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ENGLISH VILLAGES, by P. H. Ditchfield
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<h2>
<a href="#linkcontents">English Villages, by P. H. Ditchfield</a>
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Title: English Villages
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Last Updated: November 17, 2012
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<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="title.jpg (23K)" src="images/title.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="front.jpg (121K)" src="images/front.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
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<p>
<br /><br /><br />
</p>
<h1>
ENGLISH VILLAGES
</h1>
<h3>
BY
</h3>
<h2>
P.H. DITCHFIELD M.A., F.S.A.
</h2>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<h3>
TO MY WIFE
</h3>
<p>
<br /><br /><br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
PREFACE
</h2>
<p>
Eleven years ago my little book on the antiquities of English villages was
published. Its object was to interest our rustic neighbours in their
surroundings, to record the social life of the people at various times—their
feasts and fairs, sports and pastimes, faiths and superstitions—and
to describe the scenes which once took place in the fields and lanes they
know so well. A friendly reviewer remarked that the wonder was that a book
of that kind had never been written before, and that that was the first
attempt to give a popular and readable sketch of the history and
associations of our villages. In the present work I have attempted to fill
in the sketch with greater detail, and to write not only for the villagers
themselves, but for all those who by education are able to take a more
intelligent interest in the study of the past.
</p>
<p>
During the last decade many village histories have been written, and if
this book should be of service to anyone who is compiling the chronicles
of some rural world, or if it should induce some who have the necessary
leisure and ability to undertake such works, it will not have been written
in vain.
</p>
<p>
One of the most distressing features of modern village life is the
continual decrease of the population. The rural exodus is an alarming and
very real danger to the welfare of social England. The country is
considered dull and life therein dreary both by squire and peasant alike.
Hence the attractions of towns or the delights of travel empty our
villages. The manor-house is closed and labourers are scarce. To increase
the attractions of our villages, to arouse an interest in their past
history and social life, is worth attempting; and perhaps this Story may
be of some use in fostering local patriotism, and in reconciling those who
spend their lives far from the busy hives of men to their lot, when they
find how much interest lies immediately around them.
</p>
<p>
The study of archaeology has been pursued with much vigour during recent
years, and increased knowledge has overthrown the many wild theories and
conjectures which were gravely pronounced to be ascertained facts by the
antiquaries of fifty years ago. Gildas, Geoffrey of Monmouth, or Richard
of Cirencester are no longer accepted as safe and infallible guides. We
know that there were such people as the Druids, but we no longer attribute
to them the great stone circles nor imagine them sacrificing on “Druid’s
altars,” as our forefathers called the dolmens. The history of
Britain no longer begins with the advent of Julius Caesar, nor is his
account of the Celtic tribes and their manners accepted as a full and
complete statement of all that is known about them. The study of flint
implements, of barrows and earthworks, has considerably thrown back our
historical horizon and enabled us to understand the conditions of life in
our island in the early days of a remote past before the dawn of history.
The systematic excavation of Silchester, so ably conducted by the Society
of Antiquaries, and of other Roman sites of towns and villas, enables us
to realise more clearly the history of Britain under the rule of the
Empire; and the study of the etymology of place-names has overthrown many
of the absurd derivations which found a place in the old county histories,
and are often repeated by the writers of modern guide books. Moreover
patient labour amid old records, rolls, and charters, has vastly increased
our knowledge of the history of manors; and the ancient parish registers
and churchwardens’ account books have been made to yield their store
of information for the benefit of industrious students and scholars. There
has been much destruction and much construction; and this good work will
doubtless continue, until at length English archaeology may be dignified
with the title of an exact science. Destruction of another kind is much to
be deplored, which has left its mark on many an English village. The
so-called “restoration” of ancient parish churches, frequently
conducted by men ignorant of the best traditions of English architecture,
the obliteration of the old architectural features, the entire destruction
of many interesting buildings, have wrought deplorable ruin in our
villages, and severed the links with the past which now can never be
repaired. The progress of antiquarian knowledge will I trust arrest the
destroyer’s hand and prevent any further spoliation of our
diminished inheritance. If this book should be found useful in stimulating
an intelligent interest in architectural studies, and in protecting our
ancient buildings from such acts of vandalism, its purpose will have been
abundantly achieved.
</p>
<p>
I am indebted to many friends and acquaintances for much information which
has been useful to me in writing this book; to Sir John Evans whose works
are invaluable to all students of ancient stone and bronze implements; to
Dr. Cox whose little book on <i>How to Write the History of a Parish</i>
is a sure and certain guide to local historians; to Mr. St. John Hope and
Mr. Fallow for much information contained in their valuable monograph on
<i>Old Church Plate</i>; to the late Dr. Stevens, of Reading; to Mr.
Shrubsole of the same town; to Mr. Gibbins, the author of <i>The
Industrial History of England</i>, for the use of an illustration from his
book; to Mr. Melville, Mr. P.J. Colson, and the Rev. W. Marshall for their
photographic aid; and to many other authors who are only known to me by
their valuable works. To all of these gentlemen I desire to express my
thanks, and also to Mr. Mackintosh for his artistic sketch of a typical
English village, which forms the frontispiece of my book.
</p>
<p>
P.H.D.
</p>
<p>
BARKHAM RECTORY<br /> <i>May</i>, 1901
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="linkcontents" id="linkcontents"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="toc">
<big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
</p>
<p>
<br /> I. <a href="#link1">INTRODUCTION</a><br />
II. <a href="#link2">PREHISTORIC
REMAINS</a><br /> III. <a href="#link3">TUMULI
OR BARROWS</a><br /> IV. <a href="#link4">PIT
AND PILE DWELLINGS</a><br /> V. <a
href="#link5">CROMLECHS, CAMPS, AND EARTHWORKS</a><br /> VI. <a
href="#link6">ROMAN RELICS</a><br /> VII. <a
href="#link7">ANGLO-SAXON VILLAGES</a><br /> VIII. <a
href="#link8">SAXON RELICS</a><br /> IX. <a
href="#link9">ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE</a><br /> X. <a
href="#link10">NORMAN VILLAGES AND THE “DOMESDAY BOOK”</a><br />
XI. <a href="#link11">NORMAN CASTLES</a><br />
XII. <a href="#link12">MONASTERIES</a><br /> XIII.
<a href="#link13">THE MANOR-HOUSE</a><br /> XIV. <a
href="#link14">PARISH CHURCHES</a><br /> XV. <a
href="#link15">CHURCH PLATE</a><br /> XVI. <a href="#link16">MONUMENTAL
EFFIGIES AND BRASSES</a><br /> XVII. <a href="#link17">THE PARISH
CHEST</a><br /> XVIII. <a href="#link18">STAINED GLASS, TILES, AND MURAL
PAINTINGS</a><br /> XIX. <a href="#link19">CHURCH BELLS</a><br />
XX. <a href="#link20">THE MEDIAEVAL VILLAGE</a><br />
XXI. <a href="#link21">VILLAGE SPORTS AND PASTIMES</a><br />
XXII. <a href="#link22">THE VILLAGE INN</a><br /> XXIII. <a
href="#link23">VILLAGE SUPERSTITIONS AND FOLKLORE</a>
</p>
<p>
<a href="#linkappendix">APPENDIX</a>—BOOKS
AND DOCUMENTS <br />RELATING TO PAROCHIAL HISTORY
</p>
<p>
<a
href="#linkindex">INDEX</a>
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /><br /><br />
</p>
<p class="toc">
<big><b>ILLUSTRATIONS</b></big>
</p>
<p>
<br />
</p>
<p>
FULL-PAGE (photographs)
</p>
<p>
[Click on photographs to enlarge]
</p>
<p>
<br /> <a href="#link019">An English Village street</a><br /> <a
href="#link026">Palaeolithic implements</a><br /> <a href="#link033">Neolithic
and bronze implements</a><br /> <a href="#link114">Old market cross</a><br />
<a href="#link155">Broughton Castle</a><br /> <a href="#link172">Netley
Abbey, south transept</a><br /> <a href="#link189">Southcote Manor,
showing moat and pigeon-house</a><br /> <a href="#link194">Old
Manor-house—Upton Court</a><br /> <a href="#link199">Stone Tithe
Barn, Bradford-on-Avon</a><br /> <a href="#link210">Village church in the
Vale</a><br /> <a href="#link279">An ancient village</a><br /> <a
href="#link294">Anne Hathaway’s cottage</a><br /> <a href="#link303">Old
stocks and whipping-post</a><br /> <a href="#link310">Village inn, with
old Tithe Barn of Reading Abbey</a><br /> <a href="#link323">Old cottages</a>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
IN THE TEXT (drawings
</p>
<p>
<br /> <a href="#link032">Barbed and leaf-shaped arrow-heads</a><br /> <a
href="#link039">Plan of a tumulus</a><br /> <a href="#link040">Plan of
tumulus called Wayland Smith’s Cave, Berkshire</a><br /> <a
href="#link043">Celtic cinerary urn</a><br /> <a href="#link048">Articles
found in pit dwellings</a><br /> <a href="#link051">Iron spear-head found
at Hedsor</a><br /> <a href="#link058">Menhir</a><br /> <a href="#link060">Rollright
stones (from Camden’s <i>Britannia</i>, 1607)</a><br /> <a
href="#link062">Dolmen</a><br /> <a href="#link064">Plan and section of
Chun Castle</a><br /> <a href="#link066">The White Horse at Uffington</a><br />
<a href="#link077">Plan of Silchester</a><br /> <a href="#link079">Capital
of column</a><br /> <a href="#link081">Roman force-pump</a><br /> <a
href="#link085">Tesselated pavement</a><br /> <a href="#link091">Beating
acorns for swine (from the Cotton MS., <i>Nero</i>, c. 4)</a><br /> <a
href="#link094">House of Saxon thane</a><br /> <a href="#link096">Wheel
plough (from the Bayeux tapestry)</a><br /> <a href="#link098">Smithy
(from the Cotton MS., B 4)</a><br /> <a href="#link104">Saxon relics</a><br />
<a href="#link118">Consecration of a Saxon church</a><br /> <a
href="#link120">Tower of Barnack Church, Northamptonshire</a><br /> <a
href="#link121">Doorway, Earl’s Barton Church</a><br /> <a
href="#link122">Tower window, Monkwearmouth Church</a><br /> <a
href="#link124">Sculptured head of doorway, Fordington Church, Dorset</a><br />
<a href="#link125">Norman capitals</a><br /> <a href="#link126">Norman
ornamental mouldings</a><br /> <a href="#link127">Croyland Abbey Church,
Lincolnshire</a><br /> <a href="#link128">Semi-Norman arch, Church of St.
Cross</a><br /> <a href="#link129">Early English piers and capitals</a><br />
<a href="#link130">Dog-tooth ornament</a><br /> <a href="#link131">Brownsover
Chapel, Warwickshire</a><br /> <a href="#link132">Ball-flower mouldings,
Tewkesbury Abbey</a><br /> <a href="#link132">Ogee arch</a><br /> <a
href="#link133a">Decorated capitals, Hanwell and Chacombe</a><br /> <a
href="#link133b">Decorated windows, Merton College Chapel; Sandiacre,
Derbyshire</a><br /> <a href="#link134">Decorated mouldings, Elton,
Huntingdonshire; Austrey, Warwickshire</a><br /> <a href="#link135">Perpendicular
window, Merton College Chapel, Oxford</a><br /> <a href="#link136a">Tudor
arch, vestry door, Adderbury Church, Oxon</a><br /> <a href="#link136b">Perpendicular
parapet, St. Erasmus’ Chapel, Westminster Abbey</a><br /> <a
href="#link137">Perpendicular moulding, window, Christchurch, Oxford</a><br />
<a href="#link147">Diagram of a manor</a><br /> <a href="#link150">Ancient
plan of Old Sarum</a><br /> <a href="#link152">A Norman castle</a><br />
<a href="#link161">Tournament</a><br /> <a href="#link178">A monk
transcribing</a><br /> <a href="#link190">Ockwells manor-house</a><br />
<a href="#link191">Richmond Palace</a><br /> <a href="#link192">Doorway
and staircase, Ufton Court</a><br /> <a href="#link193">The porch, Ufton
Court</a><br /> <a href="#link196">Window of south wing, Ufton Court</a><br />
<a href="#link206">Ancient pew-work, Tysoe Church, Warwickshire</a><br />
<a href="#link208">Early English screen, Thurcaston, Leicestershire</a><br />
<a href="#link212">Norman piscina, Romsey Church, Hants</a><br /> <a
href="#link215">Lowside window, Dallington Church, Northamptonshire</a><br />
<a href="#link218">Reading-pew, seventeenth century, Langley Chapel,
Salop.</a><br /> <a href="#link223">Chalice and paten, Sandford,
Oxfordshire</a><br /> <a href="#link224">Pre-Reformation plate</a><br />
<a href="#link225">Censer or thurible</a><br /> <a href="#link254">Mural
paintings (several)</a><br /> <a href="#link271">Ancient sanctus bell
found at Warwick</a>
</p>
</blockquote>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link1" id="link1"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER I
</h2>
<h3>
INTRODUCTION
</h3>
<p>
Local histories—Ignorance and destruction—Advantages of the
study of village antiquities—Description of an English village—The
church— The manor-house—Prehistoric people—Later
inhabitants—Saxons—Village inn—Village green—Legends.
</p>
<p>
To write a complete history of any village is one of the hardest literary
labours which anyone can undertake. The soil is hard, and the crop after
the expenditure of much toil is often very scanty. In many cases the
records are few and difficult to discover, buried amidst the mass of
papers at the Record Office, or entombed in some dusty corner of the
Diocesan Registry. Days may be spent in searching for these treasures of
knowledge with regard to the past history of a village without any
adequate result; but sometimes fortune favours the industrious toiler, and
he discovers a rich ore which rewards him for all his pains. Slowly his
store of facts grows, and he is at last able to piece together the history
of his little rural world, which time and the neglect of past generations
had consigned to dusty oblivion.
</p>
<p>
In recent years several village histories have been written with varied
success by both competent and incompetent scribes; but such books are few
in number, and we still have to deplore the fact that so little is known
about the hamlets in which we live. All writers seem to join in the same
lament, and mourn over the ignorance that prevails in rural England with
regard to the treasures of antiquity, history, and folklore, which are to
be found almost everywhere. We may still echo the words of the learned
author of <i>Tom Brown’s Schooldays</i>, the late Mr. Hughes, who
said that the present generation know nothing of their own birthplaces, or
of the lanes, woods, and fields through which they roam. Not one young man
in twenty knows where to find the wood-sorrel, or the bee-orchis; still
fewer can tell the country legends, the stories of the old gable-ended
farmhouses, or the place where the last skirmish was fought in the Civil
War, or where the parish butts stood. Nor is this ignorance confined to
the unlearned rustics; it is shared by many educated people, who have
travelled abroad and studied the history of Rome or Venice, Frankfort or
Bruges, and yet pass by unheeded the rich stores of antiquarian lore,
which they witness every day, and never think of examining closely and
carefully. There are very few villages in England which have no objects of
historical interest, no relics of the past which are worthy of
preservation. “Restoration,” falsely so called, conducted by
ignorant or perverse architects, has destroyed and removed many features
of our parish churches; the devastating plough has well-nigh levelled many
an ancient barrow; railroads have changed the character of rustic life and
killed many an old custom and rural festival. Old legends and quaint
stories of the countryside have given place to talks about politics and
newspaper gossip. But still much remains if we learn to examine things for
ourselves, and endeavour to gather up the relics of the past and save them
from the destructive hand of Time.
</p>
<p>
A great service may thus be rendered not only to the cause of history, but
also to the villagers of rural England, by those who have time, leisure,
and learning, sufficient to gain some knowledge of bygone times. It adds
greatly to the interest of their lives to know something of the place
where they live; and it has been well said that every man’s concern
with his native place has something more in it than the amount of rates
and taxes that he has to pay. He may not be able to write a history of his
parish, but he can gather up the curious gossip of the neighbourhood, the
traditions and stories which have been handed down from former
generations. And if anyone is at the pains to acquire some knowledge of
local history, and will impart what he knows to his poorer neighbours, he
will add greatly to their interest in life. Life is a burden, labour mere
drudgery, when a man has nothing in which he can interest himself. When we
remember the long hours which an agricultural labourer spends alone,
without a creature to speak to, except his horses or the birds, we can
imagine how dull his life must be, if his mind be not occupied. But here,
on his own ground, he may find an endless supply of food for thought,
which will afford him much greater pleasure and satisfaction than thinking
and talking about his neighbours’ faults, reflecting upon his
wrongs, or imitating the example of one of his class who, when asked by
the squire what he was thinking so deeply about, replied, “Mostly
naught.” To remove the pall of ignorance that darkens the rustic
mind, to quicken his understanding and awaken his interest, are certainly
desirable objects; although his ignorance is very often shared by his
betters, who frequently hazard very strange theories and manifest many
curious ideas with regard to village antiquities.
</p>
<p>
We will walk together through the main roads of the village, and observe
some of its many points of interest. Indeed, it is no small thing to live
in such a “city of memories” as every village is, when at
every turn and corner we meet with something that reminds us of the past,
and recalls the pleasing associations of old village life. To those who
have lived amid the din and turmoil of a large town, where everybody is in
a hurry, and there is nothing but noise, confusion, and bustle, the
delicious calm and quietude of an old English village, undisturbed by the
world’s rude noise, is most grateful. But to live in memory of what
has gone before, of the lives and customs of our forefathers, of the
strange events that have happened on the very ground upon which we are
standing, all this will make us love our village homes and delight in them
exceedingly. In most of our large towns the old features are fast
disappearing; historical houses have been pulled down to make room for
buildings more adapted to present needs, and everything is being
modernised; but in the country everything remains the same, and it is not
so difficult to let one’s thoughts wander into the past, and picture
to one’s self the old features of village life in bygone times.
</p>
<p>
Most of our villages have the usual common features, and it is not
difficult to describe a typical example, though the details vary very
much, and the histories of no two villages are identical. We see arising
above the trees the church, the centre of the old village life, both
religious, secular, and social. It stands upon a site which has been
consecrated to the service of God for many centuries. There is possibly in
or near the churchyard a tumulus, or burial mound, which shows that the
spot was set apart for some religious observances even before Christianity
reached our shores. Here the early Saxon missionary planted his cross and
preached in the open air to the gathered villagers. Here a Saxon thane
built a rude timber church which was supplanted by an early Norman
structure of stone with round arches and curiously carved ornamentation.
This building has been added to at various times, and now shows, writ in
stone, its strange and varied history. The old time-worn registers, kept
in the parish chest in the vestry, breathe the atmosphere of bygone times,
and tell the stories and romances of the “rude forefathers of the
hamlet.” The tombs and monuments of knights and ancient heroes tell
many a tale of valour and old-world prowess, of families that have
entirely died out, of others that still happily remain amongst us, and
record the names and virtues of many an illustrious house. The windows,
brasses, bells, and inscriptions, have all some interesting story to
relate, which we hope presently to examine more minutely.
</p>
<p>
Nestling amid the trees we see the manor-house, standing probably on the
site of a much older edifice; and this building carries our thoughts back
to the Saxon and early Norman times, when the lord of the manor had
vassals and serfs under him, held his manorial court, and reigned as a
king in his own small domain. The history of the old English manor is a
very important one, concerning which much has been written, many questions
disputed, and some points still remain to be decided.
</p>
<p>
Then we notice an old farmhouse which has doubtless seen better days, for
there are the remains of an ancient moat around it, as if some family of
importance once lived there, and wished to guard themselves and their
possessions from troublesome visitors. This moat tells of the times of war
and lawlessness, of wild and fierce animals roaming the countryside; and
if the walls of the old house could speak how many stories could they tell
of the strange customs of our ancestors, of bread riots, of civil wars,
and disturbances which once destroyed the tranquillity of our peaceful
villages!
</p>
<p>
We shall endeavour to discover the earliest inhabitants of our villages
who left their traces behind in the curious stone and bronze weapons of
war or domestic implements, and who lived in far remote periods before the
dawn of history. The barrows, or tumuli, which contain their dead bodies
tell us much about them; and also the caves and lake dwellings help us to
form some very accurate notions of the conditions of life in those distant
days. We shall see that the Britons or Celts were far from being the naked
woad-dyed savages described by Caesar, whose account has so long been
deemed sufficient by the historians of our childhood. We shall call to
mind the many waves of invaders which rolled over our country—the
Celts, the Romans, Saxons, Danes, and Normans—all of whom have left
some traces behind them, and added sundry chapters to the story of our
villages.
</p>
<p>
The fields too proclaim their story, and tell us of the Saxon folk who
were our first farmers, and made clearings in the forests, and tilled the
same soil we work to-day. They tell us too of the old monks who knew so
much about agriculture; and occasionally the plough turns up a rusty sword
or cannon ball, which reveals the story of battles and civil wars which we
trust have passed away from our land for ever. The very names of the
fields are not without signification, and tell us of animals which are now
extinct, of the manners of our forefathers, of the old methods of farming,
and the common lands which have passed away.
</p>
<p>
The old village inn, with its curiously painted signboard, has its own
story to tell, of the old coaching days, and of the great people who used
to travel along the main roads, and were sometimes snowed up in a drift
just below “The Magpie,” which had always good accommodation
for travellers, and stabling for fifty horses. All was activity in the
stable yard when the coach came in; the villagers crowded round the inn
doors to see the great folks from London who were regaling themselves with
well-cooked English joints; and if they stayed all night, could find
comfortable beds with lavender-scented sheets, and every attention. But
the railroads and iron steeds have changed all that; until yesterday the
roads were deserted, and the glory of the old inns departed. Bicyclists
now speed along in the track of the old coaches; but they are not quite so
picturesque, and the bicycle bell is less musical than the cheerful
posthorn.
</p>
<p>
On the summit of a neighbouring hill we see a curious formation which is
probably an earthwork, constructed many centuries ago by the early
dwellers in this district for the purpose of defence in dangerous times,
when the approach of a neighbouring tribe, or the advance of a company of
free-booting invaders, threatened them with death or the destruction of
their flocks and herds. These earthworks we shall examine more closely. An
ivy-covered ruin near the church shows the remains of a monastic cell or
monastery; and in the distance perhaps we can see the outlines of an old
Norman keep or castle; all of these relate to the story of our villages,
and afford us subjects for investigation and research.
</p>
<p>
Then there is the village green where so many generations of the villagers
have disported themselves, danced the old country dances (now alas!
forgotten), and reared the merry May-pole, and crowned their queen. Here
they held their rural sports, and fought their bouts of quarter-staff and
cudgel-play, grinned through horse-collars, and played pipe and tabor at
many a rustic feast, when life was young and England merry. We shall try
to picture to ourselves these happy scenes of innocent diversion which
cheered the hearts of our forefathers in bygone times.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link019" id="link019"></a><br /> <a
href="images/019.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="019h.jpg (38K)" src="images/019h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />AN ENGLISH VILLAGE STREET <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
We will try to collect the curious legends and stories which were told to
us by our grandsires, and are almost forgotten by the present generation.
These we should treasure up, lest they should be for ever lost. Local
tradition has often led the way to important discoveries.
</p>
<p>
In this brief circuit of an ordinary English village we have found many
objects which are calculated to excite our imagination and to stimulate
inquiry. A closer examination will well repay our study, and reward the
labour of the investigator. It is satisfactory to know that all possible
discoveries as to the antiquities of our villages have not yet been made.
We have still much to learn, and the earth has not yet disclosed all its
treasures. Roman villas still remain buried; the sepulchres of many a
Saxon chieftain or early nomad Celt are still unexplored; the pile
dwellings and cave domiciles of the early inhabitants of our country have
still to be discovered; and piles of records and historical documents have
still to be sought out, arranged, and examined. So there is much work to
be done by the antiquary for many a long year; and every little discovery,
and the results of every patient research, assist in accumulating that
store of knowledge which is gradually being compiled by the hard labour of
our English historians and antiquaries.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link2" id="link2"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER II
</h2>
<h3>
PREHISTORIC REMAINS
</h3>
<p>
Pytheas of Marseilles—Discovery of flint implements—Geological
changes—Palaeolithic man—Eslithic—Palaeolithic
implements— Drift men—Cave men—Neolithic man and his
weapons—Dolichocephalic— Celtic or Brachycephalic race—The
Iron Age.
</p>
<p>
It was customary some years ago to begin the history of any country with
the statement, “Of the early inhabitants nothing is known with any
certainty,” and to commence the history of England with the landing
of Julius Caesar B.C. 55. If this book had been written forty or fifty
years ago it might have been stated that our first knowledge of Britain
dates from 330 B.C. when Pytheas of Marseilles visited it, and described
his impressions. He says that the climate was foggy, a characteristic
which it has not altogether lost, that the people cultivated the ground
and used beer and mead as beverages. Our villagers still follow the
example of their ancestors in their use of one at least of these drinks.
</p>
<p>
Of the history of all the ages prior to the advent of this Pytheas all
written record is silent. Hence we have to play the part of scientific
detectives, examine the footprints of the early man who inhabited our
island, hunt for odds and ends which he has left behind, to rake over his
kitchen middens, pick up his old tools, and even open his burial mound.
</p>
<p>
About fifty years ago the attention of the scientific world was drawn to
the flint implements which were scattered over the surface of our fields
and in our gravel pits and mountain caves; and inquiring minds began to
speculate as to their origin. The collections made at Amiens and Abbeville
and other places began to convince men of the existence of an unknown and
unimagined race, and it gradually dawned on us that on our moors and downs
were the tombs of a race of men who fashioned their weapons of war and
implements of peace out of flint. These discoveries have pushed back our
knowledge of man to an antiquity formerly never dreamed of, and enlarged
considerably our historical horizon. So we will endeavour to discover what
kind of men they were, who roamed our fields and woods before any
historical records were written, and mark the very considerable traces of
their occupation which they have left behind.
</p>
<p>
The condition of life and the character and climate of the country were
very different in early times from what they are in the present day; and
in endeavouring to discover the kind of people who dwelt here in
prehistoric times, we must hear what the geologists have to tell us about
the physical aspect of Britain in that period. There was a time when this
country was connected with the Continent of Europe, and the English
Channel and North Sea were mere valleys with rivers running through them
fed by many streams. Where the North Sea now rolls there was the great
valley of the Rhine; and as there were no ocean-waves to cross, animals
and primitive man wandered northwards and westwards from the Continent,
and made their abode here. It is curious to note that the migratory birds
when returning to France and Italy, and thence to the sunny regions of
Algiers and other parts of Northern Africa, always cross the seas where in
remote ages there was dry land. They always traverse the same route; and
it appears that the recollection of the places where their ancestors
crossed has been preserved by them through all the centuries that have
elapsed since “the silver streak” was formed that severs
England from her neighbours.
</p>
<p>
In the times of which we are speaking the land was much higher than it is
now. Snowdon was 600 feet greater, and the climate was much colder and
more rigorous. Glaciers like those in Switzerland were in all the higher
valleys, and the marks of the action of the ice are still plainly seen on
the rocky cliffs that border many a ravine. Moreover we find in the
valleys many detached rocks, immense boulders, the nature of which is
quite different from the character of the stone in the neighbourhood.
These were carried down by the glaciers from higher elevations, and
deposited, when the ice melted, in the lower valleys. Hence in this
glacial period the condition of the country was very different from what
it is now.
</p>
<p>
Then a remarkable change took place. The land began to sink, and its
elevation so much decreased that the central part of the country became a
huge lake, and the peak of Snowdon was an island surrounded by the sea
which washed with its waves the lofty shoulder of the mountain. This is
the reason why shells and shingle are found in high elevations. The Ice
Age passed away and the climate became warmer. The Gulf Stream found its
way to our shores, and the country was covered by a warm ocean having
islands raising their heads above the surface. Sharks swam around, whose
teeth we find now buried in beds of clay. The land continued to rise, and
attracted by the sunshine and the more genial clime animals from the
Continent wandered northwards, and with them came man. Caves, now high
amongst the hills, but then on a level with the rivers, were his first
abode, and contain many relics of his occupancy, together with the bones
of extinct animals. The land appears to have risen, and the climate became
colder. The sea worked its relentless way through the chalk hills on the
south and gradually met the waves of the North Sea which flowed over the
old Rhine valley. It widened also the narrow strait that severed the
country from Ireland, and the outline and contour of the island began more
nearly to resemble that with which we are now familiar.
</p>
<p>
A vast period of time was necessary to accomplish all these immense
changes; and it is impossible to speculate with any degree of certainty
how long that period was, which transformed the icebound surface of our
island to a land of verdure and wild forests. We must leave such
conjectures and the more detailed accounts of the glacial and post-glacial
periods to the geologists, as our present concern is limited to the study
of the habits and condition of the men who roamed our fields and forests
in prehistoric times. Although no page of history gives us any information
concerning them, we can find out from the relics of arms and implements
which the earth has preserved for us, what manner of men lived in the old
cave dwellings, or constructed their rude huts, and lie buried beneath the
vast barrows.
</p>
<p>
The earliest race of men who inhabited our island was called the
Palaeolithic race, from the fact that they used the most ancient form of
stone implements. Traces of a still earlier race are said to have been
discovered a few years ago on the chalk plateau of the North Down, near
Sevenoaks. The flints have some slight hollows in them, as if caused by
scraping, and denote that the users must have been of a very low condition
of intelligence—able to use a tool but scarcely able to make one.
This race has been called the Eolithic; but some antiquaries have thrown
doubts upon their existence, and the discovery of these flints is too
recent to allow us to speak of them with any degree of certainty.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link026" id="link026"></a><br /> <a
href="images/026.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="026h.jpg (39K)" src="images/026h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The traces of Palaeolithic man are very numerous, and he evidently
exercised great skill in bringing his implements to a symmetrical shape by
chipping. The use of metals for cutting purposes was entirely unknown; and
stone, wood, and bone were the only materials of which these primitive
beings availed themselves for the making of weapons or domestic
implements. Palaeolithic man lived here during that distant period when
this country was united with the Continent, and when the huge mammoth
roamed in the wild forests, and powerful and fierce animals struggled for
existence in the hills and vales of a cold and inclement country. His
weapons and tools were of the rudest description, and made of chipped
flint. Many of these have been found in the valley gravels, which had
probably been dropped from canoes into the lakes or rivers, or washed down
by floods from stations on the shore. Eighty or ninety feet above the
present level of the Thames in the higher gravels are these relics found;
and they are so abundant that the early inhabitants who used them must
have been fairly numerous. Their shape is usually oval, and often pointed
into a rude resemblance of the shape of a spear-head. Some flint-flakes
are of the knifelike character; others resemble awls, or borers, with
sharp points evidently for making holes in skins for the purpose of
constructing a garment. Hammer-stones for crushing bones, tools with
well-wrought flat edges, scrapers, and other implements, were the
stock-in-trade of the earliest inhabitant of our country, and are
distinguishable from those used by Neolithic man by their larger and
rougher work. The maker of the old stone tools never polished his
implements; nor did he fashion any of those finely wrought arrowheads and
javelin points, upon which his successor prided himself. The latter
discovered that the flints which were dug up were more easily fashioned
into various shapes; whereas Palaeolithic man picked up the flints that
lay about on the surface of the ground, and chipped them into the form of
his rude tools. However, the elder man was acquainted with the use of
fire, which he probably obtained by striking flints on blocks of iron
pyrites. Wandering about the country in families and tribes, he contrived
to exist by hunting the numerous animals that inhabited the primeval
forests, and has left us his weapons and tools to tell us what kind of man
he was. His implements are found in the drift gravels by the riversides;
and from this cause his race are known as drift men, in order to
distinguish them from the <i>cave men</i>, who seem to have belonged to a
little later period.
</p>
<p>
The first dwellings of man were the caves on the hillsides, before he
found out the art of building pile huts. In Palaeolithic times these caves
were inhabited by a rude race of feral nomads who lived by the chase, and
fashioned the rude tools which we have already described. They were,
however, superior to the drift men, and had some notion of art. The
principal caves in the British islands containing the relics of the cave
folk are the following: Perthichoaren, Denbighshire, wherein were found
the remains of Platycnemic man—so named from his having sharp
shin-bones; Cefn, St. Asaph; Uphill, Somerset; King’s Scar and the
Victoria Cave, Settle; Robin Hood’s Cave and Pinhole Cave,
Derbyshire; Black Rock, Caldy Island, Coygan Caves, Pembrokeshire; King
Arthur’s Cave, Monmouth; Durdham Downs, Bristol; and sundry others,
near Oban, in the valleys of the Trent, Dove, and Nore, and of the Irish
Blackwater, and in Caithness.
</p>
<p>
In these abodes the bones of both men and animals have been found; but
these do not all belong to the same period, as the Neolithic people, and
those of the Bronze and Iron Ages, followed the occupation of the earlier
race. The remains of the different races, however, lie at various depths,
those of the earlier race naturally lying the lowest. An examination of
the Victoria Cave, Settle, clearly shows this. Outside the entrance there
was found a layer of charcoal and burnt bones, and the burnt stones of
fireplaces, pottery, coins of the Emperors Trajan and Constantine, and
ornaments in bone, ivory, bronze and enamel. The animal remains were those
of the <i>bos longifrons</i> (Celtic ox), pig, horse, roe, stag, fowl
(wild), and grouse. This layer was evidently composed of the relics of a
Romano-British people. Below this were found chipped flints, an adze of
melaphyre, and a layer of boulders, sand, and clay, brought down by the
ice from the higher valley.
</p>
<p>
Inside the cave in the upper cave earth were found the bones of fox,
badger, brown bear, grizzly bear, reindeer, red deer, horse, pig, and
goat, and some bones evidently hacked by man. In the lower cave earth
there were the remains of the hyena, fox, brown and grizzly bears,
elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, urus, bison, and red deer, the hacked
bones of a goat, and a small leg-bone of a man.
</p>
<p>
Some idea of the time which has elapsed since primitive man inhabited this
rude dwelling may be formed from these excavations. Two feet below the
surface lay the Romano-British layer, and we know therefore that about
1,600 years was required for the earth to accumulate to that depth. The
Neolithic layer was six feet below this; hence 4,800 years would be
necessary to form this depth of earth. So we may conclude that at least
6,400 years ago Neolithic man used the cave. A long time previous to this
lived the creatures of the lower cave earth, the bison, elephant, and the
hyena with the solitary human bone, which belonged to the sharp-shinned
race (Platycnemic) of beings, the earliest dwellers in our country.
</p>
<p>
It is doubtful whether Palaeolithic man has left any descendants. The
Esquimaux appear to somewhat resemble them. Professor Boyd Dawkins, in his
remarkable book, <i>Cave Hunting</i>, traces this relationship in the
character of implements, methods of obtaining food and cooking it, modes
of preparing skins for clothing, and particularly in the remarkable skill
of depicting figures on bone which both races display. In carving figures
on bone and teeth early man in Britain was certainly more skilful than his
successor; but he was a very inferior type of the human race, yet his
intelligence and mode of life have been deemed not lower than those of the
Australian aborigines.
</p>
<p>
The animals which roamed through the country in this Pleistocene period
were the elk and reindeer, which link us on to the older and colder period
when Arctic conditions prevailed; the Irish deer, a creature of great size
whose head weighed about eighty pounds; bison, elephant, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, lion, wolf, otter, bear, horse, red deer, roe, urus or
gigantic ox, the short-horned ox (<i>bos longifrons</i>), boar, badger and
many others which survive to the present day, and have therefore a very
long line of ancestors.
</p>
<p>
The successor of the old stone implement maker was Neolithic man, to whom
we have already had occasion to refer. Some lengthy period of geological
change separates him from his predecessor of the Old Stone Age. Specimens
of his handiwork show that he was a much more civilised person than his
predecessor, and presented a much higher type of humanity. He had a
peculiarly shaped head, the back part of the skull being strangely
prolonged; and from this feature he is called <i>dolichocephalic</i>. He
was small in stature, about 5 feet 6 inches in height, having a dark
complexion, and his descendants are the Iberian or Basque races in the
Western Pyrenees and may still be traced in parts of Ireland and Wales.
The long barrows or mounds, the length of which is greater than the
breadth, contain his remains, and we find traces of his existence in all
the western countries of Europe.
</p>
<p>
He had made many discoveries which were unknown to his Old Stone
predecessor. Instead of always hunting for his food, like an animal, he
found out that the earth would give him corn with which he could make
bread, if only he took the trouble to cultivate it. Instead of always
slaying animals, he found that some were quite ready to be his servants,
and give him milk and wool and food. He brought with him to our shores
cows and sheep and goats, horses and dogs. Moreover he made pottery,
moulding the clay with his hand, and baking it in a fire. He had not
discovered the advantages of a kiln. He could spin thread, and weave
stuffs, though he usually wore garments of skins.
</p>
<p>
His dwellings were no longer the caves and forests, for he made for
himself rude pit huts, and surrounded himself, his tribe, and cattle with
a circular camp. Traces of his agricultural operations may still be found
in the “terraces,” or strips of ground on hillsides, which
preserve the marks of our early Neolithic farmers.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link032" id="link032"></a><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="032.jpg (37K)" src="images/032.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Their implements are far superior to those of the Old Stone men, and are
found on the surface of our fields, or on hillsides, where they tended
their flocks, or dug their rude pit shelters. Their weapons and tools are
highly polished, and have evidently been ground on a grindstone. They are
adapted for an endless variety of uses, and are most skilfully and
beautifully fashioned. There are finely wrought arrowheads, of three
shapes—barbed, tanged and barbed, and leaf-shaped; axes, scrapers
for cleansing and preparing skins for clothing, hammer stones, wedges,
drills, borers, knives, and many other tools. In the Reading Museum may be
seen a heavy quartzite axe and chipped flint hatchet, which were found
with some charred timber on an island in the Thames, and were evidently
used for scooping out the interior of a boat from a tree with the aid of
fire. So this New Stone man knew how to make boats as well as a vast
number of other things of which we shall presently speak more
particularly. His descendants linger on in South Wales and Ireland, and
are short in stature, dark in complexion, and narrow-skulled, like their
forefathers a few thousand years ago.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link033" id="link033"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/033.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="033h.jpg (35K)" src="images/033h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Another wave of invaders swept over our land, and overcame the long-headed
Neolithic race. These were the Celtic people, taller and stronger than
their predecessors, and distinguished by their fair hair and rounded
skulls. From the shape of their heads they are called Brachycephalic, and
are believed to have belonged to the original Aryan race, whose birthplace
was Southern Asia. At some remote period this wave of invaders poured over
Europe and Asia, and has left traces behind it in the languages of all
Indo-European nations.
</p>
<p>
Their weapons were made of bronze, although they still used polished stone
implements also. We find chisels, daggers, rings, buttons, and
spear-heads, all made of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, and fashioned
by the skilled hands of these early Celtic folk. As they became more
civilised, being of an inventive mind, they discovered the use of iron and
found it a more convenient metal for fashioning axes to cut down trees.
</p>
<p>
When Caesar came to Britain he found that the inhabitants knew the use of
iron, even the less civilised early Celtic settlers driven northwards and
westwards by the Belgae, had iron weapons, and the wild Caledonians in the
time of Severus, although they were naked, woad-dyed savages, wore iron
collars and girdles and were armed with metal weapons.
</p>
<p>
Such are some of the relics of antiquity which the soil of our native land
retains, as a memorial of the primitive people who first trod upon it.
Concerning their lives and records history is silent, until the Conqueror
tells us something of our Celtic forefathers. From the scanty remains of
prehistoric races, their weapons and tools, we can gather something of the
earliest inhabitants of our island, and try to realise their habits and
mode of life.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link3" id="link3"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER III
</h2>
<h3>
TUMULI OR BARROWS
</h3>
<p>
Barrows near churchyards—Their universality—Contents—Food
in barrows—Curious burial customs—Belief in future life—Long
and round barrows—Interior of barrow—Position of bodies—Cremation—
Burial urns—Articles of dress and ornament—Artistic
workmanship— Pottery—Remains of agriculture—Organised
condition of society among prehistoric people.
</p>
<p>
Throughout the country we find many artificial mounds which are called <i>tumuli</i>
or barrows, or in the neighbourhood of Wales, “tumps.” These
are the ancient burial-places of the early inhabitants of our island, the
word “barrow” being derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>beorh</i>,
a hill or grave-mound. It is not unusual to see a barrow in the centre, or
near, an old churchyard, as at Taplow, Bucks. The church was built, of
course, much later than the erection of the mound; but doubtless the early
preachers of the gospel took advantage of the reverence which was paid to
these ancient tombs, proclaimed there the story of the cross, and on the
spots so consecrated churches were ultimately built.
</p>
<p>
These mounds have much to tell us of the early inhabitants. To cover the
dead with a mound of earth was a custom common to all nations. All over
Europe, in Northern Asia, India, and in the new world of America, we find
burial-mounds. The pyramids of Egypt are only glorified mounds; and our
islands can boast of an endless variety, sometimes consisting of cairns,
or heaps of stones, sometimes of huge hills of earth, 130 feet in height,
as at Silbury, Wilts, and covering five acres; while others are only small
heaps of soil a few feet high.
</p>
<p>
The contents of the tumuli differ also. Sometimes the bodies were burnt
and the ashes preserved in rude urns; sometimes they were not cremated.
Sometimes they were buried in stone cists, or in the hollowed trunk of
trees; sometimes without any covering save that of the earth. In nearly
all cases we find numerous articles buried with the dead, such as personal
ornaments, weapons, pottery, and food.
</p>
<p>
The presence of food in the tumuli testifies to the natural instinct
implanted by the Creator in the human heart with regard to a future
existence. The idea that the soul of the departed is about to take a long
journey is constant and deeply rooted; the rainbow and the milky way have
often been supposed to be the paths trod by the departed, who require
sustenance for so long a journey. The Aztecs laid a water-bottle beside
the bodies to be used on the way to Mictlan, the land of the dead. Bow and
arrows, a pair of mocassins with a spare piece of deerskin to patch them
if they wear out, and sinews of deer to sew on the patches with, together
with a kettle and provisions, are still placed in the graves by the North
American Indians. The Laplanders lay beside the corpse flint, steel, and
tinder, to supply light for the dark journey. A coin was placed in the
mouth of the dead by the Greeks to pay Charon, the ferryman of the Styx,
and for a similar purpose in the hand of a deceased Irishman. The
Greenlanders bury with a child a dog, for they say a dog will find his way
anywhere. In the grave of the Viking warrior were buried his horn and
armour in order that he might enter the halls of Valhalla fully equipped.
</p>
<p>
These and many other examples might be quoted showing the universality of
the belief in a future life, a belief that was evidently shared with other
nations by the primeval races who inhabited our islands in prehistoric
times.
</p>
<p>
The presence of food and drinking vessels in the tumuli clearly shows
this, and also the store of weapons and implements, adzes, hammers,
scrapers, and other tools which the barrows have preserved through so many
ages.
</p>
<p>
These barrows are not confined to one period or one race, as their shape
denotes. Some are long, measuring 200 to 400 feet in length by 60 or 80
feet wide; others are circular. The former were made by the long-headed
(dolichocephalic) race of whom we have already spoken; the latter by the
round-headed (brachycephalic), conquerors of their feebler long-skulled
forerunners. When we consider the poor tools used by these primitive
peoples, we may wonder at the amount of labour they must have expended on
the construction of these giant mounds. Picks made of deer’s horns
and pointed staves enabled them to loosen the earth which was then
collected in baskets and thrown on the rising heap. Countless toilers and
many years must have been needed to produce such wonderful memorials of
their industry.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link039" id="link039"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="039.jpg (64K)" src="images/039.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
With better tools we will proceed to dig into these mounds and discover
what they contain. First we notice an encircling trench and mound
surrounding the barrow, the purpose of which is supposed to have been to
keep the dead person in the tomb, and prevent it from injuring the living.
After much digging in the centre of the barrow we find a single stone
chamber, entered by a passage underneath the higher and wider end of the
mound. Sometimes the chamber is divided into three parts, the centre one
being covered by a dome, formed by the overlapping of the stones in the
upper parts of the walls. The passage leading to the centre chamber is
also built with large stones erected with much care and skill. The
contents of these long barrows are not so interesting, or numerous, as
those contained in the round barrows. The skeletons are usually found in
irregular positions, and few weapons or ornaments accompany the buried
bones. Derbyshire possesses many barrows; wherever in a place-name the
suffix <i>low</i> occurs, derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>hlow</i>,
signifying a small hill or mound, a barrow is generally to be found. The
long barrow is usually about 200 feet in length, 40 feet wide, and 8 to 12
feet high. They run east and west, frequently north-east by south-west,
the principal interment being usually at the eastern and higher end. The
bodies are often found in a cist or box made of large stones, and several
were buried in one mound, generally on the south and east sides, so that
they might lie in the sun. This practice may have been connected with
sun-worship; and the same idea prevailed in modern times, when the south
side of the churchyard was considered the favoured portion, and criminals
and suicides were relegated to the colder north side.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link040" id="link040"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="040.jpg (26K)" src="images/040.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The position of the bodies varied, but usually they were buried in a
crouching position, with knees bent and head drawn towards the knees. This
was probably the natural position which a man would assume when he slept
without a luxurious bed to lie upon, and with little to cover him, in
order to keep himself as warm as possible. Hence when he sank into his
last long sleep, his mourning relatives would place him in the same
posture. In the Channel Islands bodies were often placed in a kneeling
position.
</p>
<p>
The custom of burning the body seems to have been adopted later by the
same long-headed race who used the long barrows, and prevailed more in the
north of England, in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Scotland, than in the
south. The cremation was sometimes not very thoroughly performed. The
bodies were placed together, wood being piled about them, and over the
heap the mound was raised. Then the fire was lighted, which naturally only
partly consumed the bodies. We find also, mingled with bones of men and
women, the bones of animals, which were probably the remains of funeral
feasts.
</p>
<p>
As we have said the round-headed race introduced the circular barrow, and
cremation was their usual, though not exclusive, practice. These people
were much stronger and bigger men than their predecessors, their powerful
jaws and projecting chins showing much more power of will than the softer
narrow-faced dolichocephalic race. However, in the round barrows we also
find the bodies of the latter, and we gather that they were not
exterminated or driven out by their conquerors, but mingled with them,
intermarried, until at length the type of the long-skulled race prevailed,
and the Celt of later times possessed the features of the race he had
formerly subdued. At least such seems to be the teaching of the barrows.
</p>
<p>
The Celt became acquainted with the use of bronze, and his tomb was
enriched with a store of the relics of the life and art of the workmanship
of the time. As cremation was the usual practice, it was no longer
necessary to have a chamber which the dead might inhabit; the size of the
sleeping-place of the dead was reduced, and a cist was constructed for the
receptacle of the urn in which the remains were placed. The mound also was
reduced in size and looked much less imposing than the huge barrows of the
Stone Age; but its contents were much more important.
</p>
<p>
The ashes we find frequently contained in a rude urn of black pottery with
some ornamentation. Then we discover pins made of bones, which were
evidently used to fasten the dress. The people therefore were evidently
not naked, woad-dyed savages; moreover we find bits of woollen fabric and
charred cloth, and in Denmark people belonging to this same early race
were buried in a cap, shirt, leggings, and boots, a fairly complete
wardrobe. They also loved to adorn themselves, and had buttons of jet, and
stone and bone ornaments. Besides flint implements we find adzes and
hatchets and chisels, axe-hammers constructed with a hole in them for the
insertion of a handle, grain rubbers, wheat stones, and hammer stones. The
mounds also disclose a great variety of flint implements, hatchets,
scrapers, both round and long, knife-daggers, knives, saws, drills,
fabricators or flaking tools, sling stones, hammer stones, polishers,
arrow-points, either leaf-shaped, triangular, or barbed, and heads of
darts and javelins. A very curious object is sometimes found, a stone
wrist guard, for the purpose of protecting the wrist from the bow string.
</p>
<p>
These barrows and their contents bear evidences to the artistic
workmanship of the prehistoric dwellers in our villages. Their tombs show
that these people did not confine themselves to the fabrication of objects
of utility, but that they loved to adorn themselves with personal
ornaments, which required much art and skill in the manufacture. Necklaces
of beads pleased their fancy, and these they made of jet, or shells, the
teeth of deer, and the vertebrae of fish. Moreover they loved ear-rings,
which were sometimes made of the teeth of pigs. Objects of gold, bronze,
glass, ivory, amber, clay, and bone were also used as ornaments.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link043" id="link043"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="043.jpg (53K)" src="images/043.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
If we examine the pottery in the barrows we find that a vessel of
earthenware was usually placed at the back of the head of the body when it
was not cremated. There were also cinerary urns, cups, usually called
incense cups, which were certainly not used for incense, whatever may have
been their purpose, food and drinking vessels. This pottery was not
sun-dried, but burnt in a fire, though not made in a kiln, and the form of
the vessels shows that the makers were ignorant of the use of a potter’s
wheel. The ornamentation consisted of a series of straight lines made by a
sharp-pointed instrument and by impressions of the finger nails or string,
often revealing much skill and artistic workmanship.
