as the whole sank down, upon a basis formed of other corals and -their consolidated fragments. Thus the difficulty on this head, which -appeared so great, disappears. - -If, instead of an island, we had taken the shore of a continent fringed -with reefs, and had imagined it to have subsided, a great straight -barrier, like that of Australia or New Caledonia, separated from the -land by a wide and deep channel, would evidently have been the result. - -Let us take our new encircling barrier-reef, of which the section is -now represented by unbroken lines, and which, as I have said, is a real -section through Bolabola, and let it go on subsiding. As the -barrier-reef slowly sinks down, the corals will go on vigorously -growing upwards; but as the island sinks, the water will gain inch by -inch on the shore--the separate mountains first forming separate -islands within - -[picture] - -one great reef--and finally, the last and highest pinnacle -disappearing. The instant this takes place, a perfect atoll is formed: -I have said, remove the high land from within an encircling -barrier-reef, and an atoll is left, and the land has been removed. We -can now perceive how it comes that atolls, having sprung from -encircling barrier-reefs, resemble them in general size, form, in the -manner in which they are grouped together, and in their arrangement in -single or double lines; for they may be called rude outline charts of -the sunken islands over which they stand. We can further see how it -arises that the atolls in the Pacific and Indian Oceans extend in lines -parallel to the generally prevailing strike of the high islands and -great coast-lines of those oceans. I venture, therefore, to affirm, -that on the theory of the upward growth of the corals during the -sinking of the land, [13] all the leading features in those wonderful -structures, the lagoon-islands or atolls, which have so long excited -the attention of voyagers, as well as in the no less wonderful -barrier-reefs, whether encircling small islands or stretching for -hundreds of miles along the shores of a continent, are simply explained. - -It may be asked, whether I can offer any direct evidence of the -subsidence of barrier-reefs or atolls; but it must be borne in mind how -difficult it must ever be to detect a movement, the tendency of which -is to hide under water the part affected. Nevertheless, at Keeling -atoll I observed on all sides of the lagoon old cocoa-nut trees -undermined and falling; and in one place the foundation-posts of a -shed, which the inhabitants asserted had stood seven years before just -above high-water mark, but now was daily washed by every tide: on -inquiry I found that three earthquakes, one of them severe, had been -felt here during the last ten years. At Vanikoro, the lagoon-channel -is remarkably deep, scarcely any alluvial soil has accumulated at the -foot of the lofty included mountains, and remarkably few islets have -been formed by the heaping of fragments and sand on the wall-like -barrier reef; these facts, and some analogous ones, led me to believe -that this island must lately have subsided and the reef grown upwards: -here again earthquakes are frequent and very severe. In the Society -archipelago, on the other hand, where the lagoon-channels are almost -choked up, where much low alluvial land has accumulated, and where in -some cases long islets have been formed on the barrier-reefs--facts -all showing that the islands have not very lately subsided--only feeble -shocks are most rarely felt. In these coral formations, where the land -and water seem struggling for mastery, it must be ever difficult to -decide between the effects of a change in the set of the tides and of a -slight subsidence: that many of these reefs and atolls are subject to -changes of some kind is certain; on some atolls the islets appear to -have increased greatly within a late period; on others they have been -partially or wholly washed away. The inhabitants of parts of the -Maldiva archipelago know the date of the first formation of some -islets; in other parts, the corals are now flourishing on water-washed -reefs, where holes made for graves attest the former existence of -inhabited land. It is difficult to believe in frequent changes in the -tidal currents of an open ocean; whereas, we have in the earthquakes -recorded by the natives on some atolls, and in the great fissures -observed on other atolls, plain evidence of changes and disturbances in -progress in the subterranean regions. - -It is evident, on our theory, that coasts merely fringed by reefs -cannot have subsided to any perceptible amount; and therefore they -must, since the growth of their corals, either have remained stationary -or have been upheaved. Now, it is remarkable how generally it can be -shown, by the presence of upraised organic remains, that the fringed -islands have been elevated: and so far, this is indirect evidence in -favour of our theory. I was particularly struck with this fact, when I -found, to my surprise, that the descriptions given by MM. Quoy and -Gaimard were applicable, not to reefs in general as implied by them, -but only to those of the fringing class; my surprise, however, ceased -when I afterwards found that, by a strange chance, all the several -islands visited by these eminent naturalists, could be shown by their -own statements to have been elevated within a recent geological era. - -Not only the grand features in the structure of barrier-reefs and of -atolls, and to their likeness to each other in form, size, and other -characters, are explained on the theory of subsidence--which theory we -are independently forced to admit in the very areas in question, from -the necessity of finding bases for the corals within the requisite -depth--but many details in structure and exceptional cases can thus -also be simply explained. I will give only a few instances. In -barrier-reefs it has long been remarked with surprise, that the -passages through the reef exactly face valleys in the included land, -even in cases where the reef is separated from the land by a -lagoon-channel so wide and so much deeper than the actual passage -itself, that it seems hardly possible that the very small quantity of -water or sediment brought down could injure the corals on the reef. -Now, every reef of the fringing class is breached by a narrow gateway -in front of the smallest rivulet, even if dry during the greater part -of the year, for the mud, sand, or gravel, occasionally washed down -kills the corals on which it is deposited. Consequently, when an -island thus fringed subsides, though most of the narrow gateways will -probably become closed by the outward and upward growth of the corals, -yet any that are not closed (and some must always be kept open by the -sediment and impure water flowing out of the lagoon-channel) will still -continue to front exactly the upper parts of those valleys, at the -mouths of which the original basal fringing-reef was breached. - -We can easily see how an island fronted only on one side, or on one -side with one end or both ends encircled by barrier-reefs, might after -long-continued subsidence be converted either into a single wall-like -reef, or into an atoll with a great straight spur projecting from it, -or into two or three atolls tied together by straight reefs--all of -which exceptional cases actually occur. As the reef-building corals -require food, are preyed upon by other animals, are killed by sediment, -cannot adhere to a loose bottom, and may be easily carried down to a -depth whence they cannot spring up again, we need feel no surprise at -the reefs both of atolls and barriers becoming in parts imperfect. The -great barrier of New Caledonia is thus imperfect and broken in many -parts; hence, after long subsidence, this great reef would not produce -one great atoll 400 miles in length, but a chain or archipelago of -atolls, of very nearly the same dimension with those in the Maldiva -archipelago. Moreover, in an atoll once breached on opposite sides, -from the likelihood of the oceanic and tidal currents passing straight -through the breaches, it is extremely improbable that the corals, -especially during continued subsidence, would ever be able again to -unite the rim; if they did not, as the whole sank downwards, one atoll -would be divided into two or more. In the Maldiva archipelago there -are distinct atolls so related to each other in position, and separated -by channels either unfathomable or very deep (the channel between Ross -and Ari atolls is 150 fathoms, and that between the north and south -Nillandoo atolls is 200 fathoms in depth), that it is impossible to -look at a map of them without believing that they were once more -intimately related. And in this same archipelago, Mahlos-Mahdoo atoll -is divided by a bifurcating channel from 100 to 132 fathoms in depth, -in such a manner, that it is scarcely possible to say whether it ought -strictly to be called three separate atolls, or one great atoll not yet -finally divided. - -I will not enter on many more details; but I must remark that the -curious structure of the northern Maldiva atolls receives (taking into -consideration the free entrance of the sea through their broken -margins) a simple explanation in the upward and outward growth of the -corals, originally based both on small detached reefs in their lagoons, -such as occur in common atolls, and on broken portions of the linear -marginal reef, such as bounds every atoll of the ordinary form. I -cannot refrain from once again remarking on the singularity of these -complex structures--a great sandy and generally concave disk rises -abruptly from the unfathomable ocean, with its central expanse studded, -and its edge