diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/files')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/019.jpg | bin | 0 -> 152661 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/019h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39851 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/026.jpg | bin | 0 -> 151898 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/026h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40137 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/032.jpg | bin | 0 -> 37974 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/033.jpg | bin | 0 -> 139156 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/033h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36125 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/039.jpg | bin | 0 -> 65546 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/040.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26637 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/043.jpg | bin | 0 -> 54989 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/048.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26015 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/085.jpg | bin | 0 -> 107318 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/091.jpg | bin | 0 -> 35836 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/114.jpg | bin | 0 -> 117740 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/114h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26931 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/121.jpg | bin | 0 -> 42220 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/133a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 31255 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/133b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 38917 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/134.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36619 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/178.jpg | bin | 0 -> 21949 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/189.jpg | bin | 0 -> 137342 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/194h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 31322 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/254.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41809 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/256.jpg | bin | 0 -> 28372 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/257.jpg | bin | 0 -> 44752 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/259.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41271 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/261.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39676 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/271.jpg | bin | 0 -> 73346 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/279.jpg | bin | 0 -> 122352 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/279h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 32118 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/294.jpg | bin | 0 -> 143208 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/303.jpg | bin | 0 -> 89045 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/303h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 23099 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/310.jpg | bin | 0 -> 134494 bytes | |||
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| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/323.jpg | bin | 0 -> 131797 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/323h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 35079 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/front.jpg | bin | 0 -> 124453 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/images/title.jpg | bin | 0 -> 24075 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/files/relative.htm | 9749 |
98 files changed, 9749 insertions, 0 deletions
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a/old/files/relative.htm b/old/files/relative.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..31985c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/files/relative.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9749 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <title> + ENGLISH VILLAGES, by P. H. Ditchfield + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> + <h2> + <a href="#linkcontents">English Villages, by P. H. Ditchfield</a> + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of English Villages, by P. H. Ditchfield + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net + + +Title: English Villages + +Author: P. H. Ditchfield + +Release Date: August 13, 2004 [EBook #9197] +Last Updated: November 17, 2012 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH VILLAGES *** + + + + +Produced by Brendan Lane, Beth Trapaga and Distributed Proofreaders. +Illustrated HTML version by David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="title.jpg (23K)" src="images/title.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /> <br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="front.jpg (121K)" src="images/front.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + ENGLISH VILLAGES + </h1> + <h3> + BY + </h3> + <h2> + P.H. DITCHFIELD M.A., F.S.A. + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + TO MY WIFE + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + Eleven years ago my little book on the antiquities of English villages was + published. Its object was to interest our rustic neighbours in their + surroundings, to record the social life of the people at various times—their + feasts and fairs, sports and pastimes, faiths and superstitions—and + to describe the scenes which once took place in the fields and lanes they + know so well. A friendly reviewer remarked that the wonder was that a book + of that kind had never been written before, and that that was the first + attempt to give a popular and readable sketch of the history and + associations of our villages. In the present work I have attempted to fill + in the sketch with greater detail, and to write not only for the villagers + themselves, but for all those who by education are able to take a more + intelligent interest in the study of the past. + </p> + <p> + During the last decade many village histories have been written, and if + this book should be of service to anyone who is compiling the chronicles + of some rural world, or if it should induce some who have the necessary + leisure and ability to undertake such works, it will not have been written + in vain. + </p> + <p> + One of the most distressing features of modern village life is the + continual decrease of the population. The rural exodus is an alarming and + very real danger to the welfare of social England. The country is + considered dull and life therein dreary both by squire and peasant alike. + Hence the attractions of towns or the delights of travel empty our + villages. The manor-house is closed and labourers are scarce. To increase + the attractions of our villages, to arouse an interest in their past + history and social life, is worth attempting; and perhaps this Story may + be of some use in fostering local patriotism, and in reconciling those who + spend their lives far from the busy hives of men to their lot, when they + find how much interest lies immediately around them. + </p> + <p> + The study of archaeology has been pursued with much vigour during recent + years, and increased knowledge has overthrown the many wild theories and + conjectures which were gravely pronounced to be ascertained facts by the + antiquaries of fifty years ago. Gildas, Geoffrey of Monmouth, or Richard + of Cirencester are no longer accepted as safe and infallible guides. We + know that there were such people as the Druids, but we no longer attribute + to them the great stone circles nor imagine them sacrificing on “Druid’s + altars,” as our forefathers called the dolmens. The history of + Britain no longer begins with the advent of Julius Caesar, nor is his + account of the Celtic tribes and their manners accepted as a full and + complete statement of all that is known about them. The study of flint + implements, of barrows and earthworks, has considerably thrown back our + historical horizon and enabled us to understand the conditions of life in + our island in the early days of a remote past before the dawn of history. + The systematic excavation of Silchester, so ably conducted by the Society + of Antiquaries, and of other Roman sites of towns and villas, enables us + to realise more clearly the history of Britain under the rule of the + Empire; and the study of the etymology of place-names has overthrown many + of the absurd derivations which found a place in the old county histories, + and are often repeated by the writers of modern guide books. Moreover + patient labour amid old records, rolls, and charters, has vastly increased + our knowledge of the history of manors; and the ancient parish registers + and churchwardens’ account books have been made to yield their store + of information for the benefit of industrious students and scholars. There + has been much destruction and much construction; and this good work will + doubtless continue, until at length English archaeology may be dignified + with the title of an exact science. Destruction of another kind is much to + be deplored, which has left its mark on many an English village. The + so-called “restoration” of ancient parish churches, frequently + conducted by men ignorant of the best traditions of English architecture, + the obliteration of the old architectural features, the entire destruction + of many interesting buildings, have wrought deplorable ruin in our + villages, and severed the links with the past which now can never be + repaired. The progress of antiquarian knowledge will I trust arrest the + destroyer’s hand and prevent any further spoliation of our + diminished inheritance. If this book should be found useful in stimulating + an intelligent interest in architectural studies, and in protecting our + ancient buildings from such acts of vandalism, its purpose will have been + abundantly achieved. + </p> + <p> + I am indebted to many friends and acquaintances for much information which + has been useful to me in writing this book; to Sir John Evans whose works + are invaluable to all students of ancient stone and bronze implements; to + Dr. Cox whose little book on <i>How to Write the History of a Parish</i> + is a sure and certain guide to local historians; to Mr. St. John Hope and + Mr. Fallow for much information contained in their valuable monograph on + <i>Old Church Plate</i>; to the late Dr. Stevens, of Reading; to Mr. + Shrubsole of the same town; to Mr. Gibbins, the author of <i>The + Industrial History of England</i>, for the use of an illustration from his + book; to Mr. Melville, Mr. P.J. Colson, and the Rev. W. Marshall for their + photographic aid; and to many other authors who are only known to me by + their valuable works. To all of these gentlemen I desire to express my + thanks, and also to Mr. Mackintosh for his artistic sketch of a typical + English village, which forms the frontispiece of my book. + </p> + <p> + P.H.D. + </p> + <p> + BARKHAM RECTORY<br /> <i>May</i>, 1901 + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="linkcontents" id="linkcontents"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> I. <a href="#link1">INTRODUCTION</a><br /> + II. <a href="#link2">PREHISTORIC + REMAINS</a><br /> III. <a href="#link3">TUMULI + OR BARROWS</a><br /> IV. <a href="#link4">PIT + AND PILE DWELLINGS</a><br /> V. <a + href="#link5">CROMLECHS, CAMPS, AND EARTHWORKS</a><br /> VI. <a + href="#link6">ROMAN RELICS</a><br /> VII. <a + href="#link7">ANGLO-SAXON VILLAGES</a><br /> VIII. <a + href="#link8">SAXON RELICS</a><br /> IX. <a + href="#link9">ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE</a><br /> X. <a + href="#link10">NORMAN VILLAGES AND THE “DOMESDAY BOOK”</a><br /> + XI. <a href="#link11">NORMAN CASTLES</a><br /> + XII. <a href="#link12">MONASTERIES</a><br /> XIII. + <a href="#link13">THE MANOR-HOUSE</a><br /> XIV. <a + href="#link14">PARISH CHURCHES</a><br /> XV. <a + href="#link15">CHURCH PLATE</a><br /> XVI. <a href="#link16">MONUMENTAL + EFFIGIES AND BRASSES</a><br /> XVII. <a href="#link17">THE PARISH + CHEST</a><br /> XVIII. <a href="#link18">STAINED GLASS, TILES, AND MURAL + PAINTINGS</a><br /> XIX. <a href="#link19">CHURCH BELLS</a><br /> + XX. <a href="#link20">THE MEDIAEVAL VILLAGE</a><br /> + XXI. <a href="#link21">VILLAGE SPORTS AND PASTIMES</a><br /> + XXII. <a href="#link22">THE VILLAGE INN</a><br /> XXIII. <a + href="#link23">VILLAGE SUPERSTITIONS AND FOLKLORE</a> + </p> + <p> + <a href="#linkappendix">APPENDIX</a>—BOOKS + AND DOCUMENTS <br />RELATING TO PAROCHIAL HISTORY + </p> + <p> + <a + href="#linkindex">INDEX</a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>ILLUSTRATIONS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + FULL-PAGE (photographs) + </p> + <p> + [Click on photographs to enlarge] + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link019">An English Village street</a><br /> <a + href="#link026">Palaeolithic implements</a><br /> <a href="#link033">Neolithic + and bronze implements</a><br /> <a href="#link114">Old market cross</a><br /> + <a href="#link155">Broughton Castle</a><br /> <a href="#link172">Netley + Abbey, south transept</a><br /> <a href="#link189">Southcote Manor, + showing moat and pigeon-house</a><br /> <a href="#link194">Old + Manor-house—Upton Court</a><br /> <a href="#link199">Stone Tithe + Barn, Bradford-on-Avon</a><br /> <a href="#link210">Village church in the + Vale</a><br /> <a href="#link279">An ancient village</a><br /> <a + href="#link294">Anne Hathaway’s cottage</a><br /> <a href="#link303">Old + stocks and whipping-post</a><br /> <a href="#link310">Village inn, with + old Tithe Barn of Reading Abbey</a><br /> <a href="#link323">Old cottages</a> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + IN THE TEXT (drawings + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link032">Barbed and leaf-shaped arrow-heads</a><br /> <a + href="#link039">Plan of a tumulus</a><br /> <a href="#link040">Plan of + tumulus called Wayland Smith’s Cave, Berkshire</a><br /> <a + href="#link043">Celtic cinerary urn</a><br /> <a href="#link048">Articles + found in pit dwellings</a><br /> <a href="#link051">Iron spear-head found + at Hedsor</a><br /> <a href="#link058">Menhir</a><br /> <a href="#link060">Rollright + stones (from Camden’s <i>Britannia</i>, 1607)</a><br /> <a + href="#link062">Dolmen</a><br /> <a href="#link064">Plan and section of + Chun Castle</a><br /> <a href="#link066">The White Horse at Uffington</a><br /> + <a href="#link077">Plan of Silchester</a><br /> <a href="#link079">Capital + of column</a><br /> <a href="#link081">Roman force-pump</a><br /> <a + href="#link085">Tesselated pavement</a><br /> <a href="#link091">Beating + acorns for swine (from the Cotton MS., <i>Nero</i>, c. 4)</a><br /> <a + href="#link094">House of Saxon thane</a><br /> <a href="#link096">Wheel + plough (from the Bayeux tapestry)</a><br /> <a href="#link098">Smithy + (from the Cotton MS., B 4)</a><br /> <a href="#link104">Saxon relics</a><br /> + <a href="#link118">Consecration of a Saxon church</a><br /> <a + href="#link120">Tower of Barnack Church, Northamptonshire</a><br /> <a + href="#link121">Doorway, Earl’s Barton Church</a><br /> <a + href="#link122">Tower window, Monkwearmouth Church</a><br /> <a + href="#link124">Sculptured head of doorway, Fordington Church, Dorset</a><br /> + <a href="#link125">Norman capitals</a><br /> <a href="#link126">Norman + ornamental mouldings</a><br /> <a href="#link127">Croyland Abbey Church, + Lincolnshire</a><br /> <a href="#link128">Semi-Norman arch, Church of St. + Cross</a><br /> <a href="#link129">Early English piers and capitals</a><br /> + <a href="#link130">Dog-tooth ornament</a><br /> <a href="#link131">Brownsover + Chapel, Warwickshire</a><br /> <a href="#link132">Ball-flower mouldings, + Tewkesbury Abbey</a><br /> <a href="#link132">Ogee arch</a><br /> <a + href="#link133a">Decorated capitals, Hanwell and Chacombe</a><br /> <a + href="#link133b">Decorated windows, Merton College Chapel; Sandiacre, + Derbyshire</a><br /> <a href="#link134">Decorated mouldings, Elton, + Huntingdonshire; Austrey, Warwickshire</a><br /> <a href="#link135">Perpendicular + window, Merton College Chapel, Oxford</a><br /> <a href="#link136a">Tudor + arch, vestry door, Adderbury Church, Oxon</a><br /> <a href="#link136b">Perpendicular + parapet, St. Erasmus’ Chapel, Westminster Abbey</a><br /> <a + href="#link137">Perpendicular moulding, window, Christchurch, Oxford</a><br /> + <a href="#link147">Diagram of a manor</a><br /> <a href="#link150">Ancient + plan of Old Sarum</a><br /> <a href="#link152">A Norman castle</a><br /> + <a href="#link161">Tournament</a><br /> <a href="#link178">A monk + transcribing</a><br /> <a href="#link190">Ockwells manor-house</a><br /> + <a href="#link191">Richmond Palace</a><br /> <a href="#link192">Doorway + and staircase, Ufton Court</a><br /> <a href="#link193">The porch, Ufton + Court</a><br /> <a href="#link196">Window of south wing, Ufton Court</a><br /> + <a href="#link206">Ancient pew-work, Tysoe Church, Warwickshire</a><br /> + <a href="#link208">Early English screen, Thurcaston, Leicestershire</a><br /> + <a href="#link212">Norman piscina, Romsey Church, Hants</a><br /> <a + href="#link215">Lowside window, Dallington Church, Northamptonshire</a><br /> + <a href="#link218">Reading-pew, seventeenth century, Langley Chapel, + Salop.