</p>
<p>
From a study of the barrows we may learn much about the early inhabitants
of our island, who lived and worked and died on the same spots where we
now are spending our days. We can see them hunting in the wild woodlands,
rearing cows and sheep and goats, and cultivating their crops of corn. We
can still trace on the hillsides some curious terraces fashioned by them
for the growing of their grain, and discover querns, or hand millstones,
and stones for bruising the corn. The bones of young oxen a few days old,
discovered in the mounds, show that they knew the use of milk, and how to
get a good supply. A rude spindle-whorl shows that they knew how to weave
stuffs for their clothing, and the numerous buttons, fasteners, and belts
prove that the clothes were fitted to the wearer, and not mere shapeless
sacks.
</p>
<p>
The barrows also bear evidence to the existence of some organised
condition of society. In the early savage state of human existence the
family is the only community; but as man progressed towards civilisation,
he learnt how to combine with his fellows for mutual defence and support.
We gather from our examination of the tombs of these early races that they
had attained to this degree of progress. There were chiefs of tribes and
families who were buried with more honour than that bestowed upon the
humbler folk. Many families were buried in one mound, showing that the
tribal state had been reached, while the many humbler graves denote the
condition of servitude and dependence in which a large number of the race
lived. All this, and much more, may be learnt from a careful study of the
tombs of these prehistoric people.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link4" id="link4"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER IV
</h2>
<h3>
PIT AND PILE DWELLINGS
</h3>
<p>
Pit dwelling earliest form of house-building—Discoveries at
Bright-hampton, Worlebury—British oppida—Hurstbourne—Contents
of pit dwelling—Pot-boilers—Condition of civilisation—Pile
dwellings— Switzerland—Glastonbury—Hedsor—Crannogs—Modern
use of pile dwellings—Description of a lake dwelling—Contents—Bronze
Age— Recent discoveries at Glastonbury.
</p>
<p>
We have examined in our last chapter the abodes of the dead; we will now
investigate the abodes of the living which the earth has preserved for us
for so many centuries. The age of the cave dwellers had long passed; and
the prehistoric folk, having attained to some degree of civilisation,
began to devise for themselves some secure retreats from inclement rains
and cold winds. Perhaps the burrowing rabbit gave them an idea for
providing some dwelling-place. At any rate the earliest and simplest
notion for constructing a habitation was that of digging holes in the
ground and roofing them over with a light thatch. Hence we have the pit
dwellings of our rude forefathers.
</p>
<p>
Many examples of pit dwellings have been found by industrious explorers.
Some labourers when digging gravel at Brighthampton, near Oxford, came
across several such excavations. They were simply pits dug in the earth,
large enough to hold one or two persons, and from the sides of these pits
a certain quantity of earth had been removed so as to form a seat. At the
bottom of these a few rude flint arrow-heads were found. In the remarkable
British oppidum at Worlebury, near Weston-super-Mare, several circular,
well-like pits may be seen, fairly preserved in shape owing to the rocky
nature of the ground in which they have been excavated. One in particular
is very perfect, and about two feet from the bottom is a seat formed of
the rock extending all round the pit.
</p>
<p>
These ancient pit dwellings are usually surrounded by an earthen rampart.
Caesar says that “the Britons called that a town where they used to
assemble for the sake of avoiding an incursion of enemies, when they had
fortified the entangled woods with a rampart and ditch.” The remains
of many of these oppida may still be seen in almost all parts of the
country; and in most of these hollows are plainly distinguishable, which
doubtless were pit dwellings; but owing to the sides having fallen in,
they have now the appearance of natural hollows in the earth.
</p>
<p>
At Hurstbourne, Hants, nine of these early habitations were discovered by
the late Dr. Stevens, some of which were rudely pitched with flint stones,
and had passages leading into the pit. A few flints irregularly placed
together with wood ashes showed the position of the hearths, where cooking
operations had been carried on. The sloping entrance-passages are peculiar
and almost unique in England, though several have been met with in France.
A rude ladder was the usual mode of entrance into these underground
dwellings. Fragments of hand-made British pottery and the commoner kinds
of Romano-British ware were found, and portions of mealing stones and also
a saddle-quern, or grain-crusher, which instruments for hand-mealing must
have been in common use among the pit dwellers. The grain was probably
prepared by parching it before crushing; the hollow understone prevented
the grain from escaping; and the muller was so shaped as to render it
easily grasped, while it was pushed backwards and forwards by the hands.
Similar stones are used at the present time by the African natives, as
travellers testify.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link048" id="link048"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="048.jpg (25K)" src="images/048.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
One of the pits at Hurstbourne was evidently a cooking-hole, where the pit
dwellers prepared their feasts, and bones of the Celtic ox (<i>bos
longifrons</i>), pig, red deer, goat, dog, and hare or rabbit were found
near it. One of the bones had evidently been bitten by teeth. The pit
dwellers also practised some domestic industries, as Dr. Stevens found a
needle, an awl or bodkin, and fragments of pointed bone, probably used for
sewing skins together. A rude spindle-whorl shows that they knew something
of weaving, and two bored stones were evidently buttons or
dress-fasteners. A large supply of flint implements, scrapers, and
arrow-heads, proves that the dwellings were inhabited by the Neolithic
people before the Britons came to occupy them. I must not omit to notice
the heating stones, or “pot-boilers.” These were heated in the
fire, and then placed among the meat intended to be cooked, in a hole in
the ground which served the purpose of a cooking pot. I have found many
such stones in Berkshire, notably from the neighbourhood of Wallingford
and Long Wittenham. The writer of the <i>Early History of Mankind</i>
states that the Assineboins, or stone-boilers, dig a hole in the ground,
take a piece of raw hide, and press it down to the sides of the hole, and
fill it with water; this is called a “paunch-kettle”; then
they make a number of stones red-hot in a fire close by, the meat is put
into the water, and the hot stones dropped in until it is cooked. The
South Sea Islanders have similar primitive methods of cooking. The
Highlanders used to prepare the feasts of their clans in much the same
way; and the modern gipsies adopt a not very dissimilar mode of cooking
their stolen fowls and hedgehogs.
</p>
<p>
We can now people these cheerless primitive pit dwellings with their
ancient inhabitants, and understand something of their manners of life and
customs. Their rude abodes had probably cone-shaped roofs made of rafters
lashed together at the centre, protected by an outside coat of peat, sods
of turf, or rushes. The spindle-whorl is evidence that they could spin
thread; the mealing stones show that they knew how to cultivate corn; and
the bones of the animals found in their dwellings testify to the fact that
they were not in the wild state of primitive hunters, but possessed herds
of cows and goats and other domestic animals.
</p>
<p>
Who were these people? Mr. Boyd Dawkins is of opinion that the early pit
dwellers belonged to the Neolithic folk of whom I have already told you,
as the flint implements testify. But these dwellings were evidently
occupied by a later people. The querns and spindle-whorl probably belonged
to the Celts, or Britons, before the advent of the Roman legions; and that
these people were the inhabitants of the Hampshire pit dwellings is proved
by the presence of a British gold coin which is recognised by numismatists
as an imitation of the Greek stater of Philip II. of Macedon. According to
Sir John Evans, the native British coinage was in existence as early as
150 years before Christ. Hence to this period we may assign the date of
the existence of these Celtic primitive habitations.
</p>
<p>
Pit dwellings were not the only kind of habitations which the early
inhabitants of our country used, and some of our villages possess
constructions of remarkable interest, which recent industrious digging has
disclosed. These are none other than lake dwellings, similar to those
first discovered in Switzerland about fifty years ago. Few of our villages
can boast of such relics of antiquity. Near Glastonbury, in 1892, in a
dried-up ancient mere a lake village was discovered, which I will describe
presently; and recently at Hedsor in Buckinghamshire a pile dwelling has
been found which some learned antiquaries are now examining. In Ireland
and Scotland there are found the remains of fortified dwellings called
Crannogs in some of the lakes, as in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire, and
Cloonfinlough in Connaught, but these belong to later times and were used
in the Middle Ages.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link051" id="link051"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="051.jpg (18K)" src="images/051.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In primitive times, when tribe warred with tribe, and every man’s
hand was against his fellow-man, and when wild and savage beasts roamed o’er
moor and woodland, security was the one thing most desired by the early
inhabitants of Europe. Hence they conceived the brilliant notion of
constructing dwellings built on piles in the midst of lakes or rivers,
where they might live in peace and safety, and secure themselves from the
sudden attack of their enemies, or the ravages of beasts of prey.
Switzerland is famous for its numerous clusters, or villages, of ancient
lake dwellings, which were of considerable size. At Morges, on the Lake of
Geneva, the settlement of huts extends 1,200 feet long by 150 in breadth;
and that at Sutz on the Lake of Bienne covers six acres, and is connected
with the shore by a gangway 100 feet long and 40 feet wide. Nor is the use
of these habitations entirely abandoned at the present time. Venezuela,
which means “little Venice,” derives its name from the Indian
village composed of pile dwellings on the shores of the Gulf of Maracaibo,
as its original explorer Alonzo de Ojeda in 1499 chose to compare the
sea-protected huts with the queen city of the Adriatic; and in many parts
of South America, in the estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon, such
dwellings are still found, also among the Dyaks of Borneo, in the Caroline
Islands, and on the Gold Coast of Africa. Herodotus describes similar
dwellings on the Lake Prasias, existing in the fifth century B.C., and
Lord Avebury states that now the Roumelian fishermen on the same lake
“inhabit wooden cottages built over the water as in the time of
Herodotus.”
</p>
<p>
These habitations of primitive man were built on piles driven into the bed
of the lake or river. These piles were stems, or trunks of trees,
sharpened with stone or bronze tools. A rude platform was erected on these
piles, and on this a wooden hut constructed with walls of wattle and daub,
and thatched with reeds or rushes. A bridge built on piles connected the
lake village with the shore whither the dwellers used to go to cultivate
their wheat, barley, and flax, and feed their kine and sheep and goats.
They made canoes out of hollow trunks of trees. One of these canoes which
have been discovered is 43 feet in length and over 4 feet wide. The beams
supporting the platform, on which the huts were erected, were fastened by
wooden pins. Much ingenuity was exercised in the making of these
dwellings. Sometimes they found that the mud of the lake was too soft to
hold the piles; so they fashioned a framework of trunks of trees, which
they let down to the bottom of the lake, and fastened the upright piles to
it. Sometimes the rocky bed of the lake prevented the piles from being
driven into it; so they heaped stones around the piles, and thus made them
secure. The lake dwellers were very sociable, and had only one common
platform for all the huts, which were clustered together. As all the
actual dwellings have been destroyed by time’s rude action, it is
impossible to describe them accurately; but their usual size was about 20
feet by 12 feet. The floor was of clay, and in the centre of the building
there was a hearth made of slabs of stone.
</p>
<p>
The people who inhabited these structures belonged either to the later
Stone Age, or the Bronze Age, as we learn from the relics which their huts
disclose. In the earlier ones are found celts, flint flakes, arrow-heads,
harpoons of stag’s horn with barbs, awls, needles, chisels, and
fish-hooks made of bone, and sometimes wooden combs, and skates made out
of the leg-bone of a horse. Besides the remains of the usual domestic
animals we find bones of the beaver, bear, elk, and bison.
</p>
<p>
When the use of bronze was discovered the people still lived on in their
lake dwellings. Fire often played havoc with the wooden wattle walls;
hence we frequently find a succession of platforms. The first dwelling
having been destroyed by flames, a second one was subsequently
constructed; and this having shared the same fate, another platform with
improved huts was raised upon the ruins of its predecessors. The relics of
each habitation show that, as time went on, the pit dwellers advanced in
civilisation, and increased the comforts and conveniences of life.
</p>
<p>
Some of the dwellings of these early peoples belong to the Bronze Age, as
do those of the Auvernier settlement in the Lake of Neuchatel; and these
huts are rich in the relics of their former inhabitants. At Marin on the
same lake the lake dwellers were evidently workers in iron; and the
relics, which contain large spear-heads, shields, horse furniture,
fibulas, and other ornaments, together with Roman coins, prove that they
belonged to the period of which history tells us.
</p>
<p>
I have described at length these Swiss lake dwellings, although they do
not belong to the antiquities of our villages in England, because much the
same kind of habitations existed in our country, though few have as yet
been unearthed. Possibly under the peaty soil of some ancient river-bed,
or old mere, long ago drained, you may be fortunate enough to meet with
the remains of similar structures here in England. At Glastonbury a few
years ago a lake village was discovered, which has created no small stir
in the antiquarian world, and merits a brief description. Nothing was
known of its existence previously; and this is an instance of the
delightful surprises which explorers have in store for them, when they
ransack the buried treasure-house of the earth, and reveal the relics
which have been so long stored there.
</p>
<p>
All that met the eyes of the diggers was a series of circular low mounds,
about sixty in number, extending over an area of three acres. Imagine the
delight of the gentlemen when they discovered that each of these mounds
contained the remains of a lake dwelling which was constructed more than
two thousand years ago.
</p>
<p>
First they found above the soft peat, the remains of a lake long dried up,
a platform formed of timber and brushwood, somewhat similar to the
structures which we have seen in the Swiss lakes. Rows of small piles
support this platform, and on it a floor of clay, or rather several
floors. The clay is composed of several horizontal layers with intervening
thin layers of decayed wood and charcoal, each layer representing a
distinct floor of a dwelling. In the centre of each mound are the remains
of rude hearths. The dwellings, of which no walls remain, were evidently
built of timber, the crevices between the wood being filled with wattle
and daub. In one of the mounds were found several small crucibles which
show that the inhabitants knew how to work in metals. Querns, whetstones,
spindle whorls, fibulae, and finger-rings of bronze, a horse’s bit,
a small saw, numerous implements of horn and bone, combs, needles, a jet
ring and amber bead, all tell the tale of the degree of civilisation
attained by these early folk. They worked in metals, made pottery and
cloth, tilled and farmed the adjoining lands, and probably belonged to the
late Celtic race before the advent of the Romans. These lake dwellers used
a canoe in order to reach the mainland, and this primitive boat has been
discovered. It is evidently cut out of the stem of an oak, is
flat-bottomed, and its dimensions are 17 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 1
foot deep. The prow is pointed, and has a hole, through which doubtless a
rope was passed, in order to fasten it to the little harbour of the lake
village.
</p>
<p>
It will be gathered that these people, whether dwelling in their pit or
lake villages, showed so much capacity, industry, and social organisation,
that even in the Neolithic Age they were far removed from a savage state,
and a low condition of culture and civilisation. They showed great
ingenuity in the making of their tools, their vessels of pottery, their
ornaments, and clothing. They were not naked, woad-dyed savages. They
could spin and weave, grow corn, and make bread, and had brought into
subjection for their use domestic animals, horses and cattle, sheep and
goats, and swine. They lived in security and comfort, and were industrious
and intelligent; and it is interesting to record, from the relics which
the earth has preserved of their civilisation, the kind of life which they
must have lived in the ages which existed before the dawn of history.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link5" id="link5"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER V
</h2>
<h3>
CROMLECHS, CAMPS, AND EARTHWORKS
</h3>
<p>
Stone monuments—Traditions relating to them—Menhirs or
hoar-stones— <i>Alignements</i>—Cromlechs—Stonehenge—Avebury—Rollright
stones—Origin of stone circles—Dolmens—Earthworks—Chun
Castle—Whittenham clumps— Uffington—Tribal boundaries—Roman
rig—Grims-dike—Legends—Celtic words.
</p>
<p>
Among the antiquities which some of our English villages possess, none are
more curious and remarkable than the grand megalithic monuments of the
ancient races which peopled our island. Marvellous memorials are these of
their skill and labour. How did they contrive to erect such mighty
monuments? How did they move such huge masses of stone? How did they raise
with the very slender appliances at their disposal such gigantic stones?
For what purpose did they erect them? The solution of these and many
such-like problems we can only guess, and no one has as yet been bold
enough to answer all the interesting questions which these rude stone
monuments raise.
</p>
<p>
Superstition has attempted to account for their existence. Just as the
flint arrow-heads are supposed by the vulgar to be darts shot by fairies
or witches which cause sickness and death in cattle and men, and are worn
as amulets to ward off disease; just as the stone axes of early man are
regarded as thunder bolts, and when boiled are esteemed as a sure cure for
rheumatism, or a useful cattle medicine—so these stones are said to
be the work of the devil. A friend tells me that in his childhood his
nurse used to frighten him by saying that the devil lurked in a dolmen
which stands near his father’s house in Oxfordshire; and many weird
traditions cluster round these old monuments.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link058" id="link058"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="058.jpg (24K)" src="images/058.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In addition to the subterranean sepulchral chambers and cairns which we
have already examined, there are four classes of megalithic structures.
The first consists of single stones, called in Wales, Cornwall, and
Brittany, <i>menhirs</i>, a name derived from the Celtic word <i>maen</i>
or <i>men</i> signifying a stone, and <i>hir</i> meaning tall. In England
they are known as “hoar-stones,” <i>hoar</i> meaning a
boundary, inasmuch as they are frequently used in later times to mark the
boundary of an estate, parish, or manor. There is one at Enstone,
Oxfordshire, and at Wardington, Warwickshire. Possibly they were intended
to mark the graves of deceased chieftains.
</p>
<p>
The second class consists of lines of stones, which the French call <i>alignements</i>.
Frequently they occur in groups of lines from two to fourteen in number,
Carnac, in Brittany, possesses the best specimen in Europe of this curious
arrangement of giant stones.
</p>
<p>
The third class of megalithic monuments is the circular arrangement, such
as we find at Avebury and Stonehenge. These are now usually called
cromlechs, in accordance with the term used by French antiquaries, though
formerly this name was applied in England to the dolmens, or chambered
structures, of which we shall speak presently. According to the notions of
the old curator of Stonehenge the mighty stones stood before the Deluge,
and he used to point out (to his own satisfaction) signs of the action of
water upon the stones, even showing the direction in which the Flood
“came rushing in.” The Welsh bards say that they were erected
by King Merlin, the successor of Vortigern; and Nennius states that they
were erected in memory of four hundred nobles, who were treacherously
slain by Hengist, when the savage Saxons came. There is no need to
describe these grand circles of huge stones which all antiquaries have
visited.
</p>
<p>
The cromlech at Avebury covers a larger area than that of Stonehenge, the
circle being about 1,300 feet in diameter. There is a fine circle at
Rollright, in Oxfordshire, which is the third largest in England. The
diameter of the circle is about 107 feet, and the stones numbered
originally about sixty. Near the circle stand the Five Whispering Knights,
five large stones leaning together, probably the remains of a dolmen, and
a large solitary stone, or menhir. Popular tradition has woven a strange
legend about these curious relics of bygone ages. A mighty chieftain once
ruled over the surrounding country; but he was ambitious, and wished to
extend his sway, and become King of England. So he mustered his army, and
the oracle proclaimed that if he could once see Long Compton, he would
obtain his desire. Having proceeded as far as Rollright, he was repeating
the words of the oracle—
</p>
<p>
“If Long Compton I can see,<br /> King of
England I shall be”—
</p>
<p>
when Mother Shipton, who had doubtless ridden on her broomstick from her
Norfolk home, appeared and pronounced the fatal spell—
</p>
<p>
“Move no more; stand fast, stone;<br /> King
of England thou shall none.”
</p>
<p>
<a name="link060" id="link060"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="060.jpg (102K)" src="images/060.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Immediately the king and his army were changed into stone, as if the head
of Medusa had gazed upon them. The solitary stone, still called the King
Stone, is the ambitious monarch; the circle is his army; and the Five
Whispering Knights are five of his chieftains, who were hatching a plot
against him when the magic spell was uttered. The farmers around Rollright
say that if the stones are removed from the spot, they will never rest,
but make mischief till they are restored. Stanton Drew, in Somersetshire,
has a cromlech, and there are several in Scotland, the Channel Islands,
and Brittany. Some sacrilegious persons transported a cromlech bodily from
the Channel Islands, and set it up at Park Place, Henley-on-Thames. Such
an act of antiquarian barbarism happily has few imitators.
</p>
<p>
For what purpose were these massive stones erected at the cost of such
infinite labour? Tradition and popular belief associate them with the
Druids. Some years ago all mysterious antiquarian problems were solved by
reference to the Druids. But these priests of ancient days are now out of
fashion, and it is certainly not very safe to attribute the founding of
the great stone circles to their agency. The Druidical worship paid its
homage to the powers of Nature, to the nymphs and genii of the woods and
streams, whereas the great stone circles were evidently constructed by
sun-worshippers. There is no doubt among antiquaries that they are
connected with the burial of the dead. Small barrows have been found in
the centre of them. Dr. Anderson is of opinion that the stone circles were
developed out of the hedge, or setting of stone, which frequently
surrounds the base of a barrow, and was intended to keep the ghost in, and
prevent it from injuring the living. By degrees the wall was increased in
size while the barrow or cairn decreased; until at last a small mound of
earth, or heap of stones, only marked the place of burial, and the huge
circle of stones surrounded it. Stonehenge, with its well-wrought stones
and gigantic trilitha, is much later than the circles of Avebury and
Rollright, and was doubtless constructed by the people who used iron,
about two hundred years before our era. The earlier circles have been
assigned to a period eight or ten centuries before Christ.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link062" id="link062"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="062.jpg (60K)" src="images/062.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Many conjectures have been made as to how the huge capstones of the circle
at Stonehenge were placed on the erect stones. Sir Henry Dryden thought
that when the upright stones were set on end, earth or small stones were
piled around them until a large inclined plane was formed, on which
“skids” or sliding-pieces were placed. Then the caps were
placed on rollers, and hauled up by gangs of men. Probably in some such
way these wonderful monuments were formed.
</p>
<p>
The last class of rude stone monuments is composed of dolmens, or
chambered tombs, so named from the Welsh word <i>dol</i>, a table, and <i>maen</i>
or <i>men</i>, a stone. They are in fact stone tables. Antiquaries of
former days, and the unlearned folk of to-day, call them “Druids’
altars,” and say that sacrifices were offered upon them. The typical
form is a structure of four or more large upright stones, supporting a
large flat stone, as a roof. Sometimes they are covered with earth or
stones, sometimes entirely uncovered. Some antiquaries maintain that they
were always uncovered, as we see them now; others assert that they have
been stripped by the action of wind and rain, and snow, frost, and thaw,
until all the earth placed around them has been removed. Possibly fashions
changed then as now; and it may console some of us that there was no
uniformity of ritual even in prehistoric Britain. Dolmens contain no
bronze or iron implements, or carvings of the same, and evidently belong
to the time of the Neolithic folk.
</p>
<p>
Among prehistoric remains none are more striking than the great camps and
earthworks, which hold commanding positions on our hills and downs, and
have survived during the countless years which have elapsed since their
construction. Caesar’s camps abound throughout England; it is
needless to say that they had nothing to do with Caesar, but were made
long years before the Conqueror ever set foot on British land. These early
camps are usually circular in shape, or follow the natural curve of the
hill on which they stand. Roman camps are nearly always square or
rectangular. They consist of a high vallum, or rampart of earth,
surrounded by a deep ditch, and on the <i>counterscarp</i>, or outside
edge of the ditch, there is often another bank or rampart. The entrance to
these strongholds was often ingeniously contrived, in order that an enemy
endeavouring to attack the fortress might be effectually resisted.
</p>
<p>
Chun Castle, in Cornwall, is an interesting specimen of ancient Celtic
fortress. It consists of two circular walls separated by a terrace. The
walls are built of rough masses of granite, some 5 or 6 feet long. The
outer wall is protected by a ditch. Part of the wall is still about 10
feet high. Great skill and military knowledge are displayed in the plan of
the entrance, which is 6 feet wide in the narrowest part, and 16 in the
widest, where the walls diverge and are rounded off on either side. The
space within the fortress is about 175 feet in diameter. The Herefordshire
Beacon on the Malvern Hills is a fine example of a triple-ramparted Celtic
camp.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link064" id="link064"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="064.jpg (60K)" src="images/064.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In Berkshire we have the well-known Whittenham Clumps, the Sinodun of the
Celts, on the summit of which there is a famous camp, with a triple line
of entrenchment, the mound and ditch being complete. The circumference of
the fortress is over a mile. Berkshire and Oxfordshire are very rich in
these camps and earthworks, which guard the course of the old British road
called the Iknield Way. Hill-forts crown the tops of the hills; and the
camps of Blewberry, Scutchamore Knob (a corruption of Cwichelm’s
law), Letcombe, Uffington, and Liddington, command the ancient trackway
and bid defiance to approaching foes.
</p>
<p>
The object of these camps was to provide places of refuge, whither the
tribe could retire when threatened by the advent of its enemy. The Celts
were a pastoral people; and their flocks grazed on the downs and
hillsides. When their scouts brought news of the approach of a hostile
force, some signal would be given by the blowing of a horn, and the people
would at once flee to their fortress driving their cattle before them, and
awaiting there the advent of their foes.
</p>
<p>
At Uffington there is a remarkable relic of British times called the
Blowing Stone, or King Alfred’s Bugle-horn, which was doubtless used
by the Celtic tribes for signalling purposes; and when its deep low note
was heard on the hillside the tribe would rush to the protecting shelter
of Uffington Castle. There, armed with missiles, they were ready to hurl
them at the invading hosts, and protect their lives and cattle until all
danger was past. Those who are skilled at the art can still make the
Blowing Stone sound. The name, King Alfred’s Bugle-horn, is a
misnomer, and arose from the association of the White Horse Hill with the
battle which Alfred fought against the Danes at Aescendune, which may, or
may not, have taken place near the old British camp at Uffington. There
are several White Horses cut out in the turf on the hillsides in
Wiltshire, besides the famous Berkshire one at Uffington, celebrated by
Mr. Thomas Hughes in his <i>Scouring of the White Horse</i>. We have also
some turf-cut crosses at White-leaf and Bledlow, in Buckinghamshire. The
origin of these turf monuments is still a matter of controversy. It is
possible that they may be Saxon, and may be the records of Alfred’s
victories; but antiquaries are inclined to assign them to an earlier date,
and connect them with the builders of cromlechs and dolmens. It is
certainly improbable that, when he was busily engaged fighting the Danes,
Alfred and his men would have found time to construct this huge White
Horse.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link066" id="link066"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="066.jpg (19K)" src="images/066.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In addition to the earthen mounds and deep ditch, which usually formed the
fortifications of these ancient strongholds, there were wicker-work
stockades, or palisading, arranged on the top of the vallum. Such defences
have been found at Uffington; and during the present year on the ancient
fortifications of the old Calleva Atrebatum, afterwards the Roman
Silchester, a friend of the writer has found the remains of similar
wattle-work stockades. Evidently tribal wars and jealousies were not
unknown in Celtic times, and the people knew how to protect themselves
from their foes.
</p>
<p>
Another important class of earthen ramparts are the long lines of
fortifications, which extend for miles across the country, and must have
entailed vast labour in their construction. These ramparts were doubtless
tribal boundaries, or fortifications used by one tribe against another.
There is the Roman rig, which, as Mrs. Armitage tells us in her <i>Key to
English Antiquities</i>, coasts the face of the hills all the way from
Sheffield to Mexborough, a distance of eleven miles. A Grims-dike (or
Grims-bank, as it is popularly called) runs across the southern extremity
of Oxfordshire from Henley to Mongewell, ten miles in length; and near it,
and parallel to it, there is a Medlers-bank, another earthen rampart,
exceeding it in length by nearly a third. Near Salisbury there is also a
Grims-dike, and in Cambridgeshire and Cheshire. Danes’ Dike, near
Flamborough Head, Wans-dike, and Brokerley Dike are other famous lines of
fortifications.
</p>
<p>
There are twenty-two Grims-dikes in England. The name was probably derived
from Grim, the Saxon devil, or evil spirit; and was bestowed upon these
mysterious monuments of an ancient race which the Saxons found in various
parts of their conquered country. Unable to account for the existence of
these vast mounds and fortresses, they attributed them to satanic agency.
</p>
<p>
There is much work still to be done in exploring these relics of the
prehistoric races; and if there should be any such in your own
neighbourhood, some careful digging might produce valuable results.
Perhaps something which you may find may throw light upon some disputed or
unexplained question, which has perplexed the minds of antiquaries for
some time. I do not imagine that the following legend will deter you from
your search. It is gravely stated that years ago an avaricious person dug
into a tumulus for some treasure which it was supposed to contain. At
length after much labour he came to an immense chest, but the lid was no
sooner uncovered than it lifted itself up a little and out sprang an
enormous black cat, which seated itself upon the chest, and glowed with
eyes of passion upon the intruder. Nothing daunted, the man proceeded to
try to move the chest, but without avail; so he fixed a strong chain to it
and attached a powerful team of horses. But when the horses began to pull,
the chain broke in a hundred places, and the chest of treasure disappeared
for ever.
</p>
<p>
Some rustics assert that if you run nine times round a tumulus, and then
put your ear against it, you will hear the fairies dancing and singing in
the interior. Indeed it is a common superstition that good fairies lived
in these old mounds, and a story is told of a ploughman who unfortunately
broke his ploughshare. However he left it at the foot of a tumulus, and
the next day, to his surprise, he found it perfectly whole. Evidently the
good fairies had mended it during the night. But these bright little
beings, who used to be much respected by our ancestors, have quite
deserted our shores. They found that English people did not believe in
them; so they left us in disgust, and have never been heard of since.
</p>
<p>
If you have no other Celtic remains in your neighbourhood, at least you
have the enduring possession of the words which they have bequeathed to
us, such as <i>coat, basket, crook, cart, kiln, pitcher, comb, ridge</i>,
and many others, which have all been handed down to us from our British
ancestors. Their language also lives in Wales and Brittany, in parts of
Ireland and Scotland, and in the Isle of Man, where dwell the modern
representatives of that ancient race, which was once so powerful, and has
left its trace in most of the countries of Europe.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link6" id="link6"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER VI
</h2>
<h3>
ROMAN RELICS
</h3>
<p>
Roman remains numerous—Chedworth villa—Roads—Names
derived from roads—<i>Itinerary</i> of Antoninus—British roads—Watling
Street—Iknield Street—Ryknield Street—Ermyn Street—Akeman
Street—Saltways— Milestones—Silchester—Its walls—Calleva—Its
gardens and villas— Hypocausts—Pavements—Description of
old city—Forum—Temple—Baths— Amphitheatre—Church—Roman
villa.
</p>
<p>
“The world’s a scene of change,” sings Poet Cowley; but
in spite of all the changes that have transformed our England, the coming
and going of conquerors and invaders, the lapse of centuries, the
ceaseless working of the ploughshare on our fields and downs, traces of
the old Roman life in Britain have remained indelible. Our English
villages are rich in the relics of the old Romans; and each year adds to
our knowledge of the life they lived in the land of their adoption, and
reveals the treasures which the earth has tenderly preserved for so many
years.
</p>
<p>
If your village lies near the track of some Roman road, many pleasing
surprises may be in store for you. Oftentimes labourers unexpectedly meet
with the buried walls and beautiful tesselated pavements of an ancient
Roman dwelling-place. A few years ago at Chedworth, near Cirencester, a
ferret was lost, and had to be dug out of the rabbit burrow. In doing this
some Roman <i>tesserae</i> were dug up; and when further excavations were
made a noble Roman villa with numerous rooms, artistic pavements,
hypocausts, baths, carvings, and many beautiful relics of Roman art were
brought to light. Possibly you may be equally successful in your own
village and neighbourhood.
</p>
<p>
If you have the good fortune to live near a Roman station, you will have
the pleasing excitement of discovering Roman coins and other treasures,
when you watch your labourers draining the land or digging wells. Everyone
knows that the names of many of the Roman stations are distinguished
by the termination <i>Chester, caster</i>, or <i>caer</i>, derived from
the Latin <i>castra</i>, a camp; and whenever we are in the neighbourhood
of such places, imagination pictures to us the well-drilled Roman
legionaries who used to astonish the natives with their strange language
and customs; and we know that there are coins and pottery, <i>tesserae</i>
and Roman ornaments galore, stored up beneath our feet, awaiting the
search of the persevering digger. Few are the records relating to Roman
Britain contained in the pages of the historians, as compared with the
evidences of roads and houses, gates and walls and towns, which the earth
has preserved for us.
</p>
<p>
Near your village perhaps a Roman road runs. The Romans were famous for
their wonderful roads, which extended from camp to camp, from city to
city, all over the country. These roads remain, and are evidences of the
great engineering skill which their makers possessed. They liked
their roads well drained, and raised high above the marshes; they liked
them to go straight ahead, like their victorious legions, and never swerve
to right or left for any obstacle. They cut through the hills, and filled
up the valleys; and there were plenty of idle Britons about, who could be
forced to do the work. They called their roads <i>strata</i> or streets;
and all names of places containing the word <i>street</i>, such as <i>Streatley</i>,
or <i>Stretford</i>, denote that they were situated on one of these Roman
roads.
</p>
<p>
You may see these roads wending their way straight as a die, over hill and
dale, staying not for marsh or swamp. Along the ridge of hills they go, as
does the High Street on the Westmoreland hills, where a few inches below
the grass you can find the stony way; or on the moors between Redmire and
Stanedge, in Yorkshire, the large paving stones, of which the road was
made, in many parts still remain. In central places, as at Blackrod, in
Lancashire, the roads extend like spokes from the centre of a wheel,
although nearly eighteen hundred years have elapsed since their
construction. The name of Devizes, Wilts, is a corruption of the Latin
word <i>divisae</i>, which marks the spot where the old Roman road from
London to Bath was <i>divided</i> by the boundary line between the Roman
and the Celtic districts.
</p>
<p>
In order to acquire a knowledge of the great roads of the Romans we must
study the <i>Itinerary</i> of Antoninus, written by an officer of the
imperial Court about 150 A.D. This valuable road-book tells us the names
of the towns and stations, the distances, halting-places, and other
particulars. Ptolemy’s <i>Geographia</i> also affords help in
understanding the details of the <i>Itinerary</i>, and many of the roads
have been very satisfactorily traced. The Romans made use of the ancient
British ways, whenever they found them suitable for their purpose. The
British roads resembled the trackways on Salisbury Plain, wide grass
rides, neither raised nor paved, and not always straight, but winding
along the sides of the hills which lie in their course. There were seven
chief British ways: Watling Street, which was the great north road,
starting from Richborough on the coast of Kent, passing through Canterbury
and Rochester it crossed the Thames near London, and went on through
Verulam, Dunstable, and Towcester, Wellington, and Wroxeter, and thence
into Wales to Tommen-y-Mawr, where it divided into two branches. One ran
by Beth Gellert to Caernarvon and Holy Head, and the other through the
mountains to the Manai banks and thence to Chester, Northwich, Manchester,
Ilkley, until it finally ended in Scotland.
</p>
<p>
The second great British road was the way of the Iceni, or Iknield Street,
proceeding from Great Yarmouth, running through Cambridgeshire,
Bedfordshire, Bucks, and Oxon, to Old Sarum, and finishing its course at
Land’s End. We have in Berkshire a branch of this road called the
Ridgeway.
</p>
<p>
The Ryknield Street beginning at the mouth of the Tyne ran through
Chester-le-Street, followed the course of the Watling Street to Catterick,
thence through Birmingham, Tewkesbury, and Gloucester, to Caermarthen and
St. David’s.
</p>
<p>
The Ermyn Street led from the coast of Sussex to the south-east part of
Scotland.
</p>
<p>
The Akeman Street ran between the Iknield and Ryknield Streets, and led
from what the Saxons called East Anglia, through Bedford, Newport Pagnel,
and Buckingham to Alcester and Cirencester, across the Severn, and ending
at St. David’s.
</p>
<p>
The Upper Saltway was the communication between the sea-coast of
Lincolnshire and the salt mines at Droitwich; and the Lower Saltway led
from Droitwich, then, as now, a great centre of the salt trade, to the
sea-coast of Hampshire. Traces of another great road to the north are
found, which seems to have run through the western parts of England
extending from Devon to Scotland.
</p>
<p>
Such were the old British roads which existed when the Romans came. The
conquerors made use of these ways, wherever they found them useful,
trenching them, paving them, and making them fit for military purposes.
They constructed many new ones which would require a volume for their full
elucidation. Many of them are still in use, wonderful records of the
engineering skill of their makers, and oftentimes beneath the surface of
some grassy ride a few inches below the turf you may find the hard
concreted road laid down by the Romans nearly eighteen hundred years ago.
Roman milestones we sometimes find. There is one near Silchester, commonly
called the Imp Stone, probably from the first three letters of the Latin
word <i>Imperator</i>, carved upon it. Curious legends often cluster round
these relics of ancient times. Just as the superstitious Saxons, when they
saw the great Roman roads, made by a people who had long vanished from the
land, often attributed these great works to evil spirits, and called parts
of these well-made streets the Devil’s Highway, so they invented a
strange legend to account for the Imp Stone, and said that some giant had
thrown it from the city, and left on it the marks of his finger and thumb.
</p>
<p>
Our English villages contain many examples of Roman buildings. Where now
rustics pursue their calling, and sow their crops and reap their harvests,
formerly stood the beautiful houses of the Roman nobles, or the
flourishing towns of Roman citizens. Upon the sites of most of these
old-world places new towns have been constructed; hence it is difficult
often to trace the foundations of Roman cities in the midst of the masses
of modern bricks and mortar. Hence we fly to the villages; and sometimes,
as at Silchester, near a little English village, we find the remains of a
large, important, and flourishing town, where the earth has kept safely
for us during many centuries the treasures and memories of a bygone age.
</p>
<p>
Every student of Roman Britain must visit Silchester, and examine the
collections preserved in the Reading Museum, which have been amassed by
the antiquaries who have for several years been excavating the ruins. The
city contained a forum, or marketplace, having on one side a basilica, or
municipal hall, in which prisoners were tried, business transactions
executed, and the general affairs of the city carried on. On the other
side of the square were the shops, where the butchers, bakers, or
fishmongers plied their trade. You can find plenty of oyster shells, the
contents of which furnished many a feast to the Romans who lived there
seventeen hundred years ago. The objects which have been found tell us how
the dwellers in the old city employed themselves, and how skilful they
were in craftsmanship. Amongst other things we find axes, chisels, files
for setting saws, hammers, a large plane, and other carpenters’
tools; an anvil, a pair of tongs, and blacksmiths’ implements;
shoemakers’ anvils, very similar to those used in our day, a large
gridiron, a standing lamp, safety-pins, such as ladies use now, and many
other useful and necessary objects.
</p>
<p>
In order to protect the city it was surrounded by high walls, which seem
to defy all the attacks of time. They are nine feet in thickness, and are
still in many places twenty feet high. Outside the wall a wide ditch added
to the strength of the fortifications. Watch-towers were placed at
intervals along the walls; and on the north, south, east, and west sides
were strongly fortified gates, with guard chambers on each side, and
arched entrances through which the Roman chariots were driven.
</p>
<p>
These walls inclose a space of irregular shape, and were built on the site
of old British fortifications. Silchester was originally a British
stronghold, and was called by them Calleva. The Celtic tribe which
inhabited the northern parts of Hampshire was the Atrebates, who after a
great many fights were subdued by the Romans about 78 A.D. Then within the
rude fortifications of Calleva arose the city of Silchester, with its fine
houses, temples, and baths, its strong walls, and gates, and streets, the
great centre of civilisation, and the chief city of that part of the
country.
</p>
<p>
It is often possible to detect the course of Roman streets where now the
golden corn is growing. On the surface of the roads where the ground is
thin, the corn is scanty. Observation of this kind a few years ago led to
the discovery of a Romano-British village at Long Whittenham, in Berks. In
Silchester it is quite easy to trace the course of the streets by the
thinness of the corn, as Leland observed as long ago as 1536. One is
inclined to wonder where all the earth comes from, which buries old
buildings and hides them so carefully; but any student of natural history,
who has read Darwin’s book on <i>Worms</i>, will cease to be
astonished. It is chiefly through the action of these useful creatures
that soil accumulates so greatly on the sites of ancient buildings.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link077" id="link077"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="077.jpg (48K)" src="images/077.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Within the walls of Silchester were gardens and villas replete with all
the contrivances of Roman luxury. The houses were built on three sides of
a square court. A cloister ran round the court, supported by pillars. The
open space was used as a garden. At the back of the house were the
kitchens and apartments for the slaves and domestics. The Romans adapted
their dwellings to the climate in which they lived. In the sunny south, at
Pompeii, the houses were more open, and would be little suited to our more
rigorous climate. They knew how to make themselves comfortable, built
rooms well protected from the weather, and heated with hypocausts. These
were furnaces made beneath the house, which generated hot air; and this
was admitted into the rooms by earthenware flue-tiles. The dwellers had
both summer and winter apartments; and when the cold weather arrived the
hypocaust furnaces were lighted, and the family adjourned to their winter
quarters.
</p>
<p>
The floors were made of <i>tesserae</i>, or small cubes of different
materials and various colours, which were arranged in beautiful patterns.
Some of these pavements were of most elegant and elaborate designs, having
figures in them representing the seasons, or some mythological characters.
</p>
<p>
The walls were painted with decorations of very beautiful designs,
representing the cornfields, just as the Roman artists in Italy loved to
depict the vine in their mural paintings. The mortar used by the Romans is
very hard and tenacious, and their bricks were small and thin, varying
from 8 inches square to 18 inches by 12, and were about 2 inches in
thickness. Frequently we find the impression of an animal’s foot on
these bricks and tiles, formed when they were in a soft state before they
were baked, and one tile recently found had the impression of a Roman baby’s
foot. Roman bricks have often been used by subsequent builders, and are
found built up in the masonry of much later periods.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link079" id="link079"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="079.jpg (8K)" src="images/079.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
It is quite possible to build up in imagination the old Roman city, and to
depict before our mind’s eye the scenes that once took place where
now the rustics toil and till the ground. We enter the forum, the great
centre of the city, the common resort and lounging-place of the citizens,
who met together to discuss the latest news from Rome, to transact their
business, and exchange gossip. On the west side stood the noble basilica,
or hall of justice—a splendid building, its entrance being adorned
with fine Corinthian columns; and slabs of polished Purbeck marble, and
even of green and white marble from the Pyrenees, covered the walls. It
was a long rectangular hall, 233 feet in length by 58 feet in width, and
at each side was a semicircular apse, which was called the Tribune. Here
the magistrate sat to administer justice, or an orator stood to address
the citizens. In the centre of the western wall was another apse, where
the <i>curia</i> met for the government of the city. Two rows of columns
ran down the hall, dividing it into a nave with two aisles, like many of
our churches. Indeed the form of the construction of our churches was
taken from these Roman basilica. Several chambers stood on the west of the
hall, one of which was another fine hall, probably used as a corn
exchange. The height of this noble edifice, the roof of which was probably
hidden by a coffered ceiling, must have been about fifty-seven feet.
</p>
<p>
Passing along the main street towards the south gate we come to the
foundations of a nearly circular temple. Two square-shaped buildings stood
on the east of the city, which were probably temples for some Gaulish form
of religion, as similar sacred buildings have been discovered in France. A
quadrangle of buildings near the south gate, having various chambers,
contained the public baths, whither the Romans daily resorted for gossip
and discussion as well as for bathing. There is an ingenious arrangement
for using the waste water for the purpose of flushing the drains and
sewers. Nor were they ignorant of the invention of a force-pump, as the
accompanying illustration on the next page shows.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link081" id="link081"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="081.jpg (100K)" src="images/081.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The amphitheatre stands outside the gate, whither the citizens flocked to
see gladiatorial displays or contests between wild beasts. With the
exception of one at Dorchester, it is the largest in Britain. It is made
of lofty banks of earth, which surround the arena, and must have been an
imposing structure in the days of its glory, with its tiers of seats
rising above the level arena. It is difficult to imagine this
grass-covered slope occupied by a gay crowd of Romans and wondering
Britons, all eagerly witnessing some fierce fight of man with man, or
beast with beast, and enthusiastically revelling in the sanguinary sport.
The modern rustics, who have no knowledge of what was the original purpose
of “the Mount,” as they name the amphitheatre, still call the
arena “the lions’ den.”
</p>
<p>
Silchester was a very busy place. There were dye works there, as the
excavations show; hence there must have been some weaving, and therefore a
large resident population. Throngs of travellers used to pass through it,
and carts and baggage animals bore through its streets the merchandise
from London, which passed to the cities and villas so plentifully
scattered in western Britain.
</p>
<p>
By far the most important of the discoveries made in Roman Britain is the
little church which stood just outside the forum. It is very similar in
form to the early churches in Italy and other parts of the Roman Empire,
and is of the basilican type. The orientation is different from that used
after the reign of Constantine, the altar being at the west end. The
churches of S. Peter and S. Paul at Rome had the same arrangement; and the
priest evidently stood behind the altar facing the congregation and
looking towards the east at the time of the celebration of the Holy
Communion. There is an apse at the west end, and the building is divided
by two rows of columns into a nave and two aisles. The nave had probably
an ambon, or reading-desk, and was mainly used by the clergy, the aisles
being for the use of the men and women separately. A vestry stood at the
western end of the north aisle. Across the eastern end was the narthex, or
porch, where the catechumens stood and watched the service through the
three open doors. Outside the narthex was the atrium, an open court,
having in the centre the remains of the labrum, or laver, where the people
washed their hands and faces before entering the church. We are reminded
of a sermon by S. Chrysostom, who upbraided his congregation, asking them
what was the use of their washing their hands if they did not at the same
time cleanse their hearts by repentance. This interesting memorial of
early Christianity was probably erected soon after the Emperor Constantine’s
Edict of Toleration issued in 313 A.D.
</p>
<p>
But not only at Silchester and at other places, once the great centres of
the Roman population, do we find Roman remains. In addition to the
stations, camps, and towns, there were the villas of the rich Roman
citizens or Gaulish merchants on the sunny slopes of many a hillside.
Although hundreds of the remains of these noble houses have been
discovered, there are still many to be explored.
</p>
<p>
The villa consisted of the house of the proprietor, which occupied the
centre of the little colony, together with the smaller houses of the
servants and slaves, stables, cowsheds, mills, and granaries, and all the
other usual outbuildings connected with a large estate. The main house was
built around a central court, like an Oxford college; and resembled in
architectural style the buildings which the excavations at Pompeii have
disclosed. A corridor ran round the court supported by pillars, from which
the rooms opened. In a well-defended town like Silchester the houses were
usually built on three sides of the court; but the country villas, which
had occasionally to be fortified against the attacks of wandering bands of
outlaws and wild Britons, and the inroads of savage beasts, were usually
built on all the four sides of the square court. They were usually of one
story, although the existence of a force-pump in Silchester shows that
water was laid on upstairs in one house at least. As the wells were less
than thirty feet deep, a force-pump would not be needed to lift the water
to the earth-level. Hence in some houses there must have been some upper
chambers, a conclusion that is supported by the thickness of the
foundations, which are far more substantial than would be required for
houses of one story. The rooms were very numerous, often as many as sixty
or seventy, and very bright they must have looked decorated with beautiful
marbles and stuccoes of gorgeous hues, and magnificent pavements, statues
and shrines, baths and fountains, and the many other objects of Roman
luxury and comfort. The floors were made of <i>opus signinum</i>, such as
the Italians use at the present day, a material composed of cement in
which are embedded fragments of stone or brick, the whole being rubbed
down to a smooth surface, or paved with mosaic composed of <i>tesserae</i>.