symmetrically bordered with oval basins of coral-rock just -lipping the surface of the sea, sometimes clothed with vegetation, and -each containing a lake of clear water! - -One more point in detail: as in the two neighbouring archipelagoes -corals flourish in one and not in the other, and as so many conditions -before enumerated must affect their existence, it would be an -inexplicable fact if, during the changes to which earth, air, and water -are subjected, the reef-building corals were to keep alive for -perpetuity on any one spot or area. And as by our theory the areas -including atolls and barrier-reefs are subsiding, we ought occasionally -to find reefs both dead and submerged. In all reefs, owing to the -sediment being washed out of the lagoon-channel to leeward, that side -is least favourable to the long-continued vigorous growth of the -corals; hence dead portions of reef not unfrequently occur on the -leeward side; and these, though still retaining their proper wall-like -form, are now in several instances sunk several fathoms beneath the -surface. The Chagos group appears from some cause, possibly from the -subsidence having been too rapid, at present to be much less favourably -circumstanced for the growth of reefs than formerly: one atoll has a -portion of its marginal reef, nine miles in length, dead and submerged; -a second has only a few quite small living points which rise to the -surface, a third and fourth are entirely dead and submerged; a fifth is -a mere wreck, with its structure almost obliterated. It is remarkable -that in all these cases, the dead reefs and portions of reef lie at -nearly the same depth, namely, from six to eight fathoms beneath the -surface, as if they had been carried down by one uniform movement. One -of these "half-drowned atolls," so called by Capt. Moresby (to whom I -am indebted for much invaluable information), is of vast size, namely, -ninety nautical miles across in one direction, and seventy miles in -another line; and is in many respects eminently curious. As by our -theory it follows that new atolls will generally be formed in each new -area of subsidence, two weighty objections might have been raised, -namely, that atolls must be increasing indefinitely in number; and -secondly, that in old areas of subsidence each separate atoll must be -increasing indefinitely in thickness, if proofs of their occasional -destruction could not have been adduced. Thus have we traced the -history of these great rings of coral-rock, from their first origin -through their normal changes, and through the occasional accidents of -their existence, to their death and final obliteration. - - -In my volume on "Coral Formations" I have published a map, in which I -have coloured all the atolls dark-blue, the barrier-reefs pale-blue, -and the fringing reefs red. These latter reefs have been formed whilst -the land has been stationary, or, as appears from the frequent presence -of upraised organic remains, whilst it has been slowly rising: atolls -and barrier-reefs, on the other hand, have grown up during the directly -opposite movement of subsidence, which movement must have been very -gradual, and in the case of atolls so vast in amount as to have buried -every mountain-summit over wide ocean-spaces. Now in this map we see -that the reefs tinted pale and dark-blue, which have been produced by -the same order of movement, as a general rule manifestly stand near -each other. Again we see, that the areas with the two blue tints are -of wide extent; and that they lie separate from extensive lines of -coast coloured red, both of which circumstances might naturally have -been inferred, on the theory of the nature of the reefs having been -governed by the nature of the earth's movement. It deserves notice -that in more than one instance where single red and blue circles -approach near each other, I can show that there have been oscillations -of level; for in such cases the red or fringed circles consist of -atolls, originally by our theory formed during subsidence, but -subsequently upheaved; and on the other hand, some of the pale-blue or -encircled islands are composed of coral-rock, which must have been -uplifted to its present height before that subsidence took place, -during which the existing barrier-reefs grew upwards. - -Authors have noticed with surprise, that although atolls are the -commonest coral-structures throughout some enormous oceanic tracts, -they are entirely absent in other seas, as in the West Indies: we can -now at once perceive the cause, for where there has not been -subsidence, atolls cannot have been formed; and in the case of the West -Indies and parts of the East Indies, these tracts are known to have -been rising within the recent period. The larger areas, coloured red -and blue, are all elongated; and between the two colours there is a -degree of rude alternation, as if the rising of one had balanced the -sinking of the other. Taking into consideration the proofs of recent -elevation both on the fringed coasts and on some others (for instance, -in South America) where there are no reefs, we are led to conclude that -the great continents are for the most part rising areas: and from the -nature of the coral-reefs, that the central parts of the great oceans -are sinking areas. The East Indian archipelago, the most broken land -in the world, is in most parts an area of elevation, but surrounded and -penetrated, probably in more lines than one, by narrow areas of -subsidence. - -I have marked with vermilion spots all the many known active volcanos -within the limits of this same map. Their entire absence from every -one of the great subsiding areas, coloured either pale or dark blue, is -most striking and not less so is the coincidence of the chief volcanic -chains with the parts coloured red, which we are led to conclude have -either long remained stationary, or more generally have been recently -upraised. Although a few of the vermilion spots occur within no great -distance of single circles tinted blue, yet not one single active -volcano is situated within several hundred miles of an archipelago, or -even small group of atolls. It is, therefore, a striking fact that in -the Friendly archipelago, which consists of a group of atolls upheaved -and since partially worn down, two volcanos, and perhaps more, are -historically known to have been in action. On the other hand, although -most of the islands in the Pacific which are encircled by -barrier-reefs, are of volcanic origin, often with the remnants of -craters still distinguishable, not one of them is known to have ever -been in eruption. Hence in these cases it would appear, that volcanos -burst forth into action and become extinguished on the same spots, -accordingly as elevatory or subsiding movements prevail there. -Numberless facts could be adduced to prove that upraised organic -remains are common wherever there are active volcanos; but until it -could be shown that in areas of subsidence, volcanos were either absent -or inactive, the inference, however probable in itself, that their -distribution depended on the rising or falling of the earth's surface, -would have been hazardous. But now, I think, we may freely admit this -important deduction. - -Taking a final view of the map, and bearing in mind the statements made -with respect to the upraised organic remains, we must feel astonished -at the vastness of the areas, which have suffered changes in level -either downwards or upwards, within a period not geologically remote. -It would appear also, that the elevatory and subsiding movements follow -nearly the same laws. Throughout the spaces interspersed with atolls, -where not a single peak of high land has been left above the level of -the sea, the sinking must have been immense in amount. The sinking, -moreover, whether continuous, or recurrent with intervals sufficiently -long for the corals again to bring up their living edifices to the -surface, must necessarily have been extremely slow. This conclusion is -probably the most important one which can be deduced from the study of -coral formations;--and it is one which it is difficult to imagine how -otherwise could ever have been arrived at. Nor can I quite pass over -the probability of the former existence of large archipelagoes of lofty -islands, where now only rings of coral-rock scarcely break the open -expanse of the sea, throwing some light on the distribution of the -inhabitants of the other high islands, now left standing so immensely -remote from each other in the midst of the great oceans. The -reef-constructing corals have indeed reared and preserved wonderful -memorials of the subterranean oscillations of level; we see in each -barrier-reef a proof that the land has there subsided, and in each -atoll a monument over an island now lost. We may thus, like unto a -geologist who had lived his ten thousand years and kept a record of the -passing changes, gain some insight into the great system by which the -surface of this globe has been broken up, and land and water -interchanged. - -[1] These Plants are described in the Annals of Nat. Hist., vol. i., -1838, p. 337. - -[2] Holman's Travels, vol. iv. p. 378. - -[3] Kotzebue's First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 155. - -[4] The thirteen species belong to the following orders:--In the -Coleoptera, a minute Elater; Orthoptera, a Gryllus and a Blatta; -Hemiptera, one species; Homoptera, two; Neuroptera a Chrysopa; -Hymenoptera, two ants; Lepidoptera nocturna, a Diopaea, and a -Pterophorus (?); Diptera, two species. - -[5] Kotzebue's First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 222. - -[6] The large claws or pincers of some of these crabs are most -beautifully adapted, when