</a><br /> <a href="#link223">Chalice and paten, Sandford, + Oxfordshire</a><br /> <a href="#link224">Pre-Reformation plate</a><br /> + <a href="#link225">Censer or thurible</a><br /> <a href="#link254">Mural + paintings (several)</a><br /> <a href="#link271">Ancient sanctus bell + found at Warwick</a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link1" id="link1"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <h3> + INTRODUCTION + </h3> + <p> + Local histories—Ignorance and destruction—Advantages of the + study of village antiquities—Description of an English village—The + church— The manor-house—Prehistoric people—Later + inhabitants—Saxons—Village inn—Village green—Legends. + </p> + <p> + To write a complete history of any village is one of the hardest literary + labours which anyone can undertake. The soil is hard, and the crop after + the expenditure of much toil is often very scanty. In many cases the + records are few and difficult to discover, buried amidst the mass of + papers at the Record Office, or entombed in some dusty corner of the + Diocesan Registry. Days may be spent in searching for these treasures of + knowledge with regard to the past history of a village without any + adequate result; but sometimes fortune favours the industrious toiler, and + he discovers a rich ore which rewards him for all his pains. Slowly his + store of facts grows, and he is at last able to piece together the history + of his little rural world, which time and the neglect of past generations + had consigned to dusty oblivion. + </p> + <p> + In recent years several village histories have been written with varied + success by both competent and incompetent scribes; but such books are few + in number, and we still have to deplore the fact that so little is known + about the hamlets in which we live. All writers seem to join in the same + lament, and mourn over the ignorance that prevails in rural England with + regard to the treasures of antiquity, history, and folklore, which are to + be found almost everywhere. We may still echo the words of the learned + author of <i>Tom Brown’s Schooldays</i>, the late Mr. Hughes, who + said that the present generation know nothing of their own birthplaces, or + of the lanes, woods, and fields through which they roam. Not one young man + in twenty knows where to find the wood-sorrel, or the bee-orchis; still + fewer can tell the country legends, the stories of the old gable-ended + farmhouses, or the place where the last skirmish was fought in the Civil + War, or where the parish butts stood. Nor is this ignorance confined to + the unlearned rustics; it is shared by many educated people, who have + travelled abroad and studied the history of Rome or Venice, Frankfort or + Bruges, and yet pass by unheeded the rich stores of antiquarian lore, + which they witness every day, and never think of examining closely and + carefully. There are very few villages in England which have no objects of + historical interest, no relics of the past which are worthy of + preservation. “Restoration,” falsely so called, conducted by + ignorant or perverse architects, has destroyed and removed many features + of our parish churches; the devastating plough has well-nigh levelled many + an ancient barrow; railroads have changed the character of rustic life and + killed many an old custom and rural festival. Old legends and quaint + stories of the countryside have given place to talks about politics and + newspaper gossip. But still much remains if we learn to examine things for + ourselves, and endeavour to gather up the relics of the past and save them + from the destructive hand of Time. + </p> + <p> + A great service may thus be rendered not only to the cause of history, but + also to the villagers of rural England, by those who have time, leisure, + and learning, sufficient to gain some knowledge of bygone times. It adds + greatly to the interest of their lives to know something of the place + where they live; and it has been well said that every man’s concern + with his native place has something more in it than the amount of rates + and taxes that he has to pay. He may not be able to write a history of his + parish, but he can gather up the curious gossip of the neighbourhood, the + traditions and stories which have been handed down from former + generations. And if anyone is at the pains to acquire some knowledge of + local history, and will impart what he knows to his poorer neighbours, he + will add greatly to their interest in life. Life is a burden, labour mere + drudgery, when a man has nothing in which he can interest himself. When we + remember the long hours which an agricultural labourer spends alone, + without a creature to speak to, except his horses or the birds, we can + imagine how dull his life must be, if his mind be not occupied. But here, + on his own ground, he may find an endless supply of food for thought, + which will afford him much greater pleasure and satisfaction than thinking + and talking about his neighbours’ faults, reflecting upon his + wrongs, or imitating the example of one of his class who, when asked by + the squire what he was thinking so deeply about, replied, “Mostly + naught.” To remove the pall of ignorance that darkens the rustic + mind, to quicken his understanding and awaken his interest, are certainly + desirable objects; although his ignorance is very often shared by his + betters, who frequently hazard very strange theories and manifest many + curious ideas with regard to village antiquities. + </p> + <p> + We will walk together through the main roads of the village, and observe + some of its many points of interest. Indeed, it is no small thing to live + in such a “city of memories” as every village is, when at + every turn and corner we meet with something that reminds us of the past, + and recalls the pleasing associations of old village life. To those who + have lived amid the din and turmoil of a large town, where everybody is in + a hurry, and there is nothing but noise, confusion, and bustle, the + delicious calm and quietude of an old English village, undisturbed by the + world’s rude noise, is most grateful. But to live in memory of what + has gone before, of the lives and customs of our forefathers, of the + strange events that have happened on the very ground upon which we are + standing, all this will make us love our village homes and delight in them + exceedingly. In most of our large towns the old features are fast + disappearing; historical houses have been pulled down to make room for + buildings more adapted to present needs, and everything is being + modernised; but in the country everything remains the same, and it is not + so difficult to let one’s thoughts wander into the past, and picture + to one’s self the old features of village life in bygone times. + </p> + <p> + Most of our villages have the usual common features, and it is not + difficult to describe a typical example, though the details vary very + much, and the histories of no two villages are identical. We see arising + above the trees the church, the centre of the old village life, both + religious, secular, and social. It stands upon a site which has been + consecrated to the service of God for many centuries. There is possibly in + or near the churchyard a tumulus, or burial mound, which shows that the + spot was set apart for some religious observances even before Christianity + reached our shores. Here the early Saxon missionary planted his cross and + preached in the open air to the gathered villagers. Here a Saxon thane + built a rude timber church which was supplanted by an early Norman + structure of stone with round arches and curiously carved ornamentation. + This building has been added to at various times, and now shows, writ in + stone, its strange and varied history. The old time-worn registers, kept + in the parish chest in the vestry, breathe the atmosphere of bygone times, + and tell the stories and romances of the “rude forefathers of the + hamlet.” The tombs and monuments of knights and ancient heroes tell + many a tale of valour and old-world prowess, of families that have + entirely died out, of others that still happily remain amongst us, and + record the names and virtues of many an illustrious house. The windows, + brasses, bells, and inscriptions, have all some interesting story to + relate, which we hope presently to examine more minutely. + </p> + <p> + Nestling amid the trees we see the manor-house, standing probably on the + site of a much older edifice; and this building carries our thoughts back + to the Saxon and early Norman times, when the lord of the manor had + vassals and serfs under him, held his manorial court, and reigned as a + king in his own small domain. The history of the old English manor is a + very important one, concerning which much has been written, many questions + disputed, and some points still remain to be decided. + </p> + <p> + Then we notice an old farmhouse which has doubtless seen better days, for + there are the remains of an ancient moat around it, as if some family of + importance once lived there, and wished to guard themselves and their + possessions from troublesome visitors. This moat tells of the times of war + and lawlessness, of wild and fierce animals roaming the countryside; and + if the walls of the old house could speak how many stories could they tell + of the strange customs of our ancestors, of bread riots, of civil wars, + and disturbances which once destroyed the tranquillity of our peaceful + villages! + </p> + <p> + We shall endeavour to discover the earliest inhabitants of our villages + who left their traces behind in the curious stone and bronze weapons of + war or domestic implements, and who lived in far remote periods before the + dawn of history. The barrows, or tumuli, which contain their dead bodies + tell us much about them; and also the caves and lake dwellings help us to + form some very accurate notions of the conditions of life in those distant + days. We shall see that the Britons or Celts were far from being the naked + woad-dyed savages described by Caesar, whose account has so long been + deemed sufficient by the historians of our childhood. We shall call to + mind the many waves of invaders which rolled over our country—the + Celts, the Romans, Saxons, Danes, and Normans—all of whom have left + some traces behind them, and added sundry chapters to the story of our + villages. + </p> + <p> + The fields too proclaim their story, and tell us of the Saxon folk who + were our first farmers, and made clearings in the forests, and tilled the + same soil we work to-day. They tell us too of the old monks who knew so + much about agriculture; and occasionally the plough turns up a rusty sword + or cannon ball, which reveals the story of battles and civil wars which we + trust have passed away from our land for ever. The very names of the + fields are not without signification, and tell us of animals which are now + extinct, of the manners of our forefathers, of the old methods of farming, + and the common lands which have passed away. + </p> + <p> + The old village inn, with its curiously painted signboard, has its own + story to tell, of the old coaching days, and of the great people who used + to travel along the main roads, and were sometimes snowed up in a drift + just below “The Magpie,” which had always good accommodation + for travellers, and stabling for fifty horses. All was activity in the + stable yard when the coach came in; the villagers crowded round the inn + doors to see the great folks from London who were regaling themselves with + well-cooked English joints; and if they stayed all night, could find + comfortable beds with lavender-scented sheets, and every attention. But + the railroads and iron steeds have changed all that; until yesterday the + roads were deserted, and the glory of the old inns departed. Bicyclists + now speed along in the track of the old coaches; but they are not quite so + picturesque, and the bicycle bell is less musical than the cheerful + posthorn. + </p> + <p> + On the summit of a neighbouring hill we see a curious formation which is + probably an earthwork, constructed many centuries ago by the early + dwellers in this district for the purpose of defence in dangerous times, + when the approach of a neighbouring tribe, or the advance of a company of + free-booting invaders, threatened them with death or the destruction of + their flocks and herds. These earthworks we shall examine more closely. An + ivy-covered ruin near the church shows the remains of a monastic cell or + monastery; and in the distance perhaps we can see the outlines of an old + Norman keep or castle; all of these relate to the story of our villages, + and afford us subjects for investigation and research. + </p> + <p> + Then there is the village green where so many generations of the villagers + have disported themselves, danced the old country dances (now alas! + forgotten), and reared the merry May-pole, and crowned their queen. Here + they held their rural sports, and fought their bouts of quarter-staff and + cudgel-play, grinned through horse-collars, and played pipe and tabor at + many a rustic feast, when life was young and England merry. We shall try + to picture to ourselves these happy scenes of innocent diversion which + cheered the hearts of our forefathers in bygone times. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link019" id="link019"></a><br /> <a + href="images/019.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="019h.jpg (38K)" src="images/019h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />AN ENGLISH VILLAGE STREET <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + We will try to collect the curious legends and stories which were told to + us by our grandsires, and are almost forgotten by the present generation. + These we should treasure up, lest they should be for ever lost. Local + tradition has often led the way to important discoveries. + </p> + <p> + In this brief circuit of an ordinary English village we have found many + objects which are calculated to excite our imagination and to stimulate + inquiry. A closer examination will well repay our study, and reward the + labour of the investigator. It is satisfactory to know that all possible + discoveries as to the antiquities of our villages have not yet been made. + We have still much to learn, and the earth has not yet disclosed all its + treasures. Roman villas still remain buried; the sepulchres of many a + Saxon chieftain or early nomad Celt are still unexplored; the pile + dwellings and cave domiciles of the early inhabitants of our country have + still to be discovered; and piles of records and historical documents have + still to be sought out, arranged, and examined. So there is much work to + be done by the antiquary for many a long year; and every little discovery, + and the results of every patient research, assist in accumulating that + store of knowledge which is gradually being compiled by the hard labour of + our English historians and antiquaries. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link2" id="link2"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <h3> + PREHISTORIC REMAINS + </h3> + <p> + Pytheas of Marseilles—Discovery of flint implements—Geological + changes—Palaeolithic man—Eslithic—Palaeolithic + implements— Drift men—Cave men—Neolithic man and his + weapons—Dolichocephalic— Celtic or Brachycephalic race—The + Iron Age. + </p> + <p> + It was customary some years ago to begin the history of any country with + the statement, “Of the early inhabitants nothing is known with any + certainty,” and to commence the history of England with the landing + of Julius Caesar B.C. 55. If this book had been written forty or fifty + years ago it might have been stated that our first knowledge of Britain + dates from 330 B.C. when Pytheas of Marseilles visited it, and described + his impressions. He says that the climate was foggy, a characteristic + which it has not altogether lost, that the people cultivated the ground + and used beer and mead as beverages. Our villagers still follow the + example of their ancestors in their use of one at least of these drinks. + </p> + <p> + Of the history of all the ages prior to the advent of this Pytheas all + written record is silent. Hence we have to play the part of scientific + detectives, examine the footprints of the early man who inhabited our + island, hunt for odds and ends which he has left behind, to rake over his + kitchen middens, pick up his old tools, and even open his burial mound. + </p> + <p> + About fifty years ago the attention of the scientific world was drawn to + the flint implements which were scattered over the surface of our fields + and in our gravel pits and mountain caves; and inquiring minds began to + speculate as to their origin. The collections made at Amiens and Abbeville + and other places began to convince men of the existence of an unknown and + unimagined race, and it gradually dawned on us that on our moors and downs + were the tombs of a race of men who fashioned their weapons of war and + implements of peace out of flint. These discoveries have pushed back our + knowledge of man to an antiquity formerly never dreamed of, and enlarged + considerably our historical horizon. So we will endeavour to discover what + kind of men they were, who roamed our fields and woods before any + historical records were written, and mark the very considerable traces of + their occupation which they have left behind. + </p> + <p> + The condition of life and the character and climate of the country were + very different in early times from what they are in the present day; and + in endeavouring to discover the kind of people who dwelt here in + prehistoric times, we must hear what the geologists have to tell us about + the physical aspect of Britain in that period. There was a time when this + country was connected with the Continent of Europe, and the English + Channel and North Sea were mere valleys with rivers running through them + fed by many streams. Where the North Sea now rolls there was the great + valley of the Rhine; and as there were no ocean-waves to cross, animals + and primitive man wandered northwards and westwards from the Continent, + and made their abode here. It is curious to note that the migratory birds + when returning to France and Italy, and thence to the sunny regions of + Algiers and other parts of Northern Africa, always cross the seas where in + remote ages there was dry land. They always traverse the same route; and + it appears that the recollection of the places where their ancestors + crossed has been preserved by them through all the centuries that have + elapsed since “the silver streak” was formed that severs + England from her neighbours. + </p> + <p> + In the times of which we are speaking the land was much higher than it is + now. Snowdon was 600 feet greater, and the climate was much colder and + more rigorous. Glaciers like those in Switzerland were in all the higher + valleys, and the marks of the action of the ice are still plainly seen on + the rocky cliffs that border many a ravine. Moreover we find in the + valleys many detached rocks, immense boulders, the nature of which is + quite different from the character of the stone in the neighbourhood. + These were carried down by the glaciers from higher elevations, and + deposited, when the ice melted, in the lower valleys. Hence in this + glacial period the condition of the country was very different from what + it is now. + </p> + <p> + Then a remarkable change took place. The land began to sink, and its + elevation so much decreased that the central part of the country became a + huge lake, and the peak of Snowdon was an island surrounded by the sea + which washed with its waves the lofty shoulder of the mountain. This is + the reason why shells and shingle are found in high elevations. The Ice + Age passed away and the climate became warmer. The Gulf Stream found its + way to our shores, and the country was covered by a warm ocean having + islands raising their heads above the surface. Sharks swam around, whose + teeth we find now buried in beds of clay. The land continued to rise, and + attracted by the sunshine and the more genial clime animals from the + Continent wandered northwards, and with them came man. Caves, now high + amongst the hills, but then on a level with the rivers, were his first + abode, and contain many relics of his occupancy, together with the bones + of extinct animals. The land appears to have risen, and the climate became + colder. The sea worked its relentless way through the chalk hills on the + south and gradually met the waves of the North Sea which flowed over the + old Rhine valley. It widened also the narrow strait that severed the + country from Ireland, and the outline and contour of the island began more + nearly to resemble that with which we are now familiar. + </p> + <p> + A vast period of time was necessary to accomplish all these immense + changes; and it is impossible to speculate with any degree of certainty + how long that period was, which transformed the icebound surface of our + island to a land of verdure and wild forests. We must leave such + conjectures and the more detailed accounts of the glacial and post-glacial + periods to the geologists, as our present concern is limited to the study + of the habits and condition of the men who roamed our fields and forests + in prehistoric times. Although no page of history gives us any information + concerning them, we can find out from the relics of arms and implements + which the earth has preserved for us, what manner of men lived in the old + cave dwellings, or constructed their rude huts, and lie buried beneath the + vast barrows. + </p> + <p> + The earliest race of men who inhabited our island was called the + Palaeolithic race, from the fact that they used the most ancient form of + stone implements. Traces of a still earlier race are said to have been + discovered a few years ago on the chalk plateau of the North Down, near + Sevenoaks. The flints have some slight hollows in them, as if caused by + scraping, and denote that the users must have been of a very low condition + of intelligence—able to use a tool but scarcely able to make one. + This race has been called the Eolithic; but some antiquaries have thrown + doubts upon their existence, and the discovery of these flints is too + recent to allow us to speak of them with any degree of certainty. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link026" id="link026"></a><br /> <a + href="images/026.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="026h.jpg (39K)" src="images/026h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The traces of Palaeolithic man are very numerous, and he evidently + exercised great skill in bringing his implements to a symmetrical shape by + chipping. The use of metals for cutting purposes was entirely unknown; and + stone, wood, and bone were the only materials of which these primitive + beings availed themselves for the making of weapons or domestic + implements. Palaeolithic man lived here during that distant period when + this country was united with the Continent, and when the huge mammoth + roamed in the wild forests, and powerful and fierce animals struggled for + existence in the hills and vales of a cold and inclement country. His + weapons and tools were of the rudest description, and made of chipped + flint. Many of these have been found in the valley gravels, which had + probably been dropped from canoes into the lakes or rivers, or washed down + by floods from stations on the shore. Eighty or ninety feet above the + present level of the Thames in the higher gravels are these relics found; + and they are so abundant that the early inhabitants who used them must + have been fairly numerous. Their shape is usually oval, and often pointed + into a rude resemblance of the shape of a spear-head. Some flint-flakes + are of the knifelike character; others resemble awls, or borers, with + sharp points evidently for making holes in skins for the purpose of + constructing a garment. Hammer-stones for crushing bones, tools with + well-wrought flat edges, scrapers, and other implements, were the + stock-in-trade of the earliest inhabitant of our country, and are + distinguishable from those used by Neolithic man by their larger and + rougher work. The maker of the old stone tools never polished his + implements; nor did he fashion any of those finely wrought arrowheads and + javelin points, upon which his successor prided himself. The latter + discovered that the flints which were dug up were more easily fashioned + into various shapes; whereas Palaeolithic man picked up the flints that + lay about on the surface of the ground, and chipped them into the form of + his rude tools. However, the elder man was acquainted with the use of + fire, which he probably obtained by striking flints on blocks of iron + pyrites. Wandering about the country in families and tribes, he contrived + to exist by hunting the numerous animals that inhabited the primeval + forests, and has left us his weapons and tools to tell us what kind of man + he was. His implements are found in the drift gravels by the riversides; + and from this cause his race are known as drift men, in order to + distinguish them from the <i>cave men</i>, who seem to have belonged to a + little later period. + </p> + <p> + The first dwellings of man were the caves on the hillsides, before he + found out the art of building pile huts. In Palaeolithic times these caves + were inhabited by a rude race of feral nomads who lived by the chase, and + fashioned the rude tools which we have already described. They were, + however, superior to the drift men, and had some notion of art. The + principal caves in the British islands containing the relics of the cave + folk are the following: Perthichoaren, Denbighshire, wherein were found + the remains of Platycnemic man—so named from his having sharp + shin-bones; Cefn, St. Asaph; Uphill, Somerset; King’s Scar and the + Victoria Cave, Settle; Robin Hood’s Cave and Pinhole Cave, + Derbyshire; Black Rock, Caldy Island, Coygan Caves, Pembrokeshire; King + Arthur’s Cave, Monmouth; Durdham Downs, Bristol; and sundry others, + near Oban, in the valleys of the Trent, Dove, and Nore, and of the Irish + Blackwater, and in Caithness. + </p> + <p> + In these abodes the bones of both men and animals have been found; but + these do not all belong to the same period, as the Neolithic people, and + those of the Bronze and Iron Ages, followed the occupation of the earlier + race. The remains of the different races, however, lie at various depths, + those of the earlier race naturally lying the lowest. An examination of + the Victoria Cave, Settle, clearly shows this. Outside the entrance there + was found a layer of charcoal and burnt bones, and the burnt stones of + fireplaces, pottery, coins of the Emperors Trajan and Constantine, and + ornaments in bone, ivory, bronze and enamel. The animal remains were those + of the <i>bos longifrons</i> (Celtic ox), pig, horse, roe, stag, fowl + (wild), and grouse. This layer was evidently composed of the relics of a + Romano-British people. Below this were found chipped flints, an adze of + melaphyre, and a layer of boulders, sand, and clay, brought down by the + ice from the higher valley. + </p> + <p> + Inside the cave in the upper cave earth were found the bones of fox, + badger, brown bear, grizzly bear, reindeer, red deer, horse, pig, and + goat, and some bones evidently hacked by man. In the lower cave earth + there were the remains of the hyena, fox, brown and grizzly bears, + elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, urus, bison, and red deer, the hacked + bones of a goat, and a small leg-bone of a man. + </p> + <p> + Some idea of the time which has elapsed since primitive man inhabited this + rude dwelling may be formed from these excavations. Two feet below the + surface lay the Romano-British layer, and we know therefore that about + 1,600 years was required for the earth to accumulate to that depth. The + Neolithic layer was six feet below this; hence 4,800 years would be + necessary to form this depth of earth. So we may conclude that at least + 6,400 years ago Neolithic man used the cave. A long time previous to this + lived the creatures of the lower cave earth, the bison, elephant, and the + hyena with the solitary human bone, which belonged to the sharp-shinned + race (Platycnemic) of beings, the earliest dwellers in our country. + </p> + <p> + It is doubtful whether Palaeolithic man has left any descendants. The + Esquimaux appear to somewhat resemble them. Professor Boyd Dawkins, in his + remarkable book, <i>Cave Hunting</i>, traces this relationship in the + character of implements, methods of obtaining food and cooking it, modes + of preparing skins for clothing, and particularly in the remarkable skill + of depicting figures on bone which both races display. In carving figures + on bone and teeth early man in Britain was certainly more skilful than his + successor; but he was a very inferior type of the human race, yet his + intelligence and mode of life have been deemed not lower than those of the + Australian aborigines. + </p> + <p> + The animals which roamed through the country in this Pleistocene period + were the elk and reindeer, which link us on to the older and colder period + when Arctic conditions prevailed; the Irish deer, a creature of great size + whose head weighed about eighty pounds; bison, elephant, rhinoceros, + hippopotamus, lion, wolf, otter, bear, horse, red deer, roe, urus or + gigantic ox, the short-horned ox (<i>bos longifrons</i>), boar, badger and + many others which survive to the present day, and have therefore a very + long line of ancestors. + </p> + <p> + The successor of the old stone implement maker was Neolithic man, to whom + we have already had occasion to refer. Some lengthy period of geological + change separates him from his predecessor of the Old Stone Age. Specimens + of his handiwork show that he was a much more civilised person than his + predecessor, and presented a much higher type of humanity. He had a + peculiarly shaped head, the back part of the skull being strangely + prolonged; and from this feature he is called <i>dolichocephalic</i>. He + was small in stature, about 5 feet 6 inches in height, having a dark + complexion, and his descendants are the Iberian or Basque races in the + Western Pyrenees and may still be traced in parts of Ireland and Wales. + The long barrows or mounds, the length of which is greater than the + breadth, contain his remains, and we find traces of his existence in all + the western countries of Europe. + </p> + <p> + He had made many discoveries which were unknown to his Old Stone + predecessor. Instead of always hunting for his food, like an animal, he + found out that the earth would give him corn with which he could make + bread, if only he took the trouble to cultivate it. Instead of always + slaying animals, he found that some were quite ready to be his servants, + and give him milk and wool and food. He brought with him to our shores + cows and sheep and goats, horses and dogs. Moreover he made pottery, + moulding the clay with his hand, and baking it in a fire. He had not + discovered the advantages of a kiln. He could spin thread, and weave + stuffs, though he usually wore garments of skins. + </p> + <p> + His dwellings were no longer the caves and forests, for he made for + himself rude pit huts, and surrounded himself, his tribe, and cattle with + a circular camp. Traces of his agricultural operations may still be found + in the “terraces,” or strips of ground on hillsides, which + preserve the marks of our early Neolithic farmers. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link032" id="link032"></a><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="032.jpg (37K)" src="images/032.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Their implements are far superior to those of the Old Stone men, and are + found on the surface of our fields, or on hillsides, where they tended + their flocks, or dug their rude pit shelters. Their weapons and tools are + highly polished, and have evidently been ground on a grindstone. They are + adapted for an endless variety of uses, and are most skilfully and + beautifully fashioned. There are finely wrought arrowheads, of three + shapes—barbed, tanged and barbed, and leaf-shaped; axes, scrapers + for cleansing and preparing skins for clothing, hammer stones, wedges, + drills, borers, knives, and many other tools. In the Reading Museum may be + seen a heavy quartzite axe and chipped flint hatchet, which were found + with some charred timber on an island in the Thames, and were evidently + used for scooping out the interior of a boat from a tree with the aid of + fire. So this New Stone man knew how to make boats as well as a vast + number of other things of which we shall presently speak more + particularly. His descendants linger on in South Wales and Ireland, and + are short in stature, dark in complexion, and narrow-skulled, like their + forefathers a few thousand years ago. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link033" id="link033"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/033.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="033h.jpg (35K)" src="images/033h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE IMPLEMENTS <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Another wave of invaders swept over our land, and overcame the long-headed + Neolithic race. These were the Celtic people, taller and stronger than + their predecessors, and distinguished by their fair hair and rounded + skulls. From the shape of their heads they are called Brachycephalic, and + are believed to have belonged to the original Aryan race, whose birthplace + was Southern Asia. At some remote period this wave of invaders poured over + Europe and Asia, and has left traces behind it in the languages of all + Indo-European nations. + </p> + <p> + Their weapons were made of bronze, although they still used polished stone + implements also. We find chisels, daggers, rings, buttons, and + spear-heads, all made of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, and fashioned + by the skilled hands of these early Celtic folk. As they became more + civilised, being of an inventive mind, they discovered the use of iron and + found it a more convenient metal for fashioning axes to cut down trees. + </p> + <p> + When Caesar came to Britain he found that the inhabitants knew the use of + iron, even the less civilised early Celtic settlers driven northwards and + westwards by the Belgae, had iron weapons, and the wild Caledonians in the + time of Severus, although they were naked, woad-dyed savages, wore iron + collars and girdles and were armed with metal weapons. + </p> + <p> + Such are some of the relics of antiquity which the soil of our native land + retains, as a memorial of the primitive people who first trod upon it. + Concerning their lives and records history is silent, until the Conqueror + tells us something of our Celtic forefathers. From the scanty remains of + prehistoric races, their weapons and tools, we can gather something of the + earliest inhabitants of our island, and try to realise their habits and + mode of life. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link3" id="link3"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <h3> + TUMULI OR BARROWS + </h3> + <p> + Barrows near churchyards—Their universality—Contents—Food + in barrows—Curious burial customs—Belief in future life—Long + and round barrows—Interior of barrow—Position of bodies—Cremation— + Burial urns—Articles of dress and ornament—Artistic + workmanship— Pottery—Remains of agriculture—Organised + condition of society among prehistoric people. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the country we find many artificial mounds which are called <i>tumuli</i> + or barrows, or in the neighbourhood of Wales, “tumps.” These + are the ancient burial-places of the early inhabitants of our island, the + word “barrow” being derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>beorh</i>, + a hill or grave-mound. It is not unusual to see a barrow in the centre, or + near, an old churchyard, as at Taplow, Bucks. The church was built, of + course, much later than the erection of the mound; but doubtless the early + preachers of the gospel took advantage of the reverence which was paid to + these ancient tombs, proclaimed there the story of the cross, and on the + spots so consecrated churches were ultimately built. + </p> + <p> + These mounds have much to tell us of the early inhabitants. To cover the + dead with a mound of earth was a custom common to all nations. All over + Europe, in Northern Asia, India, and in the new world of America, we find + burial-mounds. The pyramids of Egypt are only glorified mounds; and our + islands can boast of an endless variety, sometimes consisting of cairns, + or heaps of stones, sometimes of huge hills of earth, 130 feet in height, + as at Silbury, Wilts, and covering five acres; while others are only small + heaps of soil a few feet high. + </p> + <p> + The contents of the tumuli differ also. Sometimes the bodies were burnt + and the ashes preserved in rude urns; sometimes they were not cremated. + Sometimes they were buried in stone cists, or in the hollowed trunk of + trees; sometimes without any covering save that of the earth. In nearly + all cases we find numerous articles buried with the dead, such as personal + ornaments, weapons, pottery, and food. + </p> + <p> + The presence of food in the tumuli testifies to the natural instinct + implanted by the Creator in the human heart with regard to a future + existence. The idea that the soul of the departed is about to take a long + journey is constant and deeply rooted; the rainbow and the milky way have + often been supposed to be the paths trod by the departed, who require + sustenance for so long a journey. The Aztecs laid a water-bottle beside + the bodies to be used on the way to Mictlan, the land of the dead. Bow and + arrows, a pair of mocassins with a spare piece of deerskin to patch them + if they wear out, and sinews of deer to sew on the patches with, together + with a kettle and provisions, are still placed in the graves by the North + American Indians. The Laplanders lay beside the corpse flint, steel, and + tinder, to supply light for the dark journey. A coin was placed in the + mouth of the dead by the Greeks to pay Charon, the ferryman of the Styx, + and for a similar purpose in the hand of a deceased Irishman. The + Greenlanders bury with a child a dog, for they say a dog will find his way + anywhere. In the grave of the Viking warrior were buried his horn and + armour in order that he might enter the halls of Valhalla fully equipped. + </p> + <p> + These and many other examples might be quoted showing the universality of + the belief in a future life, a belief that was evidently shared with other + nations by the primeval races who inhabited our islands in prehistoric + times. + </p> + <p> + The presence of food and drinking vessels in the tumuli clearly shows + this, and also the store of weapons and implements, adzes, hammers, + scrapers, and other tools which the barrows have preserved through so many + ages. + </p> + <p> + These barrows are not confined to one period or one race, as their shape + denotes. Some are long, measuring 200 to 400 feet in length by 60 or 80 + feet wide; others are circular. The former were made by the long-headed + (dolichocephalic) race of whom we have already spoken; the latter by the + round-headed (brachycephalic), conquerors of their feebler long-skulled + forerunners. When we consider the poor tools used by these primitive + peoples, we may wonder at the amount of labour they must have expended on + the construction of these giant mounds. Picks made of deer’s horns + and pointed staves enabled them to loosen the earth which was then + collected in baskets and thrown on the rising heap. Countless toilers and + many years must have been needed to produce such wonderful memorials of + their industry. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link039" id="link039"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="039.jpg (64K)" src="images/039.