In whatever land the Roman dwelt, there he made his beautiful tesselated
pavement, rich with graceful designs and ever-enduring colours,
representing the stories of the gods, the poetry of nature, and the
legends of the heroes of his beloved native land. Here we see Perseus
freeing Andromeda, Medusa’s locks, Bacchus and his band of
revellers, Orpheus with his lyre, by which he is attracting a monkey, a
fox, a peacock, and other animals, Apollo singing to his lyre, Venus being
loved by Mars, Neptune with his trident, attended by hosts of seamen. The
seasons form an accustomed group, “Winter” being represented,
as at Brading, by a female figure, closely wrapped, holding a lifeless
bough and a dead bird. Satyrs and fauns, flowers, Graces and wood-nymphs,
horns of plenty, gladiators fighting, one with a trident, the other with a
net—all these and countless other fanciful representations look at
us from these old Roman pavements. The Roman villa at Brading is an
excellent type of such a dwelling, with its magnificent suites of rooms,
colonnades, halls, and splendid mosaic pavements. As at Silchester, we see
there fine examples of hypocausts. The floor of the room, called a <i>suspensura</i>,
is supported by fifty-four small pillars made of tiles. Another good
example of a similar floor exists at Cirencester, and many more at
Silchester.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link085" id="link085"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="085.jpg (104K)" src="images/085.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Here is a description of a Roman gentleman’s house, as drawn by the
writer of <i>The History of Oxfordshire</i>:—
</p>
<p>
“His villa lay sheltered from wild winds partly by the rising brow
of the hill, and partly by belts of trees; it was turned towards the
south, and caught the full sun. In the spring the breath of his violet
beds would be as soft and sweet as in Oxfordshire woods to-day; in the
summer his quadrangle would be gay with calthae, and his colonnade
festooned with roses and helichryse. If we are to believe in the <i>triclinium
aestivum</i> of Hakewill, it says much for the warmth of those far-away
summers that he was driven to build a summer dining-room with a north
aspect, and without heating flues. And when the long nights fell, and
winter cold set in, the slaves heaped higher the charcoal fires in the <i>praefurnium</i>;
the master sat in rooms far better warmed than Oxford country houses now,
or sunned himself at midday in the sheltered quadrangle, taking his
exercise in the warm side of the colonnade among his gay stuccoes and
fluted columns. Could we for a moment raise the veil, we should probably
find that the country life of 400 A.D. in Oxfordshire was not so very
dissimilar to that of to-day, ... and that the well-to-do Roman of rustic
Middle England was ... a useful, peaceful, and a happy person.”
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link7" id="link7"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER VII
</h2>
<h3>
ANGLO-SAXON VILLAGES
</h3>
<p>
Departure of Romans—Coming of Saxons—Bede—Saxon names of
places— Saxon village—Common-field system—<i>Eorl</i>
and <i>ceorl</i>—Thanes, <i>geburs</i>, and <i>cottiers</i>—Description
of village life—Thane’s house—<i>Socmen</i>—Ploughman’s
lament—Village tradesmen—Parish council—Hundreds—Shires.
</p>
<p>
The scene changes. The Roman legions have left our shores, and are trying
to prop the tottering state of the falling empire. The groans of the
Britons have fallen on listless or distracted ears, and no one has come to
their succour. The rule of the all-swaying Roman power has passed away,
and the Saxon hordes have poured over the hills and vales of rural
Britain, and made it the Angles’ land—our England.
</p>
<p>
The coming of the Saxons was a very gradual movement. They did not attack
our shores in large armies on one or two occasions; they came in clans or
families. The head of the clan built a ship, and taking with him his
family and relations, founded a settlement in wild Britain, or wherever
the winds happened to carry them. They were very fierce and relentless in
war, and committed terrible ravages on the helpless Britons, sparing
neither men, women, nor children, burning buildings, destroying and
conquering wherever they went.
</p>
<p>
Bede tells the story of doings of the ruthless Saxons:—
</p>
<p>
“The barbarous conquerors ... plundered all the neighbouring cities
and country, spread the conflagration from the eastern to the western sea
without any opposition, and covered almost every part of the devoted
island. Public as well as private structures were overturned; the priests
were everywhere slain before the altars; the prelates and the people,
without any respect of persons, were destroyed with fire and sword; nor
was there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly slaughtered. Some of
the miserable remainder, being taken in the mountains, were butchered in
heaps. Others, spent with hunger, came forth and submitted themselves to
the enemy for food, being destined to undergo perpetual servitude, if they
were not killed even upon the spot. Some, with sorrowful hearts, fled
beyond the seas; others, continuing in their own country, led a miserable
life among the woods, rocks, and mountains, with scarcely enough food to
support life, and expecting every moment to be their last.”
</p>
<p>
Many antiquaries believe that the extirpation of the Britons was not so
complete as Bede asserts, and that a large number of them remained in
England in a condition of servitude. At any rate, the almost entire
extinction of the language, except as regards the names of a few rivers
and mountains, and of a few household words, seems to point to a fairly
complete expulsion of the Britons rather than to a mingling of them with
the conquering race.
</p>
<p>
What remains have we in our English villages of our Saxon forefathers, the
makers of England? In the first place we notice that many of the names of
our villages retain the memory of their founders. When the family, or
group of families, formed their settlements, they avoided the buildings
and walled towns, relics of Roman civilisation, made clearings for
themselves in the primeval forests, and established themselves in village
communities. In the names of places the suffix <i>ing</i>, meaning <i>sons
of</i>, denotes that the village was first occupied by the clan of some
chief, whose name is compounded with this syllable <i>ing</i>. Thus the
Uffingas, the children of Offa, formed a settlement at Uffinggaston, or
Uffington; the Redingas, or sons of Rede, settled at Reading; the Billings
at Billinge and Billingham; the Wokings or Hocings, sons of Hoc, at Woking
and Wokingham. The Billings and Wokings first settled at Billinge and
Woking; and then like bees they swarmed, and started another hive of
industry at Billingham and Wokingham.
</p>
<p>
These family settlements, revealed to us by the patronymic <i>ing</i>, are
very numerous. At Ardington, in Berkshire, the Ardings, the royal race of
the Vandals, settled; the Frankish Walsings at Wolsingham; the Halsings at
Helsington; the Brentings at Brentingley; the Danish Scyldings at
Skelding; the Thurings at Thorington; and many other examples might be
quoted.
</p>
<p>
Many Saxon names of places end in <i>field</i>, which denotes a forest
clearing, or <i>feld</i>, made by the axes of the settlers in the primeval
woods, where the trees were <i>felled</i>. These villages were rudely
fortified, or inclosed by a hedge, wall, or palisade, denoted by the
suffix <i>ton</i>, derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>tynan</i>, to hedge;
and all names ending with this syllable point to the existence of a Saxon
settlement hedged in and protected from all intruders. Thus we have
Barton, Preston, Bolton, and many others. The terminations <i>yard</i>, <i>stoke</i>,
or stockaded place, as in Basingstoke, <i>worth</i> (Anglo-Saxon <i>weorthig</i>),
as in Kenilworth, Tamworth, Walworth, have much the same meaning.
</p>
<p>
Perhaps the most common of all the terminations of names denoting the
presence of Anglo-Saxon settlers is the suffix <i>ham</i>. When the <i>a</i>
is pronounced short the syllable denotes an inclosure, like <i>stoke</i>
or <i>ton</i>; but when the <i>a</i> is long, it means home, and expresses
the reverence with which the Anglo-Saxon regarded his own dwelling.
England is the land of homes, and the natural affection with which we
Englishmen regard our homes is to a great extent peculiar to our race. The
Frenchman, the Spaniard, the Italian, do not have the same respect for
home. Our Saxon forefathers were a very home-loving people, and it is from
them doubtless that we inherit our love for our homes.
</p>
<p>
We find, then, the Saxon holding the lands. The clan formed settlements;
sections of each clan formed branch settlements; and several members of
each section cut their way through the thick forests, felled the trees,
built homesteads, where they tilled the land and reared their cattle.
</p>
<p>
In early Saxon times the settlement consisted of a number of families
holding a district, and the land was regularly divided into three
portions. There was the village itself, in which the people lived in
houses built of wood or rude stonework. Around the village were a few
small inclosures, or grass yards, for rearing calves and baiting farm
stock; this was the common farmstead. Around this was the arable land,
where the villagers grew their corn and other vegetables; and around this
lay the common meadows, or pasture land, held by the whole community, so
that each family could turn their cattle into it, subject to the
regulations of an officer elected by the people, whose duty it was to see
that no one trespassed on the rights of his neighbour, or turned too many
cattle into the common pasture.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link091" id="link091"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="091.jpg (34K)" src="images/091.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Around the whole colony lay the woods and uncultivated land, which was
left in its natural wild state, where the people cut their timber and
fuel, and pastured their pigs in the glades of the forest. The cultivated
land was divided into three large fields, in which the rotation of crops
was strictly enforced, each field lying fallow once in three years. To
each freeman was assigned his own family lot, which was cultivated by the
members of his household. But he was obliged to sow the same crop as his
neighbour, and compelled by law to allow his lot to lie fallow with the
rest every third year. The remains of this common-field system are still
evident in many parts of the country, the fields being termed “lot
meadows,” or “Lammas lands.” Our commons, too, many of
which remain in spite of numerous inclosures, are evidences of the
communal life of our village forefathers.
</p>
<p>
How long the Saxon villages remained free democratic institutions, we do
not know. Gradually a change came over them, and we find the manorial
system in vogue. Manors existed in England long before the Normans came,
although “manor” is a Norman word; and in the time of Canute
the system was in full force. The existence of a manor implies a lord of
the manor, who exercised authority over all the villagers, owned the home
farm, and had certain rights over the rest of the land. How all this came
about, we scarcely know. Owing to the Danish invasions, when the rude
barbarous warriors carried fire and sword into many a peaceful town and
village, the villagers found themselves at the mercy of these savage
hordes. Probably they sought the protection of some thane, or <i>eorl</i>,
with his band of warriors, who could save their lands from pillage. In
return for their services they acknowledged him as the lord of their
village, and gave him rent, which was paid either in the produce of these
fields or by the work of their hands. Thus the lords of the manor became
the masters of the villagers, although they too were governed by law, and
were obliged to respect the rights of their tenants and servants.
</p>
<p>
Saxon society was divided into two main divisions, the <i>eorl</i> and the
<i>ceorl</i>, the men of noble birth, and those of ignoble origin. The
chief man in the village was the manorial lord, a <i>thane</i>, who had
his demesne land, and his <i>gafol</i> land, or <i>geneat</i> land, which
was land held in villeinage, and cultivated by <i>geneats</i>, or persons
holding by service. These villein tenants were in two classes, the <i>geburs</i>,
or villeins proper, who held the yardlands, and the <i>cottiers</i>, who
had smaller holdings. Beneath these two classes there were the <i>theows</i>,
or slaves, made up partly of the conquered Britons, partly of captives
taken in war, and partly of freemen who had been condemned to this penalty
for their crimes, or had incurred it by poverty.
</p>
<p>
There were degrees of rank among Saxon gentlemen, as among those of
to-day. The thanes were divided into three classes: (i.) those of royal
rank (<i>thani regis</i>), who served the king in Court or in the
management of State affairs; (ii.) <i>thani mediocres</i>, who held the
title by inheritance, and corresponded to the lords of the manor in the
later times; (iii.) <i>thani minores</i>, or inferior thanes, to which
rank <i>ceorls</i> or merchants could attain by the acquisition of
sufficient landed property.
</p>
<p>
We can picture to ourselves the ordinary village life which existed in
Saxon times. The thane’s house stood in the centre of the village,
not a very lordly structure, and very unlike the stately Norman castles
which were erected in later times. It was commonly built of wood, which
the neighbouring forests supplied in plenty, and had stone or mud
foundations. The house consisted of an irregular group of low buildings,
almost all of one story. In the centre of the group was the hall, with
doors opening into the court. On one side stood the kitchen; on the other
the chapel when the thane became a Christian and required the services of
the Church for himself and his household. Numerous other rooms with
lean-to roofs were joined on to the hall, and a tower for purposes of
defence in case of an attack. Stables and barns were scattered about
outside the house, and with the cattle and horses lived the grooms and
herdsmen, while villeins and <i>cottiers</i> dwelt in the humble, low,
shedlike buildings, which clustered round the Saxon thane’s
dwelling-place. An illustration of such a house appears in an ancient
illumination preserved in the Harleian MSS., No. 603. The lord and lady of
the house are represented as engaged in almsgiving; the lady is thus
earning her true title, that of “loaf-giver,” from which her
name “lady” is derived.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link094" id="link094"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="094.jpg (76K)" src="images/094.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The interior of the hall was the common living-room for both men and
women, who slept on the reed-strewn floor, the ladies’
sleeping-place being separated from the men’s by the arras. The
walls were hung with tapestry, woven by the skilled fingers of the ladies
of the household. A peat or log fire burned in the centre of the hall, and
the smoke hid the ceiling and finally found its way out through a hole in
the roof. Arms and armour hung on the walls, and the seats consisted of
benches called “mead-settles,” arranged along the sides of the
hall, where the Saxon chiefs sat drinking their favourite beverage, mead,
or sweetened beer, out of the horns presented to them by the waiting
damsels. When the hour for dinner approached, rude tables were laid on
trestles, and forthwith groaned beneath the weight of joints of meat and
fat capons which the Saxon loved dearly. The door of the hall was usually
open, and thither came the bards and gleemen, who used to delight the
company with their songs and stories of the gallant deeds of their
ancestors, the weird legends of their gods Woden and Thor, their Viking
lays and Norse sagas, and the acrobats and dancers astonished them with
their strange postures.
</p>
<p>
Next to the thane ranked the <i>geburs</i>, who held land granted to them
by the thane for their own use, sometimes as much as one hundred and
twenty acres, and were required to work for the lord on the home farm two
or three days a week, or pay rent for their holdings. This payment
consisted of the produce of the land. They were also obliged to provide
one or more oxen for the manorial plough team, which consisted of eight
oxen.
</p>
<p>
There was also a strong independent body of men called <i>socmen</i>, who
were none other than our English yeomen. They were free tenants, who have
by their independence stamped with peculiar features both our constitution
and our national character. Their good name remains; English yeomen have
done good service to their country, and let us hope that they will long
continue to exist amongst us, in spite of the changed condition of English
agriculture and the prolonged depression in farming affairs, which has
tried them severely.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link096" id="link096"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="096.jpg (57K)" src="images/096.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Besides the <i>geburs</i> and <i>socmen</i> there were the <i>cottiers</i>,
who had small allotments of about five acres, kept no oxen, and were
required to work for the thane some days in each week. Below them were the
<i>theows</i>, serfs, or slaves, who could be bought and sold in the
market, and were compelled to work on the lord’s farm.
</p>
<p>
Listen to the sad lament of one of this class, recorded in a dialogue of
AElfric of the tenth century:—
</p>
<p>
“What sayest thou, ploughman? How dost thou do thy work?”
</p>
<p>
“Oh, my lord, hard do I work. I go out at daybreak, driving the oxen
to field, and I yoke them to the plough. Nor is it ever so hard winter
that I dare loiter at home, for fear of my lord, but the oxen yoked, and
the ploughshare and the coulter fastened to the plough, every day must I
plough a full acre, or more.”
</p>
<p>
“Hast thou any comrade?”
</p>
<p>
“I have a boy driving the oxen with an iron goad, who also is hoarse
with cold and shouting.”
</p>
<p>
“What more dost thou in the day?”
</p>
<p>
“Verily then I do more. I must fill the bin of the oxen with hay,
and water them, and carry out the dung. Ha! Ha! hard work it is, hard work
it is! because <i>I am not free.</i>”
</p>
<p>
Evidently the ploughman’s want of freedom was his great hardship;
his work in ploughing, feeding, and watering his cattle, and in cleansing
their stable, was not harder than that of an ordinary carter in the
present day; but servitude galled his spirit, and made the work
intolerable. Let us hope that his lord was a kind-hearted man, and gave
him some cattle for his own, as well as some land to cultivate, and then
he would not feel the work so hard, or the winter so cold.
</p>
<p>
Frequently men were thus released from slavery; sometimes also freemen
sold themselves into slavery under the pressure of extreme want. A man so
reduced was required to lay aside his sword and lance, the symbols of the
free, and to take up the bill and the goad, the implements of slavery, to
fall on his knees and place his head, in token of submission, under the
hands of his master.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link098" id="link098"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="098.jpg (42K)" src="images/098.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Each trade was represented in the village community. There were the <i>faber</i>,
or smith, and the carpenter, who repaired the ironwork and woodwork of the
ploughs and other agricultural implements, and in return for their work
had small holdings among the tenants free from ordinary services. There
was the <i>punder</i>, or pound-man, who looked after the repair of the
fences and impounded stray cattle; the <i>cementarius</i>, or stonemason;
the <i>custos apium</i>, or bee-keeper, an important person, as much honey
was needed to make the sweetened ale, or mead, which the villagers and
their chiefs loved to imbibe; and the steward, or <i>prepositus</i>, who
acted on behalf of the lord, looked after the interests of the tenants,
and took care that they rendered their legal services. The surnames Smith,
Baker, Butcher, Carter, and many others, preserve the remembrance of the
various trades which were carried on in every village, and of the complete
self-dependence of the community.
</p>
<p>
We have inherited many customs and institutions from our Saxon
forefathers, which connect our own age with theirs. In recent years we
have established parish councils in our villages. Formerly the pet theory
of politicians was centralisation; everything had to be done at one
centre, at one central office, and London became the head and centre of
all government. But recently politicians thought that they had discovered
a new plan for carrying on the internal affairs of the country, and the
idea was to leave each district to manage its own affairs. This is only a
return to the original Saxon plan. In every village there was a moot-hill,
or sacred tree, where the freemen met to make their own laws and arrange
their agricultural affairs. Here disputes were settled, plough lands and
meadow lands shared in due lot among the villagers, and everything
arranged according to the custom of the village.
</p>
<p>
Our county maps show that the shires are divided into hundreds. This we
have inherited from our Saxon forefathers. In order to protect themselves
from their neighbours, the Saxon colonists arranged themselves in hundreds
of warriors. This little army was composed of picked champions, the
representatives of a hundred families; men who were ready in case of war
to uphold the honour of their house, and to fight for their hearths and
homes. These hundred families recognised a bond of union with each other
and a common inheritance, and ranged themselves under one name for general
purposes, whether for defence, administration of justice, or other
objects.
</p>
<p>
On a fixed day, three times a year, in some place where they were
accustomed to assemble—under a particular tree,[<a href="#linkb1">1</a>]
or near some river-bank—these hundred champions used to meet their
chieftain, and gather around him when he dismounted from his horse. He
then placed his spear in the ground, and each warrior touched it with his
own spear in token of their compact, and pledged himself to mutual
support. At this assembly criminals were tried, disputes settled, bargains
of sale concluded; and in later times many of these transactions were
inserted in the chartularies of abbeys or the registers of bishops, which
thus became a kind of register too sacred to be falsified. A large number
of the hundreds bear the name of some chieftain who once used to call
together his band of bearded, light-haired warriors and administer rude
justice beneath a broad oak’s shade.[<a href="#linkb2">2</a>] Others
are named after some particular spot, some tree, or ford, or stone, or
tumulus, where the hundred court met.
</p>
<p>
Our counties or shires were not formed, as is popularly supposed, by King
Alfred or other royal person by the dividing up of the country into
portions, but were the areas occupied by the original Saxon tribes or
kingdoms. Most of our counties retain to this day the boundaries which
were originally formed by the early Saxon settlers. Some of our counties
were old Saxon kingdoms—such as Sussex, Essex, Middlesex—the
kingdoms of the South, East, and Middle Saxons. Surrey is the Sothe-reye,
or south realm; Kent is the land of the Cantii, a Belgic tribe; Devon is
the land of the Damnonii, a Celtic tribe; Cornwall, or Corn-wales, is the
land of the Welsh of the Horn; Worcestershire is the shire of the Huiccii;
Cumberland is the land of the Cymry; Northumberland is the land north of
the Humber, and therefore, as its name implies, used to extend over all
the North of England. Evidently the southern tribes and kingdoms by
conquest reduced the size of this large county and confined it to its
present smaller dimensions. In several cases the name of the county is
derived from that of its chief town, <i>e.g.</i> Oxfordshire,
Warwickshire; these were districts which were conquered by some powerful
earl or chieftain, who held his court in the town, and called his newly
acquired property after its name.
</p>
<p>
We have seen the picture of an ordinary English village in early Saxon
times, the villeins and slaves working in the fields and driving their
oxen, and the thane dressed in his linen tunic and short cloak, his hose
bandaged to the knee with strips of cloth, superintending the farming
operations. We have seen the freemen and thanes taking an active part in
public life, attending the courts of the hundred and shire, as well as the
folk moot or parish council of those times, and the slave mourning over
his lack of freedom. But many other relics of Saxon times remain, and
these will require another chapter for their examination.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb1" id="linkb1"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[1] Until the eighteenth century there stood a pollard oak in the parish
of Shelford, Berks, where the hundred court used to be held.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb2" id="linkb2"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[2] Other theories with regard to the origin of the hundred have been
suggested. Some writers maintain that the hundred was a district whence
the hundred warriors were derived, or a group of townships. But the Bishop
of Oxford in his <i>Constitutional History</i> states: “It is very
probable that the colonists of Britain arranged themselves in hundreds of
warriors; it is not probable that the country was carved into equal
districts. The only conclusion that seems reasonable is that under the
name of geographical hundreds we have the variously sized <i>pagi</i>, or
districts, in which the hundred warriors settled, the boundaries of these
being determined by other causes.”
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link8" id="link8"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER VIII
</h2>
<h3>
SAXON RELICS
</h3>
<p>
Peculiarities of Saxon barrows—Their contents—Weapons—Articles
of personal adornment—Cremation—Saxon Cemeteries—Jutes—Saxons—
Angles—Religion of Saxons—British Church in Wales—Conversion
of Saxons—Saxon crosses—Whalley—St. Wilfrid—Ruthwell
cross— Bewcastle cross—Eyam cross—Ilkley cross—Hexham
cross—Cross at St. Andrew’s, Bishop Auckland—Cheeping
crosses—Pilgrim crosses.
</p>
<p>
The earth has preserved a vast store of relics of the Saxons, and for
these we must search in the barrows which contain their dead. There are
certain peculiarities which characterise these memorials of the race. The
larger tumuli, whether belonging to Celt or Roman, usually stand alone, or
in groups of not more than two or three, and were the monuments of
distinguished people; whereas the Saxon barrows form a regular cemetery,
each group being the common burying-place of the people in the district.
Another characteristic is the large number of articles which they contain.
Moreover it was the practice of the other races to lay the body on the
ground, and build up the chamber and mound above it. The Saxons on the
other hand laid the body in a deep grave before they began to construct
the barrow.
</p>
<p>
The body was usually stretched out on its back, but is sometimes found in
a sitting position, as in graves recently discovered on Lord Wantage’s
estate, Berks. Coffins of hollowed trunks of trees were occasionally used,
but these were not common. If the dead man was a warrior, his weapons were
buried with him, and we find the head and spike of his spear, heads of
javelins, a long iron broad-sword, a long knife, occasionally an axe, and
over his breast the iron boss of his shield, the wooden part of which has
of course decayed away.
</p>
<p>
<br /> <a name="link104" id="link104"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="104.jpg (31K)" src="images/104.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The articles of personal adornment are very numerous. Fibulae, or
brooches, and buckles, made of bronze, are very beautifully ornamented.
Gold fibulae of circular form are found in the Kentish barrows, frequently
ornamented with real or fictitious gems. Rings, bracelets, necklaces of
beads, pendants for the neck and ears, are very common. The beads are of
glass, or amber, or variegated clay. Hairpins with which the Saxon ladies
bound up their tresses, chatelaines with tweezers for removing superfluous
hairs, toothpicks, scissors, and small knives, are very frequent, and
combs made of bone.
</p>
<p>
When cremation was used the ashes were deposited in an urn made of rude
earthenware without the help of a lathe. Drinking-vessels of glass of fine
and delicate workmanship, pointed or rounded at the bottom, are common.
From the construction of these cups it is evident that the Saxon allowed
no “heel-taps.” Bronze bowls, dishes, and basins are found in
Saxon barrows, and occasionally buckets.
</p>
<p>
A pair of dice was found in a grave at Kingston Down, which indicates a
favourite pastime of the Saxons. The presence of a large number of Roman
coins shows that they used Roman money long after the legions had left our
shores. Sceattas, or Saxon silver coins, are also frequently discovered.
</p>
<p>
Many Saxon cemeteries have been discovered in various parts of England,
but a vast number have never been examined; and the careful inspection of
the contents of barrows must throw much light upon Saxon settlements in
England. Bede tells us that there were three different branches of this
race. The Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight. The Saxons settled
in Essex, the country of the East Saxons, Sussex, that of the South
Saxons, and Wessex, of the West Saxons. The Angles settled in East Anglia.
Now an examination of barrows shows that the Angles practised cremation
and urn burial, which was not so common amongst the Jutes and Saxons, and
the fibulae found in the tombs of these tribes differ considerably in
shape and size. The contents of these graves throw much light on the
history of the people, their customs and habits. The action of the plough
has often obliterated the traces of ancient barrows. It is advisable that
the position of all such mounds should be carefully noted and recorded,
and where possible excavations made which may help in settling many vexed
questions, and enable us to understand more fully the condition of the
pagan Saxon, ere the light of Christianity had dawned upon him.
</p>
<p>
Our names for the days of the week tell us of the gods of our Saxon
forefathers, whom they worshipped in their pagan and unregenerate state.
Sun-day, Moon-day, Tuisco’s-day, Woden’s-day, Thor’s-day,
Frya’s-day, Saeter’s-day, link us on to the times when these
“whelps from the kennels of barbarism,” as the Britons loved
to call their conquerors, swept away the old British Church, and
established their heathen rites and customs. Their religion resembled that
of their Scandinavian neighbours. Each village had its sacred spot, some
clearing in the forest, a tree, or well, whither the people resorted to
pray to their gods, and practise superstitious rites and customs which
lingered long after the introduction of Christianity, and even still
survive. They had also a few temples whither the freemen came three times
a year.
</p>
<p>
Driven out of England the ancient British Church found a refuge in the
wilds of Wales and Cornwall, where it lived on and flourished vigorously,
allied to the Churches of Ireland and Scotland, sending out missionaries
to the Continent of Europe, having schools and colleges, monasteries, and
numerous churches. Llancarvan, in Glamorganshire, was a celebrated seat of
learning; and all places named Bangor, such as Bangor-Iscaed, St. Asaph,
and many others, possessed schools and colleges. The village names of
numerous places in Wales and Cornwall record the labours of many earnest,
saintly men, who brought Christianity to the savage folk in these wild
regions. There are nearly five hundred names of these holy men in Wales
alone, whose memory is retained by this simple record; and Cornwall is
dotted over with churches dedicated to men and women whose names are
strange, and of whom we know nothing. History tells us of some of these
early saints and martyrs, of St. Alban, the first British martyr, who was
slain 303 A.D. during the Diocletian persecution in the city which bears
his name; of St. David, a Welsh prince, who followed the active life of
John the Baptist, and preached like him. The memory of early saints is
enshrined in the names, St. Ives, St. Neots, St. Bees, and in St. Edmund’s
Bury, named after St. Edmund, who was taken prisoner by Ingvar the Viking,
and having been bound to a tree, was scourged, and served as a target for
the arrows of the Danes, being afterwards beheaded. All these record the
bravery and zeal of the holy men of old who loved their God, and for His
sake feared not to die.
</p>
<p>
Nothing need be said of the conversion of the English. That is a story
which has been often told. The scene is again changed. The temples of
Woden and Thor at Canterbury and Godmundingham and elsewhere, with their
heathen altars and shrines and idols, have been changed into Christian
churches, and other houses of God have been raised in the various
kingdoms; while Paulinus, Berinus, Aidan, Winfrid, and other preachers,
travelled through the country, exhorting the people to accept the
Christian faith.
</p>
<p>
Memorials of these early Christian missionaries remain in many a village
churchyard. Often there stands near the village church an old stone cross,
its steps worn away by the rains and frosts of thirteen centuries; its
head has doubtless gone, broken off by the force of the gales, or by the
wild rage of human passion and Puritanical iconoclastic zeal; but it
preserves the memory of the first conversion of the Saxon villagers to
Christianity, and was erected to mark the spot where the people assembled
to hear the new preacher, and to consecrate it for this purpose.
</p>
<p>
In the life of St. Willibald we read that it was the custom of the Saxon
nation, on the estates of some of their nobles or great men, to erect, not
a church, but the sign of the Holy Cross, dedicated to God, beautifully
and honourably adorned, and exalted on high for the common use of daily
prayer. It is recorded also that St. Kentigern used to erect a cross in
any place where he had converted the people, and where he had been staying
for some time. Very probably the Saxon preacher would make use of the old
open-air meeting-place, where the pagan villagers used to worship Woden;
and thus the spots still used for public worship are in many cases the
same which used to echo with the songs of Thor and the prayers of pagan
Saxons.
</p>
<p>
These crosses were the rallying-points for Christian congregations before
churches arose, and the bells in their turrets summoned the people to the
service of God. In Somersetshire alone there are two hundred relics of the
piety of our forefathers; and the North of England and Scotland are
especially rich in crosses. No two are ever quite similar. Some are of
simple design or character; but many have such beautiful carving and
scrollwork that we are astonished at the skill of the workmen who, with
very simple and rude tools, could produce such wonderful specimens of art.
</p>
<p>
The pagan Saxons worshipped stone pillars; so in order to wean them from
their ignorant superstition, the Christian missionaries, such as St.
Wilfrid, erected these stone crosses, and carved upon them the figures of
the Saviour and His Apostles, displaying before the eyes of their hearers
the story of the cross written in stone.
</p>
<p>
The North of England has very many examples of the zeal of these early
preachers of the faith, and probably most of them were fashioned by the
monks and followers of St. Wilfrid, who was Archbishop of York at the
beginning of the eighth century.
</p>
<p>
When he travelled about his diocese a large body of monks and workmen
attended him; and amongst these were the cutters in stone who made the
crosses and erected them on the spots which Wilfrid consecrated to the
worship of God.
</p>
<p>
The Whalley cross is earlier than the time of Wilfrid. It is one of the
crosses of Paulinus, who was one of the priests sent by Pope Gregory to
help Augustine in the work of converting the Saxons, and who became
Archbishop of York. Under the shadow of this very cross Paulinus, who came
to England in 601 A.D., preached nearly thirteen hundred years ago. Indeed
an old monkish writer wished to represent that Augustine himself came to
Whalley and erected the cross, which he calls “St. Augustine’s
Cross”; but there is little doubt that Paulinus was the founder. In
Puritan times this and other relics of early faith suffered badly, and was
removed with two others from the churchyard, and used as a gatepost; but
the spoiler repented, and restored it once more to its old resting-place.
</p>
<p>
But how did the founders learn to make such beautiful patterns and
designs? St. Wilfrid had travelled much; he had been to Rome and seen the
wonderful examples of Roman skill in the great city. The Romans had left
behind them in England their beautiful pavements, rich in designs, with
splendid borders of fine workmanship. These, doubtless, the monks copied
on parchment in the writing-rooms of their monasteries, and gave their
drawings to the monks in the stone-shed, who reproduced them in stone. The
only tool they had to produce all this fine and delicate work was the
pick, and this increases our wonder at the marvels they were able to
accomplish.
</p>
<p>
There is a famous cross at Ruthwell, in Dumfriesshire, which for a short
time formed part of the kingdom of Northumbria. Scenes from early
Christian history are portrayed, and these are surrounded by bands with
sentences in Latin describing them. The lowest panel is too defaced for us
to determine the subjects; on the second we see the flight into Egypt; on
the third figures of Paul, the first hermit, and Anthony, the first monk,
are carved; on the fourth is a representation of our Lord treading under
foot the heads of swine; and on the highest there is the figure of John
the Baptist with the Lamb. On the opposite side are the Annunciation, the
Salutation, and other scenes of gospel history. On the side of the cross
is some beautiful scrollwork, which shows a wonderful development of skill
and art.
</p>
<p>
In addition to the Latin sentences there are five stanzas of an
Anglo-Saxon poem of singular beauty. It is the story of the crucifixion
told in touching words by the cross itself, which narrates its own sad
tale from the time when it was a growing tree by the woodside, until at
length, after the body of the Lord had been taken down—
</p>
<p>
“The warriors left me there,<br /> Standing
defiled with blood.”
</p>
<p>
On the head of the cross are inscribed the words, “Caedmon made me.”
This Caedmon was the holy monk, on whom the gift of writing verses was
bestowed by Heaven, who in the year 680 A.D. began to pour forth his songs
in praise of Almighty God, and told in Anglo-Saxon poetry the story of the
creation and the life of our Lord. The Bewcastle cross is somewhat similar
to that at Ruthwell. We see again the figure of our Lord standing on the
heads of swine, but the lower figure is represented with a hawk, the sign
of nobility, and is probably that of a person to whom the cross is a
memorial. The ornamentation on this cross is very perfect and beautifully
executed. The very beautiful cross at Eyam, in Derbyshire, differs both in
style and workmanship from almost any other. The shaft has evidently been
broken. In the panels of the head of the cross are figures of angels.
</p>
<p>
Sometimes we find some very strange beasts carved on the old crosses. On
the cross at Ilkley we observe some of these curious animals with their
long tails interlacing. Sometimes the tail is wound round the creature’s
body, and the idea of the artist was to represent the animal reduced to a
state of powerlessness. One forepaw is held up in sign of submission.
Above is a figure of our Lord triumphing over the powers of evil, and
these animals represent probably man’s lower nature owning the
supremacy of the King of Heaven. On the other side of the cross are
figures of the four evangelists. The upper half of the figures alone
appears dressed in flowing garments; each is carrying a book; circles of
glory surround their heads, which are the symbols of the evangelists. St.
Matthew has a man’s head; St. Mark a leopard’s; St. Luke’s
a calf’s; and St. John an eagle’s head.
</p>
<p>
The crosses at Hexham, where Archbishop Wilfrid founded a monastery, are
very ancient. We are able to tell the date of these stones, for they were
placed at the head and feet of the grave of Bishop Acca, who was a
follower of St. Wilfrid, and accompanied him on his missionary journeys.
Acca succeeded Wilfrid as Bishop of Hexham, and according to the old
chronicler Bede, “being a most active man and great in the sight of
God and man, he much adorned and added to his church.” Acca died in
738 A.D., and as the monastery of Hexham was soon destroyed, these crosses
must have been erected eleven hundred and sixty-three years ago.
</p>
<p>
The cross at St. Andrew’s, Bishop Auckland, is of much later date,
and the workmanship is not nearly so fine and delicate as in the earlier
crosses. The Saxons had deteriorated as a race just before the Normans
came, and although the cross still appears on the flat stone, the design
on the shaft of the cross merely represents a hunting scene; and a Saxon
bowman is shown shooting at some animals. The religious conceptions of an
earlier and purer time have disappeared. The moustache of the sportsman
also shows that the stone belonged to a period very near the Norman
Conquest, when that fashion of wearing the hair was in vogue.
</p>
<p>
England is remarkable for these specimens of ancient art. On the Continent
there are very few of these elaborately carved crosses; but it is
noteworthy that wherever the English or Irish missionaries went, they
erected these memorials of their faith. In Switzerland, where they founded
some monasteries, there are some very similar to those in England.
</p>
<p>
There are several other kinds of crosses besides those in churchyards.
There are market crosses, called “cheeping” crosses after the
Anglo-Saxon <i>cheap</i>, to buy, from which Cheapside, in London,
Chippenham and Chipping Norton derive their names. Some crosses are
“pilgrim” crosses, and were erected along the roads leading to
shrines where pilgrimages were wont to be made, such as the shrine of St.
Thomas a Becket at Canterbury, Glastonbury, Our Lady of Walsingham.
Sometimes they were erected at the places where the corpse rested on its
way to burial, as the Eleanor crosses at Waltham and Charing, in order
that people might pray for the soul of the deceased. Monks also erected
crosses to mark the boundaries of the property of their monastery.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link114" id="link114"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/114.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="114h.jpg (26K)" src="images/114h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />OLD MARKET CROSS <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Time has dealt hardly with the old crosses of England. Many of them were
destroyed by the Puritans, who by the Parliamentary decree of 1643,
ordered that all altars and tables of stones, all crucifixes, images and
pictures of God and the saints, with all superstitious inscriptions,
should be obliterated and destroyed. In London, St. Paul’s Cross,
Charing Cross, and that in Cheapside, were levelled with the ground, and
throughout the country many a beautiful work of art which had existed
hundreds of years shared the same fate. Place-names sometimes preserve
their memory, such as Gerard’s Cross, in Buckinghamshire, Crosby,
Crossens, Cross Inn, Croston; these and many others record the existence
in ancient times of a cross, and probably beneath its shade the first
preachers of the gospel stood, when they turned the hearts of our heathen
ancestors, and taught them the holy lessons of the Cross.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link9" id="link9"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER IX
</h2>
<h3>
ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE
</h3>
<p>
Saxon monasteries—Parish churches—Benedict Biscop—Aldhelm—St.
Andrew’s, Hexham—Brixworth Church—Saxon architecture—Norman
architecture—Characteristics of the style—Transition Norman—
Early English style—Decorated style—Perpendicular style.
</p>
<p>
The early Saxon clergy lived in monasteries, where they had a church and a
school for the education of the sons of thanes. Monastic houses, centres
of piety and evangelistic zeal, sprang up, the abodes of religion,
civilisation, peace, and learning. They were the schools of culture,
sacred and profane, of industry and agriculture; the monks were the
architects, the painters, the sculptors, the goldsmiths of their time.
They formed the first libraries; they taught the young; they educated
women in convents, and by degrees dispersed the shades of ignorance,
idolatry, and barbarism, and reformed England.
</p>
<p>
To record the number of these monastic houses which were erected in the
seventh and eighth centuries would require much space; and as our chief
concern is with the vestiges that remain in our English villages, and as
most of these Saxon monasteries were plundered and destroyed by the Danes,
or rebuilt on a grander scale by the Normans, we will not now enumerate
them.
</p>
<p>
After the country had been evangelised by the itinerant monks and
preachers, the next process was to establish a church in every village,
and to provide a pastor to minister therein. Archbishop Theodore
encouraged the thanes to build and endow churches on their estates, and
introduced to this country the parochial system, by means of which all
villages could have the services of a resident pastor.
</p>
<p>
Then the thane’s house was not considered complete without its
chapel; and in the scattered hamlets and village communities churches
arose, rudely built of wood and roofed with thatch, wherein the Saxon <i>ceorls</i>
and <i>cottiers</i> loved to worship.
</p>
<p>
The great Churchmen of the day were not content with such humble
structures. They had travelled to Rome, and seen there some of the fine
buildings dedicated for divine service; so they determined to have the
like in their own country. One of these noble builders was Benedict
Biscop, founder of the twin monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. When he
built the former, he imported foreign artists from Gaul, who constructed
the monastery after the Roman style, and amongst other things introduced
glazed windows, which had never been seen in England before. Nor was his
new house bare and unadorned. He brought from Rome vast stores of church
furniture, many books, and the “arch-chanter” John, to teach
his monks the music and ritual of Rome.
</p>
<p>
Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, and first Bishop of Sherborne, was one of
the foremost church-builders of the time, and the beautiful churches at
Malmesbury, Sherborne, Bradford-on-Avon, Frome, and Wareham, owe their
erection to his instrumentality. Wilfrid also was one of the saintly
architects of the period. Here is a description of the church of St.
Andrew, at Hexham, taken from the writings of Richard, prior of the
monastery there:—
</p>
<p>
“The foundations of this church St. Wilfrid laid deep in the earth
for the crypts and oratories, and the passages leading to them, which were
then with great exactness contrived and built under ground. The walls,
which were of great length, and raised to an immense height, and divided
into three several stones or tiers, he supported by square and other kinds
of well-polished columns. Also, the walls, the capitals of the columns
which supported them, and the arch of the sanctuary, he decorated with
historical representations, imagery, and various figures of relief, carved
in stone, and painted with a most agreeable variety of colour. The body of
the church he compassed about with pentices and porticoes, which, both
above and below, he divided with great and inexpressible art, by partition
walls and winding stairs. Within the staircases, and above them, he caused
flights of steps and galleries of stone, and several passages leading from
them both ascending and descending, to be so artfully disposed, that
multitudes of people might be there, and go quite round the church,
without being seen by anyone below in the nave. Moreover in the several
divisions of the porticoes or aisles, he erected many most beautiful and
private oratories of exquisite workmanship; and in them he caused to be
placed altars in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Michael, St. John
the Baptist, and the holy Apostles, martyrs, confessors, and virgins, with
all decent and proper furniture to each of them, some of which, remaining
at this day, appear like so many turrets and fortified places.”
</p>
<p>
<a name="link118" id="link118"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="118.jpg (69K)" src="images/118.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The Danish wars had a disastrous effect on such noble structures raised by
these monastic architects, as well as on many a rustic village church,
which fell a prey to the ruthless invading bands of pagan warriors. But
frequently, as we study the history written in the stonework of our
churches, we find amid the massive Norman walls traces of the work of
Saxon builders, an arch here, a column there, which link our own times
with the distant past when England was divided into eight kingdoms, or
when Danegeld was levied to buy off the marauding strangers.
</p>
<p>
Roman buildings served as a model for our Saxon architects, and Roman
bricks were much used by them. Brixworth Church is perhaps the finest
specimen of our early Saxon churches. It has semicircular arches, made of
Roman bricks, springing from square massive piers with single abaci.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link120" id="link120"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="120.jpg (54K)" src="images/120.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
We will try to point out the distinguishing features of Saxon work, in
order that you may be able to detect the evidence of its existence in your
own village and neighbourhood. The walls are chiefly formed of rubble or
rag stone, having “long and short work,” <i>i.e.</i> long
block of cut stone laid alternately horizontally and vertically, at the
corners of the building and in the jambs of the doors. Often narrow ribs
of masonry run vertically up the walls, and a string-course runs
horizontally. The churches of Barnack and Wittering in Northamptonshire,
St. Michael’s, Oxford, and the towers of Earl’s Barton are
good examples of this.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link121" id="link121"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="121.jpg (41K)" src="images/121.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Saxon doorways have semicircular arches, and sometimes the head is shaped
in the form of a triangle. The jambs are square-edged, the stone of the
arch is plain, and a hood or arch of ribwork projecting from the surface
of the wall surrounds the doorway. Belfry windows have two
semicircular-headed lights divided by a <i>baluster</i> shaft, <i>i.e.</i>
a column resembling a turned-wood pillar. This feature is quite peculiar
to Saxon architecture.
</p>
<p>
Anglo-Saxon single-light windows have two splays, increasing in width from
the centre of the wall in which the window is placed. Norman windows have
only one splay on the internal side of the building. Saxon arches
separating the nave from the aisles and chancel are plain. There is no
sub-arch as in Norman buildings. They are often very small, sometimes only
five or six feet wide, and stand on square piers.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link122" id="link122"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="122.jpg (38K)" src="images/122.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Some Saxon churches have crypts, but few of them remain. The crypt made by
St. Wilfrid at Hexham, mentioned above, still exists, and also one at
Ripon Cathedral, in which there is a small window called “Wilfrid’s
needle.” There is a legend about this which states that if a maid
goes through the “needle,” she will be married within the
year. Repton Church has a very perfect specimen of Saxon crypt.
</p>
<p>
The ground plan of Saxon churches differed. Many were cruciform, and
consisted of nave, transepts, and chancel. The east wall of the chancel
was often semicircular or polygonal, sometimes rectangular. The church of
St. Lawrence, at Bradford-on-Avon, mentioned by William of Malmesbury, is
a fine specimen of a Saxon church, and also the little church at Escombe,
Durham, and that of Deerhurst, Gloucestershire, recently rescued from
being used as a farmstead.
</p>
<p>
After the close of the thousandth year after the birth of Christ a new
impulse was given to church-building. People imagined that with that year
the millennium would arrive and the Second Advent take place. It would be
vain to build beautiful churches, if they were so soon to perish in the
general destruction of the world, as vain as to heap up treasure by means
of trade. Hence people’s minds were unsettled, and the churches left
in ruins. But when the millenary had safely passed away, they began to
restore the fallen shrines, and build new churches, and the late Saxon or
early Norman style came into vogue. Canute was a great church-builder, and
Edward the Confessor rebuilt Westminster Abbey after the new fashion. Then
came William the Conqueror with his Norman builders, and soon nearly every
village had its church, which was constructed, according to William of
Malmesbury, <i>novo aedificandi genere</i>.
</p>
<p>
We will now notice the characteristics of early Norman work, traces of
which you may be able to recognise in your own church. The doorways are
very remarkable, profusely adorned with richly carved ornamental mouldings
and sculpture. The archways are round, and are composed of a succession of
receding arches, all elaborately carved. The doorway of Malmesbury Church
has eight arches, recessed one within the other. These arches are
supported by one or more shafts, which are sometimes carved. Above the
door and below the arch is the tympanum, covered with sculpture,
representing scriptural subjects, such as the figure of the Saviour in
allusion to His saying, “I am the door,” or the <i>Agnus Dei</i>,
or Adam and Eve, or such legendary or symbolical subjects as St. George
and the Dragon, or the Tree of Life.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link124" id="link124"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="124.jpg (77K)" src="images/124.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Porches are not very common in early Norman structures, but several still
exist, notably at Malmesbury, Balderton, and Brixworth. The windows are
usually small and narrow, the jambs being splayed only on the inside of
the church. Three such windows placed together usually give light over the
altar. The walls of Norman buildings are thick and massive, and are often
faced with cut stone. String-courses or mouldings projecting from the
walls, run horizontally along them, and are often adorned with the zigzag
or other Norman patterns of ornament. The tower often stands between the
nave and the chancel, and is usually low and massive. In the eastern
counties are found many round towers made of flint masonry. Flat
buttresses are a sure sign of Norman work, as they were not used in any of
the subsequent styles of architecture.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link125" id="link125"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="125.jpg (26K)" src="images/125.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The arches of the Norman builders are easily recognised. The piers in
country churches are nearly always cylindrical; but there are several
examples of massive square or octagonal piers, and also a number of round
columns attached, so as to form one pier. The <i>cushion</i> capital is
the most common form used in the Norman style. It is easily recognisable,
but difficult to be described; and perhaps the accompanying sketch will
enable the reader to discover a cushion capital when he sees it. The early
Norman builders loved to bestow much labour on their capitals; and while
preserving the usual cushion form, enriched them with much elaboration.
The <i>scallop</i> frequently occurs, and also the <i>volute</i>, which
was copied from the work of Roman builders, who themselves imitated the
Greek sculptures. Sometimes the capitals are elaborately carved with
figures of men, or animals, or foliage.
</p>
<p>
<br /> <a name="link126" id="link126"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="126.jpg (99K)" src="images/126.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Norman arches resemble the doorways in having sub-arches recessed within
an outer arch, the intrados often being decorated with mouldings such as
the zigzag or the lozenge. The chancel arch is usually very elaborately
ornamented with various mouldings, which are very numerous and peculiar.
Those illustrated on the previous page are the most common.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link127" id="link127"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="127.jpg (52K)" src="images/127.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The Normans were also much skilled in vaulting with stone, as the crypts
in our churches testify. Over the vaulted roof of the aisles was the <i>triforium</i>,
a kind of gallery between this roof and the external roof of the church.
Very few of the wooden roofs of Norman churches remain. The fonts are
large, square or cylindrical in shape, and are decorated with mouldings or
sculpture, often very elaborate but rudely executed. At Winchester
Cathedral the font is carved with a representation of the baptism of King
Cynigils at Dorchester. Other favourite subjects were the creation of man,
the formation of Eve, the expulsion from Paradise, Christ upon the cross,
the Four Evangelists, the baptism of our Lord, and legendary or symbolical
representations.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link128" id="link128"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="128.jpg (16K)" src="images/128.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
This style of architecture prevailed until about the middle of the twelfth
century, when the <i>Transition Norman</i> became in vogue. It is
characterised by the introduction of the pointed arch. Many conjectures as
regards its origin have been made. Some suppose that the idea of making
the arch pointed was suggested by the intersection of semicircular arches
in ornamental arcades. Others say that the Crusaders introduced it on
their return from the East, or that it was suggested by the Norman
vaulting, or from the form of the <i>vesica piscis</i>, the most ancient
of Christian symbols. The Cistercian monks were the first to introduce it
to this country, and the Cistercian abbeys of Fountains, Kirkstall,
Furness, and Tintern are noble specimens of Transition Norman work.