drawn back, to form an operculum to the -shell, nearly as perfect as the proper one originally belonging to the -molluscous animal. I was assured, and as far as my observations went I -found it so, that certain species of the hermit-crab always use certain -species of shells. - -[7] Some natives carried by Kotzebue to Kamtschatka collected stones to -take back to their country. - -[8] See Proceedings of Zoological Society, 1832, p. 17. - -[9] Tyerman and Bennett. Voyage, etc. vol. ii. p. 33. - -[10] I exclude, of course, some soil which has been imported here in -vessels from Malacca and Java, and likewise, some small fragments of -pumice, drifted here by the waves. The one block of greenstone, -moreover, on the northern island must be excepted. - -[11] These were first read before the Geological Society in May, 1837, -and have since been developed in a separate volume on the "Structure -and Distribution of Coral Reefs." - -[12] It is remarkable that Mr. Lyell, even in the first edition of his -"Principles of Geology," inferred that the amount of subsidence in the -Pacific must have exceeded that of elevation, from the area of land -being very small relatively to the agents there tending to form it, -namely, the growth of coral and volcanic action. - -[13] It has been highly satisfactory to me to find the following -passage in a pamphlet by Mr. Couthouy, one of the naturalists in the -great Antarctic Expedition of the United States:--"Having personally -examined a large number of coral-islands and resided eight months among -the volcanic class having shore and partially encircling reefs. I may -be permitted to state that my own observations have impressed a -conviction of the correctness of the theory of Mr. Darwin."--The -naturalists, however, of this expedition differ with me on some points -respecting coral formations. - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -MAURITIUS TO ENGLAND - -Mauritius, beautiful appearance of--Great crateriform ring of -Mountains--Hindoos--St. Helena--History of the changes in the -Vegetation--Cause of the extinction of -Land-shells--Ascension--Variation in the imported Rats--Volcanic -Bombs--Beds of Infusoria--Bahia--Brazil--Splendour of Tropical -Scenery--Pernambuco--Singular Reef--Slavery--Return to -England--Retrospect on our Voyage. - - -APRIL 29th.--In the morning we passed round the northern end of -Mauritius, or the Isle of France. From this point of view the aspect of -the island equalled the expectations raised by the many well-known -descriptions of its beautiful scenery. The sloping plain of the -Pamplemousses, interspersed with houses, and coloured by the large -fields of sugar-cane of a bright green, composed the foreground. The -brilliancy of the green was the more remarkable because it is a colour -which generally is conspicuous only from a very short distance. Towards -the centre of the island groups of wooded mountains rose out of this -highly cultivated plain; their summits, as so commonly happens with -ancient volcanic rocks, being jagged into the sharpest points. Masses -of white clouds were collected around these pinnacles, as if for the -sake of pleasing the stranger's eye. The whole island, with its -sloping border and central mountains, was adorned with an air of -perfect elegance: the scenery, if I may use such an expression, -appeared to the sight harmonious. - -I spent the greater part of the next day in walking about the town and -visiting different people. The town is of considerable size, and is -said to contain 20,000 inhabitants; the streets are very clean and -regular. Although the island has been so many years under the English -Government, the general character of the place is quite French: -Englishmen speak to their servants in French, and the shops are all -French; indeed, I should think that Calais or Boulogne was much more -Anglified. There is a very pretty little theatre, in which operas are -excellently performed. We were also surprised at seeing large -booksellers' shops, with well-stored shelves;--music and reading -bespeak our approach to the old world of civilization; for in truth -both Australia and America are new worlds. - -The various races of men walking in the streets afford the most -interesting spectacle in Port Louis. Convicts from India are banished -here for life; at present there are about 800, and they are employed in -various public works. Before seeing these people, I had no idea that -the inhabitants of India were such noble-looking figures. Their skin -is extremely dark, and many of the older men had large mustaches and -beards of a snow-white colour; this, together with the fire of their -expression, gave them quite an imposing aspect. The greater number had -been banished for murder and the worst crimes; others for causes which -can scarcely be considered as moral faults, such as for not obeying, -from superstitious motives, the English laws. These men are generally -quiet and well-conducted; from their outward conduct, their -cleanliness, and faithful observance of their strange religious rites, -it was impossible to look at them with the same eyes as on our wretched -convicts in New South Wales. - -May 1st.--Sunday. I took a quiet walk along the sea-coast to the north -of the town. The plain in this part is quite uncultivated; it consists -of a field of black lava, smoothed over with coarse grass and bushes, -the latter being chiefly Mimosas. The scenery may be described as -intermediate in character between that of the Galapagos and of Tahiti; -but this will convey a definite idea to very few persons. It is a very -pleasant country, but it has not the charms of Tahiti, or the grandeur -of Brazil. The next day I ascended La Pouce, a mountain so called from -a thumb-like projection, which rises close behind the town to a height -of 2,600 feet. The centre of the island consists of a great platform, -surrounded by old broken basaltic mountains, with their strata dipping -seawards. The central platform, formed of comparatively recent streams -of lava, is of an oval shape, thirteen geographical miles across, in -the line of its shorter axis. The exterior bounding mountains come -into that class of structures called Craters of Elevation, which are -supposed to have been formed not like ordinary craters, but by a great -and sudden upheaval. There appears to me to be insuperable objections -to this view: on the other hand, I can hardly believe, in this and in -some other cases, that these marginal crateriform mountains are merely -the basal remnants of immense volcanos, of which the summits either -have been blown off, or swallowed up in subterranean abysses. - -From our elevated position we enjoyed an excellent view over the -island. The country on this side appears pretty well cultivated, being -divided into fields and studded with farm-houses. I was, however, -assured that of the whole land, not more than half is yet in a -productive state; if such be the case, considering the present large -export of sugar, this island, at some future period when thickly -peopled, will be of great value. Since England has taken possession of -it, a period of only twenty-five years, the export of sugar is said to -have increased seventy-five fold. One great cause of its prosperity is -the excellent state of the roads. In the neighbouring Isle of Bourbon, -which remains under the French government, the roads are still in the -same miserable state as they were here only a few years ago. Although -the French residents must have largely profited by the increased -prosperity of their island, yet the English government is far from -popular. - -3rd.--In the evening Captain Lloyd, the Surveyor-general, so well known -from his examination of the Isthmus of Panama, invited Mr. Stokes and -myself to his country-house, which is situated on the edge of Wilheim -Plains, and about six miles from the Port. We stayed at this -delightful place two days; standing nearly 800 feet above the sea, the -air was cool and fresh, and on every side there were delightful walks. -Close by, a grand ravine has been worn to a depth of about 500 feet -through the slightly inclined streams of lava, which have flowed from -the central platform. - -5th.--Captain Lloyd took us to the Riviere Noire, which is several -miles to the southward, that I might examine some rocks of elevated -coral. We passed through pleasant gardens, and fine fields of -sugar-cane growing amidst huge blocks of lava. The roads were bordered -by hedges of Mimosa, and near many of the houses there were avenues of -the mango. Some of the views, where the peaked hills and the -cultivated farms were seen together, were exceedingly picturesque; and -we were constantly tempted to exclaim, "How pleasant it would be to -pass one's life in such quiet abodes!" Captain Lloyd possessed an -elephant, and he sent it half way with us, that we might enjoy a ride -in true Indian fashion. The circumstance which surprised me most was -its quite noiseless step. This elephant is the only one at present on -the island; but it is said others will be sent for. - - -May 9th.