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + With better tools we will proceed to dig into these mounds and discover + what they contain. First we notice an encircling trench and mound + surrounding the barrow, the purpose of which is supposed to have been to + keep the dead person in the tomb, and prevent it from injuring the living. + After much digging in the centre of the barrow we find a single stone + chamber, entered by a passage underneath the higher and wider end of the + mound. Sometimes the chamber is divided into three parts, the centre one + being covered by a dome, formed by the overlapping of the stones in the + upper parts of the walls. The passage leading to the centre chamber is + also built with large stones erected with much care and skill. The + contents of these long barrows are not so interesting, or numerous, as + those contained in the round barrows. The skeletons are usually found in + irregular positions, and few weapons or ornaments accompany the buried + bones. Derbyshire possesses many barrows; wherever in a place-name the + suffix <i>low</i> occurs, derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>hlow</i>, + signifying a small hill or mound, a barrow is generally to be found. The + long barrow is usually about 200 feet in length, 40 feet wide, and 8 to 12 + feet high. They run east and west, frequently north-east by south-west, + the principal interment being usually at the eastern and higher end. The + bodies are often found in a cist or box made of large stones, and several + were buried in one mound, generally on the south and east sides, so that + they might lie in the sun. This practice may have been connected with + sun-worship; and the same idea prevailed in modern times, when the south + side of the churchyard was considered the favoured portion, and criminals + and suicides were relegated to the colder north side. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link040" id="link040"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="040.jpg (26K)" src="images/040.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The position of the bodies varied, but usually they were buried in a + crouching position, with knees bent and head drawn towards the knees. This + was probably the natural position which a man would assume when he slept + without a luxurious bed to lie upon, and with little to cover him, in + order to keep himself as warm as possible. Hence when he sank into his + last long sleep, his mourning relatives would place him in the same + posture. In the Channel Islands bodies were often placed in a kneeling + position. + </p> + <p> + The custom of burning the body seems to have been adopted later by the + same long-headed race who used the long barrows, and prevailed more in the + north of England, in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Scotland, than in the + south. The cremation was sometimes not very thoroughly performed. The + bodies were placed together, wood being piled about them, and over the + heap the mound was raised. Then the fire was lighted, which naturally only + partly consumed the bodies. We find also, mingled with bones of men and + women, the bones of animals, which were probably the remains of funeral + feasts. + </p> + <p> + As we have said the round-headed race introduced the circular barrow, and + cremation was their usual, though not exclusive, practice. These people + were much stronger and bigger men than their predecessors, their powerful + jaws and projecting chins showing much more power of will than the softer + narrow-faced dolichocephalic race. However, in the round barrows we also + find the bodies of the latter, and we gather that they were not + exterminated or driven out by their conquerors, but mingled with them, + intermarried, until at length the type of the long-skulled race prevailed, + and the Celt of later times possessed the features of the race he had + formerly subdued. At least such seems to be the teaching of the barrows. + </p> + <p> + The Celt became acquainted with the use of bronze, and his tomb was + enriched with a store of the relics of the life and art of the workmanship + of the time. As cremation was the usual practice, it was no longer + necessary to have a chamber which the dead might inhabit; the size of the + sleeping-place of the dead was reduced, and a cist was constructed for the + receptacle of the urn in which the remains were placed. The mound also was + reduced in size and looked much less imposing than the huge barrows of the + Stone Age; but its contents were much more important. + </p> + <p> + The ashes we find frequently contained in a rude urn of black pottery with + some ornamentation. Then we discover pins made of bones, which were + evidently used to fasten the dress. The people therefore were evidently + not naked, woad-dyed savages; moreover we find bits of woollen fabric and + charred cloth, and in Denmark people belonging to this same early race + were buried in a cap, shirt, leggings, and boots, a fairly complete + wardrobe. They also loved to adorn themselves, and had buttons of jet, and + stone and bone ornaments. Besides flint implements we find adzes and + hatchets and chisels, axe-hammers constructed with a hole in them for the + insertion of a handle, grain rubbers, wheat stones, and hammer stones. The + mounds also disclose a great variety of flint implements, hatchets, + scrapers, both round and long, knife-daggers, knives, saws, drills, + fabricators or flaking tools, sling stones, hammer stones, polishers, + arrow-points, either leaf-shaped, triangular, or barbed, and heads of + darts and javelins. A very curious object is sometimes found, a stone + wrist guard, for the purpose of protecting the wrist from the bow string. + </p> + <p> + These barrows and their contents bear evidences to the artistic + workmanship of the prehistoric dwellers in our villages. Their tombs show + that these people did not confine themselves to the fabrication of objects + of utility, but that they loved to adorn themselves with personal + ornaments, which required much art and skill in the manufacture. Necklaces + of beads pleased their fancy, and these they made of jet, or shells, the + teeth of deer, and the vertebrae of fish. Moreover they loved ear-rings, + which were sometimes made of the teeth of pigs. Objects of gold, bronze, + glass, ivory, amber, clay, and bone were also used as ornaments. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link043" id="link043"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="043.jpg (53K)" src="images/043.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + If we examine the pottery in the barrows we find that a vessel of + earthenware was usually placed at the back of the head of the body when it + was not cremated. There were also cinerary urns, cups, usually called + incense cups, which were certainly not used for incense, whatever may have + been their purpose, food and drinking vessels. This pottery was not + sun-dried, but burnt in a fire, though not made in a kiln, and the form of + the vessels shows that the makers were ignorant of the use of a potter’s + wheel. The ornamentation consisted of a series of straight lines made by a + sharp-pointed instrument and by impressions of the finger nails or string, + often revealing much skill and artistic workmanship. + </p> + <p> + From a study of the barrows we may learn much about the early inhabitants + of our island, who lived and worked and died on the same spots where we + now are spending our days. We can see them hunting in the wild woodlands, + rearing cows and sheep and goats, and cultivating their crops of corn. We + can still trace on the hillsides some curious terraces fashioned by them + for the growing of their grain, and discover querns, or hand millstones, + and stones for bruising the corn. The bones of young oxen a few days old, + discovered in the mounds, show that they knew the use of milk, and how to + get a good supply. A rude spindle-whorl shows that they knew how to weave + stuffs for their clothing, and the numerous buttons, fasteners, and belts + prove that the clothes were fitted to the wearer, and not mere shapeless + sacks. + </p> + <p> + The barrows also bear evidence to the existence of some organised + condition of society. In the early savage state of human existence the + family is the only community; but as man progressed towards civilisation, + he learnt how to combine with his fellows for mutual defence and support. + We gather from our examination of the tombs of these early races that they + had attained to this degree of progress. There were chiefs of tribes and + families who were buried with more honour than that bestowed upon the + humbler folk. Many families were buried in one mound, showing that the + tribal state had been reached, while the many humbler graves denote the + condition of servitude and dependence in which a large number of the race + lived. All this, and much more, may be learnt from a careful study of the + tombs of these prehistoric people. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link4" id="link4"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <h3> + PIT AND PILE DWELLINGS + </h3> + <p> + Pit dwelling earliest form of house-building—Discoveries at + Bright-hampton, Worlebury—British oppida—Hurstbourne—Contents + of pit dwelling—Pot-boilers—Condition of civilisation—Pile + dwellings— Switzerland—Glastonbury—Hedsor—Crannogs—Modern + use of pile dwellings—Description of a lake dwelling—Contents—Bronze + Age— Recent discoveries at Glastonbury. + </p> + <p> + We have examined in our last chapter the abodes of the dead; we will now + investigate the abodes of the living which the earth has preserved for us + for so many centuries. The age of the cave dwellers had long passed; and + the prehistoric folk, having attained to some degree of civilisation, + began to devise for themselves some secure retreats from inclement rains + and cold winds. Perhaps the burrowing rabbit gave them an idea for + providing some dwelling-place. At any rate the earliest and simplest + notion for constructing a habitation was that of digging holes in the + ground and roofing them over with a light thatch. Hence we have the pit + dwellings of our rude forefathers. + </p> + <p> + Many examples of pit dwellings have been found by industrious explorers. + Some labourers when digging gravel at Brighthampton, near Oxford, came + across several such excavations. They were simply pits dug in the earth, + large enough to hold one or two persons, and from the sides of these pits + a certain quantity of earth had been removed so as to form a seat. At the + bottom of these a few rude flint arrow-heads were found. In the remarkable + British oppidum at Worlebury, near Weston-super-Mare, several circular, + well-like pits may be seen, fairly preserved in shape owing to the rocky + nature of the ground in which they have been excavated. One in particular + is very perfect, and about two feet from the bottom is a seat formed of + the rock extending all round the pit. + </p> + <p> + These ancient pit dwellings are usually surrounded by an earthen rampart. + Caesar says that “the Britons called that a town where they used to + assemble for the sake of avoiding an incursion of enemies, when they had + fortified the entangled woods with a rampart and ditch.” The remains + of many of these oppida may still be seen in almost all parts of the + country; and in most of these hollows are plainly distinguishable, which + doubtless were pit dwellings; but owing to the sides having fallen in, + they have now the appearance of natural hollows in the earth. + </p> + <p> + At Hurstbourne, Hants, nine of these early habitations were discovered by + the late Dr. Stevens, some of which were rudely pitched with flint stones, + and had passages leading into the pit. A few flints irregularly placed + together with wood ashes showed the position of the hearths, where cooking + operations had been carried on. The sloping entrance-passages are peculiar + and almost unique in England, though several have been met with in France. + A rude ladder was the usual mode of entrance into these underground + dwellings. Fragments of hand-made British pottery and the commoner kinds + of Romano-British ware were found, and portions of mealing stones and also + a saddle-quern, or grain-crusher, which instruments for hand-mealing must + have been in common use among the pit dwellers. The grain was probably + prepared by parching it before crushing; the hollow understone prevented + the grain from escaping; and the muller was so shaped as to render it + easily grasped, while it was pushed backwards and forwards by the hands. + Similar stones are used at the present time by the African natives, as + travellers testify. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link048" id="link048"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="048.jpg (25K)" src="images/048.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + One of the pits at Hurstbourne was evidently a cooking-hole, where the pit + dwellers prepared their feasts, and bones of the Celtic ox (<i>bos + longifrons</i>), pig, red deer, goat, dog, and hare or rabbit were found + near it. One of the bones had evidently been bitten by teeth. The pit + dwellers also practised some domestic industries, as Dr. Stevens found a + needle, an awl or bodkin, and fragments of pointed bone, probably used for + sewing skins together. A rude spindle-whorl shows that they knew something + of weaving, and two bored stones were evidently buttons or + dress-fasteners. A large supply of flint implements, scrapers, and + arrow-heads, proves that the dwellings were inhabited by the Neolithic + people before the Britons came to occupy them. I must not omit to notice + the heating stones, or “pot-boilers.” These were heated in the + fire, and then placed among the meat intended to be cooked, in a hole in + the ground which served the purpose of a cooking pot. I have found many + such stones in Berkshire, notably from the neighbourhood of Wallingford + and Long Wittenham. The writer of the <i>Early History of Mankind</i> + states that the Assineboins, or stone-boilers, dig a hole in the ground, + take a piece of raw hide, and press it down to the sides of the hole, and + fill it with water; this is called a “paunch-kettle”; then + they make a number of stones red-hot in a fire close by, the meat is put + into the water, and the hot stones dropped in until it is cooked. The + South Sea Islanders have similar primitive methods of cooking. The + Highlanders used to prepare the feasts of their clans in much the same + way; and the modern gipsies adopt a not very dissimilar mode of cooking + their stolen fowls and hedgehogs. + </p> + <p> + We can now people these cheerless primitive pit dwellings with their + ancient inhabitants, and understand something of their manners of life and + customs. Their rude abodes had probably cone-shaped roofs made of rafters + lashed together at the centre, protected by an outside coat of peat, sods + of turf, or rushes. The spindle-whorl is evidence that they could spin + thread; the mealing stones show that they knew how to cultivate corn; and + the bones of the animals found in their dwellings testify to the fact that + they were not in the wild state of primitive hunters, but possessed herds + of cows and goats and other domestic animals. + </p> + <p> + Who were these people? Mr. Boyd Dawkins is of opinion that the early pit + dwellers belonged to the Neolithic folk of whom I have already told you, + as the flint implements testify. But these dwellings were evidently + occupied by a later people. The querns and spindle-whorl probably belonged + to the Celts, or Britons, before the advent of the Roman legions; and that + these people were the inhabitants of the Hampshire pit dwellings is proved + by the presence of a British gold coin which is recognised by numismatists + as an imitation of the Greek stater of Philip II. of Macedon. According to + Sir John Evans, the native British coinage was in existence as early as + 150 years before Christ. Hence to this period we may assign the date of + the existence of these Celtic primitive habitations. + </p> + <p> + Pit dwellings were not the only kind of habitations which the early + inhabitants of our country used, and some of our villages possess + constructions of remarkable interest, which recent industrious digging has + disclosed. These are none other than lake dwellings, similar to those + first discovered in Switzerland about fifty years ago. Few of our villages + can boast of such relics of antiquity. Near Glastonbury, in 1892, in a + dried-up ancient mere a lake village was discovered, which I will describe + presently; and recently at Hedsor in Buckinghamshire a pile dwelling has + been found which some learned antiquaries are now examining. In Ireland + and Scotland there are found the remains of fortified dwellings called + Crannogs in some of the lakes, as in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire, and + Cloonfinlough in Connaught, but these belong to later times and were used + in the Middle Ages. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link051" id="link051"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="051.jpg (18K)" src="images/051.