Religious zeal and enthusiasm are often reflected in the improved
condition of our churches, and the grand buildings of this period are
outward and visible signs of a great religious revival. Semicircular
arches, however, continued to be used for windows and for the triforium;
the capitals of the piers were decorated with foliage somewhat similar to
that used in a subsequent period.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link129" id="link129"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="129.jpg (37K)" src="images/129.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Then arose the Early English style of architecture which flourished from
about the year 1175 to 1275, and is characterised by a gradual abandonment
of the heavy and massive features of the Norman style, and the adoption of
lighter and more elegant forms of construction and decoration. Salisbury
Cathedral, erected 1220-1260 A.D., is the most perfect example of this
period. The arches are pointed, and the piers supporting them are often
composed of an insulated cylindrical column surrounded by slender detached
shafts, all uniting together under one capital, and divided into parts by
horizontal bands. In small churches plain octagonal or circular piers are
frequently used, as in the succeeding style, from which they can only be
distinguished by the mouldings. Mouldings are often the surest guides in
helping us to ascertain the date of a building. We have already studied
the Norman mouldings. In this style they are composed of bold rounds and
deep hollows, usually plain, or ornamented with the dog-tooth.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link130" id="link130"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="130.jpg (11K)" src="images/130.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The lancet window is now introduced, at first of only one light, very
narrow and long, and differing from the Norman window in having a pointed
arch. At the east end of the chancel there are often three lancet windows,
the centre one higher than the rest, with one dripstone over them. The
first idea of window-tracery was the introduction of a plain
lozenge-shaped opening over a double lancet window, the whole being
covered by a single dripstone. From this simple arrangement it was not
difficult to develop the beautiful bar-tracery which came into vogue in
the subsequent period of English architecture. The capitals of the Early
English style are bell-shaped, at first quite plain, but subsequently
these are often covered with beautifully sculptured foliage of a very
graceful character. Circular windows at this period came into vogue in the
gables of churches. They were either plain or quatre-foiled. Norman towers
were sometimes capped with spires in the thirteenth century. The walls are
not so thick or massive as in the Norman period, and the buttresses are
stouter and more numerous, and project further from the wall. Flying
buttresses were also introduced at this period. We can generally
distinguish Early English work from that of the Norman style by its
lightness and elegance, as compared with the roughness and massiveness of
the latter; and its plainness and simplicity sufficiently distinguish it
from that of the Decorated period.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link131" id="link131"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="131.jpg (32K)" src="images/131.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The Decorated style (1275-1375) which prevailed during the reigns of the
three Edwards was ushered in by a period of Transition, during which there
was gradually developed the most perfect style which English architectural
skill has ever attained. In the thirteenth century our builders were
striving to attain the highest forms of graceful design and artistic
workmanship. In the fourteenth their work reached perfection, while in the
fifteenth there was a marked decline in their art, which in spite of its
elaborate details lacked the beauty of the Decorated style.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link132" id="link132"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="132.jpg (93K)" src="images/132.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The arches of this period are usually wider, and are distinguished from
those of the Early English by the character of the mouldings. The
ball-flower, consisting of a ball inclosed by three or four leaves,
somewhat resembling a rosebud, is the favourite ornament, and a
four-leaved flower is often used. Roll mouldings, quarter, half, or
three-quarters round, frequently occur, and produce a very pleasing
effect. The form of the arch is in many instances changed, and the
graceful <i>ogee</i> arch is introduced. The piers are round or octagonal
in village churches, and in large churches are formed by a cluster of
cylindrical shafts, not detached as in the preceding period, but closely
united. The capitals are bell-shaped, and in large churches richly
sculptured. Few of the wooden roofs remain, as they have been superseded
in later times; but the marks of the old roofs may often be seen on the
eastern wall of the tower. The windows are larger than those of the
earlier style, and are filled with geometrical and flowing tracery of
great variety and beauty. Small windows have heads shaped in the ogee or
trefoil forms. Square-headed windows are not uncommon, especially in the
clerestory, and in monastic churches circular windows are frequently met
with. It is characteristic of this style that the carving is not so deep
as in the previous work. We find groups of shallow mouldings separated by
one cut deeper than the others.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link133a" id="link133a"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="133a.jpg (30K)" src="images/133a.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link133b" id="link133b"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="133b.jpg (38K)" src="images/133b.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link134" id="link134"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="134.jpg (35K)" src="images/134.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
At length the glories of the Decorated period pass away and are merged and
lost in the <i>Perpendicular</i> which held sway from 1375 to 1540. The
work is now more elaborate and richer, but lacks the majestic beauty of
the Decorated style. It is easy to distinguish Perpendicular windows. They
are larger than any which we have seen before; the mullions are carried
straight up through the head of the window; smaller mullions spring from
the heads of the principal lights, and thus the windows are broken up into
panel-like compartments, very different from the beautiful curves of the
Decorated style. Simple pointed arches are still in use, but gradually
they become flattened; and the arch, commonly known as the Tudor arch, is
a peculiar feature of this style. In village churches the mouldings of the
arch are often continued down the piers without any capital or shaft.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link135" id="link135"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="135.jpg (42K)" src="images/135.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Piers are commonly formed from a square or parallelogram with the angles
fluted, having on the flat face of each side a semicyclindrical shaft. The
base mouldings are polygonal. The most common doorway is the Tudor arch
having a square head over it. The doors are often richly ornamented. There
are a large number of square-headed windows, and so proud were these
builders of their new style of window that they frequently inserted
Perpendicular windows in walls of a much earlier date. Hence it is not
always safe to determine the age of a church by an examination of the
windows alone. Panel-work tracery on the upper part of the interior walls
is a distinctive feature of this style.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link136a" id="link136a"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="136a.jpg (37K)" src="images/136a.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link136b" id="link136b"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="136b.jpg (16K)" src="images/136b.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The slope of the roof is much lower than before, and often the former
high-pitched roofs were at this period replaced by the almost flat roofs
prevalent in the fifteenth century. The parapets are often embattled.
</p>
<p>
The rose, the badge of the houses of York and Lancaster, is often used as
an ornamental detail, and also rows of the Tudor flower, composed of four
petals, frequently occur. One of the most distinctive mouldings is the <i>cavetto</i>,
a wide shallow hollow in the centre of a group of mouldings. Also we find
a peculiar wave, and a kind of double ogee moulding which are
characteristic of the style.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link137" id="link137"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="137.jpg (15K)" src="images/137.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Spires of this period are not very common, and usually spring from within
the parapet. The interiors of our churches were enriched at this time with
much elaborate decoration. Richly carved woodwork in screens, rood-lofts,
pulpits, and pews, sculptured sedilia and a noble reredos, and much
exuberance of decorative imagery and panel-work, adorned our churches at
this time, much of which was obliterated or destroyed by spoliators of the
Reformation period, the iconoclastic Puritans of the seventeenth century,
or the “restorers” of the nineteenth. However, we may be
thankful that so much remains to the present day of the work of our great
English church-builders, while we endeavour to trace the history of each
church written in stone, and to appreciate these relics of antiquity which
most of our villages possess.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link10" id="link10"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER X
</h2>
<h3>
NORMAN VILLAGES AND THE <i>DOMESDAY BOOK</i>
</h3>
<p>
The coming of the Normans—<i>Domesday Book</i>—Its objects—Its
contents— Barkham in <i>Domesday</i>—Saxon families—Saxons
who retained their estates—Despoiled landowners—Village
officers and artisans— Villeins—<i>Bordarii</i>—<i>Cottarii</i>—<i>Servi</i>—Socmen—Presbyter—Names
of Normans—The teaching of <i>Domesday</i>.
</p>
<p>
There was a great stir in our English villages when the news was brought
to them that William of Normandy had landed in England, and intended to
fight for the English Crown. News travelled very slowly in those days.
First the villeins and the cottiers who were not fighting with their lord
heard that a great battle had been fought at Stamford Bridge, in
Yorkshire, in which their gallant King Harold had defeated his own brother
Tostig, aided by the King of Norway, Hardrada, and a large army. Then the
news reached them that William of Normandy had arrived, and that Harold
was marching night and day to meet him. Then they heard of the fatal
battle of Hastings; and when it was told them that their brave King Harold
was slain, and that William, the Norman, was the conqueror of England and
the acknowledged king of the country, all England groaned to hear the
fatal news. And then, after a few years, they found that their old lord
had been deprived of his estates, and a new, haughty, proud Norman, who
talked like a Frenchman, and laughed at their dear old Saxon language,
came and ruled over them. He brought Norman servants with him, who took
the best of the land, and made the Saxons do all the hard work on the
farm, treating them like slaves.
</p>
<p>
And now we must examine a most valuable document which throws a
wonderfully clear light on the condition of England just before and after
the Conquest. I refer to the <i>Domesday Book</i>, or survey of the
country which William caused to be made. The Anglo-Saxon chronicler tells
us that after a great Council at Gloucester the king “sent his men
over all England, into every shire, and caused to be ascertained how many
hundred hides were in the shire, or what land the king himself had, and
cattle within the land, or what dues he ought to have in twelve months
from the shire. Also he caused to be written how much land his archbishops
had, and his suffragan bishops, and abbots, and earls; and though I may
narrate somewhat prolixly, what or how much each man had who was a holder
of land in England, in land, or in cattle, and how much money it might be
worth. So very narrowly he caused it to be traced out, that there was not
one single hide, nor one yard of land, nor even, it is shame to tell,
though it seemed to him no shame to do, an ox, nor a cow, nor a swine was
left that was not set down in his writ. And all the writings were brought
to him afterwards.”
</p>
<p>
The commissioners appointed by the king, among whom were Remigius, Bishop
of Lincoln, and Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham, were to inquire the
following details concerning each parish:—
</p>
<p>
Its name. Who held it in the time of King Edward the Confessor. The
present possessor. Number of hides in the manor, number of ploughs, of
homagers, villeins, cottars, free tenants, tenants in socage; how much
wood, meadow, and pasture; number of mills and fishponds; the value in the
time of the last king; and its present value.
</p>
<p>
Such a survey was of immense value. Its object, according to the king, was
that every man might know and be satisfied with his rightful possessions,
and not with impunity usurp the property of others. But it was also of
great service to the king, so that he might know who were his vassals, the
amount of taxation which he could draw from them, and the actual strength
of his new kingdom.
</p>
<p>
The commissioners performed their work with much care and exactness. The
survey is wonderfully complete, and was compiled in a very short time. It
is of great value to the historians of subsequent ages. The writing of the
book is very clear and beautiful, the abbreviations alone presenting some
difficulty to an unaccustomed reader. No illuminations adorn the text. At
the head of each page the name of the county is written in red ink. The
book is preserved in an ancient chest in the Public Record Office, where
it was removed from the Chapter House at Westminster.
</p>
<p>
As an example we may take the <i>Domesday</i> description of the parish of
Barkham, which runs as follows:—
</p>
<p>
“IN CERLEDONE HD.
</p>
<p>
“Rex ten in dnio Bercheha. AElmer Tenuit de rege. E. Te 7 m iii
hid. Tra e iii car. In dnio e una, 7 vi uilli 7 iiii bord cu iii car. Ibi
v. ac pti. Silua de XL pore. Valuit iiii lib. T.R.E. 7 m: iii. lib.”
</p>
<p>
TRANSLATION.
</p>
<p>
“In the hundred of Charlton.
</p>
<p>
“The king holds Barkham in demesne. AElmer held it of King Edward.
Then, as now, it was rated for three hides. The land is three ploughlands.
In demesne there is one ploughland. There are six villeins, four borderers
with three ploughs. There are five acres of pasture. Wood for the
pasturage of forty hogs. It was worth 4l. in the time of King Edward,
afterwards, and now, 3l.”
</p>
<p>
King Edward here mentioned was Edward the Confessor. A hide, when it is
used as a measure of land, may be taken at about one hundred and twenty
acres. A ploughland was as much land as one plough with oxen could plough
in a year. The villeins were men who tilled their lord’s land, and
in return for certain services had holdings under him. The borderers were
cottagers who also worked for their lord and held smaller holdings, from
one to ten acres. In other entries we find the number of serfs recorded,
and also mention of the hall of the lord of the manor, where the manorial
courts were held, the church, the priest’s house, the names of
landowners and tenants, the mill, and of the various officers and artisans
who made up the village community.
</p>
<p>
<i>Domesday</i> tells us of the old Saxon families, many of whom lost
their estates when the Conqueror came, and were supplanted by the
favourites of the new king. Some of them contrived to weather the storm
and retain their lands. Almer, or Almar, the lord of Barkham, who
succeeded his brother Stigand as Bishop of Elmham in 1047, when the latter
became archbishop, was among the number of the dispossessed, and probably
found shelter with many of his compatriots in the cloister. Several of
William’s Norman adventurers married the heiresses of the old Saxon
gentry, and thus became possessed of great estates. Thus Robert D’Oili
married the daughter of Wigod, lord of Wallingford, and soon gained
possession of his father-in-law’s property.
</p>
<p>
However, the names of the fortunate Saxons who retained their estates are
few in comparison with those who were dispossessed. We find Edgar
Atheling, real heir to the throne, retaining a small estate; but he was a
feeble prince, and therefore not to be feared by William. His sister
Cristina had also land in Oxfordshire. Bishop Osbern, of Exeter, a kinsman
of the late king, also held his estates; and amongst the list we find
Seward the huntsman, of Oxfordshire; Theodric the goldsmith; Wlwi the
huntsman, of Surrey; Uluric the huntsman, of Hampshire, who were not
deprived of their lands, their occupations being useful to the king.
</p>
<p>
The list of despoiled landowners is a long one, and need not here be
recorded. One Brictric was very unfortunate. When ambassador to Baldwin of
Flanders he refused to marry the count’s daughter Maud. The slighted
lady became the Conqueror’s consort, and in revenge for her despised
love caused Brictric to be imprisoned and his estates confiscated, some of
which were given to the queen. The luckless relations and connections of
the late royal house were consistently despoiled, amongst them Editha, the
beautiful queen of King Edward, and daughter of Earl Godwin, of whom it
was written: “<i>Sicut spina rosam genuit Godwynus Editham</i>”;
and Gida, the mother of Harold; Godric, his son; and Gwith, his brother.
Harold himself—the earl, as he is called, and not the king, who
fought and died at Senlac, if he did not, as the romance states, end his
life as a holy hermit at Chester—had vast estates all over England,
which went to enrich William’s hungry followers. Hereward the Wake,
the English hero, also held in pre-Norman days many fat manors. Few of the
Saxon landowners were spared, and it is unnecessary here to record the
names of the Uchtreds, Turgots, Turchils, Siwards, Leurics, who held lands
“in the time of King Edward,” but whose place after Domesday
knows them no more.
</p>
<p>
<i>Domesday</i> tells us also the names of the officers and artisans who
played important parts in the old village communities. The <i>villani</i>,
or villeins, corresponding to the Saxon <i>ceorls</i>, were the most
important class of tenants in villeinage, and each held about thirty acres
in scattered acre or half-acre strips, each a furlong in length and a
perch or two in breadth, separated by turf balks. The villein thus
supported himself and his family, and in return was bound to render
certain services to the lord of the manor, to work on the home farm, and
provide two or more oxen for the manorial plough-team. He was not a free
tenant, could acquire no property, and his lord’s consent was needed
for the marriage of his daughters. But the law protected him from unjust
usage; his holdings were usually regranted to his son. He could obtain
freedom in several ways, and by degrees acquired the rights and privileges
of a free tenant.
</p>
<p>
Next to the villeins were the <i>bordarii</i>, who lived in <i>bords</i>
or cottages, <i>i.e.</i> boarded or wooden huts, and ranked as a lower
grade of villeins. They held about five acres, but provided no oxen for
the manorial plough-team. Below them were the <i>cottarii</i>, or
cottiers, who were bound to do domestic work and supply the lord’s
table. They corresponded to the modern labourer, but lacked his freedom.
The lowest class of all were the <i>servi</i>, or serfs, who corresponded
to the Saxon <i>theows</i>. In Norman times their condition was greatly
improved; they mingled with the cottiers and household servants, and
gradually were merged with them.
</p>
<p>
The <i>sochemanni</i>, or socmen, our yeomen, who abounded chiefly in the
Danish district of England, were inferior landowners who had special
privileges, and could not be turned out of their holdings, though they
rendered certain services to the lord of the manor, and in this respect
differed little from the villeins. <i>Domesday Book</i> also mentions a
class of men called <i>burs</i> or <i>geburs</i>, who were the same as <i>coliberti</i>;
also the <i>commendati</i>, who received privileges in return for services
rendered to the lord of the manor.
</p>
<p>
Each village community was self-contained, and had its own officers.
Although <i>Domesday Book</i> was not compiled in order to ascertain the
condition of the Church and its ministers, and frequently the mention of a
parish church is omitted where we know one existed, the <i>presbyter</i>,
or priest, is often recorded. Archbishop Egbert’s <i>Excerptiones</i>
ordained that “to every church shall be allotted one complete
holding (mansa), and that this shall be free from all but ecclesiastical
services.” According to the Saxon laws every tenth strip of land was
set aside for the Church, and <i>Domesday</i> shows that in many villages
there was a priest with his portion of land set apart for his support.
</p>
<p>
Then there was a <i>prepositus</i>, bailiff or reeve, who collected the
lord’s rents, assisted by a <i>bedellus</i>, beadle or
under-bailiff. <i>Bovarii</i>, or oxherds, looked after the plough-teams.
The <i>carpentarius</i>, or carpenter; the <i>cementarius</i>, or
bricklayer; the <i>custos apium</i>, or beekeeper; the <i>faber</i>, or
smith; the <i>molinarius</i>, or miller—were all important officers
in the Norman village; and we have mention also of the <i>piscatores</i>
(fishermen), <i>pistores</i> (bakers), <i>porcarii</i> (swineherds), <i>viccarii</i>
(cowmen), who were all employed in the work of the village community.
</p>
<p>
<i>Domesday Book</i> enables us to form a fairly complete picture of our
villages in Norman and late Saxon times. It tells us of the various
classes who peopled the village and farmed its fields. It gives us a
complete list of the old Saxon gentry and of the Norman nobles and
adventurers who seized the fair acres of the despoiled Englishmen. Many of
them gave their names to their new possessions. The Mandevilles settled at
Stoke, and called it Stoke-Mandeville; the Vernons at Minshall, and called
it Minshall-Vernon. Hurst-Pierpont, Neville-Holt, Kingston-Lysle,
Hampstead-Norris, and many other names of places compounded of Saxon and
Norman words, record the names of William’s followers, who received
the reward of their services at the expense of the former Saxon owners. <i>Domesday
Book</i> tells us how land was measured in those days, the various tenures
and services rendered by the tenants, the condition of the towns, the
numerous foreign monasteries which thrived on our English lands, and
throws much light on the manners and customs of the people of this country
at the time of its compilation. <i>Domesday Book</i> is a perfect
storehouse of knowledge for the historian, and requires a lifetime to be
spent for its full investigation.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link147" id="link147"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="147.jpg (76K)" src="images/147.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link11" id="link11"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XI
</h2>
<h3>
NORMAN CASTLES
</h3>
<p>
Castle-building—Description of Norman castle—A Norman
household— Edwardian castles—Border castles—Chepstow—Grosmont—Raglan—Central
feature of feudalism—Fourteenth-century castle—Homes of
chivalry— Schools of arms—The making of a knight—Tournaments—Jousts—Tilting
at a ring—Pageants—“Apollo and Daphne”—Pageants
at Sudeley Castle and Kenilworth—Destruction of castles—Castles
during Civil War period.
</p>
<p>
Many an English village can boast of the possession of the ruins of an
ancient castle, a gaunt rectangular or circular keep or donjon, looking
very stern and threatening even in decay, and mightily convincing of the
power of its first occupants. The new masters did not feel very safe in
the midst of a discontented and enraged people; so they built these huge
fortresses with strong walls and gates and moats. Indeed before the
Conquest the Norman knights, to whom the weak King Edward the Confessor
granted many an English estate, brought with them the fashion of building
castles, and many a strong square tower began to crown the fortified
mounds. Thence they could oppress the people in many ways, and the writers
of the time always speak of the building of castles with a kind of
shudder. After the Conquest, especially during the regency of William’s
two lieutenants, Bishop Odo and Earl William Fitz-osbern, the Norman
adventurers who were rewarded for their services by the gift of many an
English manor, built castles everywhere. The wretched men of the land were
cruelly oppressed by forced labour in erecting these strongholds, which
were filled “with devils and evil men.” Over a thousand
castles were built in nineteen years, and in his own castle each earl or
lord reigned as a small king, coining his own money, making his own laws,
having power of life and death over his dependants, and often using his
power most violently and oppressively.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link150" id="link150"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="150.jpg (66K)" src="images/150.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The original Norman castle consisted of a keep, “four-square to
every wind that blew,” standing in a bailey court. It was a mighty
place with walls of great thickness about one hundred and fifty feet high.
It contained several rooms, one above the other. A deep well supplied the
inhabitants with water. Spiral stone steps laid in the thickness of the
wall led to the first floor where the soldiers of the garrison resided.
Above this was the hall, with a chimney and fireplace, where the lord of
the castle and his guests had their meals, and in the thickness of the
wall there were numerous chambers used as sleeping-apartments and
garderobes, and the existence of a piscina in one of these shows that it
was a small chapel or oratory. The upper story was divided by wooden
partitions into small sleeping-rooms; and unlike our modern houses, the
kitchen was at the top of the keep, and opened on the roof.
</p>
<p>
Descending some stone steps which led from the ground floor in ancient
time we should visit the dungeons, dark, gloomy, and dreadful places,
where deep silence reigns, only broken by the groans of despairing
captives in the miserable cells. In one of these toads and adders were the
companions of the captive. Another poor wretch reposed on a bed of sharp
flints, while the torture-chamber echoed with the cries of the victims of
mediaeval cruelty, who were hanged by their feet and smoked with foul
smoke, or hung up by their thumbs, while burning rings were placed on
their feet. In Peak Castle, Derbyshire, a poor, simple squire, one Godfrey
Rowland, was confined for six days without either food or drink, and then
released from the dungeon with his right hand cut off. In order to extract
a heavy ransom, to obtain lands and estates, to learn the secrets of
hidden treasure, the most ingenious and devilish tortures were inflicted
in these terrible abodes.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link152" id="link152"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="152.jpg (97K)" src="images/152.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The same style of castle-building continued for a century and a half after
the Norman Conquest. It is possible to distinguish the later keeps by the
improved and fine-jointed ashlar stonework, by the more frequent use of
the stone of the district, instead of that brought from Caen, by the ribs
upon the groins of the vaulting of the galleries and chambers in the
walls, and by the more extensive use of ornaments in the bosses, windows,
doors, and fireplaces. The style of the decoration approaches the Early
English character.
</p>
<p>
The walls of the keep were not the only protection of the fortress. A moat
surrounds the whole castle, crossed by a drawbridge, protected on the side
remote from the castle by a barbican. High walls with an embattled parapet
surround the lower court, or ballium, which we enter by a gate defended by
strong towers. A portcullis has to be raised, and a heavy door thrown
back, before we can enter; while above in the stone roof of the archway
there are holes through which melted lead and pitch can be poured upon our
heads, if we attempt to enter the castle as assailants. In the lower court
are the stables, and the mound where the lord dispenses justice, and where
criminals and traitors are executed. Another strong gateway flanked by
towers protects the inner court, on the edge of which stands the keep
which frowns down upon us as we enter.
</p>
<p>
An immense household was supported in every castle. Not only were there
men-at-arms, but also cooks and bakers, brewers and tailors, carpenters,
smiths, masons, and all kinds of craftsmen; and all the crowd of workers
had to be provided with accommodation by the lord of the castle. Hence a
building, in the form of a large hall, was erected sometimes of stone,
usually of wood, in the lower or upper court for these soldiers and
artisans, where they slept and had their meals.
</p>
<p>
A new type of castle was introduced during the reigns of the three
Edwards. The stern, massive, and high-towering keep was abandoned, and the
fortifications arranged in a concentric fashion. A fine hall with kitchens
occupied the centre of the fortress; a large number of chambers was added,
and the inner and outer courts both defended by walls, as we have already
described, were introduced. The Edwardian castles of Caernarvon and
Beaumaris belong to this type of fortress.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link155" id="link155"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/155.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="155h.jpg (34K)" src="images/155h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />BROUGHTON CASTLE <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The border counties of Wales are remarkable for the number and beauty of
their ancient castles. On the site of British earthworks the Romans
established their camps. The Saxons were obliged to erect their rude
earthen strongholds in order to keep back the rebellious Welsh, and these
were succeeded by Norman keeps. Monmouthshire is famous for its castles;
out of the eleven hundred erected in Norman times twenty-five were built
in that county. There is Chepstow Castle, with its early Norman gateway
spanned by a circular arch flanked by round towers. In the inner court
there are the gardens and ruins of a grand hall, and in the outer the
ruins of a chapel with evidences of beautifully groined vaulting, and also
a winding staircase leading to the battlements. In the dungeon of the old
keep at the south-east corner of the inner court Roger de Britolio, Earl
of Hereford, was imprisoned for rebellion against the Conqueror, and in
later times Henry Martin, the regicide, lingered as a prisoner for thirty
years, employing his enforced leisure in writing a book in order to prove
that it is not right for a man to be governed by one wife. Then there is
Grosmont Castle, the fortified residence of the Earl of Lancaster;
Skenfrith Castle; White Castle, the <i>Album Castrum</i> of the Latin
records, the Landreilo of the Welsh, with its six towers, portcullis, and
drawbridge flanked by massive tower, barbican, and other outworks; and
Raglan Castle, with its splendid gateway, its Elizabethan banqueting-hall
ornamented with rich stone tracery, its bowling-green, garden terraces,
and spacious courts, an ideal place for knightly tournaments in ancient
days. Raglan is associated with the gallant defence of the castle by the
Marquis of Worcester in the Civil War.
</p>
<p>
The ancient castles of England were the central feature of feudal society.
They were the outward and visible sign of that system. M. Guizot in his <i>History
of Civilisation</i> says, “It was feudalism which constructed them;
their elevation was, so to speak, the declaration of its triumph.”
On the Continent they were very numerous long before castle-building
became the fashion in England, and every suzerain saw with displeasure his
vassal constructing his castle; for the vassal thus insured for himself a
powerful means of independence. The Norman barons in the troublous times
of Stephen lived a life of hunting and pillage; they were forced to have a
fortified retreat where they might shut themselves up after an expedition,
repel the vengeance of their foes, and resist the authorities who
attempted to maintain order in the country.
</p>
<p>
Others followed the example of the barons. The townsfolk fortified their
towns, monks their monasteries; and even within the town-walls many houses
had their towers and gates and barriers in order to keep back troublesome
visitors.
</p>
<p>
Here is a description of a French castle in the fourteenth century:—
</p>
<p>
“First imagine to yourself a superb position, a steep mountain,
bristling with rocks, furrowed with ravines and precipices; upon the
declivity is the castle. The small houses which surround it set off its
grandeur; the river seems to turn aside with respect; it forms a large
semicircle at its feet. This castle must be seen when, at sunrise, the
outward galleries glimmer with the armour of the sentinels, and the towers
are shown all brilliant with their large new gratings. Those high
buildings must be seen, which fill those who defend them with courage, and
with fear those who should be tempted to attack them.
</p>
<p>
“The door presents itself covered with heads of boars or wolves,
flanked with turrets and crowned with a high guard-house. Enter, there are
three inclosures, three moats, three drawbridges to pass. You find
yourself in a large square court, where are cisterns, and on the right and
left the stables, hen-houses, pigeon-houses, coach-houses; the cellars,
vaults, and prisons are below; above are the dwelling-apartments; above
these are the magazines, larders, or salting-rooms, and arsenals. All the
roofs are bordered with machicolations, parapets, guard-walks, and
sentry-boxes. In the middle of the court is the donjon, which contains the
archives and the treasure. It is deeply moated all round, and can only be
entered by a bridge, almost always raised. Although the walls, like those
of the castle, are six feet thick, it is surrounded up to half its height
with a chemise, or second wall, of large cut stones. This castle has just
been rebuilt. There is something light, fresh, laughing about it, not
possessed by the heavy massive castles of the last century.”
</p>
<p>
One would scarcely expect to hear a castle described as “light,
fresh, laughing”; yet so a fourteenth-century castle seemed to eyes
accustomed to the gloomy, stern, and massive structures of the eleventh
and twelfth centuries. In these no beauty or display of art was attempted.
Defence and safety were the only objects sought after in the construction
of our ancient strongholds.
</p>
<p>
Strange as it may seem, these castles were the birthplaces and homes of
chivalry. Women were raised to an exalted position, and honoured and
reverenced by knights and warriors. A prize won in a tournament was
esteemed of vastly greater value, if it were bestowed upon the successful
combatant by some lady’s hand. “Queens of Beauty”
presided at these contests of knightly skill and daring. The statutes and
ordinances for jousts and tournaments made by John Tiptoft, Earl of
Worcester, at the command of Edward IV., conclude thus: “Reserving
always to the queenes highness and the ladyes there present, the
attributing and gift of the prize after the manner and forme accustomed.”
If a knight was guilty of any impropriety of conduct, he was soundly
beaten by the other knights, in order to teach him to respect the honour
of the ladies and the rights of chivalry.
</p>
<p>
In the days of chivalry a knight vowed in somewhat extravagant language
eternal love to his particular lady fair, wore her glove or her guerdon on
his helmet, and swore to protect it with his life. Family ties and
domestic joys were cultivated. The wife of a knight was often herself a
warrior. Fair ladies have donned armour and followed their lords to the
Crusades; and often during her lord’s absence at the wars in France,
or Scotland, or the Holy Land, the wife would defend his fief and castle,
and sometimes was called upon to withstand a siege, when some neighbouring
lord coveted the fair estates of the absent warrior, and sought to obtain
them by force of arms.
</p>
<p>
The castles also were schools, not of learning, but of arms and chivalry,
where the sons of vassals were trained in all the qualites that become a
knight. The sons of vassals were sent to the castle of the suzerain to be
brought up with his sons. Numerous reasons have been assigned for the
origin of this custom, which we need not now enumerate. The practice,
however, became general, and concerning it an ancient work entitled <i>L’ordre
de la Chevalerie</i> records:—
</p>
<p>
“It is fitting that the son of the knight, while he is a squire,
should know how to take care of a horse; and it is fitting that he should
serve before and be subject to his lord; for otherwise he will not know
the nobleness of his lordship when he shall be a knight; and to this end
every knight shall put his son in the service of another knight, to the
end that he may learn to carve at table and to serve, and to arm and
apparel a knight in his youth. According as to the man who desires to
learn to be a tailor or a carpenter, it is desirable that he should have
for a master one who is a tailor or a carpenter; it is suitable that every
nobleman who loves the order of chivalry, and wishes to become and be a
good knight, should first have a knight for a master.”
</p>
<p>
When the young squire attained the age of manhood he was admitted to the
honour of knighthood, which was bestowed upon him with much ceremony and
dignity. First he was divested of his garments and put in a bath, a symbol
of purification; then they clothed him in a white tunic, a symbol of
purity, in a red robe, a symbol of the blood which he was bound to shed in
the service of the faith; and then in a close black coat, a reminder of
the death which awaited him. Then he was obliged to observe a fast for
twenty-four hours, and in the evening entered the church and there passed
the night in prayer. On the morrow after confession and the receiving of
Holy Communion, he heard a sermon upon the duties of knighthood, and then
advancing to the altar presented his sword to the priest, who blessed it.
Kneeling before his lord he was asked, “With what design do you
desire to enter into the order? If it is in order to become rich, to
repose yourself, and to be honoured without doing honour to chivalry, you
are unworthy of it, and would be to the order of chivalry what the
simoniacal priest is to the prelacy.”
</p>
<p>
His answers being satisfactory, knights, or ladies, advance and clothe him
with the equipments of his order, spurs, the hauberk or coat of mail, the
cuirass, the vambraces and gauntlets, and lastly his sword. Then his lord
gives him three blows of a sword on his shoulder, saying, “In the
name of God, of Saint Michael, and Saint George I dub thee knight,”
adding, “Be brave, adventurous, and loyal.” He then mounts his
horse, caracoles about, brandishing his lance, and afterwards in the
courtyard he repeats the performances before the people ever eager to take
part in the spectacle.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link161" id="link161"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="161.jpg (80K)" src="images/161.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The young knight was now able to take part in the jousts, and all kinds of
chivalric displays, which were common and frequent. Many castles have,
like that at Carisbrooke, a tilting-ground within the walls; but great and
important tournaments were held outside the castle. Richard I. appointed
five special places for the holding of tournaments, namely between Sarum
and Wilton, between Stamford and Wallingford, between Warwick and
Kenilworth, between Brakely and Mixeberg, and between Blie and Tykehill.
There was much pomp and ceremony attached to these knightly exercises. The
lists, as the barriers were called which inclosed the scene of combat,
were superbly decorated, and surrounded by pavilions belonging to the
champions, ornamented with their arms and banners. The seats reserved for
the noble ladies and gentlemen who came to see the fight were hung with
tapestry embroidered with gold and silver. Everyone was dressed in the
most sumptuous manner; the minstrels and heralds were clothed in the
costliest garments; the knights who were engaged in the sports and their
horses were most gorgeously arrayed. The whole scene was one of great
splendour and magnificence, and, when the fight began, the shouts of the
heralds who directed the tournament, the clashing of arms, the clang of
trumpets, the charging of the combatants, and the shouts of the
spectators, must have produced a wonderfully impressive and exciting
effect upon all who witnessed the strange spectacle.
</p>
<p>
The regulations and laws of the tournament were very minute. When many
preliminary arrangements had been made with regard to the examination of
arms and helmets and the exhibition of banners, etc., at ten o’clock
on the morning of the appointed day, the champions and their adherents
were required to be in their places. Two cords divided the combatants, who
were armed with a pointless sword and a truncheon hanging from their
saddles. When the word was given by the lord of the tournament, the cords
were removed, and the champions charged and fought until the heralds
sounded the signal to retire. It was considered the greatest disgrace to
be unhorsed. A French earl once tried to unhorse our King Edward I., when
he was returning from Palestine, wearied by the journey. The earl threw
away his sword, cast his arms around the king’s neck, and tried to
pull him from his horse. But Edward put spurs to his horse and drew the
earl from the saddle, and then shaking him violently, threw him to the
ground.
</p>
<p>
The joust (or just) differed from the tournament, because in the former
only lances were used, and only two knights could fight at once. It was
not considered quite so important as the grand feat of arms which I have
just described, but was often practised when the more serious encounter
had finished. Lances, or spears without heads of iron, were commonly used,
and the object of the sport was to ride hard against one’s adversary
and strike him with the spear upon the front of the helmet, so as to beat
him backwards from his horse, or break the spear. This kind of sport was
of course rather dangerous, and men sometimes lost their lives at these
encounters. In order to lessen the risk and danger of the two horses
running into each other when the knights charged, a boarded railing was
erected in the midst of the lists, about four or five feet high. The
combatants rode on separate sides of this barrier, and therefore they
could not encounter each other except with their lances. Sometimes two
knights would fight in mortal combat. If one knight accused the other of
crime or dishonour, the latter might challenge him to fight with swords or
lances; and, according to the superstition of the times, the victor was
considered to be the one who spoke the truth. But this ordeal combat was
far removed from the domain of sport.
</p>
<p>
When jousts and tournaments were abandoned, tilting on horseback at a ring
became a favourite courtly amusement. A ring was suspended on a level with
the eye of the rider; and the sport consisted in riding towards the ring,
and sending the point of a lance through it, and so bearing it away. Great
skill was required to accomplish this surely and gracefully. Ascham, a
writer in the sixteenth century, tells us what accomplishments were
required from the complete English gentleman of the period:—
</p>
<p>
“To ride comely, to run fair at the tilt or ring, to play at all
weapons, to shoot fair in bow, or surely in gun; to vault lustily, to run,
to leap, to wrestle, to swim, to dance comely, to sing, and play of
instruments cunningly; to hawk, to hunt, to play at tennis, and all
pastimes generally which be joined to labour, containing either some fit
exercises for war, or some pleasant pastime for peace—these be not
only comely and decent, but also very necessary for a courtly gentleman to
use.”
</p>
<p>
In the days of pageants and royal progresses these old castles were the
scenes of very lively exhibitions of rustic histrionic talent. The stories
of Greek and Roman mythology were ransacked to provide scenes and subjects
for the rural pageant. Shepherds and shepherdesses, gods and goddesses,
clowns and mummers, all took part in the rural drama which kings and
queens delighted to honour. When Queen Elizabeth visited the ancient and
historic castle of Sudeley, great preparations were made for the event,
and a fine classical pageant was performed in her presence, a sketch of
which may not be without interest.
</p>
<p>
The play is founded on the old classical story of Apollo and Daphne. The
sun-god Apollo was charmed by the beauty of the fair Daphne, the daughter
of a river-god, and pursued her with base intent. Just as she was about to
be overtaken, she prayed for aid, and was immediately changed into a
laurel tree, which became the favourite tree of the disappointed lover.
The pageant founded on this old classical legend commenced with a man who
acted the part of Apollo, chasing a woman who represented Daphne, followed
by a young shepherd bewailing his hard fate. He, too, loved the fair and
beautiful Daphne, but Apollo wooed her with fair words, and threatened him
with diverse penalties, saying he would change him into a wolf, or a
cockatrice, or blind his eyes. The shepherd in a long speech tells how
Daphne was changed into a tree, and then Apollo is seen at the foot of a
laurel tree weeping, accompanied by two minstrels. The repentant god
repeats the verse:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Sing you, play you; but sing and play my truth;<br />
This tree my lute, these sighs my note of ruth:<br />
The laurel leaf for ever shall be green,<br /> And
chastity shall be Apollo’s queen.<br /> If gods may
die, here shall my tomb be placed,<br /> And this
engraven, ‘Fond Phoebus, Daphne chaste.’”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
A song follows, and then, wonderful to relate, the tree opens, and Daphne
comes forth. Apollo resigns her to the humble shepherd, and then she runs
to Her Majesty the Queen, and with a great deal of flattery wishes her a
long and prosperous reign.
</p>
<p>
Such was the simple play which delighted the minds of our forefathers, and
helped to raise them from sordid cares and the dull monotony of continual
toil. In our popular amusements the village folk do not take part, except
as spectators, and therefore lose half the pleasure; whereas in the time
of the Virgin Queen the rehearsals, the learning the speeches by heart,
the dresses, the excitement, all contributed to give them fresh ideas and
new thoughts. The acting may not have been very good; indeed Queen
Elizabeth did not always think very highly of the performances of her
subjects at Coventry, and was heard to exclaim, “What fools ye
Coventry folk are!” But I think Her Majesty must have been pleased
at the concluding address of the players at Sudeley. After the shepherds
had acted a piece in which the election of the King and Queen of the Bean
formed a part, they knelt before the real queen, and said—
</p>
<p>
“Pardon, dread Sovereign, poor shepherds’ pastimes, and bold
shepherds’ presumptions. We call ourselves kings and queens to make
mirth; but when we see a king or queen we stand amazed. At chess there are
kings and queens, and they of wood. Shepherds are no more, nor no less,
wooden. In theatres workmen have played emperors; yet the next day
forgotten neither their duties nor occupation. For our boldness in
borrowing their names, and in not seeing Your Majesty for our blindness,
we offer these shepherds’ weeds; which, if Your Majesty vouchsafe at
any time to wear, it shall bring to our hearts comfort, and happiness to
our labours.”
</p>
<p>
When the queen visited Kenilworth Castle, splendid pageants were performed
in her honour. As she entered the castle the gigantic porter recited
verses to greet Her Majesty, gods and goddesses offered gifts and
compliments on bended knee, and the Lady of the Lake, surrounded by
Tritons and Nereids, came on a floating island to do homage to the
peerless Elizabeth and to welcome her to all the sport the castle could
afford. For an account of the strange conduct of Orion and his dolphin
upon this occasion, we refer our readers to Sir Walter Scott’s <i>Kenilworth</i>;
and the lover of pageants will find much to interest him in Gascoigne’s
<i>Princely Progress</i>.
</p>
<p>
The glories of our ancient castles have passed away; some indeed are
preserved, and serve as museums, or barracks, or the country house of some
noble lord; but most of them are in ruins. All traces of many a Norman
castle have completely vanished. There was once a castle at Reading, but
the only relics of it are the names Castle Hill and Castle Street. The
turbulent barons made such terrible use of their fortresses during the
troublous times of the civil war in Stephen’s reign that in the more
settled reign of Henry II. they were deprived of this means of oppression
and their castles destroyed wholesale. The civil war in the reign of
Charles I. was also another great cause of the destruction of these old
fortresses. They were of great service during the progress of the war to
those who were fortunate enough to possess them, and many of them in spite
of Cromwell’s cannon were most gallantly held and stoutly defended.
Donnington Castle, Berkshire, was bravely held in spite of a prolonged
siege during all the time that the war lasted by gallant Colonel Boys, who
beat off the flower of the Parliamentary army; and when in obedience to
the King’s command he yielded up the castle, he and his brave
garrison marched out with all the honours of war, having earned the
respect of both friend and foe. Many other castles could tell the story of
similar sieges in the days when “the gallants of England were up for
the King.”
</p>
<p>
But these brave sieges were the cause of their destruction. Cromwell when
in power recognised their strength; they were too dangerous, these
castles, and must be destroyed. His cannon-balls had rattled against their
stone walls without much effect during the war; but their fate was sealed
with that of their King, and the gunpowder of Cromwell’s soldiers
was soon employed in blowing up the walls that resisted him so long, and
left them battered and smoking ruins.
</p>
<p>
Since then the ivy has grown over them to hide their nakedness. Forlorn
and lonely the ruined castle stands. Where once loud clarion rang, the
night owls hoot; vulgar crowds picnic where once knights fought in all the
pride and pomp of chivalry. Kine feed in the grass-grown bailey court; its
glory is departed. We need no castles now to protect us from the foes of
our own nation. Civil wars have passed away, we trust, for ever; and we
hope no foreign foeman’s foot may ever tread our shores. But if an
enemy threatened to attack England her sons would fight as valiantly as in
the brave days of old, though earthen ramparts have replaced the ancient
castles and iron ships the old wooden walls of England.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link12" id="link12"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XII
</h2>
<h3>
MONASTERIES
</h3>
<p>
Beautiful surroundings—Benefits conferred by monasteries—Charity—
Learning—Libraries—Monks not unhappy—Netley—Cluny—Alcuin—
Monastic friendships—St. Bernard—Anselm—Monks shed
happiness around them—Desecration—Corruption of monasteries—Chaucer’s
prior—Orders of monks—Plan of a monastery—<i>Piers
Ploughman’s</i> description of a monastery—A day in a
monastery—Regulations as regards blood-letting—The infirmary—Food—Hospitium—Chapter-house.
</p>
<p>
In the neighbourhood of many of our villages stand the ruins of an old
monastery. Who were the builders of these grand and stately edifices? What
kind of men lived within those walls? What life did they lead? We will try
to picture to ourselves the condition of these noble abbeys, as they were
in the days of their glory, before the ruthless hands of spoilers and
destroyers robbed them of their magnificence.
</p>
<p>
It has often been remarked that the monks knew well how to choose the most
beautiful spots for their monastic houses, establishing them by the banks
of some charming river, surrounded by beautiful scenery and fertile
fields.
</p>
<p>
They loved the beauties of nature, and had a keen sense for discovering
them. They had a delicate and profound appreciation of the delights of the
country, and loved to describe the beauties that surrounded their
habitations. Nature in its loveliness and wild picturesqueness was a
reflection of God’s beauty, a temple of His light and goodness.
Moreover they built their monasteries amidst forests and wild scenery, far
from the haunts of men, seeking solitude, wherein they could renew their
souls by the sweetness of a life of contemplation, and consecrate their
energies to the service of God. In the days of war and bloodshed, of
oppression and lawlessness, holy men found it very difficult to be “in
the world and yet not of it.” Within the monastic walls they found
peace, seclusion, solitude; they prayed, they worked, they wrote and
studied. They were never idle. To worship, to labour, to fight as the <i>milites
Christi</i> with weapons that were not carnal, these were some of the
duties of the monks.
</p>
<p>
The world owes much to these dwellers in monasteries. They rescued the
people from barbarism, and uplifted the standard of the cross. They
emerged from their cells to direct councils, to preach and teach at the
universities, to build churches and cathedrals, and astonish the world by
their skill and learning. Who can tell what services they rendered to
their nation and to all mankind by pouring forth that ceaseless stream of
intercession day and night for the averting of the judgments of divine
wrath which the crimes and follies of men so richly deserved? “What
the sword is to the huntsman, prayer is to the monk,” says St.
Chrysostom; and well did they use this weapon for the spiritual and
material benefit of all.
</p>
<p>
Another great benefit they conferred upon the world was that of charity.
They were the true nurses of the poor. There were no poor laws, and union
workhouses, and hospitals. The monks managed to supply all the wants of
all who suffered from poverty, privation, and sickness. “The
friendship of the poor constitutes us the friends of kings,” says
St. Bernard; “but the love of poverty makes kings of us.” They
welcomed in their ranks poor men, who were esteemed as highly as those of
noble birth on entering the cloister. All men were equal who wore the monk’s
robe.
</p>
<p>
Amongst other services the monks rendered was the cultivation of learning
and knowledge. With wonderful assiduity they poured forth works of
erudition, of history, of criticism, recorded the annals of their own
times, and stored these priceless records in their libraries, which have
done such good service to the historians of modern times. The monasteries
absorbed nearly all the social and intellectual movement of the thirteenth
century. Men fired with poetical imagination frequently betook themselves
to the cloister, and consecrated their lives to the ornamentation of a
single sacred book destined for the monastery which gave them in exchange
all the necessaries of life. Thus the libraries of the monastic houses
were rich in treasures of beautifully illuminated manuscripts, which were
bound by members of the community. The Abbot of Spanheim in the fifteenth
century gives the following directions to his monks:—
</p>
<p>
“Let that one fasten the leaves together, and bind the book with
boards. You, prepare those boards; you, dress the leather; you, the metal
plates, which are to adorn the binding.”
</p>
<p>
<a name="link172" id="link172"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/172.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="172h.jpg (40K)" src="images/172h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />NETLEY ABBEY, SOUTH TRANSEPT <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Terrible is it to think of the dreadful destruction of these libraries at
the time of the spoliation of monasteries and of the priceless treasures
which they contained.
</p>
<p>
We are apt to suppose that the lives of the monks were gloomy, hard,
severe, and that few rays of the sunshine of happiness could have
penetrated the stern walls of the cloister. But this does not appear to
have been the case. The very names of monasteries show that they rejoiced
in their solitude and labour. Netley Abbey was called the Joyous Place, <i>loeto
loco</i>; and on the Continent there are many names which bear witness to
the happiness that reigned in the cloister. Moreover the writings of the
monks proclaim the same truth. Cluny is called by Peter Damien his <i>hortus
deliciarum</i> (garden of delights), and it is recorded that when Peter de
Blois left the Abbey of Croyland to return to France he stopped seven
times to look back and contemplate again the place where he had been so
happy. Hear how Alcuin laments on leaving the cloister for the Court of
Charlemagne:—
</p>
<p>
“O my cell! sweet and well-beloved home, adieu for ever! I shall see
no more the woods which surround thee with their interlacing branches and
aromatic herbs, nor thy streams of fish, nor thy orchards, nor thy gardens
where the lily mingles with the rose. I shall hear no more those birds
who, like ourselves, sing matins and celebrate their Creator, in their
fashion—nor those instructions of sweet and holy wisdom which sound
in the same breath as the praises of the Most High, from lips and hearts
always peaceful. Dear cell! I shall weep thee and regret thee always.”
</p>
<p>
The life was very peaceful, entirely free from care, and moreover lighted
by the whole-hearted friendships which existed between the brethren. A
chapter might be written on the love of the cloister, which like that of
David for Jonathan, was “wonderful, passing the love of women.”
Thus St. Bernard burst out in bitter grief at the loss of a brother monk:—
</p>
<p>
“Flow, flow, my tears, so eager to flow! he who prevented your
flowing is here no more! It is not he who is dead, it is I who now live
only to die. Why, oh, why have we loved, and why have we lost each other?”
</p>
<p>
The letters of Anselm to Lanfranc and Gondulph, his dearest friends,
abound in expressions of the most affectionate regard and deep true
friendship. He writes:—
</p>
<p>
“How can I forget thee? Can a man forget one who is placed like a
seal upon his heart? In thy silence I know that thou lovest me; and thou
also, when I say nothing, thou knowest that I love thee. What can my
letter tell thee that thou knowest not already, thou who art my second
soul?”
</p>
<p>
The monks’ lot was not sad and melancholy. They loved God and His
service, and rejoicing in their mutual regard and affection were happy in
their love and work. Orderic Vitalis writes, “I have borne for
forty-two years with happiness the sweet yoke of the Lord.” Moreover
they shed happiness on those who dwelt around them, on the crowds of
masons and carpenters, traders and workmen, who dwelt under the shadow of
the monastery or farmed the fields of the monastic estates. No institution
was ever more popular; no masters more beloved. They took a hearty
interest in the welfare of all their tenants, and showed an active
sympathy for all. The extent of their charity was enormous. In a French
abbey, when food was scarce, they fed 1,500 to 2,000 poor in the course of
the year, gave monthly pensions to all the families who were unable to
work, entertained 4,000 guests, and maintained eighty monks—a
wonderful record truly.