--We sailed from Port Louis, and, calling at the Cape of Good -Hope, on the 8th of July, we arrived off St. Helena. This island, the -forbidding aspect of which has been so often described, rises abruptly -like a huge black castle from the ocean. Near the town, as if to -complete nature's defence, small forts and guns fill up every gap in -the rugged rocks. The town runs up a flat and narrow valley; the -houses look respectable, and are interspersed with a very few green -trees. When approaching the anchorage there was one striking view: an -irregular castle perched on the summit of a lofty hill, and surrounded -by a few scattered fir-trees, boldly projected against the sky. - -The next day I obtained lodgings within a stone's throw of Napoleon's -tomb; [1] it was a capital central situation, whence I could make -excursions in every direction. During the four days I stayed here, I -wandered over the island from morning to night, and examined its -geological history. My lodgings were situated at a height of about -2000 feet; here the weather was cold and boisterous, with constant -showers of rain; and every now and then the whole scene was veiled in -thick clouds. - -Near the coast the rough lava is quite bare: in the central and higher -parts, feldspathic rocks by their decomposition have produced a clayey -soil, which, where not covered by vegetation, is stained in broad bands -of many bright colours. At this season, the land moistened by constant -showers, produces a singularly bright green pasture, which lower and -lower down, gradually fades away and at last disappears. In latitude -16 degs., and at the trifling elevation of 1500 feet, it is surprising -to behold a vegetation possessing a character decidedly British. The -hills are crowned with irregular plantations of Scotch firs; and the -sloping banks are thickly scattered over with thickets of gorse, -covered with its bright yellow flowers. Weeping-willows are common on -the banks of the rivulets, and the hedges are made of the blackberry, -producing its well-known fruit. When we consider that the number of -plants now found on the island is 746, and that out of these fifty-two -alone are indigenous species, the rest having been imported, and most -of them from England, we see the reason of the British character of the -vegetation. Many of these English plants appear to flourish better than -in their native country; some also from the opposite quarter of -Australia succeed remarkably well. The many imported species must have -destroyed some of the native kinds; and it is only on the highest and -steepest ridges that the indigenous Flora is now predominant. - -The English, or rather Welsh character of the scenery, is kept up by -the numerous cottages and small white houses; some buried at the bottom -of the deepest valleys, and others mounted on the crests of the lofty -hills. Some of the views are striking, for instance that from near Sir -W. Doveton's house, where the bold peak called Lot is seen over a dark -wood of firs, the whole being backed by the red water-worn mountains of -the southern coast. On viewing the island from an eminence, the first -circumstance which strikes one, is the number of the roads and forts: -the labour bestowed on the public works, if one forgets its character -as a prison, seems out of all proportion to its extent or value. There -is so little level or useful land, that it seems surprising how so many -people, about 5000, can subsist here. The lower orders, or the -emancipated slaves, are I believe extremely poor: they complain of the -want of work. From the reduction in the number of public servants -owing to the island having been given up by the East Indian Company, -and the consequent emigration of many of the richer people, the poverty -probably will increase. The chief food of the working class is rice -with a little salt meat; as neither of these articles are the products -of the island, but must be purchased with money, the low wages tell -heavily on the poor people. Now that the people are blessed with -freedom, a right which I believe they value fully, it seems probable -that their numbers will quickly increase: if so, what is to become of -the little state of St. Helena? - -My guide was an elderly man, who had been a goatherd when a boy, and -knew every step amongst the rocks. He was of a race many times -crossed, and although with a dusky skin, he had not the disagreeable -expression of a mulatto. He was a very civil, quiet old man, and such -appears the character of the greater number of the lower classes. It -was strange to my ears to hear a man, nearly white and respectably -dressed, talking with indifference of the times when he was a slave. -With my companion, who carried our dinners and a horn of water, which -is quite necessary, as all the water in the lower valleys is saline, I -every day took long walks. - -Beneath the upper and central green circle, the wild valleys are quite -desolate and untenanted. Here, to the geologist, there were scenes of -high interest, showing successive changes and complicated disturbances. -According to my views, St. Helena has existed as an island from a very -remote epoch: some obscure proofs, however, of the elevation of the -land are still extant. I believe that the central and highest peaks -form parts of the rim of a great crater, the southern half of which has -been entirely removed by the waves of the sea: there is, moreover, an -external wall of black basaltic rocks, like the coast-mountains of -Mauritius, which are older than the central volcanic streams. On the -higher parts of the island, considerable numbers of a shell, long -thought to be a marine species occur imbedded in the soil. - -It proved to be a Cochlogena, or land-shell of a very peculiar form; -[2] with it I found six other kinds; and in another spot an eighth -species. It is remarkable that none of them are now found living. -Their extinction has probably been caused by the entire destruction of -the woods, and the consequent loss of food and shelter, which occurred -during the early part of the last century. - -The history of the changes, which the elevated plains of Longwood and -Deadwood have undergone, as given in General Beatson's account of the -island, is extremely curious. Both plains, it is said in former times -were covered with wood, and were therefore called the Great Wood. So -late as the year 1716 there were many trees, but in 1724 the old trees -had mostly fallen; and as goats and hogs had been suffered to range -about, all the young trees had been killed. It appears also from the -official records, that the trees were unexpectedly, some years -afterwards, succeeded by a wire grass which spread over the whole -surface. [3] General Beatson adds that now this plain "is covered with -fine sward, and is become the finest piece of pasture on the island." -The extent of surface, probably covered by wood at a former period, is -estimated at no less than two thousand acres; at the present day -scarcely a single tree can be found there. It is also said that in -1709 there were quantities of dead trees in Sandy Bay; this place is -now so utterly desert, that nothing but so well attested an account -could have made me believe that they could ever have grown there. The -fact, that the goats and hogs destroyed all the young trees as they -sprang up, and that in the course of time the old ones, which were safe -from their attacks, perished from age, seems clearly made out. Goats -were introduced in the year 1502; eighty-six years afterwards, in the -time of Cavendish, it is known that they were exceedingly numerous. -More than a century afterwards, in 1731, when the evil was complete and -irretrievable, an order was issued that all stray animals should be -destroyed. It is very interesting thus to find, that the arrival of -animals at St. Helena in 1501, did not change the whole aspect of the -island, until a period of two hundred and twenty years had elapsed: for -the goats were introduced in 1502, and in 1724 it is said "the old -trees had mostly fallen." There can be little doubt that this great -change in the vegetation affected not only the land-shells, causing -eight species to become extinct, but likewise a multitude of insects. - -St. Helena, situated so remote from any continent, in the midst of a -great ocean, and possessing a unique Flora, excites our curiosity. The -eight land-shells, though now extinct, and one living Succinea, are -peculiar species found nowhere else. Mr. Cuming, however, informs me -that an English Helix is common here, its eggs no doubt having been -imported in some of the many introduced plants. Mr. Cuming collected -on the coast sixteen species of sea-shells, of which seven, as far as -he knows, are confined to this island. Birds and insects, [4] as might -have been expected, are very few in number; indeed I believe all the -birds have been introduced within late years. Partridges and pheasants -are tolerably abundant; the island is much too English not to be -subject to strict game-laws. I was told of a more unjust sacrifice to -such ordinances than I ever heard of even in England. The poor people -formerly used to burn a plant, which grows on the coast-rocks, and -export the soda from its ashes; but a peremptory order came out -prohibiting this practice, and giving as a reason that the partridges -would have nowhere to build. - -In my walks I passed more than once over the grassy plain bounded by -deep valleys, on which Longwood stands. Viewed from a short distance, -it appears like a respectable gentleman's country-seat. In front there -are a few cultivated fields, and beyond them the smooth hill of -coloured rocks called the Flagstaff, and the rugged square black mass -of the Barn. On the whole the view was rather bleak and uninteresting. -The only inconvenience I suffered during my walks was from the -impetuous winds. One day I noticed a curious circumstance; standing on -the edge of a plain, terminated by a great cliff of about a thousand -feet in depth, I saw at the distance of a few yards right to windward, -some tern, struggling against a very strong breeze, whilst, where I -stood, the air was quite calm. Approaching close to the brink, where -the current seemed to be deflected upwards from the face of the cliff, -I stretched out my arm, and immediately felt the full force of the -wind: an invisible