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In primitive times, when tribe warred with tribe, and every man’s + hand was against his fellow-man, and when wild and savage beasts roamed o’er + moor and woodland, security was the one thing most desired by the early + inhabitants of Europe. Hence they conceived the brilliant notion of + constructing dwellings built on piles in the midst of lakes or rivers, + where they might live in peace and safety, and secure themselves from the + sudden attack of their enemies, or the ravages of beasts of prey. + Switzerland is famous for its numerous clusters, or villages, of ancient + lake dwellings, which were of considerable size. At Morges, on the Lake of + Geneva, the settlement of huts extends 1,200 feet long by 150 in breadth; + and that at Sutz on the Lake of Bienne covers six acres, and is connected + with the shore by a gangway 100 feet long and 40 feet wide. Nor is the use + of these habitations entirely abandoned at the present time. Venezuela, + which means “little Venice,” derives its name from the Indian + village composed of pile dwellings on the shores of the Gulf of Maracaibo, + as its original explorer Alonzo de Ojeda in 1499 chose to compare the + sea-protected huts with the queen city of the Adriatic; and in many parts + of South America, in the estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon, such + dwellings are still found, also among the Dyaks of Borneo, in the Caroline + Islands, and on the Gold Coast of Africa. Herodotus describes similar + dwellings on the Lake Prasias, existing in the fifth century B.C., and + Lord Avebury states that now the Roumelian fishermen on the same lake + “inhabit wooden cottages built over the water as in the time of + Herodotus.” + </p> + <p> + These habitations of primitive man were built on piles driven into the bed + of the lake or river. These piles were stems, or trunks of trees, + sharpened with stone or bronze tools. A rude platform was erected on these + piles, and on this a wooden hut constructed with walls of wattle and daub, + and thatched with reeds or rushes. A bridge built on piles connected the + lake village with the shore whither the dwellers used to go to cultivate + their wheat, barley, and flax, and feed their kine and sheep and goats. + They made canoes out of hollow trunks of trees. One of these canoes which + have been discovered is 43 feet in length and over 4 feet wide. The beams + supporting the platform, on which the huts were erected, were fastened by + wooden pins. Much ingenuity was exercised in the making of these + dwellings. Sometimes they found that the mud of the lake was too soft to + hold the piles; so they fashioned a framework of trunks of trees, which + they let down to the bottom of the lake, and fastened the upright piles to + it. Sometimes the rocky bed of the lake prevented the piles from being + driven into it; so they heaped stones around the piles, and thus made them + secure. The lake dwellers were very sociable, and had only one common + platform for all the huts, which were clustered together. As all the + actual dwellings have been destroyed by time’s rude action, it is + impossible to describe them accurately; but their usual size was about 20 + feet by 12 feet. The floor was of clay, and in the centre of the building + there was a hearth made of slabs of stone. + </p> + <p> + The people who inhabited these structures belonged either to the later + Stone Age, or the Bronze Age, as we learn from the relics which their huts + disclose. In the earlier ones are found celts, flint flakes, arrow-heads, + harpoons of stag’s horn with barbs, awls, needles, chisels, and + fish-hooks made of bone, and sometimes wooden combs, and skates made out + of the leg-bone of a horse. Besides the remains of the usual domestic + animals we find bones of the beaver, bear, elk, and bison. + </p> + <p> + When the use of bronze was discovered the people still lived on in their + lake dwellings. Fire often played havoc with the wooden wattle walls; + hence we frequently find a succession of platforms. The first dwelling + having been destroyed by flames, a second one was subsequently + constructed; and this having shared the same fate, another platform with + improved huts was raised upon the ruins of its predecessors. The relics of + each habitation show that, as time went on, the pit dwellers advanced in + civilisation, and increased the comforts and conveniences of life. + </p> + <p> + Some of the dwellings of these early peoples belong to the Bronze Age, as + do those of the Auvernier settlement in the Lake of Neuchatel; and these + huts are rich in the relics of their former inhabitants. At Marin on the + same lake the lake dwellers were evidently workers in iron; and the + relics, which contain large spear-heads, shields, horse furniture, + fibulas, and other ornaments, together with Roman coins, prove that they + belonged to the period of which history tells us. + </p> + <p> + I have described at length these Swiss lake dwellings, although they do + not belong to the antiquities of our villages in England, because much the + same kind of habitations existed in our country, though few have as yet + been unearthed. Possibly under the peaty soil of some ancient river-bed, + or old mere, long ago drained, you may be fortunate enough to meet with + the remains of similar structures here in England. At Glastonbury a few + years ago a lake village was discovered, which has created no small stir + in the antiquarian world, and merits a brief description. Nothing was + known of its existence previously; and this is an instance of the + delightful surprises which explorers have in store for them, when they + ransack the buried treasure-house of the earth, and reveal the relics + which have been so long stored there. + </p> + <p> + All that met the eyes of the diggers was a series of circular low mounds, + about sixty in number, extending over an area of three acres. Imagine the + delight of the gentlemen when they discovered that each of these mounds + contained the remains of a lake dwelling which was constructed more than + two thousand years ago. + </p> + <p> + First they found above the soft peat, the remains of a lake long dried up, + a platform formed of timber and brushwood, somewhat similar to the + structures which we have seen in the Swiss lakes. Rows of small piles + support this platform, and on it a floor of clay, or rather several + floors. The clay is composed of several horizontal layers with intervening + thin layers of decayed wood and charcoal, each layer representing a + distinct floor of a dwelling. In the centre of each mound are the remains + of rude hearths. The dwellings, of which no walls remain, were evidently + built of timber, the crevices between the wood being filled with wattle + and daub. In one of the mounds were found several small crucibles which + show that the inhabitants knew how to work in metals. Querns, whetstones, + spindle whorls, fibulae, and finger-rings of bronze, a horse’s bit, + a small saw, numerous implements of horn and bone, combs, needles, a jet + ring and amber bead, all tell the tale of the degree of civilisation + attained by these early folk. They worked in metals, made pottery and + cloth, tilled and farmed the adjoining lands, and probably belonged to the + late Celtic race before the advent of the Romans. These lake dwellers used + a canoe in order to reach the mainland, and this primitive boat has been + discovered. It is evidently cut out of the stem of an oak, is + flat-bottomed, and its dimensions are 17 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 1 + foot deep. The prow is pointed, and has a hole, through which doubtless a + rope was passed, in order to fasten it to the little harbour of the lake + village. + </p> + <p> + It will be gathered that these people, whether dwelling in their pit or + lake villages, showed so much capacity, industry, and social organisation, + that even in the Neolithic Age they were far removed from a savage state, + and a low condition of culture and civilisation. They showed great + ingenuity in the making of their tools, their vessels of pottery, their + ornaments, and clothing. They were not naked, woad-dyed savages. They + could spin and weave, grow corn, and make bread, and had brought into + subjection for their use domestic animals, horses and cattle, sheep and + goats, and swine. They lived in security and comfort, and were industrious + and intelligent; and it is interesting to record, from the relics which + the earth has preserved of their civilisation, the kind of life which they + must have lived in the ages which existed before the dawn of history. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link5" id="link5"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <h3> + CROMLECHS, CAMPS, AND EARTHWORKS + </h3> + <p> + Stone monuments—Traditions relating to them—Menhirs or + hoar-stones— <i>Alignements</i>—Cromlechs—Stonehenge—Avebury—Rollright + stones—Origin of stone circles—Dolmens—Earthworks—Chun + Castle—Whittenham clumps— Uffington—Tribal boundaries—Roman + rig—Grims-dike—Legends—Celtic words. + </p> + <p> + Among the antiquities which some of our English villages possess, none are + more curious and remarkable than the grand megalithic monuments of the + ancient races which peopled our island. Marvellous memorials are these of + their skill and labour. How did they contrive to erect such mighty + monuments? How did they move such huge masses of stone? How did they raise + with the very slender appliances at their disposal such gigantic stones? + For what purpose did they erect them? The solution of these and many + such-like problems we can only guess, and no one has as yet been bold + enough to answer all the interesting questions which these rude stone + monuments raise. + </p> + <p> + Superstition has attempted to account for their existence. Just as the + flint arrow-heads are supposed by the vulgar to be darts shot by fairies + or witches which cause sickness and death in cattle and men, and are worn + as amulets to ward off disease; just as the stone axes of early man are + regarded as thunder bolts, and when boiled are esteemed as a sure cure for + rheumatism, or a useful cattle medicine—so these stones are said to + be the work of the devil. A friend tells me that in his childhood his + nurse used to frighten him by saying that the devil lurked in a dolmen + which stands near his father’s house in Oxfordshire; and many weird + traditions cluster round these old monuments. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link058" id="link058"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="058.jpg (24K)" src="images/058.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In addition to the subterranean sepulchral chambers and cairns which we + have already examined, there are four classes of megalithic structures. + The first consists of single stones, called in Wales, Cornwall, and + Brittany, <i>menhirs</i>, a name derived from the Celtic word <i>maen</i> + or <i>men</i> signifying a stone, and <i>hir</i> meaning tall. In England + they are known as “hoar-stones,” <i>hoar</i> meaning a + boundary, inasmuch as they are frequently used in later times to mark the + boundary of an estate, parish, or manor. There is one at Enstone, + Oxfordshire, and at Wardington, Warwickshire. Possibly they were intended + to mark the graves of deceased chieftains. + </p> + <p> + The second class consists of lines of stones, which the French call <i>alignements</i>. + Frequently they occur in groups of lines from two to fourteen in number, + Carnac, in Brittany, possesses the best specimen in Europe of this curious + arrangement of giant stones. + </p> + <p> + The third class of megalithic monuments is the circular arrangement, such + as we find at Avebury and Stonehenge. These are now usually called + cromlechs, in accordance with the term used by French antiquaries, though + formerly this name was applied in England to the dolmens, or chambered + structures, of which we shall speak presently. According to the notions of + the old curator of Stonehenge the mighty stones stood before the Deluge, + and he used to point out (to his own satisfaction) signs of the action of + water upon the stones, even showing the direction in which the Flood + “came rushing in.” The Welsh bards say that they were erected + by King Merlin, the successor of Vortigern; and Nennius states that they + were erected in memory of four hundred nobles, who were treacherously + slain by Hengist, when the savage Saxons came. There is no need to + describe these grand circles of huge stones which all antiquaries have + visited. + </p> + <p> + The cromlech at Avebury covers a larger area than that of Stonehenge, the + circle being about 1,300 feet in diameter. There is a fine circle at + Rollright, in Oxfordshire, which is the third largest in England. The + diameter of the circle is about 107 feet, and the stones numbered + originally about sixty. Near the circle stand the Five Whispering Knights, + five large stones leaning together, probably the remains of a dolmen, and + a large solitary stone, or menhir. Popular tradition has woven a strange + legend about these curious relics of bygone ages. A mighty chieftain once + ruled over the surrounding country; but he was ambitious, and wished to + extend his sway, and become King of England. So he mustered his army, and + the oracle proclaimed that if he could once see Long Compton, he would + obtain his desire. Having proceeded as far as Rollright, he was repeating + the words of the oracle— + </p> + <p> + “If Long Compton I can see,<br /> King of + England I shall be”— + </p> + <p> + when Mother Shipton, who had doubtless ridden on her broomstick from her + Norfolk home, appeared and pronounced the fatal spell— + </p> + <p> + “Move no more; stand fast, stone;<br /> King + of England thou shall none.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link060" id="link060"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="060.jpg (102K)" src="images/060.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Immediately the king and his army were changed into stone, as if the head + of Medusa had gazed upon them. The solitary stone, still called the King + Stone, is the ambitious monarch; the circle is his army; and the Five + Whispering Knights are five of his chieftains, who were hatching a plot + against him when the magic spell was uttered. The farmers around Rollright + say that if the stones are removed from the spot, they will never rest, + but make mischief till they are restored. Stanton Drew, in Somersetshire, + has a cromlech, and there are several in Scotland, the Channel Islands, + and Brittany. Some sacrilegious persons transported a cromlech bodily from + the Channel Islands, and set it up at Park Place, Henley-on-Thames. Such + an act of antiquarian barbarism happily has few imitators. + </p> + <p> + For what purpose were these massive stones erected at the cost of such + infinite labour? Tradition and popular belief associate them with the + Druids. Some years ago all mysterious antiquarian problems were solved by + reference to the Druids. But these priests of ancient days are now out of + fashion, and it is certainly not very safe to attribute the founding of + the great stone circles to their agency. The Druidical worship paid its + homage to the powers of Nature, to the nymphs and genii of the woods and + streams, whereas the great stone circles were evidently constructed by + sun-worshippers. There is no doubt among antiquaries that they are + connected with the burial of the dead. Small barrows have been found in + the centre of them. Dr. Anderson is of opinion that the stone circles were + developed out of the hedge, or setting of stone, which frequently + surrounds the base of a barrow, and was intended to keep the ghost in, and + prevent it from injuring the living. By degrees the wall was increased in + size while the barrow or cairn decreased; until at last a small mound of + earth, or heap of stones, only marked the place of burial, and the huge + circle of stones surrounded it. Stonehenge, with its well-wrought stones + and gigantic trilitha, is much later than the circles of Avebury and + Rollright, and was doubtless constructed by the people who used iron, + about two hundred years before our era. The earlier circles have been + assigned to a period eight or ten centuries before Christ. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link062" id="link062"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="062.jpg (60K)" src="images/062.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Many conjectures have been made as to how the huge capstones of the circle + at Stonehenge were placed on the erect stones. Sir Henry Dryden thought + that when the upright stones were set on end, earth or small stones were + piled around them until a large inclined plane was formed, on which + “skids” or sliding-pieces were placed. Then the caps were + placed on rollers, and hauled up by gangs of men. Probably in some such + way these wonderful monuments were formed. + </p> + <p> + The last class of rude stone monuments is composed of dolmens, or + chambered tombs, so named from the Welsh word <i>dol</i>, a table, and <i>maen</i> + or <i>men</i>, a stone. They are in fact stone tables. Antiquaries of + former days, and the unlearned folk of to-day, call them “Druids’ + altars,” and say that sacrifices were offered upon them. The typical + form is a structure of four or more large upright stones, supporting a + large flat stone, as a roof. Sometimes they are covered with earth or + stones, sometimes entirely uncovered. Some antiquaries maintain that they + were always uncovered, as we see them now; others assert that they have + been stripped by the action of wind and rain, and snow, frost, and thaw, + until all the earth placed around them has been removed. Possibly fashions + changed then as now; and it may console some of us that there was no + uniformity of ritual even in prehistoric Britain. Dolmens contain no + bronze or iron implements, or carvings of the same, and evidently belong + to the time of the Neolithic folk. + </p> + <p> + Among prehistoric remains none are more striking than the great camps and + earthworks, which hold commanding positions on our hills and downs, and + have survived during the countless years which have elapsed since their + construction. Caesar’s camps abound throughout England; it is + needless to say that they had nothing to do with Caesar, but were made + long years before the Conqueror ever set foot on British land. These early + camps are usually circular in shape, or follow the natural curve of the + hill on which they stand. Roman camps are nearly always square or + rectangular. They consist of a high vallum, or rampart of earth, + surrounded by a deep ditch, and on the <i>counterscarp</i>, or outside + edge of the ditch, there is often another bank or rampart. The entrance to + these strongholds was often ingeniously contrived, in order that an enemy + endeavouring to attack the fortress might be effectually resisted. + </p> + <p> + Chun Castle, in Cornwall, is an interesting specimen of ancient Celtic + fortress. It consists of two circular walls separated by a terrace. The + walls are built of rough masses of granite, some 5 or 6 feet long. The + outer wall is protected by a ditch. Part of the wall is still about 10 + feet high. Great skill and military knowledge are displayed in the plan of + the entrance, which is 6 feet wide in the narrowest part, and 16 in the + widest, where the walls diverge and are rounded off on either side. The + space within the fortress is about 175 feet in diameter. The Herefordshire + Beacon on the Malvern Hills is a fine example of a triple-ramparted Celtic + camp. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link064" id="link064"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="064.jpg (60K)" src="images/064.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In Berkshire we have the well-known Whittenham Clumps, the Sinodun of the + Celts, on the summit of which there is a famous camp, with a triple line + of entrenchment, the mound and ditch being complete. The circumference of + the fortress is over a mile. Berkshire and Oxfordshire are very rich in + these camps and earthworks, which guard the course of the old British road + called the Iknield Way. Hill-forts crown the tops of the hills; and the + camps of Blewberry, Scutchamore Knob (a corruption of Cwichelm’s + law), Letcombe, Uffington, and Liddington, command the ancient trackway + and bid defiance to approaching foes. + </p> + <p> + The object of these camps was to provide places of refuge, whither the + tribe could retire when threatened by the advent of its enemy. The Celts + were a pastoral people; and their flocks grazed on the downs and + hillsides. When their scouts brought news of the approach of a hostile + force, some signal would be given by the blowing of a horn, and the people + would at once flee to their fortress driving their cattle before them, and + awaiting there the advent of their foes. + </p> + <p> + At Uffington there is a remarkable relic of British times called the + Blowing Stone, or King Alfred’s Bugle-horn, which was doubtless used + by the Celtic tribes for signalling purposes; and when its deep low note + was heard on the hillside the tribe would rush to the protecting shelter + of Uffington Castle. There, armed with missiles, they were ready to hurl + them at the invading hosts, and protect their lives and cattle until all + danger was past. Those who are skilled at the art can still make the + Blowing Stone sound. The name, King Alfred’s Bugle-horn, is a + misnomer, and arose from the association of the White Horse Hill with the + battle which Alfred fought against the Danes at Aescendune, which may, or + may not, have taken place near the old British camp at Uffington. There + are several White Horses cut out in the turf on the hillsides in + Wiltshire, besides the famous Berkshire one at Uffington, celebrated by + Mr. Thomas Hughes in his <i>Scouring of the White Horse</i>. We have also + some turf-cut crosses at White-leaf and Bledlow, in Buckinghamshire. The + origin of these turf monuments is still a matter of controversy. It is + possible that they may be Saxon, and may be the records of Alfred’s + victories; but antiquaries are inclined to assign them to an earlier date, + and connect them with the builders of cromlechs and dolmens. It is + certainly improbable that, when he was busily engaged fighting the Danes, + Alfred and his men would have found time to construct this huge White + Horse. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link066" id="link066"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="066.jpg (19K)" src="images/066.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In addition to the earthen mounds and deep ditch, which usually formed the + fortifications of these ancient strongholds, there were wicker-work + stockades, or palisading, arranged on the top of the vallum. Such defences + have been found at Uffington; and during the present year on the ancient + fortifications of the old Calleva Atrebatum, afterwards the Roman + Silchester, a friend of the writer has found the remains of similar + wattle-work stockades. Evidently tribal wars and jealousies were not + unknown in Celtic times, and the people knew how to protect themselves + from their foes. + </p> + <p> + Another important class of earthen ramparts are the long lines of + fortifications, which extend for miles across the country, and must have + entailed vast labour in their construction. These ramparts were doubtless + tribal boundaries, or fortifications used by one tribe against another. + There is the Roman rig, which, as Mrs. Armitage tells us in her <i>Key to + English Antiquities</i>, coasts the face of the hills all the way from + Sheffield to Mexborough, a distance of eleven miles. A Grims-dike (or + Grims-bank, as it is popularly called) runs across the southern extremity + of Oxfordshire from Henley to Mongewell, ten miles in length; and near it, + and parallel to it, there is a Medlers-bank, another earthen rampart, + exceeding it in length by nearly a third. Near Salisbury there is also a + Grims-dike, and in Cambridgeshire and Cheshire. Danes’ Dike, near + Flamborough Head, Wans-dike, and Brokerley Dike are other famous lines of + fortifications. + </p> + <p> + There are twenty-two Grims-dikes in England. The name was probably derived + from Grim, the Saxon devil, or evil spirit; and was bestowed upon these + mysterious monuments of an ancient race which the Saxons found in various + parts of their conquered country. Unable to account for the existence of + these vast mounds and fortresses, they attributed them to satanic agency. + </p> + <p> + There is much work still to be done in exploring these relics of the + prehistoric races; and if there should be any such in your own + neighbourhood, some careful digging might produce valuable results. + Perhaps something which you may find may throw light upon some disputed or + unexplained question, which has perplexed the minds of antiquaries for + some time. I do not imagine that the following legend will deter you from + your search. It is gravely stated that years ago an avaricious person dug + into a tumulus for some treasure which it was supposed to contain. At + length after much labour he came to an immense chest, but the lid was no + sooner uncovered than it lifted itself up a little and out sprang an + enormous black cat, which seated itself upon the chest, and glowed with + eyes of passion upon the intruder. Nothing daunted, the man proceeded to + try to move the chest, but without avail; so he fixed a strong chain to it + and attached a powerful team of horses. But when the horses began to pull, + the chain broke in a hundred places, and the chest of treasure disappeared + for ever. + </p> + <p> + Some rustics assert that if you run nine times round a tumulus, and then + put your ear against it, you will hear the fairies dancing and singing in + the interior. Indeed it is a common superstition that good fairies lived + in these old mounds, and a story is told of a ploughman who unfortunately + broke his ploughshare. However he left it at the foot of a tumulus, and + the next day, to his surprise, he found it perfectly whole. Evidently the + good fairies had mended it during the night. But these bright little + beings, who used to be much respected by our ancestors, have quite + deserted our shores. They found that English people did not believe in + them; so they left us in disgust, and have never been heard of since. + </p> + <p> + If you have no other Celtic remains in your neighbourhood, at least you + have the enduring possession of the words which they have bequeathed to + us, such as <i>coat, basket, crook, cart, kiln, pitcher, comb, ridge</i>, + and many others, which have all been handed down to us from our British + ancestors. Their language also lives in Wales and Brittany, in parts of + Ireland and Scotland, and in the Isle of Man, where dwell the modern + representatives of that ancient race, which was once so powerful, and has + left its trace in most of the countries of Europe. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link6" id="link6"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <h3> + ROMAN RELICS + </h3> + <p> + Roman remains numerous—Chedworth villa—Roads—Names + derived from roads—<i>Itinerary</i> of Antoninus—British roads—Watling + Street—Iknield Street—Ryknield Street—Ermyn Street—Akeman + Street—Saltways— Milestones—Silchester—Its walls—Calleva—Its + gardens and villas— Hypocausts—Pavements—Description of + old city—Forum—Temple—Baths— Amphitheatre—Church—Roman + villa. + </p> + <p> + “The world’s a scene of change,” sings Poet Cowley; but + in spite of all the changes that have transformed our England, the coming + and going of conquerors and invaders, the lapse of centuries, the + ceaseless working of the ploughshare on our fields and downs, traces of + the old Roman life in Britain have remained indelible. Our English + villages are rich in the relics of the old Romans; and each year adds to + our knowledge of the life they lived in the land of their adoption, and + reveals the treasures which the earth has tenderly preserved for so many + years. + </p> + <p> + If your village lies near the track of some Roman road, many pleasing + surprises may be in store for you. Oftentimes labourers unexpectedly meet + with the buried walls and beautiful tesselated pavements of an ancient + Roman dwelling-place. A few years ago at Chedworth, near Cirencester, a + ferret was lost, and had to be dug out of the rabbit burrow. In doing this + some Roman <i>tesserae</i> were dug up; and when further excavations were + made a noble Roman villa with numerous rooms, artistic pavements, + hypocausts, baths, carvings, and many beautiful relics of Roman art were + brought to light. Possibly you may be equally successful in your own + village and neighbourhood. + </p> + <p> + If you have the good fortune to live near a Roman station, you will have + the pleasing excitement of discovering Roman coins and other treasures, + when you watch your labourers draining the land or digging wells. Everyone + knows that the names of many of the Roman stations are distinguished + by the termination <i>Chester, caster</i>, or <i>caer</i>, derived from + the Latin <i>castra</i>, a camp; and whenever we are in the neighbourhood + of such places, imagination pictures to us the well-drilled Roman + legionaries who used to astonish the natives with their strange language + and customs; and we know that there are coins and pottery, <i>tesserae</i> + and Roman ornaments galore, stored up beneath our feet, awaiting the + search of the persevering digger. Few are the records relating to Roman + Britain contained in the pages of the historians, as compared with the + evidences of roads and houses, gates and walls and towns, which the earth + has preserved for us. + </p> + <p> + Near your village perhaps a Roman road runs. The Romans were famous for + their wonderful roads, which extended from camp to camp, from city to + city, all over the country. These roads remain, and are evidences of the + great engineering skill which their makers possessed. They liked + their roads well drained, and raised high above the marshes; they liked + them to go straight ahead, like their victorious legions, and never swerve + to right or left for any obstacle. They cut through the hills, and filled + up the valleys; and there were plenty of idle Britons about, who could be + forced to do the work. They called their roads <i>strata</i> or streets; + and all names of places containing the word <i>street</i>, such as <i>Streatley</i>, + or <i>Stretford</i>, denote that they were situated on one of these Roman + roads. + </p> + <p> + You may see these roads wending their way straight as a die, over hill and + dale, staying not for marsh or swamp. Along the ridge of hills they go, as + does the High Street on the Westmoreland hills, where a few inches below + the grass you can find the stony way; or on the moors between Redmire and + Stanedge, in Yorkshire, the large paving stones, of which the road was + made, in many parts still remain. In central places, as at Blackrod, in + Lancashire, the roads extend like spokes from the centre of a wheel, + although nearly eighteen hundred years have elapsed since their + construction. The name of Devizes, Wilts, is a corruption of the Latin + word <i>divisae</i>, which marks the spot where the old Roman road from + London to Bath was <i>divided</i> by the boundary line between the Roman + and the Celtic districts. + </p> + <p> + In order to acquire a knowledge of the great roads of the Romans we must + study the <i>Itinerary</i> of Antoninus, written by an officer of the + imperial Court about 150 A.D. This valuable road-book tells us the names + of the towns and stations, the distances, halting-places, and other + particulars. Ptolemy’s <i>Geographia</i> also affords help in + understanding the details of the <i>Itinerary</i>, and many of the roads + have been very satisfactorily traced. The Romans made use of the ancient + British ways, whenever they found them suitable for their purpose. The + British roads resembled the trackways on Salisbury Plain, wide grass + rides, neither raised nor paved, and not always straight, but winding + along the sides of the hills which lie in their course. There were seven + chief British ways: Watling Street, which was the great north road, + starting from Richborough on the coast of Kent, passing through Canterbury + and Rochester it crossed the Thames near London, and went on through + Verulam, Dunstable, and Towcester, Wellington, and Wroxeter, and thence + into Wales to Tommen-y-Mawr, where it divided into two branches. One ran + by Beth Gellert to Caernarvon and Holy Head, and the other through the + mountains to the Manai banks and thence to Chester, Northwich, Manchester, + Ilkley, until it finally ended in Scotland. + </p> + <p> + The second great British road was the way of the Iceni, or Iknield Street, + proceeding from Great Yarmouth, running through Cambridgeshire, + Bedfordshire, Bucks, and Oxon, to Old Sarum, and finishing its course at + Land’s End. We have in Berkshire a branch of this road called the + Ridgeway. + </p> + <p> + The Ryknield Street beginning at the mouth of the Tyne ran through + Chester-le-Street, followed the course of the Watling Street to Catterick, + thence through Birmingham, Tewkesbury, and Gloucester, to Caermarthen and + St. David’s. + </p> + <p> + The Ermyn Street led from the coast of Sussex to the south-east part of + Scotland. + </p> + <p> + The Akeman Street ran between the Iknield and Ryknield Streets, and led + from what the Saxons called East Anglia, through Bedford, Newport Pagnel, + and Buckingham to Alcester and Cirencester, across the Severn, and ending + at St. David’s. + </p> + <p> + The Upper Saltway was the communication between the sea-coast of + Lincolnshire and the salt mines at Droitwich; and the Lower Saltway led + from Droitwich, then, as now, a great centre of the salt trade, to the + sea-coast of Hampshire. Traces of another great road to the north are + found, which seems to have run through the western parts of England + extending from Devon to Scotland. + </p> + <p> + Such were the old British roads which existed when the Romans came. The + conquerors made use of these ways, wherever they found them useful, + trenching them, paving them, and making them fit for military purposes. + They constructed many new ones which would require a volume for their full + elucidation. Many of them are still in use, wonderful records of the + engineering skill of their makers, and oftentimes beneath the surface of + some grassy ride a few inches below the turf you may find the hard + concreted road laid down by the Romans nearly eighteen hundred years ago. + Roman milestones we sometimes find. There is one near Silchester, commonly + called the Imp Stone, probably from the first three letters of the Latin + word <i>Imperator</i>, carved upon it. Curious legends often cluster round + these relics of ancient times. Just as the superstitious Saxons, when they + saw the great Roman roads, made by a people who had long vanished from the + land, often attributed these great works to evil spirits, and called parts + of these well-made streets the Devil’s Highway, so they invented a + strange legend to account for the Imp Stone, and said that some giant had + thrown it from the city, and left on it the marks of his finger and thumb. + </p> + <p> + Our English villages contain many examples of Roman buildings. Where now + rustics pursue their calling, and sow their crops and reap their harvests, + formerly stood the beautiful houses of the Roman nobles, or the + flourishing towns of Roman citizens. Upon the sites of most of these + old-world places new towns have been constructed; hence it is difficult + often to trace the foundations of Roman cities in the midst of the masses + of modern bricks and mortar. Hence we fly to the villages; and sometimes, + as at Silchester, near a little English village, we find the remains of a + large, important, and flourishing town, where the earth has kept safely + for us during many centuries the treasures and memories of a bygone age. + </p> + <p> + Every student of Roman Britain must visit Silchester, and examine the + collections preserved in the Reading Museum, which have been amassed by + the antiquaries who have for several years been excavating the ruins. The + city contained a forum, or marketplace, having on one side a basilica, or + municipal hall, in which prisoners were tried, business transactions + executed, and the general affairs of the city carried on. On the other + side of the square were the shops, where the butchers, bakers, or + fishmongers plied their trade. You can find plenty of oyster shells, the + contents of which furnished many a feast to the Romans who lived there + seventeen hundred years ago. The objects which have been found tell us how + the dwellers in the old city employed themselves, and how skilful they + were in craftsmanship. Amongst other things we find axes, chisels, files + for setting saws, hammers, a large plane, and other carpenters’ + tools; an anvil, a pair of tongs, and blacksmiths’ implements; + shoemakers’ anvils, very similar to those used in our day, a large + gridiron, a standing lamp, safety-pins, such as ladies use now, and many + other useful and necessary objects. + </p> + <p> + In order to protect the city it was surrounded by high walls, which seem + to defy all the attacks of time. They are nine feet in thickness, and are + still in many places twenty feet high. Outside the wall a wide ditch added + to the strength of the fortifications. Watch-towers were placed at + intervals along the walls; and on the north, south, east, and west sides + were strongly fortified gates, with guard chambers on each side, and + arched entrances through which the Roman chariots were driven. + </p> + <p> + These walls inclose a space of irregular shape, and were built on the site + of old British fortifications. Silchester was originally a British + stronghold, and was called by them Calleva. The Celtic tribe which + inhabited the northern parts of Hampshire was the Atrebates, who after a + great many fights were subdued by the Romans about 78 A.D. Then within the + rude fortifications of Calleva arose the city of Silchester, with its fine + houses, temples, and baths, its strong walls, and gates, and streets, the + great centre of civilisation, and the chief city of that part of the + country. + </p> + <p> + It is often possible to detect the course of Roman streets where now the + golden corn is growing. On the surface of the roads where the ground is + thin, the corn is scanty. Observation of this kind a few years ago led to + the discovery of a Romano-British village at Long Whittenham, in Berks. In + Silchester it is quite easy to trace the course of the streets by the + thinness of the corn, as Leland observed as long ago as 1536. One is + inclined to wonder where all the earth comes from, which buries old + buildings and hides them so carefully; but any student of natural history, + who has read Darwin’s book on <i>Worms</i>, will cease to be + astonished. It is chiefly through the action of these useful creatures + that soil accumulates so greatly on the sites of ancient buildings. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link077" id="link077"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="077.jpg (48K)" src="images/077.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Within the walls of Silchester were gardens and villas replete with all + the contrivances of Roman luxury. The houses were built on three sides of + a square court. A cloister ran round the court, supported by pillars. The + open space was used as a garden. At the back of the house were the + kitchens and apartments for the slaves and domestics. The Romans adapted + their dwellings to the climate in which they lived. In the sunny south, at + Pompeii, the houses were more open, and would be little suited to our more + rigorous climate. They knew how to make themselves comfortable, built + rooms well protected from the weather, and heated with hypocausts. These + were furnaces made beneath the house, which generated hot air; and this + was admitted into the rooms by earthenware flue-tiles. The dwellers had + both summer and winter apartments; and when the cold weather arrived the + hypocaust furnaces were lighted, and the family adjourned to their winter + quarters. + </p> + <p> + The floors were made of <i>tesserae</i>, or small cubes of different + materials and various colours, which were arranged in beautiful patterns. + Some of these pavements were of most elegant and elaborate designs, having + figures in them representing the seasons, or some mythological characters. + </p> + <p> + The walls were painted with decorations of very beautiful designs, + representing the cornfields, just as the Roman artists in Italy loved to + depict the vine in their mural paintings. The mortar used by the Romans is + very hard and tenacious, and their bricks were small and thin, varying + from 8 inches square to 18 inches by 12, and were about 2 inches in + thickness. Frequently we find the impression of an animal’s foot on + these bricks and tiles, formed when they were in a soft state before they + were baked, and one tile recently found had the impression of a Roman baby’s + foot. Roman bricks have often been used by subsequent builders, and are + found built up in the masonry of much later periods. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link079" id="link079"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="079.jpg (8K)" src="images/079.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + It is quite possible to build up in imagination the old Roman city, and to + depict before our mind’s eye the scenes that once took place where + now the rustics toil and till the ground. We enter the forum, the great + centre of the city, the common resort and lounging-place of the citizens, + who met together to discuss the latest news from Rome, to transact their + business, and exchange gossip. On the west side stood the noble basilica, + or hall of justice—a splendid building, its entrance being adorned + with fine Corinthian columns; and slabs of polished Purbeck marble, and + even of green and white marble from the Pyrenees, covered the walls. It + was a long rectangular hall, 233 feet in length by 58 feet in width, and + at each side was a semicircular apse, which was called the Tribune. Here + the magistrate sat to administer justice, or an orator stood to address + the citizens. In the centre of the western wall was another apse, where + the <i>curia</i> met for the government of the city. Two rows of columns + ran down the hall, dividing it into a nave with two aisles, like many of + our churches. Indeed the form of the construction of our churches was + taken from these Roman basilica. Several chambers stood on the west of the + hall, one of which was another fine hall, probably used as a corn + exchange. The height of this noble edifice, the roof of which was probably + hidden by a coffered ceiling, must have been about fifty-seven feet. + </p> + <p> + Passing along the main street towards the south gate we come to the + foundations of a nearly circular temple. Two square-shaped buildings stood + on the east of the city, which were probably temples for some Gaulish form + of religion, as similar sacred buildings have been discovered in France. A + quadrangle of buildings near the south gate, having various chambers, + contained the public baths, whither the Romans daily resorted for gossip + and discussion as well as for bathing. There is an ingenious arrangement + for using the waste water for the purpose of flushing the drains and + sewers. Nor were they ignorant of the invention of a force-pump, as the + accompanying illustration on the next page shows. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link081" id="link081"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="081.jpg (100K)" src="images/081.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The amphitheatre stands outside the gate, whither the citizens flocked to + see gladiatorial displays or contests between wild beasts. With the + exception of one at Dorchester, it is the largest in Britain. It is made + of lofty banks of earth, which surround the arena, and must have been an + imposing structure in the days of its glory, with its tiers of seats + rising above the level arena. It is difficult to imagine this + grass-covered slope occupied by a gay crowd of Romans and wondering + Britons, all eagerly witnessing some fierce fight of man with man, or + beast with beast, and enthusiastically revelling in the sanguinary sport. + The modern rustics, who have no knowledge of what was the original purpose + of “the Mount,” as they name the amphitheatre, still call the + arena “the lions’ den.” + </p> + <p> + Silchester was a very busy place. There were dye works there, as the + excavations show; hence there must have been some weaving, and therefore a + large resident population. Throngs of travellers used to pass through it, + and carts and baggage animals bore through its streets the merchandise + from London, which passed to the cities and villas so plentifully + scattered in western Britain. + </p> + <p> + By far the most important of the discoveries made in Roman Britain is the + little church which stood just outside the forum. It is very similar in + form to the early churches in Italy and other parts of the Roman Empire, + and is of the basilican type. The orientation is different from that used + after the reign of Constantine, the altar being at the west end. The + churches of S. Peter and S. Paul at Rome had the same arrangement; and the + priest evidently stood behind the altar facing the congregation and + looking towards the east at the time of the celebration of the Holy + Communion. There is an apse at the west end, and the building is divided + by two rows of columns into a nave and two aisles. The nave had probably + an ambon, or reading-desk, and was mainly used by the clergy, the aisles + being for the use of the men and women separately. A vestry stood at the + western end of the north aisle. Across the eastern end was the narthex, or + porch, where the catechumens stood and watched the service through the + three open doors. Outside the narthex was the atrium, an open court, + having in the centre the remains of the labrum, or laver, where the people + washed their hands and faces before entering the church. We are reminded + of a sermon by S. Chrysostom, who upbraided his congregation, asking them + what was the use of their washing their hands if they did not at the same + time cleanse their hearts by repentance. This interesting memorial of + early Christianity was probably erected soon after the Emperor Constantine’s + Edict of Toleration issued in 313 A.D. + </p> + <p> + But not only at Silchester and at other places, once the great centres of + the Roman population, do we find Roman remains. In addition to the + stations, camps, and towns, there were the villas of the rich Roman + citizens or Gaulish merchants on the sunny slopes of many a hillside. + Although hundreds of the remains of these noble houses have been + discovered, there are still many to be explored. + </p> + <p> + The villa consisted of the house of the proprietor, which occupied the + centre of the little colony, together with the smaller houses of the + servants and slaves, stables, cowsheds, mills, and granaries, and all the + other usual outbuildings connected with a large estate. The main house was + built around a central court, like an Oxford college; and resembled in + architectural style the buildings which the excavations at Pompeii have + disclosed. A corridor ran round the court supported by pillars, from which + the rooms opened. In a well-defended town like Silchester the houses were + usually built on three sides of the court; but the country villas, which + had occasionally to be fortified against the attacks of wandering bands of + outlaws and wild Britons, and the inroads of savage beasts, were usually + built on all the four sides of the square court. They were usually of one + story, although the existence of a force-pump in Silchester shows that + water was laid on upstairs in one house at least. As the wells were less + than thirty feet deep, a force-pump would not be needed to lift the water + to the earth-level. Hence in some houses there must have been some upper + chambers, a conclusion that is supported by the thickness of the + foundations, which are far more substantial than would be required for + houses of one story. The rooms were very numerous, often as many as sixty + or seventy, and very bright they must have looked decorated with beautiful + marbles and stuccoes of gorgeous hues, and magnificent pavements, statues + and shrines, baths and fountains, and the many other objects of Roman + luxury and comfort. The floors were made of <i>opus signinum</i>, such as + the Italians use at the present day, a material composed of cement in + which are embedded fragments of stone or brick, the whole being rubbed + down to a smooth surface, or paved with mosaic composed of <i>tesserae</i>. + In whatever land the Roman dwelt, there he made his beautiful tesselated + pavement, rich with graceful designs and ever-enduring colours, + representing the stories of the gods, the poetry of nature, and the + legends of the heroes of his beloved native land. Here we see Perseus + freeing Andromeda, Medusa’s locks, Bacchus and his band of + revellers, Orpheus with his lyre, by which he is attracting a monkey, a + fox, a peacock, and other animals, Apollo singing to his lyre, Venus being + loved by Mars, Neptune with his trident, attended by hosts of seamen. The + seasons form an accustomed group, “Winter” being represented, + as at Brading, by a female figure, closely wrapped, holding a lifeless + bough and a dead bird. Satyrs and fauns, flowers, Graces and wood-nymphs, + horns of plenty, gladiators fighting, one with a trident, the other with a + net—all these and countless other fanciful representations look at + us from these old Roman pavements. The Roman villa at Brading is an + excellent type of such a dwelling, with its magnificent suites of rooms, + colonnades, halls, and splendid mosaic pavements. As at Silchester, we see + there fine examples of hypocausts. The floor of the room, called a <i>suspensura</i>, + is supported by fifty-four small pillars made of tiles. Another good + example of a similar floor exists at Cirencester, and many more at + Silchester. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link085" id="link085"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="085.jpg (104K)" src="images/085.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Here is a description of a Roman gentleman’s house, as drawn by the + writer of <i>The History of Oxfordshire</i>:— + </p> + <p> + “His villa lay sheltered from wild winds partly by the rising brow + of the hill, and partly by belts of trees; it was turned towards the + south, and caught the full sun. In the spring the breath of his violet + beds would be as soft and sweet as in Oxfordshire woods to-day; in the + summer his quadrangle would be gay with calthae, and his colonnade + festooned with roses and helichryse. If we are to believe in the <i>triclinium + aestivum</i> of Hakewill, it says much for the warmth of those far-away + summers that he was driven to build a summer dining-room with a north + aspect, and without heating flues. And when the long nights fell, and + winter cold set in, the slaves heaped higher the charcoal fires in the <i>praefurnium</i>; + the master sat in rooms far better warmed than Oxford country houses now, + or sunned himself at midday in the sheltered quadrangle, taking his + exercise in the warm side of the colonnade among his gay stuccoes and + fluted columns. Could we for a moment raise the veil, we should probably + find that the country life of 400 A.D. in Oxfordshire was not so very + dissimilar to that of to-day, ... and that the well-to-do Roman of rustic + Middle England was ... a useful, peaceful, and a happy person.” + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link7" id="link7"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <h3> + ANGLO-SAXON VILLAGES + </h3> + <p> + Departure of Romans—Coming of Saxons—Bede—Saxon names of + places— Saxon village—Common-field system—<i>Eorl</i> + and <i>ceorl</i>—Thanes, <i>geburs</i>, and <i>cottiers</i>—Description + of village life—Thane’s house—<i>Socmen</i>—Ploughman’s + lament—Village tradesmen—Parish council—Hundreds—Shires. + </p> + <p> + The scene changes. The Roman legions have left our shores, and are trying + to prop the tottering state of the falling empire. The groans of the + Britons have fallen on listless or distracted ears, and no one has come to + their succour. The rule of the all-swaying Roman power has passed away, + and the Saxon hordes have poured over the hills and vales of rural + Britain, and made it the Angles’ land—our England. + </p> + <p> + The coming of the Saxons was a very gradual movement. They did not attack + our shores in large armies on one or two occasions; they came in clans or + families. The head of the clan built a ship, and taking with him his + family and relations, founded a settlement in wild Britain, or wherever + the winds happened to carry them. They were very fierce and relentless in + war, and committed terrible ravages on the helpless Britons, sparing + neither men, women, nor children, burning buildings, destroying and + conquering wherever they went. + </p> + <p> + Bede tells the story of doings of the ruthless Saxons:— + </p> + <p> + “The barbarous conquerors ... plundered all the neighbouring cities + and country, spread the conflagration from the eastern to the western sea + without any opposition, and covered almost every part of the devoted + island. Public as well as private structures were overturned; the priests + were everywhere slain before the altars; the prelates and the people, + without any respect of persons, were destroyed with fire and sword; nor + was there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly slaughtered. Some of + the miserable remainder, being taken in the mountains, were butchered in + heaps. Others, spent with hunger, came forth and submitted themselves to + the enemy for food, being destined to undergo perpetual servitude, if they + were not killed even upon the spot. Some, with sorrowful hearts, fled + beyond the seas; others, continuing in their own country, led a miserable + life among the woods, rocks, and mountains, with scarcely enough food to + support life, and expecting every moment to be their last.” + </p> + <p> + Many antiquaries believe that the extirpation of the Britons was not so + complete as Bede asserts, and that a large number of them remained in + England in a condition of servitude. At any rate, the almost entire + extinction of the language, except as regards the names of a few rivers + and mountains, and of a few household words, seems to point to a fairly + complete expulsion of the Britons rather than to a mingling of them with + the conquering race. + </p> + <p> + What remains have we in our English villages of our Saxon forefathers, the + makers of England? In the first place we notice that many of the names of + our villages retain the memory of their founders. When the family, or + group of families, formed their settlements, they avoided the buildings + and walled towns, relics of Roman civilisation, made clearings for + themselves in the primeval forests, and established themselves in village + communities. In the names of places the suffix <i>ing</i>, meaning <i>sons + of</i>, denotes that the village was first occupied by the clan of some + chief, whose name is compounded with this syllable <i>ing</i>. Thus the + Uffingas, the children of Offa, formed a settlement at Uffinggaston, or + Uffington; the Redingas, or sons of Rede, settled at Reading; the Billings + at Billinge and Billingham; the Wokings or Hocings, sons of Hoc, at Woking + and Wokingham. The Billings and Wokings first settled at Billinge and + Woking; and then like bees they swarmed, and started another hive of + industry at Billingham and Wokingham. + </p> + <p> + These family settlements, revealed to us by the patronymic <i>ing</i>, are + very numerous. At Ardington, in Berkshire, the Ardings, the royal race of + the Vandals, settled; the Frankish Walsings at Wolsingham; the Halsings at + Helsington; the Brentings at Brentingley; the Danish Scyldings at + Skelding; the Thurings at Thorington; and many other examples might be + quoted. + </p> + <p> + Many Saxon names of places end in <i>field</i>, which denotes a forest + clearing, or <i>feld</i>, made by the axes of the settlers in the primeval + woods, where the trees were <i>felled</i>. These villages were rudely + fortified, or inclosed by a hedge, wall, or palisade, denoted by the + suffix <i>ton</i>, derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>tynan</i>, to hedge; + and all names ending with this syllable point to the existence of a Saxon + settlement hedged in and protected from all intruders. Thus we have + Barton, Preston, Bolton, and many others. The terminations <i>yard</i>, <i>stoke</i>, + or stockaded place, as in Basingstoke, <i>worth</i> (Anglo-Saxon <i>weorthig</i>), + as in Kenilworth, Tamworth, Walworth, have much the same meaning. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the most common of all the terminations of names denoting the + presence of Anglo-Saxon settlers is the suffix <i>ham</i>. When the <i>a</i> + is pronounced short the syllable denotes an inclosure, like <i>stoke</i> + or <i>ton</i>; but when the <i>a</i> is long, it means home, and expresses + the reverence with which the Anglo-Saxon regarded his own dwelling. + England is the land of homes, and the natural affection with which we + Englishmen regard our homes is to a great extent peculiar to our race. The + Frenchman, the Spaniard, the Italian, do not have the same respect for + home. Our Saxon forefathers were a very home-loving people, and it is from + them doubtless that we inherit our love for our homes. + </p> + <p> + We find, then, the Saxon holding the lands. The clan formed settlements; + sections of each clan formed branch settlements; and several members of + each section cut their way through the thick forests, felled the trees, + built homesteads, where they tilled the land and reared their cattle. + </p> + <p> + In early Saxon times the settlement consisted of a number of families + holding a district, and the land was regularly divided into three + portions. There was the village itself, in which the people lived in + houses built of wood or rude stonework. Around the village were a few + small inclosures, or grass yards, for rearing calves and baiting farm + stock; this was the common farmstead. Around this was the arable land, + where the villagers grew their corn and other vegetables; and around this + lay the common meadows, or pasture land, held by the whole community, so + that each family could turn their cattle into it, subject to the + regulations of an officer elected by the people, whose duty it was to see + that no one trespassed on the rights of his neighbour, or turned too many + cattle into the common pasture. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link091" id="link091"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="091.jpg (34K)" src="images/091.