</p>
<p>
The influence of the monastery was felt in all the surrounding
neighbourhood—the daily services, the solemn and majestic chants,
the processions, must have created a deep impression on the minds of
people. Many of the great writers and thinkers of subsequent ages have
appreciated the wonderful labours of the monks. Dr. Johnson wrote:—
</p>
<p>
“I never read of a hermit, but in imagination I kiss his feet; never
of a monastery, but I fall on my knees and kiss the pavement.”
</p>
<p>
And now these noble buildings, hallowed by a thousand memories, exist only
as dishonoured ruins. Some have been pulled down entirely, and the site
used for gaols or barracks. Convicts labour where once monks prayed. The
renowned abbey of Cluny is a racing stable, and Le Bec, the home of
Anselm, has suffered a like profanation. Factories have invaded some of
these consecrated sites. Many have been used as quarries for generations.
All the carved and wrought stone has been cut off, and used for making
bridges and roads and private houses. Nature has covered the remains with
clinging ivy, and creeping plants, and wild flowers, and legends cluster
round the old stones and tell the story of their greatness and their ruin.
The country folk of western Ireland show the marks on the stones furrowed
by the burning tears of the monks when they were driven out of their holy
home. I am describing the condition of the monasteries in the days of
their glory, when the spirit of the religious orders was bright and pure
and enthusiastic. It cannot be denied that often the immense wealth which
kings and nobles poured into the treasury of the monks begat luxury and
idleness. Boccaccio in Italy, and even Dante, and our own Chaucer, write
vigorously against the corruption of the monks, their luxury, love of
sport, and neglect of their duty. Thus Chaucer wrote of a
fourteenth-century prior:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Therefore he was a prickasoure a right:<br />
Greihounds he hadde as swift as foul of flight:<br />
Of pricking and of hunting for the hare<br /> Was
all his lust, for no cost wolde he spare.<br /> I saw his
sleves purfiled at the hond<br /> With gris, and that the
finest in the loud.<br /> And for to fasten his hood
under his chinne,<br /> He hadde of gold ywrought a
curious pinne:<br /> A love-knotte in the greter end ther
was.<br /> His head was balled, and shone as any glas,<br />
And eke his face, as it had been anoint.<br /> He
was a lord full fat and in good point<br /> His eye
stepe, and rolling in his bed,<br /> That stemed as a
forneis of led.<br /> His botes souple, his hors in gret
estat,<br /> Now certainly he was a fayre prelat.<br />
He was not pale as a forpined gost.<br /> A
fat swan loved he best of any rost.<br /> His palfrey was
as broune as is a bery.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Many were the efforts to reform the abuses which crept into the monastic
houses. Holy men grieved over the scandals of the times in which they
lived. Many monasteries remained until the end homes of zeal and religion,
and the unscrupulous tools of Henry VIII. could find naught to report
against them. The only charge they could fabricate against one monastery
was “that the monks would do evil, if they could.”
</p>
<p>
The foundation of the various orders of monks shows the efforts which were
from time to time made by earnest men to revive the zeal and religious
enthusiasm characteristic of the early dwellers in monasteries. The
followers of St. Benedict and St. Columba were the first monks of the
western Church who converted the peoples of England, Germany, Belgium, and
Scandinavia. The Benedictines had many houses in England in Saxon times.
In the tenth and eleventh centuries flourished a branch of the
Benedictines, the order of Cluny, who worked a great religious revival,
which was continued in the twelfth by the order of the Cistercians,
founded at Citeaux in Burgundy. Some of our most beautiful English abbeys—Fountains,
Kirkstall, Rievaulx, Tintern, Furness, and Byland—all belonged to
this order. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the new orders of
preaching friars founded by St. Francis and St. Dominic arose, and
exercised an immense influence in the world. They did not shut themselves
up in the cloister, but went everywhere, preaching in the market-places,
and tending the sick, the lepers, and the outcasts. At first they were
immensely popular, but the orders degenerated like their predecessors, and
long before the Reformation laid themselves open to the derision and the
scoffs of the more enlightened men of the age. Since the days of the
Friars there has been no building of monasteries in England. Wealth,
luxury, and corruption had destroyed the early piety of the monks, and
rich men preferred to give their wealth for the purpose of founding
colleges and hospitals, rather than in increasing the number of religious
houses.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link178" id="link178"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="178.jpg (21K)" src="images/178.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
We will now visit these monasteries, and try to picture them as they stood
in the days of their glory, and see the daily life which the monks led.
The rules of the orders differed somewhat, some being stricter than
others; and likewise the arrangements of the buildings were not all based
upon one plan. The Carthusian monasteries differ widely from those of the
other orders, owing to the rule that each monk should have his separate
cell, wherein he lived and had his food, and only met his brethren in
church and in the chapter-house. We will examine the usual plan of a
monastery, the main buildings of which clustered round the cloister-court.
This was called the paradise, around which was a covered ambulatory. Here
the monks read and wrote, and sometimes had little spaces partitioned off
for studies, with bookstands and cupboards. It was the great centre of the
monastic life. The earlier ambulatories were open, but in the fourteenth
century they had windows looking on to the cloister-court, filled with
stained glass. The monks must have found the open cloister a somewhat
chilly place for writing, and although their fingers were endured to
hardness, had sometimes to abandon their tasks. Orderic Vitalis tells us
that his fingers were so numbed by the cold in a hard winter that he was
obliged to leave his writing until a more congenial season.
</p>
<p>
On the north of the cloister-court stood the monastic church, the grandest
and noblest of the monastic buildings, adorned with shrines, and tombs,
and altars. Several of our cathedrals were monastic churches, and afford
us some idea of the splendour and magnificence of these stately buildings.
Many other churches built by the monks, quite as large and noble as any of
our cathedrals, are now in ruins, with only a wall or a buttress remaining
to mark the site of the once noble minster. The church was usually
cruciform, with nave and aisles. East of the high altar in the choir stood
the lady-chapel, and round the choir a retro-choir, or presbytery. There
was a door on the south side of the church, opposite the eastern
ambulatory, for the entrance of the monks. The south transept formed part
of the eastern side of the cloister. On the same side stood the
chapter-house, a large chamber richly ornamented with much architectural
detail, and adorned with mural paintings. Between the chapter-house and
the church there is a narrow room, which was the sacristy, and on the
south of the chapter-house a building in two stories, the ground floor
being the frater-house, where the monks retired after meals to converse,
the upper room being the dortor, or dormitory, where they slept. A passage
often separated the chapter-house from this building.
</p>
<p>
On the south side of the cloister-court stood the refectory, a long room
in which the monks took their meals; and on the west was a range of
buildings the use of which differed in various monasteries, in some for
cellars and larders, in others for dormitories. Sometimes this western
building was the <i>domus conversorum</i>, or house of the lay brethren.
The abbot’s lodging was a fine house, consisting of hall, chambers,
kitchen, buttery, and cellars, capable of entertaining a large number of
guests, and frequently stood on the east side of the chapter-house quite
separate from the other buildings. In small monastic houses governed by a
prior his residence often formed the western side of the cloister-court.
The farmery, or infirmary, where sick monks were nursed during illness,
was a separate building, having its own kitchen, refectory, and chapel.
The hospitium was also a separate building near the outer gate of the
abbey, and consisted of a hall, dormitories, and a chapel, in which each
night a goodly company of guests were entertained and courteously welcomed
by the hospitaller. A high wall surrounded the abbey precincts, in which
was the outer gate, consisting of a porter’s lodge, a prison, and a
large room in which the manorial court was held, or the abbot met the
representatives of the townsfolk in order to direct their affairs and
choose their chief magistrate or settle their differences.
</p>
<p>
The author of <i>Piers Ploughman</i> gives a description of the appearance
of a monastery in the fourteenth century. As he approached the monastic
buildings he was so bewildered by their greatness and beauty that for a
long time he could distinguish nothing certainly but stately buildings of
stone, pillars carved and painted, and great windows well wrought. In the
centre quadrangle he notices the stone cross in the middle of grass sward.
He enters the minster, and describes the arches as carved and gilded, the
wide windows full of shields of arms and merchants’ marks on stained
glass, the high tombs under canopies, with armed effigies in alabaster,
and lovely ladies lying by their sides in many gay garments. He passes
into the cloister, and sees it pillared and painted, and covered with
lead, and conduits of white metal pouring water into bronze lavatories
beautifully wrought. The chapter-house was like a great church, carved and
painted like a parliament-house. Then he went into the refectory, and
found it a hall fit for a knight and his household, with broad tables and
clean benches, and windows wrought as in a church. And then he wandered
and wondered at “the halls full high and houses full noble, chambers
with chimneys and chapels gay,” and kitchens fit for a king in his
castle, and their dorter or dormitory with doors full strong, their
fermerye (infirmary) and frater, and many more houses, and strong stone
walls, enough to harbour the queen. The author was evidently amazed at all
the sights which he witnessed in the monastery.
</p>
<p>
We will now see the monks at work, and spend a day with them in their
monastic home. It is not easy definitely to map out a monk’s day.
The difficulty arises in a measure from the want of distinct marks of
time. A monastic day was divided into twelve hours of uncertain length,
varying according to the season; but the religious observances began at
midnight, when the brethren rose at the sound of a bell in the dortor for
the continuous service of Mattins and Lauds. They then retired to sleep,
until the bell again summoned them at sunrise, when Prime was said,
followed by the morning Mass, private masses and confessions, and the
meeting of the Chapter; after this, work; then Tierce; then High Mass,
followed by Sext. A short time was then devoted to reading, during which
the <i>ministri</i> and the reader at table dined; and then the monks sat
down to dinner. This was the first food of the day, though the weaker
brethren were allowed to sustain themselves with wine and water, or bread
steeped in wine. Dinner was followed by a brief rest in the dormitory. If
the monks did not wish to sleep they could read in the dorter; but they
were to be careful not to disturb their resting brethren by any noise,
such as that caused by turning over the leaves of their books. At one o’clock
the bell rang for None, a short service consisting of a hymn, two psalms,
some collects, the Lord’s Prayer, and versicles. Then the brethren
washed themselves, had a stoup of wine in the frater, and worked until
Evensong, which was followed by supper. After supper they read in the
cloister until the bell rang for Collation, which consisted of a reading
in the chapter-house, whence they retired to the fratery for a draught of
wine or beer. Then followed Compline, and then the monks were ready for
bed, and retired to the dortor. Even there rules followed them, and
directed them how they were to take off their shoes, and “to behave
with more quiet, self-restraint, and devotion than elsewhere.”
</p>
<p>
I have not exhausted all the services which the monks attended. In
addition to the principal ones there were several minor functions, at
which devotion to the Blessed Virgin was the chief feature. The life was
hard and the discipline severe; and lest the animal spirits of the monks
should rise too high, the course of discipline was supplemented by
periodical blood-letting. The doctors of the day were firm believers in
the utility of this practice, and perhaps it had special advantages for
dwellers in monasteries. According to the mediaeval metrical treatise on
medicine, <i>Flos Medicinae</i>, or <i>Regimen Sanitatis Salerni</i>—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Spiritus uberior exit per phlebotomaniam.”
</p>
<p>
“It maketh cleane your braine, releeves your eie,<br />
It mends your appetite, restoreth sleep,<br /> Correcting
humours that do waking keep;<br /> And inward parts and
sences also clearing<br /> It mends the voyce, touch,
smell, taste, hearing.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
According to the <i>Observances</i> of the Augustinian Priory at Barnwell,
Cambridge, each brother was compelled to be bled seven times a year. It
was probably a welcome duty, as the monks enjoyed a regular holiday, and
were solaced with unwonted good fare.
</p>
<p>
Those who wished to be bled asked leave in Chapter, and having received a
formal licence, attended High Mass. After the gospel they left the quire,
and were bled in the farmery, where they remained three days. During this
period they were excused attendance at the daily services, except on very
special occasions; and minute directions are given for their personal
comfort. They were allowed fire and lights, with suitable food, eggs and
vegetables being specially mentioned; and they might take exercise within
the precincts, and even beyond them, should the prelate give them leave.
The infirmary seems to have been the most cheerful place in the monastery.
Its inmates were “to lead a life of joy and freedom from care, in
comfort and happiness.” Conversation was freely permitted, though
sarcastic and abusive language was strictly forbidden. “Games of
dice and chess, and other games unsuitable to those who lead a religious
life, were forbidden”; “because beyond all doubt they are
offensive to God, and frequently give occasion to strife and contention
among those who play them.” We notice that invalids were allowed to
walk in the “vineyards”; evidently the monks grew their own
grapes, and made their own wine. The infirmary must have been well
frequented. The complaints which are often specially mentioned as likely
to compel the monks to resort to it are “irksomeness of life in the
cloister,” “long continuance of silence,” “fatigue
in the quire or extension of fasting,” and “sleeplessness and
overwork.”
</p>
<p>
With regard to blood-letting the various orders had different customs. The
Benedictines and Cluniacs had no stated times or seasons for the
operation. The Cistercians prescribe bleeding four times in the year. The
Carthusians were bled five times, and the Dominicans four times in the
year.
</p>
<p>
The food of the monastery was varied and plentiful. Fish and flesh were
brought to the table, the former being obtained from the monastic
stew-ponds. Fruit was supplied, both raw and cooked, and a good supply of
beer and wine. Wine seems to have been very commonly used, and some
relaxation was evidently permitted in the matter of drink.
</p>
<p>
The hospitium, or guest-house, is worthy of a visit. Thither flocked a
mixed crowd of knights and dames, monks and clerks, palmers, friars,
traders with their wares, minstrels with their songs, and beggars,
enjoying to the full the hospitality of the monks, who recognised it as
one of their duties “to entertain strangers.” The religious
houses were, to a great extent, the inns of the Middle Ages; and when they
were situated on the high roads, the guests were numerous and their
entertainment costly. We are reminded, however, by the <i>Observances</i>
of Barnwell Priory that “by showing hospitality to guests the
reputation of the monastery is increased, friendships are multiplied,
animosities are blunted, God is honoured, charity is increased, and a
plenteous reward in heaven is promised.” It was enjoined that the
hosteller, or brother in charge of the hospitium, should have “facility
of expression, elegant manners, and a respectable bringing up; and if he
have no substance to bestow he may at any rate exhibit a cheerful
countenance and agreeable conversation, for friends are multiplied by
agreeable words.” He had to provide clean cloths and towels, cups
without flaws, spoons of silver, mattresses, blankets and untorn sheets,
pillows, quilts, etc. His duties are laid down with much minuteness; every
morning he was required to go through the inventory, lest anything should
be missing.
</p>
<p>
The meeting in the chapter-house we must not omit to describe. When all
the brethren had taken their seats, one monk went to the pulpit and read
aloud the martyrology for the day. Then some psalms and collects were
read, and a portion of the monastic rule, and briefs announcing the deaths
of persons in whom the brethren were interested. The <i>tabula</i>, or
notice-board, recording the names of those who were responsible for
certain duties, was read; and a sermon followed. After the precentor had
given minute instructions with regard to the reading and singing of the
services for the day, the abbot said: “Speak of your own order.”
This was the call to confession; and any brother who was conscious that he
had transgressed any rule, or neglected his duty, came forward and asked
pardon for his fault. This was followed by the report of the <i>circator</i>,
whose duty was to play the spy, and discover the faults of the monks. And
after this the brethren accused each other. One brother started up saying:
“I accuse —— a brother.” The accused came forward
and stood before the abbot, waiting patiently for the charge. The accuser
then stated the charge, which was admitted, or denied, by the accused. If
the abbot judged him to be flogged, the culprit might not be flogged by
his accuser. He rose from his knees and modestly divested himself of his
garments, remaining covered from his girdle downwards; and he who flogged
him might not cease till the abbot bade him. Then he helped the brother to
put on his clothes, who bowed to the abbot and went back to his place. The
Chapter, after this exciting interlude, proceeded to transact the temporal
business of the house, and then adjourned.
</p>
<p>
The chapter-house was often the scene of great events in the history of
England. At Reading Abbey in this noble chamber parliaments were held.
Here Heraclius, the patriarch of Jerusalem, presented to Henry II. the
keys of the Holy Sepulchre, and invoked his aid in the crusade against the
Saracens. Here the bishops assembled and excommunicated Longchamp,
Chancellor and Regent of the country. Here the marriage contract between
John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster was signed, when there were great
rejoicings in the ancient town, and tilts and tournaments took place
daily. These gay scenes must have greatly disturbed the tranquil life of
the monks, and contrasted strangely with their normal condition.
</p>
<p>
The picture of monastic life, which a study of the records of a monastery
brings before us, is strange and alien to our present ideas; but it is
brightened by a spirit of sincere religion and true charity, and helps us
to understand the attraction of the convent walls in turbulent and
troublous times.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link13" id="link13"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XIII
</h2>
<h3>
THE MANOR-HOUSE
</h3>
<p>
Evolution of a country house—Saxon house—Addition of separate
sleeping-chambers—Castles—Tudor houses—Old manor-houses—Secret
chambers—Rectories and vicarages—Duty of hospitality—Kelvedon
Rectory—Allington—Tithe-barns—Alfriston clergy-house—Almshouses—
Hermitages—Little Budworth—Knaresborough—Reclusorium or
anchor-hold— Laindon—Rattenden—Female recluses—Whalley.
</p>
<p>
The two principal houses in an English village are the manor-house and the
rectory, wherein according to the theories of the modern political
Socialist and agitator “the two arch-tyrants” of the labourers
dwell, the squire and the parson. There is much of interest in the growth
and evolution of the country house, which resulted in the construction of
these old, pleasant, half-timbered granges and manor-houses, which form
such beautiful features of our English villages.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link189" id="link189"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/189.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="189h.jpg (37K)" src="images/189h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />SOUTHCOTE MANOR SHOWING MOAT AND PIGEON-HOUSE <br /><br /> <a
name="link190" id="link190"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="190.jpg (58K)" src="images/190.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In our description of the village in Anglo-Saxon times we gave a picture
of a house of a Saxon gentleman, which consisted mainly of one large hall,
wherein the members of the household lived and slept and had their meals.
There was a chapel, and a kitchen, and a ladies’ bower, usually
separated from the great hall, and generally built of wood. In Norman
times the same plan and arrangements of a country house continued. The
fire still burnt in the centre of the hall, the smoke finding its way out
through a louvre in the roof. Meals were still served on tables laid on
trestles, which were removed when the meal was finished. The lord and
lady, their family and guests, dined at the high table placed on the dais,
as in a college hall, the floor of which was boarded. The household and
retainers dined in the space below, which was strewn with rushes and
called “the marsh,” which, according to Turner’s <i>History
of Domestic Architecture</i>, “was doubtless dirty and damp enough
to deserve that name.” The timbers of the roof in the better houses
were moulded, the walls hung with tapestry, and at the lower end of the
hall was a screen, above which in later times was the minstrels’
gallery. The screen formed a passage which led into a separate building at
right angles to the hall, containing the cellar, buttery, and kitchen.
Parallel with this at the upper end of the hall was a building of two
stories, one used as a parlour, and the other was called the “great
chamber,” where the lady and her guests retired after dining in the
hall.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link191" id="link191"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="191.jpg (42K)" src="images/191.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Later on a greater refinement of domestic customs was introduced. In the
twelfth century a separate sleeping-chamber for the lord was added. The
next century saw him and his lady dining in a room apart from his
servants, a custom which was much satirised by the author of <i>Piers
Ploughman</i>, who wrote—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Now hath each rich a rule<br /> To
eaten by themselve,<br /> In a privy parlour<br /> For
poor man sake,<br /> Or in a chamber with a chimney;<br />
And leave the chief hall,<br /> That was made
for meals<br /> Men to eaten in.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Evidently the author did not approve of the new fashion. But the
advantages of the custom were much appreciated by the squires and ladies
of the day, and this process of development led to a multiplication of
rooms, and the diminution of the size of the great hall. The walls were
raised, and an upper room was formed under the roof for sleeping
accommodation. There are many old farmhouses throughout the country, once
manor-houses, which retain in spite of subsequent alterations the
distinguishing features of this mediaeval style of architecture.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link192" id="link192"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="192.jpg (40K)" src="images/192.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The nobles built their castles as late as the fourteenth century; but
under the Tudor monarchs, when the government of the country was strong
and more settled, fortified dwellings were deemed no longer necessary, and
the great landowners built splendid country houses. English domestic
architecture then reached the period of its highest perfection. Instead of
castles men built palaces, the noblest specimens of our English style,
before it became corrupted. Hatfield House and Hampton Court are its best
examples.
</p>
<p>
During the fifteenth century the common hall had decreased in importance;
and now in smaller houses it disappeared altogether, and a grand entrance
hall usually took its place. The number of rooms was increased enormously,
and corridors were introduced. The principal features of an Elizabethan
house are the gallery and noble staircase.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link193" id="link193"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="193.jpg (110K)" src="images/193.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Early in the seventeenth century Inigo Jones introduced the revived
classic style of architecture into England, and entirely altered the
appearance and arrangement of our manor-houses. Palladio was the
originator of this style. The old English model was declared obsolete, and
fashion dictated that Italian villas must supersede the old houses. These
new buildings were very grand with their porticos and colonnades; but the
architects cared little for comfort and convenience. Indeed a witty
nobleman suggested to the owner of one of these new houses that he had
better hire a lodging over the way and look at it.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link194" id="link194"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/194.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="194h.jpg (30K)" src="images/194h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />OLD MANOR HOUSE, UPTON COURT <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The old manor-houses are often surrounded by a moat, and not unfrequently
contain secret rooms and underground passages, which were often used as
places of refuge in troublous times. Those held by recusants usually had
two or three hiding-places ingeniously contrived, which must have baffled
all pursuers, and were needed for the concealment of the Roman Catholic
priest, in the days when his services were proscribed. There are two
cleverly designed hiding-places at Ufton Court, Berkshire, which was held
by the Roman Catholic family of Perkins. In a subterranean vault under an
old house at Hurley, in which the bones of monks were discovered, the
supporters of William of Orange used to meet to plan his succession to the
English Crown. The walls of many of the manor-houses and halls in
Lancashire and Yorkshire could tell of many a plot for the restoration of
the Stuarts to the throne, and of many a deep health drunk to “Bonnie
Charlie,” while the chorus rang—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“He’s over the seas and far awa’,<br />
He’s over the seas and far awa’,<br /> But
of no man we’ll stand in awe,<br /> But drink his
health that’s far awa’.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
The rectories and vicarages scattered over the country have passed through
the same transformation as the manor-houses, which they much resembled.
The rectory was often surrounded by a moat, with an entrance protected by
a gatehouse. The duty of entertaining strangers and travellers was always
duly recognised by the clergy, and entailed a heavy charge upon their
income. Those who lived off the main roads used to provide accommodation
for an occasional guest, but the rectors in the more frequented districts
had frequently to entertain many travellers. There <i>is</i> a description
of the rectory-house of Kelvedon, Essex, in a deed dated 1356, which runs
as follows:—
</p>
<p>
“One hall situate in the manor of the said abbot and convent
[Westminster] near the said church, with a soler and chamber at one end of
the hall, and with a buttery and cellar at the other. Also one other house
in three parts, namely a kitchen with a convenient chamber in the end of
the said house <i>for guests</i>, and a bakehouse. Also one other house in
two parts next the gate at the entrance of the manor for a stable and
cow-house. He [the vicar] shall also have a convenient grange, to be built
within a year at the expense of the prior and convent. He shall also have
the curtilage with the garden adjoining the hall on the north side
enclosed as it is with hedges and ditches.”
</p>
<p>
<a name="link196" id="link196"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="196.jpg (60K)" src="images/196.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Here the house for guests is an important feature of the clergyman’s
house; and about the same date, in 1352, we find the Bishop of Winchester
ordering the prior and convent of Merton to provide “a competent
manse for the vicar, viz. a hall with two rooms, one at one end of the
hall, and the other at the other end, with a drain to each, and a suitable
kitchen with fireplace and oven, and a <i>stable for six horses</i>, all
covered with tiles, and completed within one year, such place to remain to
the use of the said vicar and his successors.” Unless the vicar was
a very sporting parson he would not require a stable for six horses, and
this was doubtless intended for the accommodation of the steeds of his
guests.
</p>
<p>
The descriptions of these old rectory-houses are interesting. The Rector
of Allington, Kent, possessed a house consisting of “a hall,
parlour, and chamber over the parlour, stairs-head, beside the parson’s
bedchamber, parson’s lodging-chamber, study, chamber behind the
chimney, chamber next adjoining westward, buttery, priest’s chamber,
servants’ chamber, kitchen, mill-house, boulting-house, larder,
entries, women’s chamber; gatehouse, still beside the gate, barn
next the gate; cartlage, barn next the church, garden-house, court.”
The barn next the church was probably the tithe-barn. Tithe was then paid
in kind; hence a barn was required to contain the dues of the
parishioners. Sometimes these tithe-barns are very large and long,
especially when the tithe-owner was the abbot of some monastery. Near
Reading there is still standing the barn of the abbey, and at Cholsey, in
Berkshire, there is one of the finest specimens of the kind in England.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link199" id="link199"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/199.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="199h.jpg (35K)" src="images/199h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />STONE TITHE BARN, BRADFORD-ON-AVON <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
There still remain several of these old pre-Reformation parsonages and
rectories. The most noted is the clergy-house at Alfriston, Sussex, which
has been carefully preserved. It follows the usual type of
fourteenth-century house, and consists of a fine hall, the lower part
divided off by a screen, a soler of two stories at one end, and a kitchen
at the other. It is built of oak framework, filled in with “wattle
and daub.” There is a large chimney and grate in the hall, and huge
beams support the thatched roof. Parsonages of mediaeval times remain at
West Dean, Sussex; at King’s Stanley and Notgrove, Gloucestershire;
Wonstone, Hants; Helmsley, Yorkshire; and at several other places. The
Rectory of Shellingford, Berks, though much disguised by modern additions,
is an original fourteenth-century house.
</p>
<p>
In many villages there are old almshouses founded by pious benefactors for
“poor brethren and sisters.” As we enter the quiet courtyard
paved with cobble stones, the spirit of olden days comes over us. The
chapel where daily prayer is said morning and evening; the panelled
dining-hall, with its dark oaken table; the comfortable rooms of the
brethren; the time-worn pump in the courtyard—all recall the memory
of old times, when life was more tranquil, and there was less hurry and
busy bustling.
</p>
<p>
Sometimes we meet with a curious little house built of stone or timber,
erected along the great highways, near some bridge or ford, wherein a
“holy hermit” once dwelt, and served his generation by
directing travellers to the nearest monastery or rectory, and spent his
days in seclusion and prayer. Such indeed is the traditional idea of the
hermit’s life; but the real hermit of the Middle Ages did not always
live a very lonely or ascetic life. He was supported by the alms of the
charitable and did no work, but lived an idle life, endured no hardships,
and escaped not the scoffs of the satirical. <i>Piers Ploughman</i> tells
us of workmen—“webbers and tailors, and carters’ knaves,
and clerks without grace, who liked not long labour and light wages; and
seeing that lazy fellows in friars’ clothing had fat cheeks, forsook
their toil and turned hermits. They lived in boroughs among brewers and
begged in churches.” They had a good house, with sometimes a
chaplain to say daily Mass for them, a servant or two to wait on them, and
plenty of food and drink provided by a regular endowment or the donations
of the charitable. They did not shut themselves up in their cells and hold
no intercourse with their fellow-men; and herein they differed from the
recluses who were not supposed to go outside the doors of their
anchorages. Both males and females were enrolled as recluses, but only the
latter seem to have taken upon themselves the vows of complete seclusion.
</p>
<p>
Several of these hermitages remain. There is one at Little Budworth, in
Cheshire, in the park of Sir Philip Egerton. Warkworth has a famous one,
consisting of a chapel hewn out of the rock, with an entrance porch, and a
long, narrow room with a small altar at the east end, wherein the hermit
lived. At Knaresborough, Yorkshire, there is a good example of a
hermitage, hewn out of the rock, consisting of a chapel, called St. Robert’s
Chapel, with groined roof, which was used as the living-room of the
hermit. This chapel was the scene of Eugene Aram’s murder. At
Wetheral, near Carlisle; Lenton, near Nottingham; on the banks of the
Severn, near Bewdley, Worcestershire, there are anchorages, and also at
Brandon, Downham, and Stow Bardolph, in Norfolk. Spenser in the <i>Faery
Queen</i> gives the following description of a hermit’s cell:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“A little lowly hermitage it was,<br /> Down
by a dale, hard by a forest’s side,<br /> Far from
resort of people that did pass<br /> In traveill to and
froe; a little wyde<br /> There was an holy Chappell
edifyde,<br /> Wherein the hermite dewly wont to say<br />
His holy things, each morne and eventyde;<br /> Hereby
a chrystall streame did gently play,<br /> Which from a
sacred fountaine welled forth alway.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Within the churchyard of many a town or village church, and usually
attached to the church, stood a reclusorium, or anchor-hold, wherein a
recluse, male or female, once resided. At Laindon Church, Essex, there is
a fine specimen of a house of this kind attached to the west end.
Generally the anchor-hold was a small room, built of wood, connected with
the church. Frequently there is a room over the porch of a church which
may have been used for this purpose, the recluse living usually in the
church. At Rettenden, Essex, there is a room over the vestry which has
evidently been an anchor-hold. There was a window, now blocked up, through
which the recluse could see the high altar, and the celebration of the
holy mysteries, and another for him to look out, hold converse with his
friends, and receive their alms. The church of St. Patricio, near
Crickhowel, South Wales, has an anchor-hold; also Clifton Campville
Church, Staffordshire; Chipping Norton Church, Oxfordshire; Warmington
Church, Warwickshire; and many churches have rooms over the porch which
were formerly used by recluses. The church itself was frequently the
habitation of the anchorite. There is a notice of a hermit who lived in
St. Cuthbert’s Church, Thetford, and performed divine service
therein.
</p>
<p>
Of female recluses we gather many details in the <i>Ancren Riewle</i> of
Bishop Poore of Salisbury, who left very minute directions for the
regulation of their austere and solitary lives. The little cell had an
altar where the anchoress frequently prayed, and through a window saw the
elevation of the Host in the daily Mass. The walls were covered with mural
paintings. There was a table, a fire, and a cat lying before it. An
unglazed window with a shutter was covered by a black curtain, through
which she could converse with anyone outside without being seen. She was
not allowed to put her head out of the open window. “A peering
anchoress, who is always thrusting her head outward, is like an untamed
bird in a cage,” says the good bishop. The long hours of solitude
were spent in devotion, working embroidery, reading her few books, talking
to her servant or to those who desired to speak with her through the
curtained window.
</p>
<p>
The poor caged birds must often have wished to break the bars of their
cage, and occasionally they escaped from their solitary confinement. In
the churchyard of Whalley, Lancashire, there are two cottages which stand
upon the site of a reclusorium, founded by Henry, Duke of Lancaster, in
1349. Here in the reign of Henry VI. lived one Isole de Heton, who wearied
of her lot, and left the anchor-hold, an example which was followed by
several of her successors. A scandal having arisen, the hermitage was
dissolved.
</p>
<p>
Many a sad story of ruined hopes and broken hearts could these walls tell,
which were the living tombs of many a devout or erring sister, who,
wounded in the world’s war, sought the calm seclusion of a cell, and
found there the peace which elsewhere they had failed to find.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link14" id="link14"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XIV
</h2>
<h3>
PARISH CHURCHES
</h3>
<p>
The Porch—Font—Stone benches—Pews—Pulpits—Rood-lofts—Destruction
of—Screens—Royal arms—Chancel—Stalls—<i>Misereres</i>—Lectern—High
altar and its furniture—Piscina—Credence—Aumbry—Sedilia—Easter
sepulchre—Reredos—Shrines—Numerous altars—Chantry
chapels— Hagioscopes—Images—Low side windows—Vestries—Vestments—Churches
in olden times—Reading pews—Galleries—Destruction and
profanation— Evils of “restoration.”
</p>
<p>
In the centre of our village stands the church, always the most important
and interesting building in the place. We will suppose that it has not
suffered overmuch at the hands of the “restorers” of the
nineteenth, or the Puritans of the seventeenth, or the spoliators of an
earlier century, so that we may observe all those details which
characterise an ancient church. In spite of all the vandalism which has
taken place, in spite of the changes in ceremonial and forms of worship,
our beautiful old churches still retain relics of the past which time has
spared.
</p>
<p>
We will enter the church and notice first the porch, often a large
structure with a chamber above. Why was it made so large? According to the
Sarum use several services took place in the porch. Parts of the baptismal
service and of the marriage service and the churching of women were there
performed; hence the porch was an important building, and it was necessary
to make it rather large. Above the door there is frequently a niche for
the image of the patron saint of the church, which has not usually escaped
the destructive hand of the Puritan. The room over the porch was
frequently inhabited by a recluse, as I have already recorded in the
previous chapter. Near the door always stands the font, signifying that
baptism is the entrance to the Church of Christ. Ancient fonts are large
enough to allow the infant to be totally immersed, and are made of stone
or lead. Childrey Church, in our county of Berks, has a fine cylindrical,
leaden font, of Norman date, carved with figures of bishops. Norman fonts
are frequently carved, the favourite subjects being the Baptism of our
Lord, the Twelve Apostles, and the evangelistic symbols. Early English and
Decorated fonts are not usually carved, but in the Perpendicular style
they are rich with ornamentation, the Seven Sacraments being a not
uncommon design. We have sometimes noticed the symbols of Freemasonry
carved on fonts, as at Bray, in Berkshire. To the same period belong the
splendid spire-shaped font-covers, of immense weight, of which I am
sometimes a little fearful, lest the mechanism by which they are raised
should become damaged, and terrible disaster follow during the progress of
a baptismal service. At Sonning, Berks, there is a small stone desk
attached to a pillar for the service-book to rest on.
</p>
<p>
The nave of the church is now filled with seats for the use of the
congregation. In early times they do not seem to have been considered
necessary, and until the fourteenth century the stone benches ranged
against the walls were the only seats provided. Even as late as the
fourteenth century it does not appear that many churches had pews, but in
the fifteenth they became general. The hideous monstrosities of
post-Reformation times did not then disfigure our churches. The pews were
low open seats made of oak, sometimes carved at the back, and panelled,
with the ends higher than the rest, and often richly carved. Many rich men
left money in their wills for the <i>puying</i> of churches.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link206" id="link206"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="206.jpg (41K)" src="images/206.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
It was not until the beginning of the seventeenth century that the fashion
of erecting high pews set in, which so disfigured our churches, and were
frequently censured by the authorities. Some of these (as at Whalley)
resemble four-posted beds; others are like cattle-pens, large square boxes
with seats all round, wherein the occupants sit and sleep, screened from
the rest of the congregation. The carving of the woodwork of these
erections is often very elaborate. Modern pews are happily based upon the
more primitive fashion.
</p>
<p>
Preaching not being considered such an important part of the service in
pre-Reformation times, pulpits in churches of that period were not so
usual as in modern churches. Monastic refectories had pulpits, which the
reader occupied when he read to his brethren during meals. Beaulieu Abbey
has the most ancient pulpit in this country, which evidently belongs to
the thirteenth century.
</p>
<p>
The churches of Devonshire and Norfolk have wooden pulpits of the
fifteenth century, which were painted and gilded, the figures of the four
doctors of the church—SS. Augustine, Ambrose, Gregory, and Jerome—being
the favourite subjects. In 1603 the churchwardens were ordered to provide
in every church “a comely and decent pulpit.” Hence most of
our pulpits date from this period. The sides were panelled and carved with
scrollwork; and at the same time a sounding-board was introduced.
Occasionally the hour-glass which regulated the length of the preacher’s
discourse remains, with its beautiful scroll-worked stand.
</p>
<p>
The most striking feature of the pre-Reformation Church was the rood-loft,
a narrow long gallery above the beautifully decorated screen, which
separated the chancel from the nave. In this loft was erected the rood, or
figure of our blessed Lord on the cross, together with figures of the
Virgin and St. John on each side. Both the screen and the loft were richly
panelled and ornamented with tracery and carvings, and before them hung
one or more lamps. Sometimes tall candlesticks stood on pillars on each
side of the figures. A staircase of stone, constructed in the wall near
the chancel-arch, led to the rood-loft, and the blocked-up archway of this
rood-stair frequently remains. The priest stood in the rood-loft to read
the gospel and epistle, and sometimes preached there; official notices
were read, and from it the bishop used to give the Benediction. The
rood-cloth, or veil, hid the rood during Lent, and in some churches we
have seen the roller which was used to raise this veil. A special altar,
called the rood-altar, used to stand under the screen.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link208" id="link208"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="208.jpg (62K)" src="images/208.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The Reformers played havoc with these old rood-lofts and screens, which
were regarded as monuments of idolatry and superstition. The churchwardens’
account-books of many churches bear witness to this destruction. Those of
St. Giles’, Reading, tell of certain <i>items</i> “for pulling
down the rood and carting away the rubbish.” Instead of the figure
of our Lord they put up the royal arms; and one John Serjente, of Hytchen,
is licensed in 1614—
</p>
<p>
“to paynte in all the Churches and Chappells, within this Realme of
England, the Kinges Majesties armes in due forme with helme creste mantell
and supporters as they oughte to be—and to wright in fayre text
letters the tenn commandments, the beliefe, and the Lord’s prayer,
with some other fruitefull and profitable sentences of holye scripture.”
</p>
<p>
In spite of this destruction of the ancient roods, several lofts still
remain, <i>e.g.</i> at Bradninch, Cullompton, Dartmouth, Hartland, Kenton,
Ugborough, and Plymtree, in Devonshire; in several places in
Somersetshire, and at Charlton-on-Otmoor (erected in 1485) and
Handborough, Oxfordshire. A very large number of the old screens remain,
ornamented with the arms of Elizabeth or James I.
</p>
<p>
Proceeding eastward we enter the chancel, so called because it is inclosed
with <i>cancelli</i>, or the lattice-work of the screen. If the church was
formerly connected with some monastery we shall see some beautifully
carved wooden stalls with rich canopies over them. The seats are curiously
constructed. They can be turned up, and beneath the seats is a projecting
bracket of wood, commonly adorned with carved work—animals, birds,
leaves, and flowers, and often with grotesque, satirical, and irreverent
devices. They are called miserere-stalls, and were used by the monks or
canons to lean against during the portions of the long mediaeval services,
when they were not allowed to be seated. As this practice was a concession
to human weakness or infirmity, the seats were called in France <i>misericordes</i>,
and in England <i>misereres</i>. The subjects of the sculptures are often
extremely curious. Domestic scenes, fables, such as the “Fox and the
Grapes,” demons carrying off monks, “The Seven Deadly Sins,”
are some of these subjects. Miss Phipson has published a learned work on
<i>Choir Stalls and their Carvings</i>, which contains reproductions of
three hundred of her sketches of curiously wrought <i>misereres</i>.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link210" id="link210"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/210.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="210h.jpg (31K)" src="images/210h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /> VILLAGE CHURCH IN THE VALE <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The lectern formerly stood in the chancel; and then, as now, was often in
the form of a large eagle, emblematic of St. John. Most of these
reading-desks belong to the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, and are
made of wood, latten, iron, or stone, as well as of brass. There is a very
curious wooden one at East Hendred, Berks, representing a foot resting on
the head of a dragon, emblematic of the word of God conquering the powers
of evil. Ancient wooden double reading-desks are not uncommon. The
ornamentation usually denotes the period when they were constructed.
</p>
<p>
And now we approach the high altar of the church, made of stone, covered
with a beautifully worked frontal and cloth, and inclosed at the sides
with curtains suspended on iron rods projecting from the wall. A crucifix
hangs above the altar, and two candlesticks stand, one on each side. The
furniture and accessories of the altar in pre-Reformation times were
numerous. There was the pyx, a box or vessel of precious metal, in which
the Host was reverently preserved for the purpose of giving communion to
the sick and infirm. There were two small cruets or vessels for containing
the wine and water used in Holy Communion, one engraved with the letter
“V” (<i>vinum</i>), and the other “A” (<i>aqua</i>).
An <i>osculatorium</i>, or pax tablet, of ivory or wood, overlaid with
gold, was used for giving the kiss of peace during the High Mass just
before the reception of the Host. Of church plate generally we shall write
in a subsequent chapter.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link212" id="link212"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="212.jpg (23K)" src="images/212.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />NORMAN PISCINA, ROMSEY CHURCH, HANTS <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
On the south we see the piscina, which is contained in a beautifully
carved niche—a hollow basin with a stone drain, wherein the priest
washed his hands before consecrating the elements, and poured the water
from the rinsed chalice. Above it in the niche was the credence, a shelf
of stone, on which were placed the chalice and paten and all things
necessary for the celebration. In some churches there is a separate
credence table. On the north side was the aumbry, or locker, where the
sacred vessels, altar linen, and service books were kept, guarded by a
strong wooden door. The doors have usually disappeared, but a very large
number of churches have the hole in the wall which was formerly the
aumbry.
</p>
<p>
On the south side are the sedilia, or stone seats, for the assistant
clergy, frequently with canopies richly carved, and usually three in
number. Opposite to the sedilia in the north wall is a large arch, within
which the holy sepulchre was set up at Easter. This was a wooden structure
made for the deposition of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist from
the evening of Good Friday until the morning of Easter Day; during which
time it was watched by a quasi-guard, after the manner of our Lord’s
sepulchre. The books of St. Lawrence, Reading, record:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"Anno 1498. In primis payed for Wakyng of the Sepulchre viii'd."
"Anno 1510. It. payed to Walter Barton to the new Sepulchur iiii'li
xiii's x'd."
</pre>
<p>
As this sum of money was a considerable one at that period, the sepulchre
must have been an object of unusual magnificence. Sometimes it was a
permanent structure of stone, carved with figures of soldiers watching the
tomb of our Lord. Behind the altar was the reredos. In village churches
these screens were made up of recessed stone panels, surrounded by
sculptured wallflowers and other devices; but in large churches they were
very ornate, enriched with niches, statues, tabernacle-work, and other
adornments. Many of them were destroyed at the Reformation, together with
the stone altars. Some were covered up and concealed by plaster, in order
to preserve them from iconoclastic violence. They were buried and
forgotten, until by some happy accident their existence was revealed in
modern times. Nearly all large churches, and some village churches,
especially those connected with a monastery, had shrines, or receptacles
for the body or relics of a saint. Some of them were fixed, and made of
stone or wood, adorned with rich tabernacle-work, such as the shrine of
St. Cuthbert at Durham, or of St. Frideswide at Oxford; and others were
portable, shaped like coped boxes, covered with precious metal, enamels,
and engraving. Sculptured stones in the walls of our churches often mark
the spot in the building where relics were stored.
</p>
<p>
It is evident from the existence of niches and piscinas in other parts of
the church, besides in the south wall near the high altar, that there
formerly existed many altars in the sacred building. At the east end of
each aisle we usually find these indications of the existence of an altar,
which belonged to a chantry chapel, separated from the rest of the church
by a screen. Here a priest said Mass daily for the soul of the founder of
the chantry, his ancestors, and posterity. Ancient stone altars still
remain in some of our churches. Sometimes they have been removed from
their place, and used as tombstones, or in paving the floor of the church.
They can be recognised by the five crosses engraved on them, one at each
corner, and one in the centre of the stone.
</p>
<p>
Hagioscopes, or squints, are openings in the thickness of the wall,
enabling worshippers in the chantry chapels to witness the elevation of
the Host at the high altar. They are usually plain; but in some churches
we find these curious apertures moulded and decorated with architectural
designs.
</p>
<p>
Pre-Reformation churches had several wooden images of saints, most of
which were destroyed by the iconoclastic zeal of the Reformers or
Puritans. The brackets on which these figures stood often remain, though
the images have disappeared.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link215" id="link215"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="215.jpg (37K)" src="images/215.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Low side windows, commonly called “Lepers’ windows,” are
very frequently found in our churches, and usually on the south wall of
the chancel. Their object has been, and is, much disputed among
antiquaries. The vulgar idea is that poor lepers used to come to this
window to see the celebration of the Mass; but unfortunately it is quite
impossible in many cases to see the high altar through this window, and
moreover lepers were not allowed to enter a churchyard. Another idea is
that they were used as confessionals, the priest in the church hearing the
confession of the penitent who knelt on the grass in the churchyard. A
more inconvenient arrangement could not have been devised; and this idea
might be at once dismissed, were it not that one of Henry’s
commissioners for suppressing monasteries and chantries wrote: “We
think it best that the place where these friars have been wont to hear
outward confession of all-comers at certain times of the year, be walled
up, and that use to be done for ever.” It appears that sometimes at
any rate the low side windows were used for this purpose. However, I am
inclined to think that they were intended for the use of the anchorites or
recluses, who dwelt in churches. The windows were not glazed, but had iron
bars on the outside, and a wooden shutter on the inside of the church.
These windows were probably their means of communication with the outside
world.
</p>
<p>
Many village churches then, as now, had no vestry. Where a <i>vestiarium</i>
existed it was usually on the north side of the chancel, and its contents
were more elaborate than the plain surplice stole and hood of recent
times. In the vestry press we should find an alb of fine white linen,
somewhat similar to a surplice, ornamented with “apparels,” <i>i.e.</i>
embroidery, on the cuffs and skirts; a girdle made of white silk
embroidered with colours; an amice, or oblong piece of fine linen, worn on
the head or as a collar; a stole with embroidered ends; a maniple, or
strip of ornamented linen worn by the priest in his left hand during
celebrations; dalmatic, chasuble and other vestments which the ornate
ritual of the mediaeval church required.
</p>
<p>
Before the Reformation the appearance of our churches was certainly
splendid, and differed much from the Puritan simplicity of later times.
The walls were covered with mural paintings. The windows, soon to be
</p>
<p>
“Shorn of their glass of a thousand colourings,<br /> Through which
the deepened glories once could enter,”
</p>
<p>
were then resplendent with stained glass. Above, the rood looked down on
all the worshippers. Everywhere there was beautifully carved woodwork,
gilded and painted, tombs of knights and dames all painted and adorned,
altars with rich embroidered hangings. The floor was composed of encaustic
tiles, and had many memorial brasses. Armour, crests, and banners hung
upon the walls. Lights burned before numerous images, and the whole
appearance of our churches was gorgeous and magnificent.
</p>
<p>
Many changes have taken place since. Coatings of whitewash hide the mural
paintings. Sacrilegious hands “have broken down all the carved work
with axes and hammers.” The stone altars have disappeared, and
instead we have “an honest table decently covered.”
Reading-pews for the clergy were set up, and in the last century the
hideous “three decker,” which hid the altar and utterly
disfigured the sacred building. Instead of the low open seats great square
high pews filled the nave. Hideous galleries were erected which obstructed
the windows and hid the architectural beauties of former days. The old
timber roofs were covered, and low flat ceilings substituted. Brasses were
torn up and sold by dishonest churchwardens, and old monuments broken and
defaced. The old stained-glass windows were destroyed. The Communion table
was taken from the east end of the chancel, and seats erected round it.
Crosses were defaced everywhere, and crucifixes destroyed. Puritan
profanation and wanton destruction devastated our churches to a degree
which has never been equalled since the hordes of heathens and barbaric
Danish invaders carried fire and sword into the sanctuaries of God.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link218" id="link218"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="218.jpg (56K)" src="images/218.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Much harm was done by the Goths and Vandals of the nineteenth century.
Many old churches, replete with a thousand memories of the past, were
pulled down entirely, and modern structures of “Victorian Gothic”
style erected in their place, which can have none of the precious
associations which the old churches had. Much harm was done to the old
features of many churches by so-called “restoration,” carried
out by men ignorant of architecture and antiquities. But we are learning
better now. The Society of Antiquaries has done much to prevent
injudicious restoration and the destruction of our old churches, and if
any incumbent and his parishioners are thinking of restoring their church,
they cannot do better than to consult the secretaries of that learned
body, who will show how best to preserve the interesting memorials of the
past which time has spared.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link15" id="link15"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XV
</h2>
<h3>
CHURCH PLATE
</h3>
<p>
Spoliation—Few remains of pre-Reformation plate—Testimony of
inventories—Plate found in graves of bishops—Characteristics
of chalices in different periods—Inscriptions—Devices on
patens— Censers—Pyx—Monstrance—Chrismatory—Pax—Sacring
bell—Elizabethan chalice—Bridal cup—Post-Reformation
plate—Hall marks.