barrier, two yards in width, separated perfectly -calm air from a strong blast. - -I so much enjoyed my rambles among the rocks and mountains of St. -Helena, that I felt almost sorry on the morning of the 14th to descend -to the town. Before noon I was on board, and the Beagle made sail. - -On the 19th of July we reached Ascension. Those who have beheld a -volcanic island, situated under an arid climate, will at once be able -to picture to themselves the appearance of Ascension. They will -imagine smooth conical hills of a bright red colour, with their summits -generally truncated, rising separately out of a level surface of black -rugged lava. A principal mound in the centre of the island, seems the -father of the lesser cones. It is called Green Hill: its name being -taken from the faintest tinge of that colour, which at this time of the -year is barely perceptible from the anchorage. To complete the -desolate scene, the black rocks on the coast are lashed by a wild and -turbulent sea. - -The settlement is near the beach; it consists of several houses and -barracks placed irregularly, but well built of white freestone. The -only inhabitants are marines, and some negroes liberated from -slave-ships, who are paid and victualled by government. There is not a -private person on the island. Many of the marines appeared well -contented with their situation; they think it better to serve their -one-and-twenty years on shore, let it be what it may, than in a ship; -in this choice, if I were a marine, I should most heartily agree. - -The next morning I ascended Green Hill, 2840 feet high, and thence -walked across the island to the windward point. A good cart-road leads -from the coast-settlement to the houses, gardens, and fields, placed -near the summit of the central mountain. On the roadside there are -milestones, and likewise cisterns, where each thirsty passer-by can -drink some good water. Similar care is displayed in each part of the -establishment, and especially in the management of the springs, so that -a single drop of water may not be lost: indeed the whole island may be -compared to a huge ship kept in first-rate order. I could not help, -when admiring the active industry, which had created such effects out -of such means, at the same time regretting that it had been wasted on -so poor and trifling an end. M. Lesson has remarked with justice, that -the English nation would have thought of making the island of Ascension -a productive spot, any other people would have held it as a mere -fortress in the ocean. - -Near this coast nothing grows; further inland, an occasional green -castor-oil plant, and a few grasshoppers, true friends of the desert, -may be met with. Some grass is scattered over the surface of the -central elevated region, and the whole much resembles the worse parts -of the Welsh mountains. But scanty as the pasture appears, about six -hundred sheep, many goats, a few cows and horses, all thrive well on -it. Of native animals, land-crabs and rats swarm in numbers. Whether -the rat is really indigenous, may well be doubted; there are two -varieties as described by Mr. Waterhouse; one is of a black colour, -with fine glossy fur, and lives on the grassy summit, the other is -brown-coloured and less glossy, with longer hairs, and lives near the -settlement on the coast. Both these varieties are one-third smaller -than the common black rat (M. rattus); and they differ from it both in -the colour and character of their fur, but in no other essential -respect. I can hardly doubt that these rats (like the common mouse, -which has also run wild) have been imported, and, as at the Galapagos, -have varied from the effect of the new conditions to which they have -been exposed: hence the variety on the summit of the island differs -from that on the coast. Of native birds there are none; but the -guinea-fowl, imported from the Cape de Verd Islands, is abundant, and -the common fowl has likewise run wild. Some cats, which were -originally turned out to destroy the rats and mice, have increased, so -as to become a great plague. The island is entirely without trees, in -which, and in every other respect, it is very far inferior to St. -Helena. - -One of my excursions took me towards the S. W. extremity of the island. -The day was clear and hot, and I saw the island, not smiling with -beauty, but staring with naked hideousness. The lava streams are -covered with hummocks, and are rugged to a degree which, geologically -speaking, is not of easy explanation. The intervening spaces are -concealed with layers of pumice, ashes and volcanic tuff. Whilst -passing this end of the island at sea, I could not imagine what the -white patches were with which the whole plain was mottled; I now found -that they were seafowl, sleeping in such full confidence, that even in -midday a man could walk up and seize hold of them. These birds were -the only living creatures I saw during the whole day. On the beach a -great surf, although the breeze was light, came tumbling over the -broken lava rocks. - -The geology of this island is in many respects interesting. In several -places I noticed volcanic bombs, that is, masses of lava which have -been shot through the air whilst fluid, and have consequently assumed a -spherical or pear-shape. Not only their external form, but, in several -cases, their internal structure shows in a very curious manner that -they have revolved in their aerial course. The internal structure of -one of these bombs, when broken, is represented very accurately in the -woodcut. The central part is coarsely cellular, the cells decreasing -in size towards the exterior; where there is a shell-like case about -the third of an inch in thickness, of compact stone, which again is -overlaid by the outside crust of finely cellular lava. I think there -can be little doubt, first that the external crust cooled rapidly in -the state in which we now see it; secondly, that the still fluid lava -within, was packed by the centrifugal force, generated by - -[picture] - -the revolving of the bomb, against the external cooled crust, and so -produced the solid shell of stone; and lastly, that the centrifugal -force, by relieving the pressure in the more central parts of the bomb, -allowed the heated vapours to expand their cells, thus forming the -coarse cellular mass of the centre. - -A hill, formed of the older series of volcanic rocks, and which has -been incorrectly considered as the crater of a volcano, is remarkable -from its broad, slightly hollowed, and circular summit having been -filled up with many successive layers of ashes and fine scoriae. These -saucer-shaped layers crop out on the margin, forming perfect rings of -many different colours, giving to the summit a most fantastic -appearance; one of these rings is white and broad, and resembles a -course round which horses have been exercised; hence the hill has been -called the Devil's Riding School. I brought away specimens of one of -the tufaceous layers of a pinkish colour and it is a most extraordinary -fact, that Professor Ehrenberg [5] finds it almost wholly composed of -matter which has been organized: he detects in it some -siliceous-shielded fresh-water infusoria, and no less than twenty-five -different kinds of the siliceous tissue of plants, chiefly of grasses. -From the absence of all carbonaceous matter, Professor Ehrenberg -believes that these organic bodies have passed through the volcanic -fire, and have been erupted in the state in which we now see them. The -appearance of the layers induced me to believe that they had been -deposited under water, though from the extreme dryness of the climate I -was forced to imagine, that torrents of rain had probably fallen during -some great eruption, and that thus a temporary lake had been formed -into which the ashes fell. But it may now be suspected that the lake -was not a temporary one. Anyhow, we may feel sure, that at some former -epoch the climate and productions of Ascension were very different from -what they now are. Where on the face of the earth can we find a spot, -on which close investigation will not discover signs of that endless -cycle of change, to which this earth has been, is, and will be -subjected? - -On leaving Ascension, we sailed for Bahia, on the coast of Brazil, in -order to complete the chronometrical measurement of the world. We -arrived there on August 1st, and stayed four days, during which I took -several long walks. I was glad to find my enjoyment in tropical scenery -had not decreased from the want of novelty, even in the slightest -degree. The elements of the scenery are so simple, that they are worth -mentioning, as a proof on what trifling circumstances exquisite natural -beauty depends. - -The country may be described as a level plain of about three hundred -feet in elevation, which in all parts has been worn into flat-bottomed -valleys. This structure is remarkable in a granitic land, but is -nearly universal in all those softer formations of which plains are -usually composed. The whole surface is covered by various kinds of -stately trees, interspersed with patches of cultivated ground, out of -which houses, convents, and chapels arise. It must be remembered that -within the tropics, the wild luxuriance of nature is not lost even in -the vicinity of large cities: for the natural vegetation of the hedges -and hill-sides overpowers in picturesque effect the artificial labour -of man. Hence, there are only a few spots where the bright red soil -affords a strong contrast with the universal clothing of green. From -the edges of the plain there are distant views either of the ocean, or -of the great Bay with its low-wooded shores, and on which numerous -boats and canoes show their