</p>
<p>
We have already mourned over the wanton destruction of much that was of
intense interest and value in our churches; but the most systematic
robbery and spoliation of our church goods at the time of the Reformation
were carried out in the matter of church plate. Henry VIII. stripped our
cathedrals and conventual churches of almost all that was valuable, and
the unscrupulous commissioners of Edward VI. performed a like office for
our parish churches and chantries. A large number of the old chalices were
also melted down and converted into Communion cupsduring the reigns of
Edward VI. and Elizabeth. Hence of all the vast store of church plate
which our churches possessed before the Reformation, at the present time
throughout all England only thirty-four chalices and seventy-three patens
remain. It is true that not all the ancient vessels fell into the hands of
the commissioners of the king. In the churchwardens’ account books
of the period we read of sundry sales of church plate. Evidently the
parishioners had some presentiment of the coming spoliation; so they sold
their valuables, and kept the proceeds of the sale for “the paving
of the streets,” or other parochial necessities.
</p>
<p>
The ancient inventories of church goods show the deplorable loss of the
valuables of the church which has taken place. Thus at the church of St.
Lawrence, Reading, in the year 1517, the inventory tells us of the
following: a cross of silver and gilt; a censer of silver gilt; another
censer; a ship of silver for holding incense; another ship of silver; two
candlesticks of silver; two books bound in silver; two basins of silver; a
pyx of silver gilt, with a silver pin; a monstrance of silver gilt; a
silver gilt chrismatory for the holy oil; a pax; two cruets; a bell; a
chalice, with a crucifix enamelled on the foot and the Trinity on the
paten; another chalice, with a crucifix engraved on the foot and a hand on
the paten; another chalice similarly described; another similar to first
chalice; and two others, with a crucifix on the foot and a vernicle, or <i>vera
icon</i> (a representation of our Lord’s face miraculously
delineated on the napkin of St. Veronica). All these vessels were made of
silver or silver gilt. Nor were these all the treasures. There were
several reliquaries of silver gilt containing parts of the holy cross; a
gridiron, with a bone of St. Lawrence, and other articles contained in
silver boxes; and many books bound with silver clasps. The total weight of
silver in this church amounted to seven hundred ounces.
</p>
<p>
Village churches were, of course, less sumptuously furnished than this
important town church, which being situated under the shadow of one of the
largest and most important abbeys in the kingdom, would receive many
costly gifts and benefactors. But the inventories of village churches show
that there was no lack of plate, rich altar hangings, copes, and
vestments, which helped to swell the goodly heap of spoil. In country
churches in Oxfordshire there were silver chalices and patens, pyxes,
censers, candlesticks, chrismatories, crosses, sanctus bells, and other
articles of plate.
</p>
<p>
It was the practice in mediaeval times to place in the coffin of a bishop
a chalice and paten; hence some of the earliest specimens of church plate
which we possess have been recovered from episcopal graves.[<a
href="#linkb3">3</a>] The Rites of Durham enjoin that on the death of a
bishop he was to be buried “with a little chalice of silver, other
metal, or wax” aid upon his breast within the coffin.[<a
href="#linkb4">4</a>] Most of these were made of pewter or lead, but some
have been found of silver gilt, latten, and tin. It is perhaps scarcely
necessary for our present purposes to describe these early specimens of
sacred vessels, as the number of them is so limited; and few of my readers
will be able to discover any mediaeval examples amongst the plate of their
own church. However, I will point out a few peculiarities of the plate of
each period.
</p>
<p>
The earliest chalice, used in the church of Berwick St. James, Wilts,
until a few years ago, and now in the British Museum, dates from the
beginning of the thirteenth century. Its bowl is broad and shallow, the
stem and knot (by which the vessel was held) and foot being plain and
circular. Then the makers (from 1250 to 1275) fashioned the stem and knot
separately from the bowl and foot, and shaped them polygonally. During the
remaining years of the century the foot was worked into ornate lobes. Then
the bowl is deepened and made more conical. About 1350 the custom arose of
laying the chalice on its side on the paten to drain at the ablutions at
Mass; and as the round-footed chalices would have a tendency to roll, the
foot was made hexagonal for stability. Henceforth all the mediaeval
chalices were fashioned with a six-sided foot. By degrees the bowl became
broader and shallower, and instead of the base having six points, its form
is a sexfoil without any points. Several old chalices are engraved with
the inscription—
</p>
<p>
Calicem salutaris accipiam et nomen Domini inbocabo.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link223" id="link223"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="223.jpg (15K)" src="images/223.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In one of the compartments of the base there was a representation of a
crucifix, or the Virgin, or ihc, or xpc.
</p>
<p>
The usual devices on ancient patens were the <i>Manus Dei</i>, or hand of
God, in the act of blessing; on later ones the vernicle, or face of our
Lord; the Holy Trinity; the Holy Lamb; the sacred monogram. The oldest
paten in existence is that found at Chichester Cathedral in a coffin, and
its date is about the year 1180. In the centre is a rude engraving of the
<i>Agnus Dei</i>, and it bears the inscription—
</p>
<p>
Agnus Dei qui tollis pecata mundi miserere nobis.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link224" id="link224"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="224.jpg (33K)" src="images/224.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The grave of Bishop Grostete at Lincoln yielded up an ancient paten
(1230-53), which has the figure of a bishop vested, the right hand raised
in the act of blessing, the left holding a crozier. The oldest piece of
church plate still in use is a remarkable paten at Wyke Church, near
Winchester, the date of which is about 1280. It bears an engraving of the
<i>Agnus Dei</i> holding a banner, and around the rim is the legend—
</p>
<p>
CUNTA: CREO: VIRTUTE: REGO: PIETATE REFORMO.
</p>
<p>
Another favourite inscription was <i>Benedicamus patrem et filium cum
spiritu sancto</i>; but on the paten in the church of Great Waltham,
Essex, the important word <i>spiritu</i> is omitted for want of room.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link225" id="link225"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="225.jpg (37K)" src="images/225.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
We have already mentioned several of the important pieces of church plate
which were in use in mediaeval times. Censers, or thuribles, were common
in all our ancient parish churches, sometimes of gold or silver, more
usually of brass or latten, and were in the shape of a covered vase or
cup, perforated so as to allow the fumes of burning incense to escape.
Most of our English censers are now in museums, but several ancient ones
are still in use in the private chapels of Roman Catholic families.
</p>
<p>
Old inventories always mention a pyx, a box or vessel of gold or silver,
in which the Host was reserved for the sick and infirm. It often resembles
a chalice, except that instead of the bowl there is a covered receptacle
for the Host. A beautiful specimen was dug up a few years ago in the
churchyard of Yateley, Hants. Another vessel was the monstrance, in which
the Blessed Sacrament was carried in procession, and exposed on the altar.
The form varied. Sometimes monstrances were made in the shape of a tower,
or a covered chalice; sometimes in the form of images carrying silver
pyxes, elaborately ornamented with many jewels. Processions were always a
great feature of mediaeval worship; hence the monstrance was frequently in
use, especially on such occasions as the celebrations of Corpus Christi
Day.
</p>
<p>
Holy oil was much used in the services, as in the Roman Catholic Church at
the present time. It was blessed by a bishop on Maundy Thursday, and used
in Baptism, Confirmation, and Extreme Unction, as well as at the
Consecration of Churches, Ordination, and the Coronation of Kings. The
vessel for holding the oil was an important piece of church plate, and was
called a chrismatory. Usually there were three distinct vessels, one for
holding the oil for the sick, a second for use at confirmations, and a
third for the baptismal oil. Sometimes these vessels are labelled with the
words EXT. UNC., CAT., and CHR., according to the recommendation of St.
Charles Borromeo, in order that each oil might be kept for its proper use,
and that no confusion might arise.
</p>
<p>
The pax was a small tablet of silver or other precious metal, used for
giving the kiss of peace during High Mass. The celebrant kissed the
tablet, and held it aloft before all the people. It was usually adorned
with a representation of the <i>Agnus Dei</i>. Of the cruets containing
wine and water for the celebration we have already written. Then there was
a sacring bell, often made of silver, which was rung during the service at
the time of the elevation of the Host, and at the sound the congregation
knelt.
</p>
<p>
We have now examined the aumbry, and noted its contents, upon which the
commissioners in the reign of Edward VI. made such shameful inroads.
Henceforth the plate was confined to a chalice and paten, alms-dish, and
usually a large silver flagon. The form of the chalice was entirely
changed. As we have noticed, the bowl of the pre-Reformation chalices
became smaller and shallower, on account of the gradually introduced
practice of refusing the wine to the laity. Now in the year 1562 the size
of the bowl was greatly enlarged, and the “Communion cup” took
the place of the “Massing chalice.” Some poor parishes were
obliged to content themselves with pewter vessels. St. Lawrence’s
Church, Reading, had a curious bridal cup, which was carried before all
brides who were married in that church. The custom of drinking wine in the
church at marriages is enjoined in the Hereford Missal, and the Sarum
Missal ordered that the bread immersed in the wine, and consumed by the
company, should first be blessed by the priest. Some of these
post-Reformation vessels are extremely interesting. They record the
thankofferings of pious donors on the occasion of some great event in the
national annals, such as the Restoration, or of some private mercy
vouchsafed to the individual. They record the connection of some family
with the parish, the arms they bore; and the Hall marks tell us of their
date, which is often anterior to the date of the inscription.
</p>
<p>
Hall marks were first introduced in 1300 by Edward I. in order to keep up
the purity of silver, and consisted of the lion’s or leopard’s
head crowned. This was called the king’s mark. The maker’s
mark was introduced in 1363, and was some initial or badge chosen by the
silversmith. To these were added in 1438 the year letter or assayer’s
mark, a different letter being chosen for each year. When the alphabet was
exhausted, another with differently shaped letters was begun. In 1545 the
lion passant was introduced, and since 1784 the portrait of the reigning
sovereign has appeared. With the assistance of Mr. Cripps’ <i>Old
English Plate</i>, which contains a list of the alphabets used in marking
plate, it is not very difficult to discover the date of any piece of
silver. Inventories of church plate are being made in many counties and
dioceses, and no more useful work can be undertaken by our local
antiquarian societies.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb3" id="linkb3"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[3] <i>Mediaeval Chalices and Patens</i>, by W.H. St. John Hope and T.M.
Fallow.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb4" id="linkb4"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[4] Surtees Society, vol. xv. pp. 45, 49.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link16" id="link16"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XVI
</h2>
<h3>
MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES AND BRASSES
</h3>
<p>
Reverence for the dead—Cists—Stone coffins—Devices—Introduction
of effigies—Cross-legged effigies—Wooden effigies—Incised
effigies—Brasses—Essentially English—Vast number of
brasses— Palimpsests—Destruction—Costumes and fashions—Ecclesiastics—
Lawyers—Soldiers—Canopies and inscriptions—Punning
inscriptions— Contractions—Emblems—Heraldry.
</p>
<p>
The pious care which we all love to bestow on the mortal remains of our
nearest and dearest, and the respect and honour with which all men regard
the bodies of departed heroes, kings, saints, and warriors, have produced
a remarkable series of sepulchral monuments, examples of which may be
found everywhere. The cairns and tumuli of the primitive races which
inhabited our island were the results of the same feelings of reverent
regard which inspired the beautifully carved mediaeval monuments, the
memorial brass, or the cross-shaped tombstone of to-day.
</p>
<p>
I have already mentioned the cromlechs and barrows and other memorials of
the early inhabitants of Britain. We have seen the cists of Saxon times,
the coffins formed of several stones placed together in the form of a
table. The Normans introduced stone coffins for the sepulchre of their
great men, many of which may be seen in our cathedrals and old conventual
churches. On the lids of their coffins they frequently cut a single cross.
When the style of architecture changed to that of the Early English and
Decorated periods, monumental slabs were ornamented with much greater
richness and elaboration, and inscriptions were added, and also some
device which showed the trade, rank, or profession of the departed. Thus
the chalice and paten denoted a priest; a sword showed the knight; an axe,
a forester; an ink-horn, a notary; shears, a wool merchant.
</p>
<p>
At the beginning of the thirteenth century it occurred to someone to
preserve the likeness of his departed friend as well as the symbols of his
rank and station. So effigies were introduced upon the surface of the
slabs, and were carved flat; but ere fifty years had passed away the art
of the sculptor produced magnificent monumental effigies. Knights and
nobles lie clad in armour with their ladies by their sides. Bishops and
abbots bless the spectators with their uplifted right hands. Judges lie in
their official garb, and merchants with the emblems of their trade. At
their feet lie animals, usually having some heraldic connection with the
deceased, or symbolical of his work—<i>e.g.</i> a dragon is trodden
down beneath the feet of a bishop, signifying the defeat of sin as the
result of his ministry. The heads of effigies usually rest on cushions,
which are sometimes supported by two angels.
</p>
<p>
A peculiar characteristic of the military effigies in England is that the
knights are often represented with the legs crossed. Many speculations
have been made with regard to the meaning of this fashion of cross-legged
effigy. It is a popular superstition, in which for some years the writer
shared, that such effigies represented Crusaders. We were told in our
young days that when the knight had his legs crossed at the feet he had
gone to the Crusades once; when at the knees, that he had been to two
Crusades; and when crossed at the thighs, he had been thrice to rescue the
Holy City from the hands of the infidels. All this seemed very plausible
and interesting, but it is undoubtedly a myth. Many known Crusaders have
their effigies with uncrossed legs, and many who never went to the
Crusades have cross-legged effigies. Moreover, there are no such monuments
in any foreign country which swelled the army of Crusaders. Hence we must
abandon the pleasing superstition, and reconcile ourselves to the fact
that no particular signification can be assigned to these cross-legged
effigies, and that only fashion prompted the mediaeval sculptors to adopt
this attitude for their figures. This mode prevailed until about the year
1320.
</p>
<p>
At the close of the fifteenth century the art of making monumental
effigies degenerated together with the skill of the architects of that
period. We see the husband and wife kneeling facing each other, with a
faldstool before each figure. A company of small figures below the
effigies represent the children, the boys on one side, the girls on the
other.
</p>
<p>
Early wooden effigies were also in use. There is one much battered by the
careless hands of former generations of villagers in the rural church of
my parish of Barkham. The artists often used much colour, gilding, and
enamel in making these effigies; and often rich canopies were erected over
them, containing fine tabernacle-work and figures of saints in niches.
</p>
<p>
Another form of effigy was commonly in use, in addition to the figures
just described. These are called incised effigies, which were cut in
outline upon flat slabs of stone, the lines being filled in with enamelled
metals. Thorton Abbey, Lincolnshire, and Brading, in the Isle of Wight,
have examples of this work. But the great expense of these enamels, and
also their frailty when exposed in the pavements of churches, led to the
use of brass; and hence arose the introduction of memorial brasses for
which our country is famous.
</p>
<p>
We owe the application of brass to memorial tablets to the artists of
Flanders, and the date of their introduction is about the middle of the
thirteenth century. The execution of almost all of our English brasses is
due to native artists. Foreign brasses are usually of great size, and
consist of a quadrangular sheet of metal, on which is engraved the figure,
usually under a canopy, the background being ornamented with rich diaper,
foliage, or scrollwork, and the incisions filled with colouring. Several
brasses in England conform to this style of workmanship, and are evidently
the production of foreign artists. The English brasses, on the contrary,
consist of separate pieces, with an irregular outline, corresponding with
that of the figure. They have no brass background; and for delicacy of
engraving and general appearance the English brasses are by far the best.
</p>
<p>
The names of the makers of brasses have been almost entirely lost. Two
only bear marks which are supposed to be those of the engraver. No other
country can boast of so large a number of these memorials as England, in
spite of the hard usage they have received and their wanton destruction.
About four thousand remain; and constantly we find the matrices cut in
stone slabs, from which brasses have been torn; so that we may assume that
quite as many have been destroyed as those which survive. The southern and
eastern counties are most richly furnished with these monuments, whereas
the western and northern counties have but few brasses. Norfolk, Suffolk,
Essex, and Kent are the most rich in this respect. The earliest brass of
which we have any record is that of Simon de Beauchamp, who died before
1208. This is mentioned by Leland. The earliest brass now in existence is
that of Sir John D’Aubernown at Stoke Dabernon, Surrey, which was
fashioned in 1277. In the fourteenth century a very large number of
brasses, remarkable for their beauty of form and execution, were made. The
artistic workmanship began to decline in the fifteenth century, and in the
following became utterly degenerate.
</p>
<p>
It was not an uncommon practice for subsequent generations to appropriate
the memorials of their predecessors. Such brasses are called palimpsests.
By the carelessness of churchwardens, by fraud, or spoliation, brasses
were taken from the churches, and acquired by some maker in the town. When
a new one was required, the tradesman would take from his stock, and on
the reverse engrave the figure of the individual whose memory he was
called upon to perpetuate. Hence when brasses are taken up from the
pavements, frequently the remains of a much earlier memorial are found on
the reverse side. There is an example of this curious method of procedure
at St. Lawrence’s Church, Reading, where on the reverse of a brass
to the memory of Walter Barton was found the remains of the brass of Sir
John Popham, who was buried at the Charterhouse, London. This monastery
was dissolved in 1536, the monuments sold, Sir John Popham’s brass
among them, which was evidently soon converted into a memorial of Walter
Barton.
</p>
<p>
Sometimes the original brass was appropriated as it lay, the figure being
slightly altered to suit the style of costume prevalent at the later date.
In other cases the engraver did not even trouble himself to alter the
figure, and simply added a new inscription and shield of arms.
</p>
<p>
The wanton destruction and gross neglect of churchwardens, both before and
after the Reformation, were very great. At St. Mary’s Church,
Reading, the accounts tell a sad tale of the disgraceful damage in the
year 1547:—
</p>
<p>
“Receyvid of John Saunders for iii cwt lacking ix’li of metall
that was taken upp of the graves, and of olde candlestycks at vi’s
the hundred xlvj’s ii’d.”
</p>
<p>
Evidently a clean sweep was made of most of the memorial brasses in the
church, and few escaped destruction. The tale is too familiar. Most
churches have suffered in the same way.
</p>
<p>
The study of brasses throws much light upon the costumes and fashions of
the day when they were engraved. We see priests, who may be recognised by
the tonsure and vestments, amongst which we find the alb, amice, stole,
maniple, and chasuble. The pastoral staff, ring, mitre, sandals, tunic,
dalmatic, and gloves mark the graves of bishops and mitred abbots.
</p>
<p>
A close skull-cap, a long robe with narrow sleeves, a hood, tippet, and
mantle buttoned on the right shoulder, compose the dress of judges and
officers of the law, as depicted on brasses. The changes in the fashion
and style of armour, which took place between the fourteenth and the
seventeenth centuries, are all accurately represented in these memorials;
and also the picturesque costumes of ladies with their curious headgear;
and the no less various fashions of the male civilian’s dress. A
study of brasses is an admirable guide to the prevailing style of dress
during the periods of their construction.
</p>
<p>
The beautiful canopies over the heads of the figures are well worthy of
attention, and also the inscriptions. These usually take the form of Latin
verses; and although many were written by learned abbots and scholars, the
classical knowledge displayed is somewhat faulty. Here are a few examples:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
Respice quid prodest precentis temporis aebum<br /> Omne quod est,
nichil est, preter amare deum.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Sometimes the author of the inscription recorded his name, as did the
learned Dame Elizabeth Hobby on a brass at Shottesbrooke, which runs—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
O multum dilecte senex, pater atqz bocate,<br /> Del quia
grandaebis, bel quia probus eras.<br /> Annos bixisti nobies decem,
atqz satelles<br /> Fidus eras regum, fidus erasqz tuis.<br />
Iam satis functus baleas, sed tu, deus alme,<br /> Sic
mihi concedas bibere siqz mori.
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Variety was added sometimes by jumbling together various languages,
Norman-French, Latin, and English being often oddly combined.
</p>
<p>
People in the Middle Ages loved punning and playing upon the sound of
words. Thus a brass to the memory of Thomas Hylle (or Hill) has some
verses beginning “<i>Mons</i> in valle jacet.” John Day, the
printer, had a very extravagant and jocular epitaph beginning—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Here lies the Daye that darkness could not blynd.”
</p>
<p>
“He set a Fox to wright how Martyrs runne<br /> By death to
lyfe”—
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
alluding to his publication of Foxe’s <i>Book of Martyrs</i>. His
widow probably married a man named Stone. Hence we read—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Als was the last encreaser of his store,<br /> Who mourning
long for being left alone,<br /> Sett upp this tombe, her self turned
to a Stone.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
“Orate pro anima,” or “of your charite pray for the soul
of ——” were usual inscriptions.
</p>
<p>
It is somewhat difficult for the unpractised eye to read inscriptions on
brasses, owing to the contractions and omissions of letters. Thus <i>m</i>
and <i>n</i> are often omitted, and a line is placed over the adjoining
letter to indicate the omission. Thus a=ia stands for <i>anima</i>, leg=u
for <i>legum</i>. The letter <i>r</i> is also left out. Z stands for <i>que</i>,
and there are many other contractions, such as D=ns for <i>Dominus</i>,
D=s for <i>Deus</i>, E=ps for <i>Episcopus</i>, g=ia for <i>gratia</i>,
m=ia for <i>misericordia</i>, and many others.
</p>
<p>
The study of the emblems and devices is full of interest. Of
ecclesiastical emblems we have the symbols of the Holy Trinity—God
the Father represented as an aged person, holding a crucifix on which the
dove, an emblem of the Holy Spirit, is alighting—representations of
our Lord, angels, saints,[<a href="#linkb5">5</a>] evangelists, the fylfot
cross, roses, and figures of Death. Sometimes the figure on the brass
holds a heart in his hand, which indicates a response on the part of the
deceased to the old invitatory “Sursum corda.”
</p>
<p>
The armorial bearings of the deceased are usually represented on brasses,
and also personal or professional devices. The founders of churches hold
representations in miniature of the churches which they founded. Bishops
and abbots have a pastoral staff; priests, a chalice, or a book; wool
merchants have woolpacks beneath their feet, and other tradesmen have
similar devices denoting their special calling. Merchants’ marks
also frequently appear; and the mediaeval taste for punning is shown by
frequent rebuses formed on the names of the deceased, <i>e.g.</i> a
peacock, for one named Pecok; a fox, for a Foxley; four tuns and a cross,
for Master Croston.
</p>
<p>
England may well be proud of the brass memorials of her worthy sons and
daughters. It is, however, terribly sad to see the destruction which
fanatical and greedy folk have wrought on these beautiful monuments. As we
have already noticed, the spoliators of the Reformation period
accomplished much wanton destruction, and removed tombs “for
greedinesse of the brasse.” Cromwell’s soldiers and
commissioners did a vast deal more damage, violating sepulchres and
monuments, and destroying brasses everywhere. A third cause of the
defacement and loss of these valuable memorials has been the gross
carelessness of churchwardens and incumbents, who during any alterations
or restoration of their churches have allowed them to be sold, destroyed,
or appropriated by the builders. Truly we have entered upon a diminished
inheritance. It behoves us to preserve with the utmost vigilance and care
the memorials which fanaticism, greed, and carelessness have spared.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb5" id="linkb5"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[5] The following are the principal emblems of the Apostles:— St.
Andrew, a cross saltier; St. Bartholomew, a knife; St. James the Great, a
pilgrim’s staff, wallet, escallop shell; St. James the Less, a
fuller’s bat, or saw; St. John, a chalice and serpent; St. Jude, a
boat in his hand, or a club; St. Matthew, a club, carpenter’s
square, or money-box; St. Matthias, a hatchet, battle-axe, or sword; St.
Paul, a sword; St. Peter, keys; St. Philip, a tau cross, or a spear; St.
Simon, fishes; St. Thomas, an arrow or spear.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link17" id="link17"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XVII
</h2>
<h3>
THE PARISH CHEST
</h3>
<p>
Contents of the parish chest—Parish registers—Effect of Civil
War— Burials in woollen—“Not worth £600”—Care
bestowed upon registers— Curious entries—Astrology—Gipsies—Jester—Heart-burial—Plagues—Royal
visits—Licences for eating flesh, for to be touched for king’s
evil— Carelessness of custody of registers—Churchwardens’
account books—Their value—Curious entries—Sports and
pastimes—Paschall money—Brief books—Strange entries in
registers and account books—Dog-whippers— King’s evil—Treating
bishops and poor scholars of Oxford.
</p>
<p>
The parish chest in the vestry usually contains many documents, which are
of profound interest to the student of village antiquities. It contains
the old churchwardens’ account books, the parish registers, lists of
briefs, and often many other papers and records which bear on the history
of the parish. The old register books record the names of past generations
of villagers, and many curious facts about the parish and its people,
which are not found in the dull dry columns of our modern books.
</p>
<p>
Parish registers were first ordered by Thomas Cromwell in the year 1538,
and from that date many of our registers begin.[<a href="#linkb6">6</a>]
But all vicars did not obey the injunctions of Viceregent Cromwell; they
were renewed by Edward VI. in 1547 and by Queen Elizabeth in 1559, and
most of our old register books begin with this date. James I. ordered that
the registers should be written over again in a parchment book, the
entries previously having been recorded on paper. Hence many of our books,
although they begin with the year 1538, are really copies of the paper
records made previous to 1603.
</p>
<p>
The disturbances of the Civil War period caused much neglect in the
keeping of the registers. The incumbent was often driven away from his
flock, and parish registrars were chosen by the parishioners and approved
and sworn before a justice of the peace. Here is a record of this business
taken from the books of this parish:—
</p>
<p>
“Whereas Robtr Williams of the prish of Barkham in the County of
Berks was elected and chosen by the inhabitants of the same prish to be
there prish Register, he therefore ye sd Ro: Wms was approved and sworne
this sixteenth day of November 1653. Ri: Bigg, J.P.”
</p>
<p>
Henceforth the children are registered as having been <i>born</i>, not <i>baptised</i>,
until the Restoration brought back the clergyman to his flock again, and
the entries are written in a scholarly hand, and the disorder of the
previous years ceases.
</p>
<p>
In 1679 an Act was passed requiring that the dead should be buried in
woollen, the purpose being to lessen “the importation of linen from
beyond the seas, and the encouragement of the woollen and paper
manufacturers of this kingdom.” A penalty of £5 was inflicted
for a violation of this Act; and as frequently people preferred to be
buried in linen, a record of the fine appears—<i>e.g.</i> at Gayton,
Northamptonshire, where we find in the register—
</p>
<p>
“1708. Mrs. Dorothy Bellingham was buryed April 5, in <i>Linnen</i>,
and the forfeiture of the Act payd fifty shillings to ye informer and
fifty shillings to ye poor of the parishe.”
</p>
<p>
Pope wrote the following lines on the burial of Mrs. Oldfield, the
actress, with reference to this custom:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Odious! in woollen! ’twould a saint provoke<br />
(Were the last words that poor Narcissa spoke);<br />
No, let a charming chintz and Brussels lace<br /> Wrap
my cold limbs, and shade my lifeless face.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Sometimes after the name in the register is added the words, “Not
worth £600.” This refers to the Act of William III. in 1694,
which required that all persons baptised, married, or buried, having an
estate of that value, should pay a tax of twenty shillings. The money was
required for carrying on the war with France, and the Act was in force for
five years. This description of the personal estate was not intended to be
invidious, but was of practical utility in enforcing the Act.
</p>
<p>
The parish registers reflect with wonderful accuracy the life of the
people, and are most valuable to the student of history. Clergymen took
great pride in recording “the short and simple annals of the poor.”
A Gloucestershire rector (1630 A.D.) wrote in his book the following good
advice which might with advantage be taken in many other villages:—
</p>
<p>
“If you will have this Book last, bee sure to aire it att the fier,
or in the Sunne, three or four times a yeare—els it will grow
dankish and rott, therefore look to it. It will not be amisse when you
find it dankish to wipe over the leaves with a dry wollen cloth. This
Place is very much subject to dankishness; therefore I say looke to it.”
</p>
<p>
A study of the curious entries which we occasionally find conveys much
remarkable information. Sometimes, in the days of astrology, in order to
assist in casting the nativity, it is recorded that at the time of the
child’s birth “the sun was in Libra,” or “in
Taurus.” Gipsies were evidently numerous in the sixteenth century,
as we constantly find references to “the roguish AEgyptians.”
The domestic jester finds his record in the entry: “1580. March 21,
William, fool to my Lady Jerningham.” The suicide is “infamously
buried.” Heart-burial is often recorded, as at Wooburn, Bucks:
“1700. Cadaver Edi Thomas, equitis aurati, hic inhumatum fuit
vicessimo tertio die Junii.”
</p>
<p>
Records of the visitations of the plague are very numerous in all parts of
England, as at Egglescliffe, Durham: “1644. In this year there died
of the plague in this towne one and twenty people; they are not all buried
in the churchyard, and are not in the Register.” Sometimes masses of
human bones are found buried in fields outside towns and villages,
memorials of this devastating plague.
</p>
<p>
Parish clerks have not always had very musical voices when they shout out
the “Amens.” The Rector of Buxted, Sussex (1666 A.D.), records
with a sigh of relief the death of his old clerk, “whose melody
warbled forth as if he had been thumped on the back with a stone.”
</p>
<p>
Sometimes royal visits to the neighbourhood are recorded, even a royal
hunt, as when James I. hunted the hare at Fordham, Cambridgeshire. The
register of Wolverton gives “a license for eating flesh on
prohibited days granted to Sir Tho. Temple, on paying 13s. 4d.”
Storms, earthquakes, and floods are described; and records of certificates
granted to persons to go before the king to be touched for the disease
called the king’s evil.
</p>
<p>
The Civil War is frequently mentioned, and also caused the omission of
many entries. At Tarporley, Cheshire, there is a break from 1643 to 1648,
for which the rector thus accounts:—
</p>
<p>
“This intermission hapned by reason of the great wars obliterating
memorials, wasting fortunes, and slaughtering persons of all sorts.”
</p>
<p>
Parish registers have fared ill and suffered much from the gross
carelessness of their custodians. We read of the early books of Christ
Church, Hants, being converted into kettle-holders by the curate’s
wife. Many have been sold as waste paper, pages ruthlessly cut out, and
village schoolbooks covered with the leaves of old registers. The
historian of Leicestershire writes of the register of Scraptoft:—
</p>
<p>
“It has not been a plaything for young pointers—it has not
occupied a bacon scratch, or a bread and cheese cupboard—it has not
been scribbled on within and without; but it has been treasured ever since
1538, to the honour of a succession of worthy clergymen.”—<i>O
si sic omnes</i>!
</p>
<p>
The churchwardens’ account books are even of greater value to the
student of history than the registers, priceless as the latter are for
genealogical purposes. The Bishop of Oxford states that “in the old
account books and minute books of the churchwardens in town and country we
possess a very large but very perishable and rapidly perishing treasury of
information on matters the very remembrance of which is passing away,
although their practical bearing on the development of the system of local
government is indisputable, and is occasionally brought conspicuously
before the eye of the people by quaint survivals.... It is well that such
materials for the illustration of this economic history as have real value
should be preserved in print; and that the customs which they illustrate
should be reclaimed by History from the misty region of folklore, whilst
they can.” Many of these account books date from pre-Reformation
times, and disclose the changes which took place in the fabric of our
churches, the removal of roods and other ecclesiastical furniture, during
the Reformation. They are usually kept with great exactness, and contain
an accurate record of the receipts and expenditure for each year. Some of
the entries are very curious, and relate to the sports and pastimes of our
ancestors, the mystery plays, and church ales, which were all under the
patronage of the churchwardens. The proceeds of these entertainments were
devoted to the maintenance of the church, and were included in the
accounts, as well as the necessary cost of the merry diversions. Thus in
the books of St. Lawrence’s Church, Reading, we find such items as
the following:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
s. d.
"1499. Paid for a coat for Robin Hood 5 4
" for a supper to Robin Hood and
his company 1 6
" for making the church clean
against the day of drinking
in the said church 4"
"1531. Paid for five ells of canvass for a coat
for Maid Marian 1 6-1/4"
</pre>
<p>
“Bells for the Morris dancers,” “liveries and coats,”
“bread and ale,” “horse-meat of the horses for the kings
of Colen on May Day,” are some of the items which appear in these
books.
</p>
<p>
Another book tells us about the “Gatherings” at Hock-tide,
when on one day the men stopped the women, and on the next the women the
men, and refused to let them go until they gave money. The women always
succeeded in collecting the most money.
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
s. d.
"It'm. receyved of the men's gatherynge 7 3
" " " women's gatherynge 37 5"
</pre>
<p>
Traces of this custom are still found in many country places. The practice
of “hocking” at Hungerford and “lifting” in
Lancashire subsist still, but the money collected is no longer devoted to
any pious uses.
</p>
<p>
The item “Paschall money at Easter” frequently occurs. This
was originally a collection for the Paschal taper, which burned before the
high altar at Eastertide. When, in the reign of Elizabeth, the taper was
no longer used, the money was devoted to buying the bread and the wine for
the Easter Communion. Another item which often appears is a payment of
“Smoke farthings” to the bishop of the diocese at his
Visitation Court. This is another name for Peter’s pence, formerly
given to the Pope. In the accounts of Minchinhampton we find the entry
under the year 1576: “For Pentecost money, otherwyse peter pence,
sometyme payed to Antecryst of Rome xvi’d.” After the
Reformation the tax was collected, but given to the bishop.
</p>
<p>
There are very many other points of interest which a study of the
churchwardens’ books presents. In more recent times we find constant
payments for the slaughter of sparrows, and many other items which
scarcely come under the head of ecclesiastical charges.[<a href="#linkb7">7</a>]
But of course the vestry was then the council chamber of the parish, which
managed all the temporal affairs of the village community. Possibly, in
these days of Poor Law Unions, District and County Councils, our affairs
may be managed better; but there is much to be said in favour of the older
system, and Parish Councils are not much of an improvement on the old
vestries.
</p>
<p>
Another book which our parish chest contains is the Brief Book. Briefs
were royal letters which were sent to the clergy directing that
collections be made for certain objects. These were very numerous and
varied. The building of St. Paul’s Cathedral after the Great Fire, a
fire at Drury Lane Theatre, rebuilding of churches, the redemption of
English slaves taken by pirates, the construction of harbours in Scotland,
losses by hail, floods, French refugees, Reformed Episcopal churches in
Great Poland and Polish Prussia, Protestants in Copenhagen, loss by fire,
colleges in Philadelphia—these and many other objects were commended
to the liberality of Churchmen. The sums collected were usually very
small, and Pepys wrote in his <i>Diary</i>, June 30th, 1661:—
</p>
<p>
“To church, when we observe the trade of briefs is come now up to so
constant a course every Sunday that we resolve to give no more to them.”
</p>
<p>
The granting of briefs gave rise to much abuse, and they were finally
abolished by the advice of Lord Palmerston.
</p>
<p>
The contents of the parish chest afford an unlimited mass of material for
those who love to study the curious customs of our forefathers and their
strange usages. Here is a record of a much-married person:—
</p>
<p>
“Mary Blewitt, ye wife of nine husbands successively, buried eight
of ym, but last of all ye woman dy’d and was buried, May 7th 1681.”
</p>
<p>
In the margin of the register is written, “This was her funeral
text.”
</p>
<p>
The register of Sparsholt, Berks, records an instance of the body of a
dead man being arrested for debt. The entry is:—
</p>
<p>
“The corpse of John Matthews, of Fawler, was stopt on the churchway
for debt, August 27, 1689. And having laine there fower days, was by
Justices warrant buryied in the place to prevent annoyances—but
about sixe weekes after it was by an order of Sessions taken up and buried
in the churchyard by the wife of the deceased.”
</p>
<p>
A dog-whipper was an ancient parish official, whose duty was to drive out
all dogs from the church. The Wakefield accounts contain the items:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"1616. Paid to Gorby Stork for whippinge s. d.
doggs 2 6"
"1703. For hatts shoes and hoses for sexton
and dog-whipper 18 6"
</pre>
<p>
Another official was the person appointed to arouse members of the
congregation from their slumbers during divine service. The parish
accounts of Castleton record:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
s. d.
"1702. Paid to sluggard waker 10 0"
</pre>
<p>
Sometimes the cost of a journey to London was defrayed by the parish in
order to enable a sufferer to be touched for the king’s evil. The
Ecclesfield accounts contain the following entry relating to this custom:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"1641. Given to John Parkin wife towards her
travell to London to get cure of his Majestie
for the disease called the Evill, which her s. d.
Sonen Thorn is visited withall 6 8"
</pre>
<p>
The clergymen were required to keep a register of all who were so touched,
in order that they might not again go to the king and receive the bounty
which accompanied the touch. Hence we read in the register of Hambleden,
Bucks:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"1685. May 17, Mary Wallington had a certificate to goe before the King
for a disease called the King's Evil."
</pre>
<p>
The treating of bishops and clergy is often noticed in the accounts.
Sometimes a sugar-loaf was presented, as at St. James’, Bristol:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"1629. Paid for a sugar loaf for the Lord Bishop 15's 10'd"
</pre>
<p>
Sometimes items relate to their refreshment:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"1593. Pd for a galland of beer given to the
Beishopp of Hereford iiii'd"
"1617. Pd for a quart of wine and sugar bestowed
upon two preachers x'd"
</pre>
<p>
The status of students at the Universities was not so high in former days
as at present, and poor scholars used to beg their way to Oxford and
Cambridge, and receive the assistance of the charitable. Hence we read in
the Leverton accounts:—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"1562. Gave to a pore scholar at Oxford. 2s. 0d."
</pre>
<p>
With this record of “a pore scholar” we must leave our study
of the contents of the parish chest, which afford such valuable and
accurate information about village and town life of ancient times.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb6" id="linkb6"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[6] 812 registers begin in 1538, 40 of which contain entries prior to that
date. 1,822 registers date from 1538 to 1558, and 2,448 from 1558 to 1603.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb7" id="linkb7"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[7] In the Whitchurch books we find: “1671. Paide for a coate and
wastcoate for good wife Clarke 13s., also for linen and shoes; to the
Chiurgeons for looking at Ezechiell Huller’s legg £3.”
And such-like entries.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link18" id="link18"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XVIII
</h2>
<h3>
STAINED GLASS, TILES, AND MURAL PAINTINGS
</h3>
<p>
Destruction of old windows—Wilfrid’s glass-window makers—Glass,
stained and painted—Changes in style—Work of foreign artists—Inlaid
tiles—Ironwork on doors and screens—Norman hinges—Mediaeval
plumbing work—Mural decoration, frescoes, and wall-painting—Cause
of their destruction—St. Christopher—Consecration crosses—Norman
art—Favourite subjects—Yew trees in churchyards—Lich-gates—The
churchyard—Curious epitaphs.
</p>
<p>
No branch of archaeology is more interesting than the study of our
stained-glass windows, which illustrate so clearly the faith, history, and
customs of our ancestors. We have again to thank the fanatics of the
Reformation and Cromwellian periods for the shameful destruction of so
many beautiful windows. How great has been the loss to art and history
caused by their reckless demolition! And in addition to this miserable
violence our windows have suffered greatly from the ignorant indifference
of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, which allowed priceless
examples of old glass to be removed and replaced by the hideous specimens
of the modern glass-painters.
</p>
<p>
In Saxon times this art found a home in England, the <i>artifices
lapidearum et vitrearum fenestrarum</i> having been invited to this
country by Wilfrid, Bishop of York, in 709. The earliest specimen of
ancient glass now in existence is in the choir-aisles of Canterbury
Cathedral, where it was probably fixed when the cathedral was rebuilt
after the fire in 1174.
</p>
<p>
Coloured glass is of two kinds: (1) <i>Stained glass</i>, made by mixing
metallic oxides with the glass when in a state of fusion, the colours thus
going through the whole mass; (2) <i>Painted glass</i>, in which colouring
is laid upon the white or tinted glass, and fixed by the action of fire.
As the style of architecture changed, so the art of the glass-painter
changed with it. In the Early English period the colours were very rich,
and the designs consisted of medallions containing subjects taken from
Holy Scripture, or the lives of the saints, upon grounds of ruby and blue.
Mosaic patterns form the groundwork of the medallions, and a border of
scrolls and foliage incloses the whole design. The outlines of the figures
are formed by the lead. In the Decorated period the medallions disappear,
and in their place we find single figures of large size under canopies.
Instead of the mosaic backgrounds diaper-work in whole colours is used.
Lights and shades are introduced in the dresses and canopies, and foliage
is painted on the panes. The artists of this period first introduced
heraldic devices into the windows. A border of white glass intervenes
between the window and the medallion.
</p>
<p>
When the Perpendicular style was in vogue the art of the glass-painter
degenerated, as did that of the architect. Stained glass was little used,
and the artists painted with enamel colours their designs upon the glass.
The figures were larger than before, and the canopies of great size and
with much architectural detail, landscapes and buildings appearing in the
background. During this period inscriptions began to be used. In the
sixteenth century the progress of the art was in the same direction. Large
figures, and groups of figures, fill the whole window, and the existence
of mullions is disregarded in the execution of the design. Glass-painting
flourished until the Civil War period, and then died out.
</p>
<p>
English churches benefited much by the work of foreign artists. The great
Florentine Francesco di Lievi da Gambassi visited this country. There is a
letter dated 1434, written “to the master glass-painter Gambassi,
then in Scotland, and who made works in glass of various kinds, and was
held to be the best glass-painter in the world.” How much must we
regret the destruction of the windows made by this excellent artist in
Holyrood chapel and elsewhere by fanatical mobs! The Fairford windows are
perhaps the finest and most interesting in England. The story runs that
they were made in Germany for a church in Rome, and that the vessel
conveying them was captured by an English ship; and as the noble church at
Fairford was then being built, the glass was sent there and given to it.
Shiplake Church, Oxfordshire, has some of the beautiful glass which once
adorned the ruined church of St. Bertin at St. Omer, plundered during the
French Revolution.
</p>
<p>
Some good work was accomplished in the seventeenth century by English
artists, who practised enamel painting, notably by Jervais, who in 1717
executed from designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds the beautiful west window of
New College Chapel, Oxford.
</p>
<p>
The floors of our churches were enriched with inlaid tiles. Various
patterns and designs were impressed upon them when the clay was moist, a
metallic glaze covered the surface, and then the tiles were placed in the
furnace. Many designs are found on ancient tiles, such as heraldic
devices, monograms, sacred symbols with texts, architectural designs,
figures, and patterns. The age of the tiles may be determined by comparing
the designs imprinted upon them with the architectural decorations
belonging to particular periods. In the sixteenth century many Flemish
tiles were brought to England, and superseded those of English
manufacture.
</p>
<p>
In the Middle Ages no branch of art was neglected. Even the smith, who
made the ironwork for the doors, locks, and screens, was an artist, and
took pains to adapt his art to the style of architecture prevailing in his
time. Norman doors are remarkable for their beautifully ornamented hinges.
They have curling scrollwork, and a large branch in the form of the letter
C issuing from the straight bar near the head. Early English doors have
much elaborate scrollwork, with foliage and animals’ heads. During
the Decorated period the hinges are simpler, on account of the carved
panelling on the doors, and they continue to become plainer in the
subsequent period. The knockers on the doors often assume very grotesque
forms, as at Durham Cathedral. The mediaeval plumber was also an artist,
and introduced shields of arms, fleur-de-lis, and other devices, for the
enrichment of spires, and pipes for carrying off water from the roof.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link254" id="link254"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="254.jpg (40K)" src="images/254.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
No part of the ancient decoration of our churches has suffered more than
the paintings and frescoes which formerly adorned their walls. In the
whole of the country there are very few of the ancient edifices which
retain any traces of the numerous quaint designs and figures painted on
the inner surfaces of their walls during the Middle Ages. Our ancestors
used to make free use of colour for the purpose of architectural
decoration, and employed several means in order to produce the effect.
They sometimes used fresco, by means of which they produced pictures upon
the walls covered with plaster while the plaster was wet. Sometimes they
employed wall-painting, <i>i.e.</i> they covered the walls when the
plaster was dry with some pictorial representation. The distinction
between fresco and wall-painting is frequently forgotten. Most of the
early specimens of this art are monochromes, but subsequently the painters
used polychrome, which signifies surface colouring in which various
colours are employed. The vaulted ceilings, the timber roof, the screens
and canopies, the monuments with their effigies, as well as the surface of
the walls, were often coloured with diaper-work. Colour and gilding were
marked features in all mediaeval buildings, and even richly carved fonts
and sculptural monuments were embellished with this method of decoration.
The appearance of our churches in those times must have been very
different from what it is now. Then a blaze of colour met the eye on
entering the sacred building, the events of sacred history were brought to
mind by the representations upon the walls, and many an unlearned rustic
acquired some knowledge of biblical history from the contemplation of the
rude figures with which his village church was adorned.
</p>
<p>
“Even the very walls of this dread place,<br /> And the tall windows,
with their breathing lights,<br /> Speak to the adoring heart.”
</p>
<p>
The practice of painting the walls of our churches dates as far back as
Saxon times; but very few fragments of pre-Norman art remain. Of Norman
work we have numerous examples, and sometimes it is found that the early
specimens of the art have been painted over in later Gothic times, and
ruder and larger figures have eclipsed the more careful work of previous
ages. An example of this was discovered in the church of St. Lawrence,
Reading, where no less than five distinct series of paintings were
discovered, painted one over another.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link256" id="link256"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="256.jpg (27K)" src="images/256.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Several circumstances have combined to obliterate these specimens of the
art of former days. It was not the intention of the Reformers themselves
to destroy them. They distinguished carefully between “an embossed
and gilt image, and a process of a story painted with the gestures and
action of many persons; and commonly the sum of the story written withal
hath another use in it than one dumb idol or image standing by itself.”
It was left to the Puritans, impelled by fanaticism and ignorance, to make
“a slanderous desolation of the places of prayer,” and it is
to them we owe much of the destruction of the old mural paintings. At the
end of the eighteenth century there was a prejudice against these works of
art; for in 1773 we find the Bishop of London refusing to allow Reynolds,
West, and Barry to clothe the naked walls of St. Paul’s Cathedral
with pictures painted by themselves. Coated over by layers of plaster, or
whitewashed until all traces were obliterated, these relics of ancient art
have remained for generations, and it is only when an old church is being
restored, and the coats of plaster and whitewash removed, that their
presence is revealed; and then too often the colours fade away on exposure
to the air.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link257" id="link257"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="257.jpg (43K)" src="images/257.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
One of the favourite subjects of mural decoration was a figure of St.
Christopher with the Infant Saviour on his shoulder.[<a href="#linkb8">8</a>]
He usually has a staff, and strange-looking fish swim about his feet as he
crosses the river; on one side there is a hermitage, with the figure of a
hermit holding a lantern to guide the saint, and on the other a windmill.
This figure usually was painted on the wall opposite the principal
entrance, as it was deemed lucky to see St. Christopher on first entering
a church. Moreover the sight of the saint was a preservative against
violent death during the day, and also a preventive against drowsiness
during the service, as the following verses show:—
</p>
<p>
“Christophori sancti speciem quicunque tuetur Illo
namque die nullo languore tenetur.”
</p>
<p>
Churchwardens’ accounts record the painting of these figures—
</p>
<pre xml:space="preserve">
"1503-4. It. payd to mylys paynter for payntyng
of Seynt X'fer viii's iiii'd"
"1521. It. payd to John Payne for payntyng
of Sent Leonard left by the wyffs
onpaynted xx'd"
</pre>
<p>
A curious order was issued by Edward III. for arresting painters to work
in St. Stephen’s Chapel at Westminster, to which artists of every
description were liable to surrender as often as the king required their
services.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link259" id="link259"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="259.jpg (40K)" src="images/259.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In Saxon times Consecration crosses were painted on the interior walls,
twelve in number, on the spots where the bishop marked the cross with holy
oil; and sometimes twelve crosses were carved or painted on the exterior
walls. During Norman times the art made progress, and there are many
specimens of mural decoration of this period, which correspond with the
mouldings generally used then; but not many scenes and figures were
depicted. Representations of bishops, <i>Agnus Dei</i>, scenes from the
life of our Lord, the apostles, the Last Judgment, St. George, scenes from
the life of St. Nicholas, St. John writing the Apocalypse, were favourite
subjects. At Copford the painter evidently tried to make the chancel
figuratively to represent the glories of heaven.
</p>
<p>
During the reign of Henry III. great progress was made, and travelling
monks roamed the country leaving behind them in many a village church
traces of their skill in artistic decoration. The murder of St. Thomas of
Canterbury now became a favourite subject, also the lives of St. Catherine
of Alexandria, St. Nicholas, St. Margaret, St. Edmund, the Seven Acts of
Mercy, and the wheel of fortune. In the fourteenth century the Doom was
the usual decoration of the space over the chancel arch, and scenes from
the New Testament, legends of saints, “moralities,” etc., were
depicted on the walls. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the
artists paid little respect to the work of their predecessors, and
frequently painted new designs over the earlier mural decorations. They
also adorned very beautifully the roofs and screens. The arrival of the
Flemings in the eastern counties is shown by the portraying of subjects
and saints not usually worshipped in England. The figures of St. George
become more numerous and also of St. Christopher, who were regarded with
much superstitious reverence by all classes.