white sails. Excepting from these points, -the scene is extremely limited; following the level pathways, on each -hand, only glimpses into the wooded valleys below can be obtained. The -houses I may add, and especially the sacred edifices, are built in a -peculiar and rather fantastic style of architecture. They are all -whitewashed; so that when illumined by the brilliant sun of midday, and -as seen against the pale blue sky of the horizon, they stand out more -like shadows than real buildings. - -Such are the elements of the scenery, but it is a hopeless attempt to -paint the general effect. Learned naturalists describe these scenes of -the tropics by naming a multitude of objects, and mentioning some -characteristic feature of each. To a learned traveller this possibly -may communicate some definite ideas: but who else from seeing a plant -in an herbarium can imagine its appearance when growing in its native -soil? Who from seeing choice plants in a hothouse, can magnify some -into the dimensions of forest trees, and crowd others into an entangled -jungle? Who when examining in the cabinet of the entomologist the gay -exotic butterflies, and singular cicadas, will associate with these -lifeless objects, the ceaseless harsh music of the latter, and the lazy -flight of the former,--the sure accompaniments of the still, glowing -noon-day of the tropics? It is when the sun has attained its greatest -height, that such scenes should be viewed: then the dense splendid -foliage of the mango hides the ground with its darkest shade, whilst -the upper branches are rendered from the profusion of light of the most -brilliant green. In the temperate zones the case is different--the -vegetation there is not so dark or so rich, and hence the rays of the -declining sun, tinged of a red, purple, or bright yellow color, add -most to the beauties of those climes. - -When quietly walking along the shady pathways, and admiring each -successive view, I wished to find language to express my ideas. Epithet -after epithet was found too weak to convey to those who have not -visited the intertropical regions, the sensation of delight which the -mind experiences. I have said that the plants in a hothouse fail to -communicate a just idea of the vegetation, yet I must recur to it. The -land is one great wild, untidy, luxuriant hothouse, made by Nature for -herself, but taken possession of by man, who has studded it with gay -houses and formal gardens. How great would be the desire in every -admirer of nature to behold, if such were possible, the scenery of -another planet! yet to every person in Europe, it may be truly said, -that at the distance of only a few degrees from his native soil, the -glories of another world are opened to him. In my last walk I stopped -again and again to gaze on these beauties, and endeavoured to fix in my -mind for ever, an impression which at the time I knew sooner or later -must fail. The form of the orange-tree, the cocoa-nut, the palm, the -mango, the tree-fern, the banana, will remain clear and separate; but -the thousand beauties which unite these into one perfect scene must -fade away: yet they will leave, like a tale heard in childhood, a -picture full of indistinct, but most beautiful figures. - -August 6th.--In the afternoon we stood out to sea, with the intention -of making a direct course to the Cape de Verd Islands. Unfavourable -winds, however, delayed us, and on the 12th we ran into Pernambuco,--a -large city on the coast of Brazil, in latitude 8 degs. south. We -anchored outside the reef; but in a short time a pilot came on board -and took us into the inner harbour, where we lay close to the town. - -Pernambuco is built on some narrow and low sand-banks, which are -separated from each other by shoal channels of salt water. The three -parts of the town are connected together by two long bridges built on -wooden piles. The town is in all parts disgusting, the streets being -narrow, ill-paved, and filthy; the houses, tall and gloomy. The season -of heavy rains had hardly come to an end, and hence the surrounding -country, which is scarcely raised above the level of the sea, was -flooded with water; and I failed in all my attempts to take walks. - -The flat swampy land on which Pernambuco stands is surrounded, at the -distance of a few miles, by a semicircle of low hills, or rather by the -edge of a country elevated perhaps two hundred feet above the sea. The -old city of Olinda stands on one extremity of this range. One day I -took a canoe, and proceeded up one of the channels to visit it; I found -the old town from its situation both sweeter and cleaner than that of -Pernambuco. I must here commemorate what happened for the first time -during our nearly five years' wandering, namely, having met with a want -of politeness. I was refused in a sullen manner at two different -houses, and obtained with difficulty from a third, permission to pass -through their gardens to an uncultivated hill, for the purpose of -viewing the country. I feel glad that this happened in the land of the -Brazilians, for I bear them no good will--a land also of slavery, and -therefore of moral debasement. A Spaniard would have felt ashamed at -the very thought of refusing such a request, or of behaving to a -stranger with rudeness. The channel by which we went to and returned -from Olinda, was bordered on each side by mangroves, which sprang like -a miniature forest out of the greasy mud-banks. The bright green -colour of these bushes always reminded me of the rank grass in a -church-yard: both are nourished by putrid exhalations; the one speaks -of death past, and the other too often of death to come. - -The most curious object which I saw in this neighbourhood, was the reef -that forms the harbour. I doubt whether in the whole world any other -natural structure has so artificial an appearance. [6] It runs for a -length of several miles in an absolutely straight line, parallel to, -and not far distant from, the shore. It varies in width from thirty to -sixty yards, and its surface is level and smooth; it is composed of -obscurely stratified hard sandstone. At high water the waves break -over it; at low water its summit is left dry, and it might then be -mistaken for a breakwater erected by Cyclopean workmen. On this coast -the currents of the sea tend to throw up in front of the land, long -spits and bars of loose sand, and on one of these, part of the town of -Pernambuco stands. In former times a long spit of this nature seems to -have become consolidated by the percolation of calcareous matter, and -afterwards to have been gradually upheaved; the outer and loose parts -during this process having been worn away by the action of the sea, and -the solid nucleus left as we now see it. Although night and day the -waves of the open Atlantic, turbid with sediment, are driven against -the steep outside edges of this wall of stone, yet the oldest pilots -know of no tradition of any change in its appearance. This durability -is much the most curious fact in its history: it is due to a tough -layer, a few inches thick, of calcareous matter, wholly formed by the -successive growth and death of the small shells of Serpulae, together -with some few barnacles and nulliporae. These nulliporae, which are -hard, very simply-organized sea-plants, play an analogous and important -part in protecting the upper surfaces of coral-reefs, behind and within -the breakers, where the true corals, during the outward growth of the -mass, become killed by exposure to the sun and air. These -insignificant organic beings, especially the Serpulae, have done good -service to the people of Pernambuco; for without their protective aid -the bar of sandstone would inevitably have been long ago worn away and -without the bar, there would have been no harbour. - -On the 19th of August we finally left the shores of Brazil. I thank -God, I shall never again visit a slave-country. To this day, if I hear -a distant scream, it recalls with painful vividness my feelings, when -passing a house near Pernambuco, I heard the most pitiable moans, and -could not but suspect that some poor slave was being tortured, yet knew -that I was as powerless as a child even to remonstrate. I suspected -that these moans were from a tortured slave, for I was told that this -was the case in another instance. Near Rio de Janeiro I lived opposite -to an old lady, who kept screws to crush the fingers of her female -slaves. I have stayed in a house where a young household mulatto, -daily and hourly, was reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to break -the spirit of the lowest animal. I have seen a little boy, six or -seven years old, struck thrice with a horse-whip (before I could -interfere) on his naked head, for having handed me a glass of water not -quite clean; I saw his father tremble at a mere glance from his -master's eye. These latter cruelties were witnessed by me in a Spanish -colony, in which it has always been said, that slaves are better -treated than by the Portuguese, English, or other European nations. I -have seen at Rio de Janeiro a powerful negro afraid to ward off a blow -directed, as he thought, at his face. I was present when a -kind-hearted man was on the point of separating forever the men, women, -and little children of a large number of families who had long lived -together. I will not even allude to the many heart-sickening -atrocities which I authentically heard of;--nor would I have mentioned -the above revolting details, had I not met with several people, so -blinded by the constitutional gaiety of the negro as to speak of -slavery as a tolerable evil. Such people have generally visited at the -houses of the upper classes, where the domestic slaves are usually well -treated, and they have not, like myself, lived amongst the lower -classes. Such inquirers will ask slaves about their condition; they -forget that the slave must indeed be dull, who does not calculate on -the chance of his answer reaching his master's ears. - -It is argued that self-interest will prevent excessive cruelty; as if -self-interest protected our domestic animals, which are far less likely -than degraded slaves, to stir up the rage of their savage masters. It -is an argument long since protested against with noble feeling, and -strikingly exemplified, by the ever-illustrious Humboldt. It is often -attempted to palliate slavery by comparing the state of slaves with our -poorer countrymen: if the misery of our poor be caused not by the laws -of nature, but by our institutions, great is our sin; but how this -bears on slavery, I cannot see; as well might the use of the -thumb-screw be defended in one land, by showing that men in another -land suffered from some dreadful disease. Those who look tenderly at -the slave owner, and with a cold heart at the slave, never seem to put -themselves into the position of the latter; what a cheerless prospect, -with not even a hope of change! picture to yourself the chance, ever -hanging over you, of your wife and your little children--those objects -which nature urges even the slave to call his own--being torn from you -and sold like beasts to the first bidder! And these deeds are done and -palliated by men, who profess to love their neighbours as themselves, -who believe in God, and pray that his Will be done on earth! It makes -one's blood boil, yet heart tremble, to think that we Englishmen and -our American descendants, with their boastful cry of liberty, have been -and are so guilty: but it is a consolation to reflect, that we at least -have made a greater sacrifice, than ever made by any nation, to expiate -our sin. - - -On the last day of August we anchored for the second time at Porto -Praya in the Cape de Verd archipelago; thence we proceeded to the -Azores, where we stayed six days. On the 2nd of October we made the -shore, of England; and at Falmouth I left the Beagle, having lived on -board the good little vessel nearly five years. - - -Our Voyage having come to an end, I will take a short retrospect of the -advantages and disadvantages, the pains and pleasures, of our -circumnavigation of the world. If a person asked my advice, before -undertaking a long voyage, my answer would depend upon his possessing a -decided taste for some branch of knowledge, which could by this means -be advanced. No doubt it is a high satisfaction to behold various -countries and the many races of mankind, but the pleasures gained at -the time do not counterbalance the evils. It is necessary to look -forward to a harvest, however distant that may be, when some fruit will -be reaped, some good effected. - -Many of the losses which must be experienced are obvious; such as that -of the society of every old friend, and of the sight of those places -with which every dearest remembrance is so intimately connected. These -losses, however, are at the time partly relieved by the exhaustless -delight of anticipating the long wished-for day of return. If, as -poets say, life is a dream, I am sure in a voyage these are the visions -which best serve to pass away the long night. Other losses, although -not at first felt, tell heavily after a period: these are the want of -room, of seclusion, of rest; the jading feeling of constant hurry; the -privation of small luxuries, the loss of domestic society and even of -music and the other pleasures of imagination. When such trifles are -mentioned, it is evident that the real grievances, excepting from -accidents, of a sea-life are at an end. The short space of sixty years -has made an astonishing difference in the facility of distant -navigation. Even in the time of Cook, a man who left his fireside for -such expeditions underwent severe privations. A yacht now, with every -luxury of life, can circumnavigate the globe. Besides the vast -improvements in ships and naval resources, the whole western shores of -America are thrown open, and Australia has become the capital of a -rising continent. How different are the circumstances to a man -shipwrecked at the present day in the Pacific, to what they were in the -time of Cook! Since his voyage a hemisphere has been added to the -civilized world. - -If a person suffer much from sea-sickness, let him weigh it heavily in -the balance. I speak from experience: it is no trifling evil, cured in -a week. If, on the other hand, he take pleasure in naval tactics, he -will assuredly have full scope for his taste. But it must be borne in -mind, how large a proportion of the time, during a long voyage, is -spent on the water, as compared with the days in harbour. And what are -the boasted glories of the illimitable ocean. A tedious waste, a -desert of water, as the Arabian calls it. No doubt there are some -delightful scenes. A moonlight night, with the clear heavens and the -dark glittering sea, and the white sails filled by the soft air of a -gently blowing trade-wind, a dead calm, with the heaving surface -polished like a mirror, and all still except the occasional flapping of -the canvas. It is well once to behold a squall with its rising arch and -coming fury, or the heavy gale of wind and mountainous waves. I -confess, however, my imagination had painted something more grand, more -terrific in the full-grown storm. It is an incomparably finer spectacle -when beheld on shore, where the waving trees, the wild flight of the -birds, the dark shadows and bright lights, the rushing of the torrents -all proclaim the strife of the unloosed elements. At sea the albatross -and little petrel fly as if the storm were their proper sphere, the -water rises and sinks as if fulfilling its usual task, the ship alone -and its inhabitants seem the objects of wrath. On a forlorn and -weather-beaten coast, the scene is indeed different, but the feelings -partake more of horror than of wild delight. - -Let us now look at the brighter side of the past time. The pleasure -derived from beholding the scenery and the general aspect of the -various countries we have visited, has decidedly been the most constant -and highest source of enjoyment. It is probable that the picturesque -beauty of many parts of Europe exceeds anything which we beheld. But -there is a growing pleasure in comparing the character of the scenery -in different countries, which to a certain degree is distinct from -merely admiring its beauty. It depends chiefly on an acquaintance with -the individual parts of each view. I am strongly induced to believe -that as in music, the person who understands every note will, if he -also possesses a proper taste, more thoroughly enjoy the whole, so he -who examines each part of a fine view, may also thoroughly comprehend -the full and combined effect. Hence, a traveller should be a botanist, -for in all views plants form the chief embellishment. Group masses of -naked rock, even in the wildest forms, and they may for a time afford a -sublime spectacle, but they will soon grow monotonous. Paint them with -bright and varied colours, as in Northern Chile, they will become -fantastic; clothe them with vegetation, they must form a decent, if not -a beautiful picture. - -When I say that the scenery of parts of Europe is probably superior to -anything which we beheld, I except, as a class by itself, that of the -intertropical zones. The two classes cannot be compared together; but -I have already often enlarged on the grandeur of those regions. As the -force of impressions generally depends on preconceived ideas, I may -add, that mine were taken from the vivid descriptions in the Personal -Narrative of Humboldt, which far exceed in merit anything else which I -have read. Yet with these high-wrought ideas, my feelings were far -from partaking of a tinge of disappointment on my first and final -landing on the shores of Brazil. - -Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none exceed in -sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of man; whether -those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are predominant, or those of -Tierra del Fuego, where Death and decay prevail. Both are temples -filled with the varied productions of the God of Nature:--no one can -stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not feel that there is more in -man than the mere breath of his body. In calling up images of the -past, I find that the plains of Patagonia frequently cross before my -eyes; yet these plains are pronounced by all wretched and useless. They -can be described only by negative characters; without habitations, -without water, without trees, without mountains, they support merely a -few dwarf plants. Why, then, and the case is not peculiar to myself, -have these arid wastes taken so firm a hold on my memory? Why have not -the still more level, the greener and more fertile Pampas, which are -serviceable to mankind, produced an equal impression? I can scarcely -analyze these feelings: but it must be partly owing to the free scope -given to the imagination. The plains of Patagonia are boundless, for -they are scarcely passable, and hence unknown: they bear the stamp of -having lasted, as they are now, for ages, and there appears no limit to -their duration through future time. If, as the ancients supposed, the -flat earth was surrounded by an impassable breadth of water, or by -deserts heated to an intolerable excess, who would not look at these -last boundaries to man's knowledge with deep but ill-defined sensations? - -Lastly, of natural scenery, the views from lofty mountains, through -certainly in one sense not beautiful, are very memorable. When looking -down from the highest crest of the Cordillera, the mind, undisturbed by -minute details, was filled with the stupendous dimensions of the -surrounding masses. - -Of individual objects, perhaps nothing is more certain to create -astonishment than the first sight in his native haunt of a -barbarian--of man in his lowest and most savage state. One's mind -hurries back over past centuries, and then asks, could our progenitors -have been men like these?