</p>
<p>
The vanity of human greatness is taught by the morality, “Les Trois
Rois Morts et les Trois Rois Vifs,” representing three kings going
gaily hunting meeting three skeletons, the remains of kings once as
powerful as they. “The Dance of Death,” so popular abroad,
also appears in some English churches. The wholesale destruction of so
many specimens of mediaeval art cannot be too strongly condemned and
deplored. If any of my readers should be fortunate enough to discover any
traces of colouring hidden away beneath the coats of whitewash on the
walls of their church, I would venture to advise them to very carefully
remove the covering, and then to consult Mr. Keyser’s book on <i>Mural
Decorations</i>, where they will find an account of the best methods for
preserving these valuable specimens of early art.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link261" id="link261"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="261.jpg (38K)" src="images/261.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
In the churchyard stands the old weather-beaten yew tree, looking like a
sentinel keeping watch over the graves of our forefathers. Some of these
trees are remarkable for their age; the yews at Fountains Abbey, in
Yorkshire, were probably in a flourishing condition so long ago as the
year 1132, and some are older still. Why they were planted in churchyards
it is difficult to ascertain. It has been conjectured that they were
planted in so secure a spot in order that the men might provide themselves
with bows, as all the bows used by the English, with which they did such
execution against their enemies, were made of yew. Others contend that its
green boughs were used instead of palms on Palm Sunday, or for funerals.
But I think that they were regarded with veneration by our forefathers
when they were still heathen, and that some religious symbolism—such
as of immortality—attached to them; and that when the Christian
teachers came they made use of this religious sentiment of the people,
planted the Christian cross by the side of the yew, and under its shade
preached lessons of true immortality, of which the heathen ideals were
only corrupt legends and vain dreams.
</p>
<p>
At the entrance of the churchyard there is often a lich-gate, <i>i.e.</i>
a corpse-gate, where the body may rest while the funeral procession is
formed. <i>Lych</i> is the Saxon word for a dead body, from which
Lich-field, “the field of dead bodies,” is derived. Bray, in
Berkshire, famous for its time-serving vicar, is also famous for its
lich-gate, which has two rooms over it.
</p>
<p>
“God’s acre” is full of holy associations, where sleep
“the rude forefathers of the hamlet.” There stands the village
cross where the preachers stood in Saxon times and converted the people to
Christianity, and there the old sundial on a graceful stone pedestal.
Sometimes amid the memorials of the dead stood the parish stocks. Here in
olden days fairs were held, and often markets every Sunday and holiday,
and minstrels and jugglers thronged; and stringent laws were passed to
prevent “improper and prohibited sports within the churchyard, as,
for example, wrestling, football, handball under penalty of twopence
forfeit.” Here church ales were kept with much festivity, dancing,
and merry-making; and here sometimes doles were distributed on the
tombstones of parochial benefactors, and even bread and cheese scrambled
for, according to the curious bequests of eccentric donors.
</p>
<p>
And then there are the quaint epitaphs on the gravestones, of which many
have made collections. Here is one to the memory of the driver of a coach
that ran from Aylesbury to London:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Parker, farewell! thy journey now is ended,<br />
Death has the whip-hand, and with dust is blended;<br />
Thy way-bill is examined, and I trust<br /> Thy
last account may prove exact and just,<br /> When He who
drives the chariot of the day,<br /> Where life is light,
whose Word’s the living way,<br /> Where
travellers, like yourself, of every age,<br /> And every
clime, have taken their last stage,<br /> The God of
mercy and the God of love,<br /> Show you the road to
Paradise above.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Here is another to the memory of a once famous Yorkshire actor, buried at
Beverley:—
</p>
<p>
“In memory of Samuel Butler, a poor player that struts and frets his
hour upon the stage, and then is heard no more. Obt. June 15th, 1812, Aet.
62.”
</p>
<p>
Here is a strange one from Awliscombe, Devon:—
</p>
<p>
“Here lie the remains of James Pady, brickmaker, late of this
parish, in hopes that his clay will be remoulded in a workmanlike manner,
far superior to his former perishable materials.
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Keep death and judgment always in your eye,<br />
Or else the devil off with you will fly,<br /> And
in his kiln with brimstone ever fry;<br /> If you neglect
the narrow road to seek,<br /> Christ will reject you
like a half-burnt brick.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Those interested in the brave mortals who go down to the sea in ships will
like to read the following verses which appear on the tomb of William
Harrison, mariner, buried in Hessle Road Cemetery, Hull:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Long time I ploughed the ocean wide,<br /> A
life of toil I spent;<br /> But now in harbour safe
arrived<br /> From care and discontent.<br />
“My anchor’s cast, my sails are
furled,<br /> And now I am at rest;<br />
Of all the ports throughout the world,<br /> Sailors,
this is the best.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
The following original epitaph in a neighbouring churchyard compares very
favourably with the flattering and fulsome inscriptions prevalent at the
beginning of the nineteenth century, written in what has been called
“lapidary style ”:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“He was——<br /> But
words are wanting to say what;<br /> Say what is just and
kind,<br /> And he was that.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<a name="linkb8" id="linkb8"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[8] At Sedgeford the Infant is portrayed with three heads, illustrating
the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link19" id="link19"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XIX
</h2>
<h3>
CHURCH BELLS
</h3>
<p>
Bell customs and village life—Antiquity of bells—Christening
of bells—“Ancients”—Inscriptions—Dedications—Inscriptions
of praise—Leonine verses—Curious inscriptions—Historical
events recorded—Uses of bells—Passing bell—Pancake bell—Curfew—Guiding
bells—Names of benefactors—Great bells—Sanctus bell—Sacring
bell—Frequent ringing of bell—Change-ringing—Care of
bells.
</p>
<p>
Bells play an important part in village life, and there are few more
interesting branches of the study of village antiquities than bell-lore.
Ringing customs throw much light upon the manners and doings of our
ancestors. Bells rang to commemorate the great events in history, news of
which was conveyed to the quiet village; they sounded forth the joys and
sorrows of the parishioners in their generations, pealed merrily at their
weddings, and mourned for them at their funerals. As the bell “Roland”
of Ghent seemed endowed with a human voice, and was silenced for ever by
Charles V. lest it should again rouse the citizens to arms, so these bells
in our village steeples seem to speak with living tongues and tell the
story of our village life.
</p>
<p>
Bells have great antiquity. Odoceus, Bishop of Llandaff, in 550 A.D., is
said to have taken the bells away from his cathedral during a time of
excommunication. Bede mentions them in the seventh century. In 680
Benedict, Abbot of Wearmouth, imported some from Italy, and in the tenth
century St. Dunstan hung many. Ireland probably had bells in the time of
St. Patrick, who died in 493, and a bell that bears his name is preserved
at Belfast. The earliest Saxon bells were not cast, but were made of
plates of iron riveted together, and were probably used as hand-bells.
</p>
<p>
Bells were usually christened. Those of Crowland Abbey were named Pega,
Bega, Tatwin, Turketyl, Betelin, Bartholomew, and Guthlac. A fire in 1091
destroyed this peal. Those of the priory of Little Dunmow, Essex,
according to an old chartulary, were new cast and baptised in 1501.
</p>
<p>
“Prima in honore Sancti Michaelis Archangeli.”<br /> “Secunda
in honore Sancti Johannis Evangelisti.”<br /> “Tertia in honore
S. Johannis Baptisti.”<br /> “Quarta in honore Assumptionis
beatae Mariae.”<br /> “Quinta in honore Sanctae Trinitatis et
omnium sanctorum.”
</p>
<p>
The tenor bell at Welford, Berks, has the inscription, “Missi de
celis habeo nomen Gabrielis 1596.”
</p>
<p>
Bells dating from before the year 1600 are called “ancients,”
and it is a very pleasant discovery to find one of these in our church
tower; and still more so if it be a pre-Reformation bell. Unfortunately a
large number of “ancients” have been recast, owing chiefly to
the craze for change-ringing which flourished in England between 1750 and
1830. The oldest bell in this country is said to be St. Chad’s,
Claughton, which bears the date 1296. Pre-Reformation bells are very
seldom dated.
</p>
<p>
Mediaeval bells have many curious inscriptions on them, which record the
name of the donor, the bell-founder, together with heraldic and other
devices. The inscriptions are often written in the first person, the bell
being supposed to utter the sentiment, as it sends forth its sound. A
study of the inscriptions on bells is full of interest. The earliest are
simple dedications of the bell to our Lord, or to some saint. The
principal inscriptions of this class are: “Jesus,” “Jesus
Nazarenus Rex Judeorum,” “Sit nomen IHC benedictum,”
“Sum Rosa Pulsata Mundi Maria Vocata,” “Sum Virgo Sancta
Maria.” The invocation, “Ora pro nobis,” very frequently
is inscribed on bells, followed by the name of some saint, and almost
every saint in the Calendar is duly honoured in some bell inscription.
</p>
<p>
Bells were always rung on joyful occasions; hence inscriptions expressing
thankfulness and praise were appropriate. Consequently we find such words
as “Laus et Gloria Deo,” “Laus Deo Gratia
Benefactoribus,” “Alleluja,” “Praise God,”
and other similar inscriptions of praise.
</p>
<p>
Some old bells have Latin hexameter verses inscribed on them, composed by
monks, which are called Leonine verses, from one Leoninus, a monk of
Marseilles, who lived in the early part of the twelfth century. A few
examples of these will suffice:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Est michi collatum ihc illud nomen amaetum.”<br />
“Protege Virgo pia quos convoco Sancta Maria.”<br />
“Voce mea viva depello cunta nocina.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
This refers to the belief that the ringing of bells drives away all demons
and tempests, storms and thunders, and all other hurtful things. One bell
proudly asserts:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Me melior vere non est campana sub ere.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Inscriptions in English are often quaint and curious. Here is one from
Somerset:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“My treble voice<br /> Makes hearts
rejoice.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Another self-complacent bell asserts—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“If you have a judicious ear,<br /> You’ll
own my voice is sweet and clear.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Loyal inscriptions are often found, such as—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“For Church and King<br /> We always
ring.”
</p>
<p>
“I was made in hope to ring<br /> At
the crownacion of our King.”
</p>
<p>
“Ye people all that hear me ring<br /> Be
faithful to your God and King.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
A bell that has been recast sometimes praises the merits of its new
founder at the expense of its first maker, as at Badgworth, Gloucester:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Badgworth ringers they are mad,<br /> Because
Rigbe made me bad;<br /> But Abel Rudhall you may see<br />
Hath made me better than Rigbe.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Sometimes all the bells which compose a peal tell their various uses. Thus
at Bakewell we find some verses on each bell:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
1. “When I begin our merry Din<br /> This
Band I lead from discord free;<br /> And for the
fame of human name,<br /> May every Leader copy Me.”
</p>
<p>
2. “Mankind, like us, too oft are found<br /> Possess’d
of nought but empty sound.”
</p>
<p>
3. “When of departed Hours we toll the knell,<br /> Instruction
take and spend the future well.”
</p>
<p>
4. “When men in Hymen’s Bands unite,<br /> Our
merry peals produce delight;<br /> But when Death
goes his dreary Rounds,<br /> We send forth sad and
solemn sounds.”
</p>
<p>
5. “Thro’ grandsires and Tripples with pleasure men
range,<br /> Till Death calls the Bob and brings on
the Last Change.”
</p>
<p>
6. “When Vict’ry crowns the Public Weal<br /> With
Glee we give the merry Peal.”
</p>
<p>
7. “Would men like us join and agree<br /> They’d
live in tuneful Harmony.”
</p>
<p>
8. “Possess’d of deep sonorous Tone<br /> This
Belfry King sits on his throne;<br /> And when the
merry Bells go round,<br /> Adds to and mellows ev’ry
Sound;<br /> So in a just and well pois’d
State,<br /> Where all Degrees possess due Weight,<br />
One greater Pow’r one greater Tone<br />
Is ceded to improve their own.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
A Rutland bell has the following beautiful inscription:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Non clamor sed amor cantat in aure Dei.”<br />
(“Not noise but love sings in the ear of God.”)
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Historical events are sometimes recorded, as at Ashover, Derbyshire, where
a recasted bell states:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“This old bell rung the downfall of Buonaparte and
broke, April 1814.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
The uses of bells are often shown by their inscriptions. People were
aroused by their sound each morning in many places, as at St. Ives, where
a bell is inscribed—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Arise and go about your business.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
The villagers were summoned to extinguish fires by ringing of bells. Thus
Sherborne, Dorset, has a bell inscribed—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Lord, quench this furious flame:<br /> Arise,
run, help put out the same.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Bell-ringing customs are very numerous.[<a href="#linkb9">9</a>] The
passing bell has many variants. In some places three times three strokes
are sounded for a man, three times two for a woman, and three times one
for a child. Out of the first-named of these practices probably arose the
phrase, “Nine tailors make a man,” which is usually explained
as more properly signifying “nine tellers make a man.” Then we
have a pancake bell, which formerly summoned people to confession, and not
to eat pancakes; a gleaning bell, an eight hours’ bell rung at 4
a.m., noon, and 8 p.m. The curfew bell survives in many places, which, as
everyone knows, was in use long before William the Conqueror issued his
edict. Peals are rung on “Oak Apple Day,” and on Guy Fawkes’
Day, “loud enough to call up poor Guy.” Church bells played a
useful part in guiding the people homewards on dark winter evenings in the
days when lands were uninclosed and forests and wild moors abounded, and
charitable folk, like Richard Palmer, of Wokingham, left bequests to pay
the sexton for his labour in ringing at suitable times when the sound of
the bells might be of service to belated travellers. Names of benefactors
often find a permanent memorial on the bells which they gave; as at
Binstead, Hants, where a bell has the inscription—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Doctor Nicholas gave five pound<br /> To
help cast this peal tuneable and sound.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
And another bell in the same tower records the name of our famous
Berkshire bell-founders, the Knight family. The inscription runs:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Samuel Knight made this ring<br /> In
Binstead steeple for to ding.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<a name="link271" id="link271"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="271.jpg (71K)" src="images/271.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /><br />
</p>
<p>
The story of our great bells, of “Great Toms,” “Big
Bens,” “Great Peters,” need not be told here. They wake
the echoes of our great cities, and are not heard among the hills and
dales of rural England. Outside the church at the apex of the gable over
the chancel arch there is sometimes a small bell-cote, wherein the sanctus
or saunce bell once hung. This was rung during the service of High Mass
when the <i>Ter Sanctus</i> was sung, in order that those who were engaged
at their work might know when the canon of the Mass was about to begin, in
order that they might kneel at the sound and pray to God. At Bosham
Harbour the fishermen used to so join in the service of the sanctuary, and
it is said that when George Herbert’s sanctus bell sounded for
prayers, the ploughmen stopped from their work for a few moments and
prayed. The sanctus bell differed from the sacring bell, which was a
hand-bell rung inside the church at the elevation of the Host.
</p>
<p>
Old churchwardens’ accounts record the very frequent ringing of
bells. In addition to the Great Festivals, Corpus Christi Day, Church
feasts and ales, the occasions of royal visits, of episcopal visitations,
victories, and many other great events, were always celebrated by the
ringing of the church bells. In fact by the fondness of English folk for
sounding their bells this country earned the title in the Middle Ages of
“the ringing island.” Peal-ringing was indeed peculiar to
England. It was not until the seventeenth century that change-ringing
became general, and our old bells suffered much at the hands of the
followers of the new fashion.
</p>
<p>
In recent years the study of our church bells has made great progress, and
many volumes have been written upon the bells of various counties. Too
long have our bells been left to the bats and birds, and the belfry is
often the only portion of a church which is left uncared for. We are
learning better now, and the bells which have sounded forth the joys and
sorrows of our villagers for so many generations are receiving the
attention they deserve.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb9" id="linkb9"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[9] A collection of these will be found in my book on <i>Old English
Customs Extant at the Present Time</i>.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link20" id="link20"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XX
</h2>
<h3>
THE MEDIAEVAL VILLAGE
</h3>
<p>
Local government—Changes in the condition of villeins and labourers—
Famine and pestilence—Effects of the Great Plague—Spirit of
independence—Picture of village life—Church house—Church
ales— Pilgrimages—Markets—Old English fair—Wars—Hastings—Hereward
the Wake—Great Civil War—Restoration—Beacons.
</p>
<p>
Let us try to imagine the ordinary life and appearance of a mediaeval
English village in the “piping times of peace.” Of course, no
two villages are quite alike; each has many distinguishing features; but a
strong family likeness is observable. In the Middle Ages a village was
much more independent than it is now. Then there were no Acts of
Parliament to control its affairs, and it regulated its own conduct much
to its own satisfaction, without any outside interference. Of course,
sometimes things were managed badly; but the village knew it had only
itself to blame, and therefore could not grumble at the Government, or the
fickleness of members of Parliament, or the unreasonable conduct of Local
Government Boards. Was not the lord of the manor quite capable of trying
all criminals? and did not the rector and the vestry settle everything to
the satisfaction of everyone, without any “foreigners” asking
questions, or interfering?
</p>
<p>
The position of the villeins and <i>cottiers</i> has changed considerably
since the days of William the Norman. The former were now free tenants,
who paid rent for their land to the lord of the manor, and were not bound
to work for him, while the latter worked for wages like our modern
agricultural labourer. There was thus in the twelfth century a gradual
approximation to modern conditions on many estates; the home farm was
worked by hired labourers who received wages; while the villeins had
bought themselves off from the obligation of doing customary work by
paying a quit-rent.
</p>
<p>
We should like to know something of the way in which our ancestors farmed
their land, and fortunately several bailiffs have left us their account
books very carefully kept, and one Walter de Henley in 1250 wrote a book
on the <i>Art of Husbandry</i>, which gives us much information. The rent
of land was about sixpence per acre. They ploughed three times a year, in
autumn, April, and at midsummer, and used oxen for their plough-teams.
Women helped their husbands in ploughing and harvest work. An old writer
describes the farmer’s wife “walking by him with a long goad,
in a cutted cote cutted full high.” Pigs and poultry were numerous
on a mediaeval farm, but sheep were the source of the farmer’s
wealth. Large flocks of divers breeds roamed the hills and vales of rural
England, and their rich fleeces were sent to Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent
for the manufacture of cloth by the Flemish weavers. After the Black
Death, a great plague which ravaged the country in 1348, the labourers
were fewer in number, and their wages higher; hence the farmers paid
increased attention to their sheep, which yielded rich profits, and
required few labourers to look after them.
</p>
<p>
Prior to the advent of this grim visitor, the Great Plague, the prosperity
of our villages had greatly increased. The people were better fed and
better clothed than any of their neighbours on the Continent. Moreover
they were free men, and enjoyed their freedom. There was much happiness in
our English villages in those days, and “Merry England” was
not a misnomer. There were, however, two causes of suffering which for a
time produced untold wretchedness—two unwelcome visitors who came
very frequently and were much dreaded—famine and pestilence. There
is necessarily a sameness in the records of these pestilences.
</p>
<p>
The chief famine years were 1315 and 1316, but there is hardly any period
of five years from the death of Edward I. to the coming of Henry of
Richmond without these ghastly records of the sufferings of the people.
Disease not only arrested the growth of the population, but reduced it
considerably. It was mostly of a typhoid nature. The undrained soil, the
shallow stagnant waters which lay upon the surface of the ground, the
narrow and unhealthy homes, the filthy and neglected streets of the towns,
the excessive use of salted provisions and absence of vegetables,
predisposed the people to typhoid diseases, and left them little chance of
recovery when stricken down with pestilence.
</p>
<p>
The Great Plague arrived in England in 1348 from the shores of Italy,
whither it had been wafted from the East. It was probably carried to the
port of Bristol by travelling merchants, whence it spread with alarming
rapidity over the whole land. Whole villages were depopulated, and about
one-third of the people of England perished. It is difficult for us to
imagine the sorrow and universal suffering which the plague caused. Its
effects were, however, beneficial to the villagers who survived. Naturally
labourers became very scarce and were much sought after. Wages rose
enormously. The tenants and rustics discovered that they were people of
importance. Manor lords found it too expensive to farm their lands, and
were eager to hand them over to their tenants, many of whom became much
richer and more independent than formerly. The spirit of independence
pervaded all classes. There came to our village many wandering friars,
followers of Wiklif, who preached discontent to the labouring rustics,
told them that the gentry had no right to lord it over them, that they
were as good as their masters, who ought not to live in fine houses in
luxury supported by their toil and the sweat of their brows. And when
oppressive taxes were levied, the rustics revolted, and gained much for
which they strove. The golden age of the English labourer set in, when
food was cheap, wages high, and labour abundant. A fat pig could be bought
for fourpence, and three pounds of beef for a penny; and in spite of
occasional visits of the plague, the villager’s lot was by no means
unhappy.
</p>
<p>
Here is a picture of village life in those days. The village church stood
in the centre of the hamlet, with a carefully made fence around it, in
order that no swine or foul beast might desecrate the graves. Surrounded
by the churchyard, with its yew tree and lich-gate, the church was very
similar to the old building wherein the villagers still worship. All the
houses had thatched roofs, and chief among the other dwellings stood the
lord’s hall. Near the church was a curious building called the
church house, which has almost entirely passed away, except in the records
of old churchwardens’ accounts. It was a large building, in which
could be stored wool, lime, timber, sand, etc., and was often let to
pedlars, or wandering merchants, to deposit their goods during the fair.
</p>
<p>
In this building there was a long low room with a large fireplace and
hearth, around which a dozen or more could sit in comfort, except when the
wind blew the smoke down the wide, open chimney; but our ancestors were
accustomed to smoky chimneys, and did not mind them. In the centre of the
room was a large oak table. This was the scene of some very festive
gatherings. Aubrey thus describes the church house:—
</p>
<p>
“In every parish was a church house, to which belonged spits,
crocks, and other utensils for dressing provisions. Here the housekeepers
met. The young people were there too, and had dancing, bowling, shooting
at butts, etc., the ancients [<i>i.e.</i> old folks] sitting gravely by,
and looking on.”
</p>
<p>
The churchwardens bought, and received presents of, a large quantity of
malt, which they brewed into beer and sold to the company. Hence these
feasts were called “church ales,” and were held on the feast
of the dedication of the church, the proceeds being devoted to the
maintenance of the poor. Sometimes they were held at Whitsuntide also,
sometimes four times a year, and sometimes as often as money was wanted or
a feast desired. An arbour of boughs was erected in the churchyard on
these occasions called Robin Hood’s Bower, where the maidens
collected money for the “ales,” and “all went merry as a
marriage bell”—rather too merry sometimes, for the ale was
strong and the villagers liked it, and the ballad-singer was so merry, and
the company so hearty—and was it not all for a good cause, the
support of the poor? The character of these festivals deteriorated so
much, until at last “church ales” were prohibited altogether,
on account of the excess to which they gave rise.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link279" id="link279"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/279.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="279h.jpg (31K)" src="images/279h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /> AN ANCIENT VILLAGE <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
There was a large amount of gaiety in the old villages in those days. Men
were not in so great a hurry to grow rich as they are now. The Church
authorised many holidays in the course of the year; and what with May Day
festivities, Plough Mondays, Hocktide and Shrovetide sports, harvest
suppers, fairs, and “ales,” the villagers had plenty of
amusement, and their lives certainly could not be described as dull.
Sometimes the village would be enlivened by the presence of a company of
pilgrims on their way to the shrine of St. Thomas at Canterbury, or to
Holywell, blessed by St. Winifred, in order to be cured of some disease.
Although these pilgrims were deemed to be engaged on a religious duty,
they certainly were not generally very serious or sad. Chaucer describes a
very joyous pilgrimage in his <i>Canterbury Tales</i>, how the company met
at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark, including the knight and the abbot, the
prioress and the shipman, the squire and the merchant, the ploughman and
sompnour (or summoner, “of whose visage children were sore afeard”),
and rode forth gaily in the spring sunshine—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“The holy blissful martyr for to seek,<br /> That
them hath holpen when that they were sick.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Pilgrim crosses are numerous all over England, where the pilgrims halted
for their devotions by the way, and sometimes we find churches planted on
the roadside far from human habitations, with no parishioners near them;
and some people wonder why they were so built. These were pilgrim
churches, built for the convenience of the travellers as they wended their
way to Canterbury. The villages through which they passed must have been
much enlivened by the presence of these not very austere companies.
</p>
<p>
The ordinary lives of the farmers were diversified by the visits to the
weekly markets held in the neighbouring town, where they took their fat
capons, eggs, butter, and cheese. Here is a curious relic of olden times,
an ancient market proclamation, which breathes the spirit of former days,
and which was read a few years ago at Broughton-in-Furness, by the steward
of the lord of the manor, from the steps of the old market cross. These
are the words:—
</p>
<p>
“O yes, O yes, O yes![<a href="#linkb10">10</a>] The lord of the
manor of Broughton and of this fair and market strictly chargeth and
commandeth on Her Majesty’s behalf, that all manners of persons
repairing to this fair and market do keep Her Majesty’s peace, upon
pain of five pounds to be forfeited to Her Majesty, and their bodies to be
imprisoned during the lord’s pleasure. Also that no manner of person
within this fair and market do bear any bill, battle-axe, or other
prohibited weapons, but such as be appointed by the lord’s officers
to keep this fair or market, upon pain of forfeiture of all such weapons
and further imprisonment. Also, that no manner of person do pick any
quarrel, matter, or cause for any old grudge or malice to make any
perturbation or trouble, upon pain of five pounds, to be forfeited to the
lord, and their bodies to be imprisoned. Also, that none buy or sell in
corners, back sides, or hidden places, but in open fair or market, upon
pain of forfeiture of all such goods and merchandise so bought and sold,
and their bodies to imprisonment. Also, that no manner of persons shall
sell any goods with unlawful mete or measures, yards or weights, but such
as be lawful and keep the true assize, upon pain of forfeiture of all such
goods and further imprisonment. Lastly, if any manner of persons do here
find themselves grieved, or have any injuries or wrong committed or done
against them, let them repair to the lord or his officers, and there they
shall be heard according to right, equity, and justice. God save the Queen
and the lord of the manor!”
</p>
<p>
And besides the weekly markets there were the great annual fairs, which
lasted many days, and were frequented by all classes of the population.
These fairs were absolutely necessary for the trade of the country in the
days when few people travelled far from their own homesteads, and even the
towns with their small number of inhabitants did not afford a sufficient
market for the farmer’s and trader’s stock.
</p>
<p>
The greatest of all English fairs was held in the little village of
Stourbridge, near Cambridge, now almost absorbed by the University town.
Hither flocked merchants and traders from all parts of Europe. Flemish
merchants brought their fine linen and cloths from the great commercial
cities of Belgium. Genoese and Venetian traders came with their stores of
Eastern goods. Spaniards and Frenchmen brought their wines, and the
merchants of the Hanse towns of Germany sold furs and flax, ornaments and
spices, while in return for all these treasures our English farmers
brought the rich fleeces of their sheep, their corn, horses, and cattle.
The booths were planted in a cornfield, and the circuit of the fair, which
was like a well-governed city, was over three miles. The shops were built
in streets or rows, some named after the various nations that congregated
there, and others after the kind of goods offered for sale. There were
Garlick Row, Bookseller’s Row, Cook Row; there were a cheese fair, a
hop fair, a wool fair, and every trade was represented, together with
taverns, eating-houses, and in later years playhouses of various
descriptions. In the eighteenth century one hundred thousand pounds’
worth of woollen manufactures was sold in a week in one row alone. A
thousand pack-horses were used to convey the goods of the Lancashire
merchants to this famous fair. Now railways have supplanted the
pack-horses; fairs have had their day; the trade of the country can now be
carried on without them; and their relics with their shows and
shooting-galleries and steam roundabouts have become a nuisance.
</p>
<p>
The peaceful life of the villagers was sometimes disturbed by the sounds
and sights of conflict. The exciting tales of war are connected with the
history of many an English village, and many “little Wilhelmines”
and labouring “grandsires” have discovered “something
large and round,” traces of these ancient conflicts and “famous
victories.”
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“For often when they go to plough<br /> The
ploughshare turns them out,<br /> ‘And many
thousand men,’ quoth he,<br /> ‘Were slain in
that great victory.’”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Many a lance and sword, and gilt spur, beautifully enamelled, which once
decked the heel of a noble knight, have been found in our fields, and
remind us of those battles which were fought so long ago.
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“The knights
are dust,<br /> Their
good swords rust,<br /> Their souls are with the saints,
we trust.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Sometimes the spectres of armed knights and warriors are supposed to haunt
these scenes of ancient slaughter, and popular superstition has handed
down the memory of the battles which were fought so long ago. It tells us
of the mythical records of the fights of King Arthur and his Knights of
the Round Table by the banks of the River Douglas, which ran with blood
for three days, so terrible was the slaughter. It tells us how stubbornly
the Britons resisted the Roman armies, so that on one occasion not one
Briton was left to tell the tale of their defeat.
</p>
<p>
When we visit the site of some battle with the history book in our hand,
it is possible to imagine the lonely hillside peopled again with the dense
ranks of English archers, or hear the clanging of the armour as the
men-at-arms charged for “St. George and merry England”; and
the air will be full again of the battle-cries, of the groans of the
wounded and the shouts of the victors.
</p>
<p>
Visit the scene of the battle of Hastings. Here on the high ground,
flanked by a wood, stood the brave English, under the leadership of
Harold, with his banner, woven with gold and jewels, shining conspicuously
in the morning sunlight. Here they stood in the form of a wedge; there
they turned the Normans, and put them to flight. Then the Normans rallied,
pretended to fly, decoyed the brave English from their position, and by
stratagem succeeded in defeating them at last. Or go to the Madingley
Windmill, near Cambridge, and see the fifteen miles of rich drained
cornfields which intervene between “Ely’s stately fane”
and the spot on which you are standing. Here read Kingsley’s
well-known story of <i>Hereward; or, The Last of the English</i>, and
instead of the rich cornfields you will see that black abyss of mud and
bottomless slime into which sank the flower of Norman chivalry as they
tried to cross that treacherous bog to conquer the gallant Hereward and to
plunder the monastery of Ely, the last stronghold of the English. On they
came, thousands upon thousands, rushing along the floating bridge which
they had formed, until at last it gave way beneath the weight, and the
black slime swallowed up the miserable wretches.
</p>
<p>
Or let us take our stand on the Round Tower, near the summit of the Edge
Hill, and see the site of the first battle between the troops of Charles
I. and the soldiers of the Parliament. The whole of that green lane was
lined with troops. In a cottage which stood at our feet the king
breakfasted before the battle; from that mound he surveyed the forces of
the enemy. Just as the bells in yonder church had ceased to ring for
service on Sunday afternoon the cannon began to roar, and the fight
commenced. There Prince Rupert charged with headlong fury, carrying all
before him. And so we can follow the fortunes of the fight until the brave
Cavaliers retired to rest—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered<br />
The weary to sleep, and the wounded to die.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
The memory of many a fight is recorded in the names of the fields, places,
and hills on which the battle raged. Lichfield (<i>i.e.</i> the field of
the dead), Battlefield, Battle, Battleflats, Standard Hill, Slaughterford,
and many others, all tell the tale of war and slaughter.
</p>
<p>
In some parts of the country, especially in Oxfordshire, there are fine
avenues of trees, which appear to lead to a large house; but when you have
walked to the end of the trees there is nothing to be seen. These avenues
tell the tale of war, of the destruction of the manor-house of some old
Royalist who fought for his king when the “Roundheads” and
Cromwell’s “Ironsides” were more than a match for the
gallant Cavaliers. His house was destroyed, he and his sons killed, unless
they were fortunate enough to escape to France and wait the merry time
“when the king should enjoy his own again.” How many of our
uplands and gentle vales have been stained with blood, and seen the
terrible horrors of war, of which we in these favoured days know nothing
from our own experience! We read about the sad battles and sieges which
have taken place in other countries, but can hardly imagine the time when
hostile soldiers were riding through our village lanes, and the noise of
the cannon was booming in the distance, as on that famous Sunday morning
in October, 1642, when Richard Baxter was disturbed in his preaching at
Alcester by that strange sound, and knew that the terrible conflict had
begun between the king and Parliament. Our English villages suffered very
much. All farming was stopped, manor-houses destroyed, some of the best
blood in England spilt, and many a home made desolate. Indeed, in some
parts of the country the people had literally no bread to eat, and no
clothing to cover their nakedness; and Cromwell ordered collections to be
made in London for the relief of the distressed people in Lancashire. Then
the old clergyman was driven from his flock, and some commissioner
appointed who wrote in the register-books of the parish the names of the
children who were born, but did not record their baptism as the clergyman
did. And then some black-gowned Puritan, with his hair cut short, came and
took possession of the living, and preached very long sermons about
Cromwell “girding his sword upon his thigh,” and about blinded
Papists, and about Mahershalal-hash-baz, who made haste to divide the
spoil.
</p>
<p>
But in the glorious year 1660 everyone began to throw up his cap and
welcome right royally the king from over the water; and the long-faced
Puritan disappeared, and the writing in the register-books changed into
that of a scholarly hand; and many of our churches were enriched by
thankofferings of plate and other gifts, because the good people of
England rejoiced exceedingly that their loved Church and her services were
restored to them; and “the king at last enjoyed his own again.”
The memory of the adventures of King Charles II., when he was endeavouring
to escape from England after the last crushing defeat of the royal troops
at Worcester, called by Cromwell “the crowning mercy,” still
lingers in many of the country villages through which the unfortunate
monarch passed. The king and a few faithful followers avoided the towns,
passed the ford of the Salwarp at Hemford Mill, and proceeded by Chester
Lane to Broadwaters and Kinfare Heath. Presently they reached Brewood
Forest, where there stood two old hunting-lodges, built by the Giffards in
troublous times as hiding-places for proscribed Papists. They were called
White Ladies and Boscobel, and were inhabited by staunch Royalists named
Penderel; so the king knew he would be safe there. He was disguised as a
forester with leathern jerkin and trunk hose, his long hair cropped, and
his hands blackened. All day he lay concealed in a coppice, and in the
evening, under the name of Will Jackson, he supped with the Penderels, and
then tried to cross the Severn, but all the fords and bridges were
guarded. The next day he and Colonel Carlos remained concealed in a large
oak near Boscobel, and the memory of Royal Oak day is still preserved. He
had other narrow escapes, and was saved by Mistress Jane Lane, the
beautiful daughter of Colonel Lane. A pass had been obtained for her and
her groom to go to Abbot’s Leigh, near Bristol. The plan was
arranged that the king should act as groom; so Charles mounted his horse,
and Mistress Lane sat behind him on a pillion, and together they rode
through Warwickshire to Bristol. The king was nearly captured at Long
Marston, for some troopers of Cromwell suspected the party, and came to
examine the house where they rested. The cook, however, set Charles to
wind up the jack, and because he was awkward struck him with the
basting-ladle just as the soldiers entered the kitchen. Their suspicions
were thus removed; and in this old house the remains of the jack are still
preserved. The poor king was disappointed of his ship; the skipper
unfortunately told his wife that he was going to take the king to France,
and she was angry, and locked him up in his room, so that he could not
fulfil his engagement. At last Lord Wilmot procured a ship for the
fugitive king, who set sail joyfully from Shoreham, near Brighton, and
reached Paris in safety. There must have been great excitement in the
villages of England when the troopers were scouring the country in all
directions, and the unfortunate king was known to be wandering about
disguised as a servant.
</p>
<p>
If there are any hills or high ground in your neighbourhood commanding an
extensive view of the country, it is probable that in olden days a beacon
was placed there, so that the country might be aroused in case of an
invasion, and frequently we find that the tower of a church was used as a
beacon, and occasionally the iron brazier remains, as at Little Budworth,
Cheshire. When the Spaniards determined to invade England in the reign of
“Good Queen Bess,” and sent the Invincible Armada, consisting
of an enormous number of ships and men and guns, bonfires were placed on
every hill; and when a gallant merchant vessel brought the news that the
Spaniards were coming, the bonfires were lighted, and everyone prepared to
resist their attack. Macaulay has told us in very stirring verse of how
the news spread, as each fire was lighted,
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“From Eddystone to Berwick bounds, from Lynn to
Milford Bay”;
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
how Beachy Head caught the signal from St. Michael’s Mount, and sent
it swiftly over the country from tower to hill-top,
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Till Skiddaw saw the fire that burned on Gaunt’s
embattled pile,<br /> And the red glare of Skiddaw roused
the burghers of Carlisle.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Again, within the memory of the old inhabitants of your village, the hill
beacons were brought into use when Napoleon I. threatened to invade
England; and on January 31, 1803, by some mistake, the fire on Hume
Castle, in Berwickshire, was lighted; other beacons responded, and ere
morning dawned thousands were marching ankle-deep through the dense mud of
the winter roads to their appointed stations. The mistake was not without
its uses, as Napoleon saw that England was ready, and did not venture to
attack our shores. A similar accident took place in the reign of Henry
VIII. There was a conspiracy against the king by the Roman Catholics, who
did not like their monasteries being destroyed, called “The
Pilgrimage of Grace.” Beacons were erected on the heights of Pendel,
in Lancashire, and on the various hills of Yorkshire and Derbyshire; but
the beacon on Pendel was fired before the conspirators were quite ready
for action, and their plot came to nothing.
</p>
<p>
Once again in the history of our country were these beacon fires lighted;
but it was not to announce the approach of an enemy, but to reflect the
gladness of the nation which for so many years had enjoyed the reign of so
good a ruler as Queen Victoria, who has now passed away from us, and whom
the whole nation mourns. And as we witnessed the sudden blaze of the
beacons we thought, perhaps, of other occasions when they were used, and
were thankful that rejoicings and thanksgivings were the cause, and not
invasions or conspiracies.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb10" id="linkb10"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[10] This is a corruption of the old Norman-French word <i>oyez</i>,
“hear ye.”
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link21" id="link21"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XXI
</h2>
<h3>
VILLAGE SPORTS AND PASTIMES
</h3>
<p>
Decay of old sports—Twelfth Night—Shrovetide—Mothering
Sunday— Hocktide—May Day—Miracle plays—St. John’s
Day—Rush-bearing—Beating the bounds—Archery—Quintain—Football—Christmas
games—Stocks— Cucking-stool.
</p>
<p>
It is the custom of some writers to represent the lot of an English
villager in past ages as having been particularly hard and disagreeable;
to enlarge upon the scanty wages which he received; and to compare his
position unfavourably with that of the agricultural labourer of the
present day. I have already pointed out that the small wages which he
received are no test of his poverty, because he received so much more in
lieu of wages; and certainly he had far more opportunities of enjoyment
and recreation than the present generation has. Now we have scarcely any
village games or sports, except when some energetic rector or curate
starts a cricket club. Old social customs, which added such diversity to
the lives of the rustics two centuries ago, have died out. The village
green, the source of so much innocent happiness, is no more; and a recent
writer has observed that the ordinary existence of agricultural labourers
is so dull that in East Anglia they have almost forgotten how to laugh!
</p>
<p>
We will now try to realise how our village forefathers used to enjoy
themselves, how they used to spend their holidays, and to picture to
ourselves the scenes of happy social intercourse which once took place in
our own hamlet. Every season of the year had its holiday customs and
quaint manner of observance, some of them confined to particular counties,
but many of them universally observed.
</p>
<p>
On the eve of Twelfth Night, January 5th, we see the good farmer and his
labourers in Devonshire joining hands round his apple trees, and singing—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Here’s to thee, old
apple tree!<br /> Hence thou mayst bud, and whence thou
mayst blow!<br /> And whence thou mayst bear apples enow!<br />
Hats full! caps
full!<br /> Bushel,
bushel, sacks full,<br /> And my
pockets full too! Huzza!”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
A hearty supper followed, and with laughter, songs, and good wishes to the
farmer and his wife, the company passed a very joyous evening. In
Herefordshire, Yorkshire, and other parts of England similar customs
prevailed.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link294" id="link294"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/294.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="294h.jpg (38K)" src="images/294h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /> ANN HATHAWAY’S COTTAGE <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
Then followed Twelfth Night, which was celebrated by great rejoicings and
merry-makings, a game called the choosing of kings and queens being
played, and Twelfth Night cakes consumed in plenty. The next Monday was
called Plough Monday, when the labourers used to draw a plough round the
parish and receive presents of money, favouring the spectators with
sword-dancing and mumming, preparatory to beginning to plough after the
Christmas holidays. The men were decked out with gay ribbons, and were
accompanied by morris-dancers. The Christmas holidays lasted these twelve
days, and during them it was customary for the gentlemen to feast the
farmers, and for the farmers to feast their labourers. Then came the
Shrovetide festivities, on Shrove Tuesday, when pancakes, football, and
cock-fighting, and a still more barbarous custom of throwing sticks at
hens, were generally in vogue. On Mid-Lent Sunday, commonly called “Mothering
Sunday,” it was the pleasing custom for servants and apprentices to
carry cakes or furmity as presents to their mother, and to receive from
her a cake with her blessing. This was called “going a-mothering.”
The old poet Herrick alludes to the custom in Gloucestershire in these
words:—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“I’ll to thee a simnell bring,<br /> ’Gainst
thou go’st a-mothering;<br /> So that when she
blesseth thee,<br /> Half that blessing thou’lt
give me.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Then came the diversions of Hocktide, on the second Monday and Tuesday
after Easter, when the men and women intercepted the public on alternate
days with ropes, and boldly exacted money for pious purposes. There was a
Hocktide play, which was acted before Queen Elizabeth, and caused her much
amusement. She gave the players two bucks and five marks of money, which
delighted them exceedingly.
</p>
<p>
Very shortly afterwards the great rural festival of our forefathers took
place, the glad May Day, when, in the early dawn, the lads and lassies
left their towns and villages, and going into the woods to the sound of
music, gathered the may or blossomed branches of the tree, and bound them
with wreaths of flowers. At sunrise they returned, and decorated the
lattices and doors with the sweet-smelling spoil of their joyous journey,
and spent the rest of the day in sports and pastimes, and dancing round
the Maypole. The setting-up of the May-pole was a very joyous ceremony. A
long string of oxen, gaily decked with flowers, drew to the village green
the time-honoured pole, decked with streamers, flowers, and flags, where
it was raised amidst laughter and shouts; and the Queen of the May was
enthroned in an arbour and all danced round; and the morris-dancers, Robin
Hood, Friar Tuck, and Maid Marian performed wonderful antics as they led
the revels. Targets were set up at the other end of the green, and archery
formed an important part of the day’s pleasures. The preachers at
the time of the Reformation thought the people made an idol of the
Maypole, and condemned the innocent amusements, which were revived again
when Charles II. came to the throne. After May Day our villagers had not
long to wait until the Whitsuntide holiday came round—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“A day of jubilee,<br /> An
ancient holiday;<br /> When, lo! the rural revels are
begun,<br /> And gaily echoing to the laughing sky,<br />
On the smooth-shaven green,<br /> Resounds
the voice of mirth.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
I have already given a description of these Whitsuntide rejoicings in a
preceding chapter.
</p>
<p>
Then there were the miracle plays, or “mysteries,” as they
were called, in June, on Corpus Christi Day, which were performed before
the Reformation, principally in the neighbourhood of large monasteries;
Coventry, Chester, London, York being specially renowned for these
performances. The subjects were taken from Holy Scripture, or from the
lives of saints, and were intended to teach the people religious
knowledge, but the scenes were disfigured by many absurdities and
grotesque perversions. Their history is a curious one, too long to enter
upon in this chapter; but often in the open fields, at the bottom of
natural amphitheatres, were these plays performed, very similar in
construction to the famous passion play performed by the peasants, at Ober
Ammergau, in Bavaria, the last surviving specimen of the ancient religious
drama.
</p>
<p>
Then there were the bonfires to be lighted on St. John’s Day upon
the hillsides, and the dance of the young people around them, the more
venturesome youths leaping through the flames, all carrying home the
firebrands and forming a glad procession. Afterwards followed the busy
harvest-time, when everyone was too hard at work, and too tired at the end
of the day’s labours, to think of holiday-making; but at length came
the harvest home, when the last sheaf was gathered in, and the harvest
supper was a very joyous occasion. With light hearts, smiling faces, and
cheerful shouts, the harvest labourers and their wives and children,
carrying green boughs, a sheaf of wheat, and rude flags, formed a glad
procession to the farmer’s house, where they found the fuelled
chimney blazing wide, and “the strong table groaning beneath the
smoking sirloin.” The feast over, they retired to some near hillock,
and made the welkin ring with their shouts, “Holla, holla, holla,
largess!”—largess being the presents of money and good things
which the farmer had bestowed. Such was the harvest home in the good old
days, a joy and delight to both old and young. Shorn of much of its
merriment and quaint customs, it still lingers on; but modern habits and
notions have deprived it of much of its old spirit and light-heartedness.
</p>
<p>
The floors of the old churches were formerly unpaved and unbearded, simply
made of clay, and were covered over with rushes. Once a year there was a
great ceremony, called “rush-bearing.” Rushes were cut in the
neighbouring marsh, and made up into long bundles, decked with ribands and
flowers. Then a procession was formed, everyone bearing a bundle of
rushes, or placing them in the rush-cart beautifully adorned; and with
music, drums, and ringing of bells, they marched to the church and strewed
the floor with their honoured burdens. Long after the rushes ceased to be
used in church the ceremony was continued, and I have myself witnessed a
rush-bearing procession such as I have described. A village feast,
followed by dancing round the May-pole, generally formed the conclusion to
the day’s festivities.
</p>
<p>
“Beating the bounds” of the parish was another annual
ceremony, which often took place on Ascension Day and is still in use at
Oxford. Boundaries of property were not so clearly defined in those days
as they are now; and hedgerows, walls, and railings were scarce. The
bounds of the parish were often marked by trees, called “gospel
trees,” because the clergyman used to read the gospel for the day
under their shade. The people carried a processional cross and willow
wands, and boys were generally flogged at the boundaries, or ducked in the
river, if that constituted a boundary, in order to impress upon their
memories where the bounds were. The village feast afterwards made some
amends to them for their harsh treatment.
</p>
<p>
The village sports were a great source of enjoyment, and were frequently
indulged in. The time-honoured archery developed the skill of our English
bowmen, and won for them many a battle before the days of gunpowder and
cannons. Then there was the very ancient game of the quintain, which
consisted of an upright post with a cross-post turning upon a pin. At one
end of the latter was a broad board, at the other a heavy sand-bag. The
play, which required skill and dexterity, was to ride against the broad
end with a lance, and pass by before the sandbag, swinging round, could
strike the player to the ground. This was a common sport at wedding
festivities. There were also the games of singlestick, cudgelling, and
wrestling, which had many votaries, and the famous game of quarter-staff,
so general in Berkshire, and so graphically described in <i>The Scouring
of the White Horse</i>, by Mr. Hughes. An old parishioner of mine was the
reputed champion of this game, which has now almost died out. Football is
an ancient sport, and the manner formerly in vogue most nearly resembles
the game authorised by the Rugby rules. The football was thrown down in
the churchyard, and the object was to carry it perhaps two or three miles,
every inch of ground being keenly contested. “Touch-downs”
were then unknown, but it is evident from old records that “scrimmages”
and “hacking” were much in vogue. Sack-racing, grinning
through horse-collars, running after pigs with greased tails, were some of
the lighter forms of amusement which pleased the villagers.
</p>
<p>
Then in the winter evenings there were “carols” to be
practised for Christmas, and each village boasted of its own musicians,
who played violins, flutes, clarionets, and other instruments in church,
before the days of harmoniums and organs. Their music might not be of a
very first-rate order, but they delighted in it, took an interest in it;
and how pleased they were to take part in the service, and to play over
their favourite hymn tunes, with a great many twirls and variations, to
their children during the winter evenings! Christmas brought its
accustomed merry-makings. In the north every farmer gave two feasts, one
called “t’ ould foaks’ neet,” and the other
“t’ young foaks’ neet.” Here is Sir Walter Scott’s
description of an ancient Christmas:—
</p>
<p>
<br />
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“And well our Christian sires of old<br /> Loved
when the year its course had roll’d<br /> And
brought blithe Christmas back again,<br /> With all its
hospitable train.<br /> Domestic and religious rite<br />
Gave honour to the holy night:<br /> On
Christmas Eve the bells were rung;<br /> On Christmas Eve
the Mass was sung;<br /> That only night in all the year<br />
Saw the staled priest the chalice rear.<br /> The
damsel donn’d her kirtle sheen;<br /> The hall was
dressed with holly green;<br /> Forth to the wood did
merry men go,<br /> To gather in the mistletoe.<br />
Then open wide the baron’s hall,<br /> To
vassal, tenant, serf, and all;<br /> Power laid his rod
of rule aside,<br /> And Ceremony doft’d his pride.<br />
The heir with roses in his shoes,<br /> That
night might village partner choose;<br /> The lord,
underogating, share<br /> The vulgar game of ‘post
and pair.’<br /> All hailed with uncontrolled
delight<br /> The general voice, the happy night,<br />
That to the cottage, as the crown,<br /> Brought
tidings of salvation down.<br /> <br /> “The
fire, with well-dried logs supplied,<br /> Went roaring
up the chimney wide;<br /> The huge hall-table’s
oaken face<br /> Scrubb’d till it shone, the day of
grace,<br /> Bore then upon its massive board<br /> No
mark to part the squire and lord.<br /> Then was brought
in the lusty brawn,<br /> By old blue-coated serving man;<br />
Then the grim boar’s head frowned on high<br />
Crested with bays and rosemary.<br /> Well
can the green-garb’d ranger tell<br /> How, when,
and where the monster fell;<br /> What dogs before his
death he tore,<br /> And all the baiting of the boar;<br />
While round the merry wassail bowl,<br /> Garnished
with ribbons, blithe did trowl.<br /> Then the huge
sirloin reek’d: hard by<br /> Plum-porridge stood,
and Christmas pie;<br /> Nor fail’d old Scotland to
produce<br /> At such high time her savoury goose.<br />
Then came the merry maskers in,<br /> And
carols roared with blithesome din;<br /> If unmelodious
was the song,<br /> It was a hearty note, and strong.<br />
Who lists may in this mumming see<br /> Traces
of ancient mystery;<br /> White shirts supply the
masquerade,<br /> And smutted cheeks the visor made;<br />
But, oh! what masquers, richly dight,<br /> Can
boast of bosoms half so light!<br /> England was merry
England when<br /> Old Christmas brought his sports
again.<br /> ’Twas Christmas broach’d the
mightiest ale;<br /> ’Twas Christmas told the
merriest tale.<br /> A Christmas gambol oft would cheer<br />
A poor man’s heart through half the year.”
</p>
<br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Such was the manner of keeping Christmas in olden times; and if “the
mightiest ale” was sometimes too mighty, and although the
intemperance of our forefathers was a vice much to be deplored, at any
rate their hearty manner of keeping this annual feast was effectual in
promoting “goodwill amongst men,” and in cheering the hearts
of the poor.
</p>
<p>
In this chapter I have attempted to show the varied amusements and
recreations in which our village ancestors took part. On the old village
green, which in too many of our villages has been inclosed and become a
thing of the past, many of these sports and pastimes once took place.
There stood the village stocks, in which the refractory paid the penalty
of their misdeeds; and sometimes, too, a pillory was added, which held
fast the head, arms, and legs of the culprit, while the villagers, rude
vindicators of the law, threw stones, rotten eggs, and other missiles at
the unhappy victim. At the edge of the pond you might have seen a long
plank which turned on a swivel, with a chair at the end overhanging the
water. This was called a “cucking-stool,” and was used to duck
scolds or brawlers. The culprit was placed in the chair, and the other end
of the plank was raised several times, so that the ardour of the culprit
was effectually cooled by frequent immersions. These were rough methods of
administering justice, but often very effectual in checking vice.
</p>
<p>
The social customs which formerly existed in each village, the sports and
pastimes associated with the village green, the May Day festivals, and the
Christmas carollings were of great value, inasmuch as they tended to
infuse some poetical feeling into the minds of the people, softened the
rudeness of rustic manners, and gave the villagers simple pleasures which
lightened their labours. They prevented them from growing hard, grasping,
and discontented with their lot. They promoted good feeling between the
farmers and their labourers. The customs of the town were a poor exchange
for the ancient country manners and amusements; and it was a sad day for
our country when the villagers lost their simplicity and the power of
appreciating the primitive pleasures of rural England.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link303" id="link303"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/303.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="303h.jpg (22K)" src="images/303h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br />OLD STOCKS AND WHIPPING-POST <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <a name="link22"
id="link22"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XXII
</h2>
<h3>
THE VILLAGE INN
</h3>
<p>
Monastic inns—Village inns—Highwaymen—Inn signs—Famous
inns— Man-traps.
</p>
<p>
In almost every village in England there is an inn. Before the Reformation
there were very few of these hostelries, as travellers were always
accommodated at the monasteries, each of which, as we have seen, had a
hospitium, or guest-house, where their wants were attended to by special
officers appointed for the purpose, and where they could remain for
several days. But the destruction of the monasteries produced many changes
in the condition of the country; it introduced the necessity of a poor
law, for the poor were always relieved by the monasteries; it required the
erection of schools and places for education, as all the education of the
country had been carried on in these monastic buildings; and when the old
guesthouses ceased to exist, travellers, merchants, and pedlars required
some place in which to lodge when they moved about the country, and inns
became plentiful as time went on. Hence in almost every village in England
there is an inn, which is generally a landmark; and if you wish to direct
a stranger to some place where he desires to go, you doubtless tell him to
turn to the right by “The Bull,” or to keep straight on until
he comes to “The Magpie.” Indeed, a friend of mine, who is a
strong teetotaler, asserts that the only good use inns have is to help
people to find their road. But old inns have a great history. In former
days they used to be meeting-places of plotters and conspirators. All the
distinguished people in the country used to pass through the villages and
towns on the great roads through the country, and when the horses were
being changed they used to partake of the good fare which the landlord
provided. Those were busy times for the old inns, when there was stabling
for fifty or sixty horses, and the coaches used to rattle through the
village to the inn door long before the iron horses began to drag their
freight of passengers along the iron roads, and the scream of the engines
took the place of the cheerful notes of the posthorn.
</p>
<p>
Sometimes a gentleman would ride to an inn door on a beautiful,
fleet-looking steed, and receive a hearty welcome from the landlord; but
the pistols in his belt looked ominous, and presently some soldiers would
steal noiselessly into the inn where the gentleman was refreshing himself,
and there would be heard the sounds of vigorous fighting; and often, in
some wonderful way, Claude Duval or the noted Dick would fight his way
out, whistle to his steed, jump into the saddle, and ride away before his
less nimble pursuers had recovered from their astonishment. Very many
exciting scenes have taken place in our old inns, but in these days
railways have changed all things; and in many streets where the coaches
used to rattle along, and the place was alive with merry sounds, the moss
now grows, and all is silence and desolation. We should certainly think it
inconvenient to take three days to travel from London to Bath, and it
would not be pleasant to have a visit from Dick Turpin on the way, and to
have all one’s valuables appropriated by that notorious highwayman;
but in these days of worry and busy bustling it would be refreshing to
catch a glimpse of those quiet times when people were not so much in a
hurry, and to hear the sound of the posthorn once more instead of the
whistle of the steam-engine.
</p>
<p>
The quaint-looking pictures and curious names which attract our notice as
we pass an inn door have some queer stories to tell. We notice a very
curious collection of animals sometimes, and a strange assortment of
things; and the reason why our ancestors put some of these curious things
together is somewhat difficult for us to find out. In olden days, other
houses of tradesmen besides inns had signs. Grocers, tailors,
candlestick-makers, all had signs; but most of these have disappeared,
except one belonging to a certain sweep of my acquaintance, whose house is
adorned with the figure of a man coming out of a globe, with the motto,
“Help me through the world.” Over their doors barbers still
have their poles, which represented once the fact that the barber was
prepared to bandage up wounded arms and legs, and to perform the office of
blood-letting; the stripes on the pole were intended to represent the
bandages, and the barber was the surgeon of the town. We do not seem to
have so much blood to spare as our forefathers, as the barber always bled
his customers once or twice a year, especially in the springtime, the
operation being considered very beneficial.
</p>
<p>
One reason for the curious mixture of animals and other things which we
see on signboards is that an apprentice, when he had finished his time and
begun to set up for himself, adopted some sign, and then joined with it
the sign of his old master. This will account for such curiosities as
“The Lamb and Dolphin,” “The Goose and Gridiron,”
“The Fox and Seven Stars,” combinations of things for which it
would otherwise be difficult to account. Another reason is that signs were
taken from the armorial bearings, or crests, of some popular character, or
of some great family in the neighbourhood. For example, I may mention
“The Bear with the Ragged Staff,” which was the crest of
Richard Nevil, Earl of Warwick, commonly called “The Kingmaker,”
who was slain in the battle of Barnet, 1471 A.D. “The Blue Boar”
was one of the badges of the House of York. “The Bull” is a
very common sign, because it was a very common crest, and we have them in
all colours—black, red, white; lions also rage in blue, white, and
red attire. Sometimes we meet with “The Cross Keys,” the
keeper of which was probably an old servant or tenant of an abbey or
monastery, and chose his sign from that of the monastery with which he was
connected. Frequently, in olden times, a cross was erected at the meeting
of two or three roads, or where the pilgrims to Canterbury used to pass;
afterwards an inn was built near it, and was, in many cases, called the
Cross Inn.
</p>
<p>
One very common cause of curious signs is the way in which the original
word has been corrupted by ignorant people frequently repeating words
which they did not understand, and thus changing their whole meaning. You
may have seen an inn described as “The Swan with Two Necks”—a
very rare bird indeed. But it was never intended to disfigure the bird by
giving it two necks; the original sign was “The Swan with Two <i>Nicks</i>”
and nicks were the marks which were cut on a swan’s bill to
distinguish it from other swans, so that it might be known to whom the
bird belonged. But <i>nicks</i> became <i>necks</i> in course of
conversation, until at last a fabulous creature with two beautifully
curved necks appeared on the signboard. This same cause will account for
the two strange signs, “Bull and Gate” and “Bull and
Mouth.” The original signs were “Boulogne Gate” and
“Boulogne Mouth,” <i>i.e.</i> the gate and harbour of the town
of Boulogne, in France, which was captured by the English under King Henry
VIII. in the year 1544. The English were very pleased to hear of the
defeat of the French, and of the taking of that important town, and
several inns were named in honour of the event; but the French “Boulogne”
was too much for our good English mouths to speak, so it became “Bull
and.”
</p>
<p>
Another name which puzzled our forefathers was “<i>La Belle Sauvage</i>”
(“the Beautiful Savage”), which was named after a noted savage
beauty who was the rage at Paris. Others assert that the name of the
landlady was Isabella Savage, shortened into Bella Savage. However, in
course of time the name was altered into “Bell and Savage,”
and a picture representing this odd combination stood over the door. In
the same way the original sign, “Whip and Nag,” between which
there is often a very close connection, became “Whip and Egg”;
and the reason why these two articles should be placed together is not so
evident. So also there does not seem any reason for an inn to be called
“Bag o’ Nails”; but when we are told that the original
word was “Bacchanals,” <i>i.e.</i> followers of Bacchus, the
old god of wine, we can understand how the corruption, “Bag o’
Nails,” arose. Before the days of licensing, when everyone could
sell liquor who chose without obtaining any licence from the magistrates,
it was the custom to put a bush over the doorway, in order to inform the
passers-by that liquor could be purchased there. This is the origin of the
saying, “Good wine needs no bush.”
</p>
<p>
<a name="link310" id="link310"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/310.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="310h.jpg (37K)" src="images/310h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /> VILLAGE INN WITH OLD TITHE BARN OF READING ABBEY <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
“The Catherine Wheel” tells us the sad story of St. Catherine,
who was born at Alexandria, and for converting fifty heathen philosophers
to Christianity was sentenced by the Emperor Maxentius to death on a
wheel, devised by most ingenious cruelty, armed with knives, saws, and
nails. It is recorded that she was rescued from this fate, but was
afterwards beheaded (305 A.D.). It is curious that this instrument of
torture and the story of St. Catherine’s heroism should be recorded
on a signboard. But it may have been brought before the public by a
certain miracle play, founded on the life of St. Catherine, which used to
be performed on festival days. However, the Catherine wheel appears
frequently on the coats-of-arms of several families, and it may be that
the sign was taken from these.
</p>
<p>
“The George,” also, is a very popular sign; and the “St.
George of merry England” is the patron saint of this country, and
the battle-cry of her knights and yeomen of ancient days. Who does not
remember that stirring scene on St. George’s Mount during the
Crusades, described in Sir Walter Scott’s <i>Talisman</i>, when King
Richard tore down the Austrian banner, which the Austrian monarch had
dared to erect beside the Royal Standard of England? St George is
generally represented as slaying a dragon. He was a soldier who served
gallantly under the Emperor Diocletian, and commanded a legion of
soldiers; he was a Christian, and by the dragon whom he slew is meant the
devil, red with the blood of the Christians. So popular a personage as St.
George, whose name inspired our ancestors with courage, and was often
borne by them into the heart of the foe, would soon be recorded in
paintings and become a general sign. “The Goat” is a common
sign, and is taken from the crest of the Duke of Bedford; but “The
Goat and Compasses” has puzzled many people as to its origin. It
appears to be a corruption of a pious expression, “God encompasseth
us”; and this shows how strangely words may be twisted and converted
by ignorant and careless usage.
</p>
<p>
There are some very noted inns where great events have taken place,
amongst which I may mention the Bull Inn at Coventry. Here Henry VII. was
entertained the night before the battle of Bosworth Field, when he won for
himself the English crown. Here Mary Queen of Scots was detained by order
of Elizabeth. Here the conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot met to devise
their scheme for blowing up the Houses of Parliament. And when the
citizens refused to open their gates to Charles I. and his soldiers, no
doubt there were great disputings amongst the frequenters of “The
Bull” as to what would be the result of their disloyal refusal.
</p>
<p>
Some of the inns in remote country places did not enjoy a very enviable
reputation, and were little better than man-traps, where the unfortunate
traveller was robbed and murdered. At Blewbury, in Berkshire, there was an
inn, the landlord of which was suspected of murdering his guests with
great secrecy and mystery, and no one could tell what he did with the
bodies of the victims he was supposed to have murdered. A few years ago an
old tree in the neighbourhood of the inn was blown down, and on digging up
the roots a skeleton was found among them. People wondered how it could
have been placed there, but at last a very old inhabitant told the story
of the mysterious disappearance of the bodies of the late landlord’s
guests, and the mystery was at length accounted for. Whenever he slew a
man he planted a tree, placing the body of the murdered victim beneath it.
The constables never thought of looking there; and probably under every
tree which he planted (and there were several), when their roots are dug
up, the bones of his numerous victims will be discovered.
</p>
<p>
Another story is connected with the old “Hind’s Head” at
Bracknell, which was another of these mantraps, where many travellers
slept to rise no more. One winter’s night a stout-hearted farmer
stayed there, and joined several jovial companions round the kitchen fire.
They ate and drank merrily, and at last the serving-maid showed the
traveller to his chamber. She told him that he was surrounded by robbers
and murderers, showed him a trap-door at the side of the bed, on which if
he stepped he would tumble headlong into a deep well. She directed him to
tie the bed into a bundle, put it on the trap-door, and escape by the
window. He did so; down went the bundle, instead of the farmer, into the
well, and he managed to effect his escape. Rousing the neighbourhood he
captured the villains, who were all executed, and the bones of many of
their victims were found in the well. Happily such inns were rare.
</p>
<p>
To describe the conditions of the old inns for which England was famous,
of the good fare which awaited the travellers by the coach, of the
spacious corridors, of the comfortable beds hung with silk and smelling of
lavender; to tell of all the great folk who entered their doors—kings,
queens, poets, generals, highwaymen, statesmen, grooms, conspirators,
coachmen—all this would require much space to relate. When railways
came in, their ancient glory departed; the old stables are destroyed;
grass grows in the courtyard; and the object of their existence has almost
ceased to be.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="link23" id="link23"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
CHAPTER XXIII
</h2>
<h3>
VILLAGE SUPERSTITIONS AND FOLKLORE
</h3>
<p>
Belief in witches—Survival of water ordeal—Witches turned into
hares— Cruelties practised on witches—Bishop Jewel on the
“evil eye”— Fairies—Berkshire popular
superstitions—Field-names—Homes of famous men—Washington
Irving’s description of an English village—Rural exodus—Conclusion.
</p>
<p>
There is yet another class of subjects connected with old village life, of
absorbing interest and importance. I refer to the old superstitions and
folklore which still linger on in the recollections of the “oldest
inhabitant,” and which ought to be at once treasured up, lest they
should be altogether lost. The generation of those who believed firmly in
the power of the “evil eye” of the witch, and who feared to
disturb the revels of the fairies on their rings and mounds, is only just
passing away. An old gipsy has told me some strange stories of the
superstitions of former days. He has told me of the witch at Farnham who
made the cows wild and prevented them from giving milk; of another witch
who lived at Henley-on-Thames, and who when thrown into the river “floated
like a cork.” Here we have a survival of the old Saxon method of
trying culprits by the water ordeal, often used in examining witches. This
particular witch could turn herself into a hare, so my venerable gipsy
friend, aged one hundred and six years, informed me, and the dogs hunted
her. He told me of the Tadley witch, who “wished” several
people, and greatly injured them. It seems to have been a common practice
of the old witches to turn themselves into hares, in order to vex the
squires, justices, and country parsons, who were fond of hunting, as the
old dames could elude the speed of the swiftest dogs. An old writer states
“that never hunters nor their dogs may be bewitched, they cleave an
oaken branch, and both they and their dogs pass over it.” Mary Dore,
a witch of Beaulieu, Hampshire, used to turn herself into a hare in order
to escape detection when caught in the act of wood-stealing, to which she
was somewhat addicted.
</p>
<p>
Old women were rather harshly used in the days when people believed in the
power of witches. If any farmer’s cattle died, it was immediately
concluded that the animals were bewitched; and some wretched old woman was
singled out, and summarily tried and burnt. If anyone fell ill, some
“witch” had evidently a waxen image of the sufferer, and stuck
needles into it; and such was the power of the witch that, wherever the
person was, he felt the stab of the cruel needle. Hence the witch had to
be found and burnt. If the corn crops failed, was not witchcraft the
cause? for had not old Mother Maggs been heard to threaten Farmer Giles,
and had not her black cat been seen running over his fields? Even good
Bishop Jewel did not disbelieve in the power of the evil eye. In preaching
before Queen Elizabeth he said: “It may please Your Grace to
understand that witches and sorcerers are marvellously increased within
Your Grace’s realm. Your Grace’s subjects pine away even unto
the death, their colour fadeth, their flesh rotteth, their speech is
benumbed, their senses are bereft. I pray God they never practise further
than on the subject.” To so great an extent did faith in the witches’
fatal power prevail. Our forefathers used to believe in the existence of
other, and more pleasant little companions than the old toothless witches—the
bright little fairies who, on account of the neglect which they have
received from the present generation of Englishmen, have, so it is
reported, left our shores in disgust, never to return. The previous
inhabitants of our villages did not so treat them; and did not the fairies
always bring them luck? They nailed the horseshoe to the stable door to
keep out the witches, lest the old beldams should ride their steeds by
night to the witches’ revels; but no one wished to exclude the
fairies. Did not the dairymaids find the butter ready churned, and the
cows milked by these kind assistants? Was there not an old lady in
Yorkshire who knew all about the fairies, had often heard them making
butter, and had seen the butter smeared all over the gate by a little
green man with a queer cap who had been seen slipping under a culvert?
Canon Atkinson told us of this lady who knew all these strange things, and
of the Hart Hall “Hob” who worked so hard with his flail, and
of many other curious folk who frequented the Yorkshire moors in olden
days. The last witch had just died before he went to Danby, but he found
the whole atmosphere of the folklore firmament so surcharged with the
being and work of the witch, that he seemed able to trace her presence and
her activity in almost every nook and corner of the neighbourhood.
</p>
<p>
The wells all over England were haunted by fairies, and is it not
confidently asserted that “the good people” (as the fairies
are called) live in wilds and forests, and shun great cities because of
the wickedness which exists therein? Have they never appeared to the
lonely traveller, clothed in green, with long hair floating over their
shoulders, and with faces more blooming than the blush of a summer
morning? Then there were the fairy rings formed by the dancing of their
merry feet.
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“Some say the screech-owl, at each midnight hour,<br />
Awakes the fairies in yon ancient tower.<br /> Their
nightly dancing ring I always dread,<br /> Nor let my
sheep within that circle tread;<br /> When round and
round all night, in moonlight fair,<br /> They dance to
some strange music in the air.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Then there were brownies; and knockers, who worked in mines, and showed
rich veins of silver; and elves—all of whom were included in old
village superstitions, and many were the tales told of the good deeds they
did, and the luck they brought. Nor must we forget the story of the
invisible smith who inhabited Wayland Smith’s Cave, in Berkshire.
Whenever a farmer tied up his horse in the cave, and left the money on a
particular stone, on his return he found his horse shod by the kind
efforts of the invisible smith. There is also the old Berkshire story of
the old witch who lived in a cave by the roadside, and who, by the power
of her “evil eye,” could stop the strongest team of horses, so
that, however much the carters lashed and swore at them, the animals would
not budge an inch until she permitted them to go. Here are a few of the
common superstitions current in Berkshire. If a corpse be kept over a
Sunday another death will occur before the week is out; should a big
bumble-bee enter the window, a guest may be expected; and when the
woodpecker, commonly called the yaffle, laughs, they say the rain is
coming. When the thick mist lies in the valley, the people say it is the
White Lady, a belief closely akin to the Dame Blanche, who is said in
Normandy to haunt streams. If one row of freshly sown seeds or potatoes
does not come up, it foretells a death in the family. If a girl mends her
clothes on her back, she risks having a drunken husband. A screech-owl is
unlucky, and so also is it if a bird fly against the window.
</p>
<p>
A woman came to the rectory a few years ago for a drop of sacramental
wine, which she wanted for an infant who had “the graspings.”
This complaint I discovered to be a craving for something, accompanied by
restlessness; and it was supposed that a drop of sacramental wine would
cure an infant so troubled. If the mother before the child was born craved
for drink, this craving was communicated to the child, and could only be
remedied by a drop of wine used in Holy Communion. This superstition,
which I have met with elsewhere, probably is a relic of pre-Reformation
days, and of sacramental Reservation.
</p>
<p>
A tramp was passing through a Hampshire village a short time ago, and
calling at a house, begged for a glass of water. The woman who lived there
said that she was sorry she could not give him water to drink, as there
was a child in the house unbaptised, and therefore it would be unlucky.
The origin of this superstition it is difficult to trace.
</p>
<p>
These are some of the legends and superstitions which linger amongst us.
Every neighbourhood has its stories, its legends, and romantic histories.
It is a sad pity that these should pass away without any record being
made. Many curious customs and ceremonies relating to christenings,
marriages, and burials linger in remote hamlets; and charms, curious
remedies, and other relics of the quaint superstitions of our forefathers,
are full of interest to the lover of our English villages.
</p>
<p>
As we walk in the fields, or study the old map of the parish, the names of
the fields invite our attention. These are full of interest, and often
tell us about matters which would be entirely forgotten. Some names tell
us of the great forests which used to exist all over the country, when
kings and noblemen, outlaws and poachers, used to hunt the deer and the
wild boars in many a successful run. These forests were large tracts of
country in its natural state, partly wood, partly heather and grass, which
were owned by the king, and were especially brought under the harsh forest
laws of the Norman sovereigns.
</p>
<p>
Some of our field-names remind us of the existence of these old forests
where corn now grows, and also of swamps and islands where everything now
is dry and far removed from water. Sometimes they tell us of the old
common lands which used to be farmed by the villeins and borderers, and of
the strange way in which they used to manage their farming. Each man used
to keep one or more oxen for the village plough until they made up the
team into eight; then they ploughed the land in strips of an acre or
half-acre each, divided by a bit of unploughed turf called a balk. Each
strip was a furlong, <i>i.e.</i> a “furrow long,” <i>i.e.</i>
the length of the drive of a plough before it is turned. This was forty
rods, or poles, and four of these furrows made up the acre. These pieces
of land were called “shots,” and there were “headlands,”
or common field-ways, to each shot; and “gored acres,” which
were corners of the fields which could not be cut up into strips, and odds
and ends of unused land, which were called “No Man’s Land,”
or “Jack’s Land.” It is curious, too, that all the
strips belonging to one man did not lie together, but were scattered all
over the common land, which must have been a very inconvenient arrangement
for farming purposes. There were also in each village community a
blacksmith, whose duty it was to keep in repair the ironwork of the
village ploughs, a carpenter for the woodwork, and a pound-keeper, or
punder, who looked after the stray cattle. Many of the “balks”
still remain on the hillsides where these old common lands existed, and
the names of the fields bear witness to the prevalence of this old field
system.
</p>
<p>
They tell us, too, of the way in which attempts were made to force the
growth of particular crops, and in many parishes you will find a “flax
piece,” which reminds us of a foolish Act of Henry VIII. ordering
the cultivation of that plant. Metals, too, which have long ago been
worked out, and trades which no longer exist, have left their traces
behind in the names of our lanes and fields. Also they speak of the early
days when the wolf or the bear might be seen in our woods or fields, or of
the beaver which loved the quietude of our streams, of the eagle which
carried off the lambs undisturbed by sound of the keeper’s gun.
Sometimes he was disturbed in his thefts by the flight of a good strong
English arrow, which came from a sturdy English bow drawn by a good strong
English arm. The English archers were famous everywhere, and many a battle
has been won by their valour and their skill. A law was passed in the
reign of Edward IV. that every Englishman should have a bow of his own
height, and that butts for the practice of archery should be set up in
every village; and every man was obliged to shoot up and down on every
feast-day, or be fined one halfpenny. Consequently, in some villages we
find a field called “The Butts,” where this old practice took
place.[<a href="#linkb11">11</a>]
</p>
<p>
Many villages are associated with the lives of distinguished men—authors,
soldiers, and statesmen. Perhaps your village may have bred other poets
besides “the mute inglorious Milton” of Gray’s <i>Elegy</i>.
Not far from where I am writing was Pope’s early home, the village
of Binfield, which he calls—
</p>
<table summary="poems">
<tr>
<td>
<p>
“My paternal home,<br /> A little
house, with trees arow,<br /> And, like its master, very
low.”
</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
On the other side lies the village of Three Mile Cross, where Miss Mitford
lived and wrote “Our Village”; and Arborfield, called in her
book Arborleigh, about which she tells some pleasant stories, is the
adjoining parish. Sometimes, as I ride down a grassy lane, a favourite
haunt of the distinguished authoress, I seem to see her seated on a fallen
tree weaving her pretty romances, while her favourite dog, which she often
describes, plays and barks around her. A few miles in another direction
lies Eversley, the loved abode of Charles Kingsley, about whom many
stories linger in the countryside. To visit the uncomfortable brick-paved
study where he wrote, the garden where he used to pace and think out his
great thoughts, is delightfully refreshing and invigorating to a jaded
writer.
</p>
<p>
<a name="link323" id="link323"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a
href="images/323.jpg">ENLARGE</a>
</p>
<div class="fig" style="width:80%">
<img alt="323h.jpg (34K)" src="images/323h.jpg" width="100%" /><br />
</div>
<p>
<br /> OLD COTTAGES <br /><br />
</p>
<p>
These are only instances of places which have become interesting on
account of the famous men who once lived in them; and England has many
heroes of the sword and pen whose lives each Englishman should study; and
when you visit their dwelling-places you will recall their achievements,
and perhaps endeavour to imitate their examples. Here is an instance of
how little the villagers know of the distinguished men who once lived
amongst them. The great Duke of Wellington did not live a very long time
ago, and yet some friends of mine who were staying at Strathfieldsaye,
near the Iron Duke’s house, and made inquiries amongst the villagers
about their recollections of the hero of Waterloo, could obtain no
information. At last one venerable rustic vouchsafed the extraordinary
intelligence, “I believe as ’ow ’e were very good at war”!
What a thing it is to be famous!
</p>
<p>
Much more remains to be said upon the various subjects which this history
of our village suggests. But the day is closing, and our walk through its
sequestered lanes and our thoughts about the various scenes which yonder
venerable oaks have witnessed, must cease. But enough has been said to
show what a wealth of interest lies beneath the calm exterior of ordinary
village life. An American truly observes that everything in the rural life
of England is associated with ideas of order, of quiet, sober,
well-established principles, of hoary usage, and reverent custom—the
growth of ages of regular and peaceful existence. The impression which the
appearance of an English village left on his mind is beautifully described
in the following passage:—
</p>
<p>
“The old church of remote architecture with its low, massive portal,
its gothic tower, its windows rich with tracery and painted glass, its
scrupulous preservation, its stately monuments of warriors and worthies of
olden times, ancestors of the present lords of the soil; its tombstones,
recording successive generations of sturdy yeomanry, whose progeny still
plough the same fields, and kneel at the same altar; the parsonage, a
quaint, irregular pile, partly antiquated, but repaired and altered in the
tastes of various eyes and occupants; the stile and footpath leading from
the churchyard, across pleasant fields, and along shady hedgerows,
according to an immemorial right-of-way; the neighbouring village, with
its venerable cottages, its public green sheltered by trees, under which
the forefathers of the present race have sported; the antique family
mansion, standing apart in some little rural domain, but looking down with
a protecting air on the surrounding scene. All these common features of
English landscape evince a calm and settled security, and hereditary
transmission of homebred virtues and local attachments, that speak deeply
and touchingly for the moral character of the nation.”
</p>
<p>
One of the most distressing features of modern village life is the
continual decrease of its population. All our young men flock to the
towns, attracted by the greater excitement which town life offers, as
compared with the more homely pleasures of the country. The rural exodus
is an alarming and very real danger to the welfare of social England.
Agricultural machinery has greatly diminished the number of labourers
required on a farm. Agricultural depression and the decreased value of
land have caused many old country families to close their old
manor-houses, as they cannot afford to live on their estates.
</p>
<p>
Let us hope that those whose happy lot it is to live in the quiet hamlets
of our native land, afar from the noise and din of busy towns, will learn
to love more deeply their village homes, and interest themselves in their
surroundings. To those who read the history of their native place, each
house and field, each stone and tree, will tell its story, and recount the
wonders it has witnessed. And as the stories of wars and fights, of
superstition and of crime, fall on our ears, we shall be thankful that our
lot is cast in more peaceful days, when no persecutions, religious or
political, disturb the tranquillity of our village life. And when we read
of the piety and simplicity of our forefathers, their veneration of their
church, their love of home, their innocent joys and social customs, we
should strive to imitate their virtues which have materially helped to
make England a great and powerful nation. It is hoped that these chapters
upon the old life of our country, and the manners and customs of our
forefathers, may induce many of my readers to read and study history more
deeply, may serve to create an interest in the relics that remain to us of
the past, and to preserve the fleeting traditions that Time doth
consecrate.
</p>
<p>
<a name="linkb11" id="linkb11"></a><br />
</p>
<p>
[11] In many cases the name “Butts” refers to the fact of the
land, under the common-field system, <i>abutting</i> on meadows or roads,
<i>e.g.</i> “Butt-close,” in the parish of St. Mary Bourne.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="linkappendix" id="linkappendix"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
APPENDIX
</h2>
<h3>
BOOKS AND DOCUMENTS RELATING TO PAROCHIAL HISTORY
</h3>
<p>
To anyone who sets himself the task of writing a history of his village,
the following notes may be useful. With regard to the etymology of the
name, concerning which absurd errors are made in most guide books and old
county histories, it would be well to consult Canon Taylor’s <i>Words
and Places</i>, being careful to study the earliest form of the word in <i>Domesday</i>
and old documents. Bede’s <i>History</i>, the <i>Anglo-Saxon
Chronicles</i>, and other old English chronicles, published by Bohn, may
contain some allusions to the parish and neighbourhood, and also Kemble’s
<i>Saxons in England</i>. The <i>Domesday Book</i> is, of course, a mine
of wealth. The Public Record Office contains many documents which will be
of great service—the <i>Testa de Neville</i> (Edward II.), <i>Marshall
Rolls, Nonarum Inquisitiones, Pipe Rolls, Patent Rolls, Close Rolls,
Hundred Rolls, Inquisitiones post-mortem</i>, and the <i>Feet of Fines</i>.
The <i>Manor Court Rolls</i>, if they still exist, in the custody of the
lord of the manor, should also be consulted. The journals of local
antiquarian societies and county histories will of course be examined. The
history of the families connected with the parish must be traced. The
British Museum and the College of Arms contain fine collections of <i>Heralds’
Visitations</i>, and Burke’s <i>Landed Gentry</i> and Dugdale’s
<i>Baronage</i> are the chief sources of information. Old <i>wills</i>
will yield much information, many of which are in course of publication by
the Index Society, and county archaeolgical journals; and Somerset House
and many diocesan registries contain the original documents. The
Historical Manuscripts Commission has published many volumes of borough
records which are of great service, and the lives of any great men
connected with the parish may be studied in the <i>Dictionary of National
Biography</i>. As we have already pointed out, the parish chest contains
valuable sources of information upon the history of the village, and its
contents should be carefully examined.
</p>
<p>
The registers of the diocese contain many documents relating to the
ecclesiastical history of the parish, and from them we can obtain a list
of the rectors or vicars. If the church was connected with any monastery,
Dugdale’s <i>Monasticon</i> will furnish some information. The
Public Record Office contains the documents <i>Taxatio Ecclesiastica P.
Nicholai IV.</i> and <i>Valor Ecclesiasticus</i>, which give an account of
the value of the first-fruits and tenths, and also some volumes on the
sale of chantries, and the inventories of church goods. The name of the
saint to whom the church is dedicated must not always be accepted, in
spite of years of usage, and should be confirmed by reference to some
early will of a chief person of the village buried in the church, which
usually gives the name of the patron saint. The story of the church writ
in stone should be traced by the various styles of architecture, with the
help of Rickman’s <i>Gothic Architecture</i> or Parker’s <i>Glossary
of Gothic Architecture</i>. If there has ever been a monastery in the
parish, Dugdale’s <i>Monasticon</i> should be consulted; and if
there are any remains of a castle, Clark’s <i>Mediaeval Military
Architecture in England</i> will be useful. Prehistoric remains, such as
barrows, earthworks, pit dwellings, and caves should be described; also
any Roman roads and villas; the flora and fauna of the neighbourhood,
geology, folklore, and dialect.
</p>
<p>
The following books are recommended:—
</p>
<p>
Evans’ <i>Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain</i>.<br /> Evans’
<i> Ancient Bronze Implements</i>.<br /> Boyd Dawkins’ <i>Cave
Hunting</i>.<br /> Boyd Dawkins’ <i>Early Man in Britain</i>.<br />
Greenwell’s <i>British Barrows</i>.<br /> Fergusson’s <i>Rude
Stone Monuments</i>.<br /> Cox’s <i>How to Write the History of a
Parish</i>.<br /> Wright’s <i>Essays on Archaeological Subjects</i>.<br />
Parker’s <i>Mediaeval Domestic Architecture</i>.<br /> Sims’ <i>Manual
for the Topographer and Genealogist</i>.<br /> Burn’s <i>History of
Parish Registers</i>.<br /> Seebohm’s <i>English Village Community</i>.<br />
Toulmin Smith’s <i>English Gilds</i>.<br /> Haine’s <i>Manual
of Monumental Brasses</i>.<br /> Bloxam’s <i>Principles of Gothic
Architecture</i>.<br /> Tanner’s <i>Notitia Monastica</i>.<br /> Cutts’
<i>Middle Ages</i>.<br /> Lee’s <i>Glossary of Liturgical and
Ecclesiastical Terms</i>.
</p>
<p>
<br /><br /> <a name="linkindex" id="linkindex"></a><br /> <br /><br />
</p>
<h2>
INDEX
</h2>
<p>
Akeman Street, 60<br /> Aldhelm, church-builder, 103<br /> Alfriston
clergy-house, 180<br /> <i>Alignements</i>, 46<br /> Allington rectory, 180<br />
Almshouses, 181<br /> Altars, 191<br /> Amphitheatre, Roman, 67<br />
Anchoresses, 183<br /> Anchor-hold, 183<br /> Anglo-Saxon villages, 74-89<br />
Archery, 277, 298<br /> Architecture, English, 102-24<br /> Arresting a dead
body, 227<br /> Arrow-heads, 20<br /> <i>Art of Husbandry</i>, 255<br />
Astrology, belief in, 222<br /> Aumbry, 192<br /> Avebury cromlech, 46
</p>
<p>
B
</p>
<p>
Ball-flower moulding, 118<br /> Barkham in <i>Domesday</i>, 128<br />
Barnack Church, 106<br /> Barrows or tumuli, 23-3<br /> " long
and round, 25<br /> " near churchyards, 23<br />
" Saxon, 90-3<br /> " their
contents, 24, 29<br /> Basilica, Roman, 66<br /> Beacons, 268<br /> Beating
the bounds, 276<br /> Bede, 75<br /> Bell-ringing customs, 250<br /> Bells,
245-53<br /> " christening of, 246<br />
" inscription on, 247-50<br /> Benedict
Biscop, 103<br /> Benedictine monks, 161<br /> Bewcastle cross, 98<br />
Bishops, treating of, 229<br /> Black Death, 255<br /> Blood-letting, 167-9<br />
Blowing Stone, 52<br /> <i>Bordarii</i>, 131<br /> Border castles, 140<br />
Brachycephalic race, 21<br /> Brasses, monumental, 212-18<br /> Bridal cup,
207<br /> Brief Book, 226<br /> Brighthampton, pit dwellings at, 33<br />
British Church, 93<br /> " oppida, 34<br />
" roads, 60, 61<br /> " saints
and martyrs, 94<br /> Bronze Age, 21, 40<br /> Budworth hermitage, 182<br />
Burial urns, 29, 30<br /> " urns in woollen,
220
</p>
<p>
C
</p>
<p>
Caesar’s camps, 50<br /> Camps, 50-52<br /> Carthusian monks, 162<br />
Castles, 135-53<br /> Cave men, 16<br /> Celts, 21, 34, 37, 56<br />
Cemeteries, Saxon, 92<br /> Censers, 205<br /> Chancels, 190<br /> Charles
II., adventures of, 267<br /> Chaucer’s satire on monks, 160<br />
Chepstow Castle, 140<br /> Chest, parish, 218-29<br /> Chivalry, 143, 148<br />
Chrismatory, 206<br /> Christmas in olden time, 278<br /> Chun Castle, 51<br />
Church ales, 258<br /> Church bells, 245-53<br /> " house,
258<br /> " plate, 200-8<br /> "
yard, 243<br /> Churches, parish, 184 99<br />
Churchwardens’ account books, 223-6<br /> Cistercian monks, 114, 161<br />
Civil War, effects of, 153, 220, 265<br /> Cloister of monastery, 163<br />
Cluny, monks of, 161<br /> Consecration crosses, 239<br /> Conversion of
Saxons, 94, 95<br /> Crannogs, 38<br /> Cremation, 28, 29, 92<br />
Cromlechs, 46-9<br /> Crosses, Saxon, 95-101<br /> Cross-legged effigies,
211<br /> Cucking-stool, 280
</p>
<p>
D
</p>
<p>
Decay of old sports, 271<br /> Decorated architecture, 117<br /> Desecration
of monasteries, 159<br /> Devil’s Highway, 61<br /> Dog-tooth
ornament, 116<br /> Dog-whipper, 228<br /> Dolichocephalic race, 19<br />
Dolmen, 49, 50<br /> <i>Domesday Book</i>, 125-34<br /> Donnington Castle,
152<br /> Druids, 48, 50
</p>
<p>
E
</p>
<p>
Early English architecture, 115-17<br /> Earthworks, 50-6<br /> Easter
sepulchre, 193<br /> Edge Hill, battle of, 264<br /> Edwardian castles, 140<br />
Emblems on brasses, 217<br /> Enstone, menhir at, 45<br /> Eslithic man, 14<br />
Epitaphs, curious, 243<br /> Ermyn Street, 60<br /> “Evil eye,”
291-3
</p>
<p>
F
</p>
<p>
Fairford windows, 232<br /> Fairies, 56, 293<br /> Fairs, 261<br />
Feudalism, 141<br /> Field-names, 296-8<br /> Flint implements, discovery
of, 11<br /> Flint implements, 15, 20<br /> Fonts, 186<br /> Food in barrows,
24, 25<br /> Football, 277<br /> Force-pump, Roman, 68<br /> Frescoes, 234<br />
Friars, preaching, 161<br /> Future life, belief in, shown by barrows, 24
</p>
<p>
G
</p>
<p>
Gambassi, glass-painter, 232<br /> <i>Geburs</i>, 82<br /> Gentleman,
accomplishments of a, 149<br /> Geological changes, 11-13<br /> Glaciers in
Britain, 12<br /> Glass, stained, 230-3<br /> Glastonbury, pit dwellings at,
37, 41, 42<br /> Green, village, 8, 280<br /> Grims-dike, 54, 55<br />
Grosmont Castle, 141<br /> Guizot on castles, 141
</p>
<p>
H
</p>
<p>
Hagioscopes, 194<br /> Hall marks, 208<br /> Harvest homes, 275<br />
Hastings, battle of, 264<br /> Heart burial, 222<br /> Hedsor, pile
dwellings at, 37, 38<br /> <i>Hereivard the Wake</i>, 264<br /> Hermits, 181<br />
Hexham church, 104<br /> " crosses, 99<br />
Highwaymen, 283<br /> Hocktide sports, 225, 273<br /> Homes of famous men,
298<br /> Hospitium of monastery, 169<br /> House, evolution of country,
172-7<br /> Hundreds, origin of, 87<br /> Hurstbourne, Hants, pit dwellings
at, 34
</p>
<p>
I
</p>
<p>
Ice Age, 12, 13<br /> Iknield Street, 60<br /> Ilkley cross, 99<br /> Inigo
Jones, 176<br /> Inns, 7, 282-90<br /> Inventories, 201<br /> Iron Age, 21<br />
" work in churches, 233<br /> <i>Itinerary</i>
of Antoninus, 59
</p>
<p>
J
</p>
<p>
Jervais, glass-painter, 232<br /> Johnson, Dr., on monasteries, 159
</p>
<p>
K
</p>
<p>
Keep of Norman castle, 137<br /> Kelvedon rectory, 179<br /> Kenilworth
Castle, 151<br /> King’s evil, 228<br /> Knaresborough hermitage, 182<br />
Knighthood, admission to, 145
</p>
<p>
L
</p>
<p>
Laindon reclusorium, 183<br /> Lammas lands, 79<br /> Lecterns, 191<br />
Legends, 44, 55, 263<br /> “Lepers’ windows,” 195<br />
Lich-gate, 242<br /> Local Government, 254<br /> Low side windows, 195
</p>
<p>
M
</p>
<p>
Manor-house, 172-7<br /> Manors, 79, 133<br /> Man-traps, 289<br /> Markets,
260<br /> May Day, 225, 273<br /> Mediaeval village, 254-70<br /> Menhir, 45<br />
“Merry England,” 256<br /> Milestones, Roman, 61<br /> Miracle
plays, 274<br /> <i>Misereres</i>, 191<br /> Monasteries, Saxon, 102<br />
" 154-71<br /> " charity
of, 159<br /> Monastic day, 166, 167<br /> " inns,
282<br /> Monks, benefits conferred by, 155<br /> " corruption
of, 160<br /> Monstrances, 206<br /> Monumental effigies, 209-12<br />
Mothering Sunday, 273<br /> Mouldings, Decorated, 118, 120<br /> "
Early English, 116<br /> " Norman,
112<br /> " Perpendicular, 123<br /> Mural
paintings, 234-41
</p>
<p>
N
</p>
<p>
Neolithic man, 15, 18, 20, 37<br /> Norman architecture, 109-15<br /> "
castles, 135-53<br /> " place-names,
132<br /> " villages, 125-34<br /> Normans,
coming of, 125
</p>
<p>
O
</p>
<p>
Ockwells manor-house, 173<br /> Ogee arch, 118<br /> Organised condition of
society among prehistoric races, 31<br /> Ornaments, Saxon, 91<br /> <i>Osculatorium</i>,
192<br /> Oxford, poor scholar of, 229
</p>
<p>
P
</p>
<p>
Pageants, 149-52<br /> Paleolithic man, 14<br /> Palimpsests, 213<br />
Parish chest, 218-29<br /> " registers,
218-23<br /> Paschall money, 225<br /> Pastimes, 271-81<br /> Pavements,
Roman, 71, 72<br /> Pax, 192, 206<br /> Perpendicular architecture, 120<br />
Pews, 187<br /> <i>Piers Ploughman</i>, 165, 174, 181<br /> Pile dwellings,
37-43<br /> Pilgrimages, 259<br /> Piscina, 192<br /> Pit dwellings, 33-7<br />
Place-names, 76, 101<br /> Plague, 255-7<br /> Plate, church, 200-8<br />
" " in bishop’s
coffin, 202<br /> Ploughman’s lament, 84<br /> Plough Monday, 272<br />
Porch, 185<br /> “Pot-boilers,” 36<br /> Pre-Reformation plate,
202-5<br /> Pulpits, 188<br /> Pytheas of Marseilles, 10<br /> Pyx, 191, 206
</p>
<p>
Q
</p>
<p>
Quintain, 277
</p>
<p>
R
</p>
<p>
Raglan Castle, 141<br /> Reading Abbey, 171<br /> Reading-pews, 197<br />
Reclusorium, 183<br /> " at Rettenden, 183<br />
Rectories, 177-81<br /> Registers, parish, 218-23<br /> Religion of Saxons,
93<br /> “Restoration,” 199<br /> Rollright Stones, 46, 47<br />
Roman relics, 57-73<br /> " rig, 54<br />
" roads, 58-62<br /> " villas,
70-3<br /> Rood-loft, 188<br /> Royal arms in churches, 190<br /> Rural
exodus, 300<br /> Rush-bearing, 276<br /> Ruthwell cross, 97<br /> Ryknield
Street, 60
</p>
<p>
S
</p>
<p>
Sacring bell, 252<br /> St. Christopher, 238<br /> Salisbury Cathedral, 115<br />
Saltways, 61<br /> Sanctus bell, 252<br /> Saxon architecture, 106-9<br />
" house, 172<br /> " monasteries,
102<br /> " place-names, 76, 77<br /> "
relics, 90-101<br /> Saxons, coming of, 74, 75<br />
Screens, 189<br /> Secret chambers, 177<br /> Settle, Victoria Cave at, 17<br />
Shires, origin of, 88<br /> Shrovetide sports, 273<br /> Signs of inns,
284-8<br /> Silchester, 54, 62-70<br /> Slavery under Saxons, 84<br />
Sluggard waker, 228<br /> Smoke farthings, 226<br /> <i>Socmen</i>, 83, 131<br />
Spenser’s description of hermitage, 182<br /> Sports and pastimes,
271-81<br /> Stocks, 280<br /> Stonehenge, 46<br /> Stone monuments, 44-50<br />
Stourbridge Fair, 261<br /> Sudeley Castle, pageant at, 149-51<br />
Sun-worship, relics of, 27<br /> Superstitions, 44, 295<br /> Switzerland,
pile dwellings in, 38-41
</p>
<p>
T
</p>
<p>
“Terraces,” 19<br /> <i>Tesserae</i>, 65, 71<br /> Thanes, 80<br />
Thane’s house, 81<br /> Thuribles, 205<br /> Tiles, 233<br />
Tournaments, 146-9<br /> Tudor arch, 121<br /> " houses,
175<br /> Tumuli, <i>see</i> Barrows<br /> Turf monuments, 53, 54<br />
Twelfth Night, 272<br /> Tympana, Norman, 110
</p>
<p>
U
</p>
<p>
Uffington, 52-4<br /> Ufton Court, Berks, 176, 178
</p>
<p>
V
</p>
<p>
Vernicle, 201<br /> Vestry, contents of, 196<br /> Vicarages, 177-81<br />
Villas, Roman, 70-3<br /> Villeins, 130, 255
</p>
<p>
W
</p>
<p>
Wars, 262-70<br /> Watling Street, 60<br /> Wayland Smith’s Cave, 27,
294<br /> Whalley cross, 96<br /> " reclusorium,
184<br /> White Castle, 141<br /> White Horse Hill, 53<br /> Whittenham
Clumps, 52<br /> Wilfrid, St., 96, 104, 108, 230<br /> Witches, 291<br />
" turned into hares, 292<br /> Woollen,
burials in, 220<br /> Worlebury, pit dwellings at, 34
</p>
<p>
Y
</p>
<p>
Yeomen, 83, 131<br /> Yew tree in churchyard, 241
</p>
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