--men, whose very signs and expressions are -less intelligible to us than those of the domesticated animals; men, -who do not possess the instinct of those animals, nor yet appear to -boast of human reason, or at least of arts consequent on that reason. I -do not believe it is possible to describe or paint the difference -between savage and civilized man. It is the difference between a wild -and tame animal: and part of the interest in beholding a savage, is the -same which would lead every one to desire to see the lion in his -desert, the tiger tearing his prey in the jungle, or the rhinoceros -wandering over the wild plains of Africa. - -Among the other most remarkable spectacles which we have beheld, may be -ranked, the Southern Cross, the cloud of Magellan, and the other -constellations of the southern hemisphere--the water-spout--the glacier -leading its blue stream of ice, overhanging the sea in a bold -precipice--a lagoon-island raised by the reef-building corals--an -active volcano--and the overwhelming effects of a violent earthquake. -These latter phenomena, perhaps, possess for me a peculiar interest, -from their intimate connection with the geological structure of the -world. The earthquake, however, must be to every one a most impressive -event: the earth, considered from our earliest childhood as the type of -solidity, has oscillated like a thin crust beneath our feet; and in -seeing the laboured works of man in a moment overthrown, we feel the -insignificance of his boasted power. - -It has been said, that the love of the chase is an inherent delight in -man--a relic of an instinctive passion. If so, I am sure the pleasure -of living in the open air, with the sky for a roof and the ground for a -table, is part of the same feeling, it is the savage returning to his -wild and native habits. I always look back to our boat cruises, and my -land journeys, when through unfrequented countries, with an extreme -delight, which no scenes of civilization could have created. I do not -doubt that every traveller must remember the glowing sense of happiness -which he experienced, when he first breathed in a foreign clime, where -the civilized man had seldom or never trod. - -There are several other sources of enjoyment in a long voyage, which -are of a more reasonable nature. The map of the world ceases to be a -blank; it becomes a picture full of the most varied and animated -figures. Each part assumes its proper dimensions: continents are not -looked at in the light of islands, or islands considered as mere -specks, which are, in truth, larger than many kingdoms of Europe. -Africa, or North and South America, are well-sounding names, and easily -pronounced; but it is not until having sailed for weeks along small -portions of their shores, that one is thoroughly convinced what vast -spaces on our immense world these names imply. - -From seeing the present state, it is impossible not to look forward -with high expectations to the future progress of nearly an entire -hemisphere. The march of improvement, consequent on the introduction -of Christianity throughout the South Sea, probably stands by itself in -the records of history. It is the more striking when we remember that -only sixty years since, Cook, whose excellent judgment none will -dispute, could foresee no prospect of a change. Yet these changes have -now been effected by the philanthropic spirit of the British nation. - -In the same quarter of the globe Australia is rising, or indeed may be -said to have risen, into a grand centre of civilization, which, at some -not very remote period, will rule as empress over the southern -hemisphere. It is impossible for an Englishman to behold these distant -colonies, without a high pride and satisfaction. To hoist the British -flag, seems to draw with it as a certain consequence, wealth, -prosperity, and civilization. - -In conclusion, it appears to me that nothing can be more improving to a -young naturalist, than a journey in distant countries. It both -sharpens, and partly allays that want and craving, which, as Sir J. -Herschel remarks, a man experiences although every corporeal sense be -fully satisfied. The excitement from the novelty of objects, and the -chance of success, stimulate him to increased activity. Moreover, as a -number of isolated facts soon become uninteresting, the habit of -comparison leads to generalization. On the other hand, as the -traveller stays but a short time in each place, his descriptions must -generally consist of mere sketches, instead of detailed observations. -Hence arises, as I have found to my cost, a constant tendency to fill -up the wide gaps of knowledge, by inaccurate and superficial hypotheses. - -But I have too deeply enjoyed the voyage, not to recommend any -naturalist, although he must not expect to be so fortunate in his -companions as I have been, to take all chances, and to start, on -travels by land if possible, if otherwise, on a long voyage. He may -feel assured, he will meet with no difficulties or dangers, excepting -in rare cases, nearly so bad as he beforehand anticipates. In a moral -point of view, the effect ought to be, to teach him good-humoured -patience, freedom from selfishness, the habit of acting for himself, -and of making the best of every occurrence. In short, he ought to -partake of the characteristic qualities of most sailors. Travelling -ought also to teach him distrust; but at the same time he will -discover, how many truly kind-hearted people there are, with whom he -never before had, or ever again will have any further communication, -who yet are ready to offer him the most disinterested assistance. - -[1] After the volumes of eloquence which have poured forth on this -subject, it is dangerous even to mention the tomb. A modern traveller, -in twelve lines, burdens the poor little island with the following -titles,--it is a grave, tomb, pyramid, cemetery, sepulchre, catacomb, -sarcophagus, minaret, and mausoleum! - -[2] It deserves notice, that all the many specimens of this shell found -by me in one spot, differ as a marked variety, from another set of -specimens procured from a different spot. - -[3] Beatson's St. Helena. Introductory chapter, p. 4. - -[4] Among these few insects, I was surprised to find a small Aphodius -(nov. spec.) and an Oryctes, both extremely numerous under dung. When -the island was discovered it certainly possessed no quadruped, -excepting perhaps a mouse: it becomes, therefore, a difficult point to -ascertain, whether these stercovorous insects have since been imported -by accident, or if aborigines, on what food they formerly subsisted. On -the banks of the Plata, where, from the vast number of cattle and -horses, the fine plains of turf are richly manured, it is vain to seek -the many kinds of dung-feeding beetles, which occur so abundantly in -Europe. I observed only an Oryctes (the insects of this genus in -Europe generally feed on decayed vegetable matter) and two species of -Phanaeus, common in such situations. On the opposite side of the -Cordillera in Chiloe, another species of Phanaeus is exceedingly -abundant, and it buries the dung of the cattle in large earthen balls -beneath the ground. There is reason to believe that the genus -Phanaeus, before the introduction of cattle, acted as scavengers to -man. In Europe, beetles, which find support in the matter which has -already contributed towards the life of other and larger animals, are -so numerous that there must be considerably more than one hundred -different species. Considering this, and observing what a quantity of -food of this kind is lost on the plains of La Plata, I imagined I saw -an instance where man had disturbed that chain, by which so many -animals are linked together in their native country. In Van Diemen's -Land, however, I found four species of Onthophagus, two of Aphodius, -and one of a third genus, very abundantly under the dung of cows; yet -these latter animals had been then introduced only thirty-three years. -Previous to that time the kangaroo and some other small animals were -the only quadrupeds; and their dung is of a very different quality from -that of their successors introduced by man. In England the greater -number of stercovorous beetles are confined in their appetites; that -is, they do not depend indifferently on any quadruped for the means of -subsistence. The change, therefore, in habits which must have taken -place in Van Diemen's Land is highly remarkable. I am indebted to the -Rev. F. W. Hope, who, I hope, will permit me to call him my master in -Entomology, for giving me the names of the foregoing insects. - -[5] Monats. der Konig. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin. Vom April, 1845. - -[6] I have described this Bar in detail, in the Lond. and Edin. Phil. -Mag., vol. xix. (1841), p. 257. - - - - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Voyage of the Beagle, by Charles Darwin - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE *** - -***** This file should be named 944.txt or 944.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/9/4/944/ - -Produced by John Hamm - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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