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Around the whole colony lay the woods and uncultivated land, which was + left in its natural wild state, where the people cut their timber and + fuel, and pastured their pigs in the glades of the forest. The cultivated + land was divided into three large fields, in which the rotation of crops + was strictly enforced, each field lying fallow once in three years. To + each freeman was assigned his own family lot, which was cultivated by the + members of his household. But he was obliged to sow the same crop as his + neighbour, and compelled by law to allow his lot to lie fallow with the + rest every third year. The remains of this common-field system are still + evident in many parts of the country, the fields being termed “lot + meadows,” or “Lammas lands.” Our commons, too, many of + which remain in spite of numerous inclosures, are evidences of the + communal life of our village forefathers. + </p> + <p> + How long the Saxon villages remained free democratic institutions, we do + not know. Gradually a change came over them, and we find the manorial + system in vogue. Manors existed in England long before the Normans came, + although “manor” is a Norman word; and in the time of Canute + the system was in full force. The existence of a manor implies a lord of + the manor, who exercised authority over all the villagers, owned the home + farm, and had certain rights over the rest of the land. How all this came + about, we scarcely know. Owing to the Danish invasions, when the rude + barbarous warriors carried fire and sword into many a peaceful town and + village, the villagers found themselves at the mercy of these savage + hordes. Probably they sought the protection of some thane, or <i>eorl</i>, + with his band of warriors, who could save their lands from pillage. In + return for their services they acknowledged him as the lord of their + village, and gave him rent, which was paid either in the produce of these + fields or by the work of their hands. Thus the lords of the manor became + the masters of the villagers, although they too were governed by law, and + were obliged to respect the rights of their tenants and servants. + </p> + <p> + Saxon society was divided into two main divisions, the <i>eorl</i> and the + <i>ceorl</i>, the men of noble birth, and those of ignoble origin. The + chief man in the village was the manorial lord, a <i>thane</i>, who had + his demesne land, and his <i>gafol</i> land, or <i>geneat</i> land, which + was land held in villeinage, and cultivated by <i>geneats</i>, or persons + holding by service. These villein tenants were in two classes, the <i>geburs</i>, + or villeins proper, who held the yardlands, and the <i>cottiers</i>, who + had smaller holdings. Beneath these two classes there were the <i>theows</i>, + or slaves, made up partly of the conquered Britons, partly of captives + taken in war, and partly of freemen who had been condemned to this penalty + for their crimes, or had incurred it by poverty. + </p> + <p> + There were degrees of rank among Saxon gentlemen, as among those of + to-day. The thanes were divided into three classes: (i.) those of royal + rank (<i>thani regis</i>), who served the king in Court or in the + management of State affairs; (ii.) <i>thani mediocres</i>, who held the + title by inheritance, and corresponded to the lords of the manor in the + later times; (iii.) <i>thani minores</i>, or inferior thanes, to which + rank <i>ceorls</i> or merchants could attain by the acquisition of + sufficient landed property. + </p> + <p> + We can picture to ourselves the ordinary village life which existed in + Saxon times. The thane’s house stood in the centre of the village, + not a very lordly structure, and very unlike the stately Norman castles + which were erected in later times. It was commonly built of wood, which + the neighbouring forests supplied in plenty, and had stone or mud + foundations. The house consisted of an irregular group of low buildings, + almost all of one story. In the centre of the group was the hall, with + doors opening into the court. On one side stood the kitchen; on the other + the chapel when the thane became a Christian and required the services of + the Church for himself and his household. Numerous other rooms with + lean-to roofs were joined on to the hall, and a tower for purposes of + defence in case of an attack. Stables and barns were scattered about + outside the house, and with the cattle and horses lived the grooms and + herdsmen, while villeins and <i>cottiers</i> dwelt in the humble, low, + shedlike buildings, which clustered round the Saxon thane’s + dwelling-place. An illustration of such a house appears in an ancient + illumination preserved in the Harleian MSS., No. 603. The lord and lady of + the house are represented as engaged in almsgiving; the lady is thus + earning her true title, that of “loaf-giver,” from which her + name “lady” is derived. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link094" id="link094"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="094.jpg (76K)" src="images/094.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The interior of the hall was the common living-room for both men and + women, who slept on the reed-strewn floor, the ladies’ + sleeping-place being separated from the men’s by the arras. The + walls were hung with tapestry, woven by the skilled fingers of the ladies + of the household. A peat or log fire burned in the centre of the hall, and + the smoke hid the ceiling and finally found its way out through a hole in + the roof. Arms and armour hung on the walls, and the seats consisted of + benches called “mead-settles,” arranged along the sides of the + hall, where the Saxon chiefs sat drinking their favourite beverage, mead, + or sweetened beer, out of the horns presented to them by the waiting + damsels. When the hour for dinner approached, rude tables were laid on + trestles, and forthwith groaned beneath the weight of joints of meat and + fat capons which the Saxon loved dearly. The door of the hall was usually + open, and thither came the bards and gleemen, who used to delight the + company with their songs and stories of the gallant deeds of their + ancestors, the weird legends of their gods Woden and Thor, their Viking + lays and Norse sagas, and the acrobats and dancers astonished them with + their strange postures. + </p> + <p> + Next to the thane ranked the <i>geburs</i>, who held land granted to them + by the thane for their own use, sometimes as much as one hundred and + twenty acres, and were required to work for the lord on the home farm two + or three days a week, or pay rent for their holdings. This payment + consisted of the produce of the land. They were also obliged to provide + one or more oxen for the manorial plough team, which consisted of eight + oxen. + </p> + <p> + There was also a strong independent body of men called <i>socmen</i>, who + were none other than our English yeomen. They were free tenants, who have + by their independence stamped with peculiar features both our constitution + and our national character. Their good name remains; English yeomen have + done good service to their country, and let us hope that they will long + continue to exist amongst us, in spite of the changed condition of English + agriculture and the prolonged depression in farming affairs, which has + tried them severely. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link096" id="link096"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="096.jpg (57K)" src="images/096.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Besides the <i>geburs</i> and <i>socmen</i> there were the <i>cottiers</i>, + who had small allotments of about five acres, kept no oxen, and were + required to work for the thane some days in each week. Below them were the + <i>theows</i>, serfs, or slaves, who could be bought and sold in the + market, and were compelled to work on the lord’s farm. + </p> + <p> + Listen to the sad lament of one of this class, recorded in a dialogue of + AElfric of the tenth century:— + </p> + <p> + “What sayest thou, ploughman? How dost thou do thy work?” + </p> + <p> + “Oh, my lord, hard do I work. I go out at daybreak, driving the oxen + to field, and I yoke them to the plough. Nor is it ever so hard winter + that I dare loiter at home, for fear of my lord, but the oxen yoked, and + the ploughshare and the coulter fastened to the plough, every day must I + plough a full acre, or more.” + </p> + <p> + “Hast thou any comrade?” + </p> + <p> + “I have a boy driving the oxen with an iron goad, who also is hoarse + with cold and shouting.” + </p> + <p> + “What more dost thou in the day?” + </p> + <p> + “Verily then I do more. I must fill the bin of the oxen with hay, + and water them, and carry out the dung. Ha! Ha! hard work it is, hard work + it is! because <i>I am not free.</i>” + </p> + <p> + Evidently the ploughman’s want of freedom was his great hardship; + his work in ploughing, feeding, and watering his cattle, and in cleansing + their stable, was not harder than that of an ordinary carter in the + present day; but servitude galled his spirit, and made the work + intolerable. Let us hope that his lord was a kind-hearted man, and gave + him some cattle for his own, as well as some land to cultivate, and then + he would not feel the work so hard, or the winter so cold. + </p> + <p> + Frequently men were thus released from slavery; sometimes also freemen + sold themselves into slavery under the pressure of extreme want. A man so + reduced was required to lay aside his sword and lance, the symbols of the + free, and to take up the bill and the goad, the implements of slavery, to + fall on his knees and place his head, in token of submission, under the + hands of his master. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link098" id="link098"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="098.jpg (42K)" src="images/098.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Each trade was represented in the village community. There were the <i>faber</i>, + or smith, and the carpenter, who repaired the ironwork and woodwork of the + ploughs and other agricultural implements, and in return for their work + had small holdings among the tenants free from ordinary services. There + was the <i>punder</i>, or pound-man, who looked after the repair of the + fences and impounded stray cattle; the <i>cementarius</i>, or stonemason; + the <i>custos apium</i>, or bee-keeper, an important person, as much honey + was needed to make the sweetened ale, or mead, which the villagers and + their chiefs loved to imbibe; and the steward, or <i>prepositus</i>, who + acted on behalf of the lord, looked after the interests of the tenants, + and took care that they rendered their legal services. The surnames Smith, + Baker, Butcher, Carter, and many others, preserve the remembrance of the + various trades which were carried on in every village, and of the complete + self-dependence of the community. + </p> + <p> + We have inherited many customs and institutions from our Saxon + forefathers, which connect our own age with theirs. In recent years we + have established parish councils in our villages. Formerly the pet theory + of politicians was centralisation; everything had to be done at one + centre, at one central office, and London became the head and centre of + all government. But recently politicians thought that they had discovered + a new plan for carrying on the internal affairs of the country, and the + idea was to leave each district to manage its own affairs. This is only a + return to the original Saxon plan. In every village there was a moot-hill, + or sacred tree, where the freemen met to make their own laws and arrange + their agricultural affairs. Here disputes were settled, plough lands and + meadow lands shared in due lot among the villagers, and everything + arranged according to the custom of the village. + </p> + <p> + Our county maps show that the shires are divided into hundreds. This we + have inherited from our Saxon forefathers. In order to protect themselves + from their neighbours, the Saxon colonists arranged themselves in hundreds + of warriors. This little army was composed of picked champions, the + representatives of a hundred families; men who were ready in case of war + to uphold the honour of their house, and to fight for their hearths and + homes. These hundred families recognised a bond of union with each other + and a common inheritance, and ranged themselves under one name for general + purposes, whether for defence, administration of justice, or other + objects. + </p> + <p> + On a fixed day, three times a year, in some place where they were + accustomed to assemble—under a particular tree,[<a href="#linkb1">1</a>] + or near some river-bank—these hundred champions used to meet their + chieftain, and gather around him when he dismounted from his horse. He + then placed his spear in the ground, and each warrior touched it with his + own spear in token of their compact, and pledged himself to mutual + support. At this assembly criminals were tried, disputes settled, bargains + of sale concluded; and in later times many of these transactions were + inserted in the chartularies of abbeys or the registers of bishops, which + thus became a kind of register too sacred to be falsified. A large number + of the hundreds bear the name of some chieftain who once used to call + together his band of bearded, light-haired warriors and administer rude + justice beneath a broad oak’s shade.[<a href="#linkb2">2</a>] Others + are named after some particular spot, some tree, or ford, or stone, or + tumulus, where the hundred court met. + </p> + <p> + Our counties or shires were not formed, as is popularly supposed, by King + Alfred or other royal person by the dividing up of the country into + portions, but were the areas occupied by the original Saxon tribes or + kingdoms. Most of our counties retain to this day the boundaries which + were originally formed by the early Saxon settlers. Some of our counties + were old Saxon kingdoms—such as Sussex, Essex, Middlesex—the + kingdoms of the South, East, and Middle Saxons. Surrey is the Sothe-reye, + or south realm; Kent is the land of the Cantii, a Belgic tribe; Devon is + the land of the Damnonii, a Celtic tribe; Cornwall, or Corn-wales, is the + land of the Welsh of the Horn; Worcestershire is the shire of the Huiccii; + Cumberland is the land of the Cymry; Northumberland is the land north of + the Humber, and therefore, as its name implies, used to extend over all + the North of England. Evidently the southern tribes and kingdoms by + conquest reduced the size of this large county and confined it to its + present smaller dimensions. In several cases the name of the county is + derived from that of its chief town, <i>e.g.</i> Oxfordshire, + Warwickshire; these were districts which were conquered by some powerful + earl or chieftain, who held his court in the town, and called his newly + acquired property after its name. + </p> + <p> + We have seen the picture of an ordinary English village in early Saxon + times, the villeins and slaves working in the fields and driving their + oxen, and the thane dressed in his linen tunic and short cloak, his hose + bandaged to the knee with strips of cloth, superintending the farming + operations. We have seen the freemen and thanes taking an active part in + public life, attending the courts of the hundred and shire, as well as the + folk moot or parish council of those times, and the slave mourning over + his lack of freedom. But many other relics of Saxon times remain, and + these will require another chapter for their examination. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb1" id="linkb1"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [1] Until the eighteenth century there stood a pollard oak in the parish + of Shelford, Berks, where the hundred court used to be held. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb2" id="linkb2"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [2] Other theories with regard to the origin of the hundred have been + suggested. Some writers maintain that the hundred was a district whence + the hundred warriors were derived, or a group of townships. But the Bishop + of Oxford in his <i>Constitutional History</i> states: “It is very + probable that the colonists of Britain arranged themselves in hundreds of + warriors; it is not probable that the country was carved into equal + districts. The only conclusion that seems reasonable is that under the + name of geographical hundreds we have the variously sized <i>pagi</i>, or + districts, in which the hundred warriors settled, the boundaries of these + being determined by other causes.” + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link8" id="link8"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <h3> + SAXON RELICS + </h3> + <p> + Peculiarities of Saxon barrows—Their contents—Weapons—Articles + of personal adornment—Cremation—Saxon Cemeteries—Jutes—Saxons— + Angles—Religion of Saxons—British Church in Wales—Conversion + of Saxons—Saxon crosses—Whalley—St. Wilfrid—Ruthwell + cross— Bewcastle cross—Eyam cross—Ilkley cross—Hexham + cross—Cross at St. Andrew’s, Bishop Auckland—Cheeping + crosses—Pilgrim crosses. + </p> + <p> + The earth has preserved a vast store of relics of the Saxons, and for + these we must search in the barrows which contain their dead. There are + certain peculiarities which characterise these memorials of the race. The + larger tumuli, whether belonging to Celt or Roman, usually stand alone, or + in groups of not more than two or three, and were the monuments of + distinguished people; whereas the Saxon barrows form a regular cemetery, + each group being the common burying-place of the people in the district. + Another characteristic is the large number of articles which they contain. + Moreover it was the practice of the other races to lay the body on the + ground, and build up the chamber and mound above it. The Saxons on the + other hand laid the body in a deep grave before they began to construct + the barrow. + </p> + <p> + The body was usually stretched out on its back, but is sometimes found in + a sitting position, as in graves recently discovered on Lord Wantage’s + estate, Berks. Coffins of hollowed trunks of trees were occasionally used, + but these were not common. If the dead man was a warrior, his weapons were + buried with him, and we find the head and spike of his spear, heads of + javelins, a long iron broad-sword, a long knife, occasionally an axe, and + over his breast the iron boss of his shield, the wooden part of which has + of course decayed away. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a name="link104" id="link104"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="104.jpg (31K)" src="images/104.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The articles of personal adornment are very numerous. Fibulae, or + brooches, and buckles, made of bronze, are very beautifully ornamented. + Gold fibulae of circular form are found in the Kentish barrows, frequently + ornamented with real or fictitious gems. Rings, bracelets, necklaces of + beads, pendants for the neck and ears, are very common. The beads are of + glass, or amber, or variegated clay. Hairpins with which the Saxon ladies + bound up their tresses, chatelaines with tweezers for removing superfluous + hairs, toothpicks, scissors, and small knives, are very frequent, and + combs made of bone. + </p> + <p> + When cremation was used the ashes were deposited in an urn made of rude + earthenware without the help of a lathe. Drinking-vessels of glass of fine + and delicate workmanship, pointed or rounded at the bottom, are common. + From the construction of these cups it is evident that the Saxon allowed + no “heel-taps.” Bronze bowls, dishes, and basins are found in + Saxon barrows, and occasionally buckets. + </p> + <p> + A pair of dice was found in a grave at Kingston Down, which indicates a + favourite pastime of the Saxons. The presence of a large number of Roman + coins shows that they used Roman money long after the legions had left our + shores. Sceattas, or Saxon silver coins, are also frequently discovered. + </p> + <p> + Many Saxon cemeteries have been discovered in various parts of England, + but a vast number have never been examined; and the careful inspection of + the contents of barrows must throw much light upon Saxon settlements in + England. Bede tells us that there were three different branches of this + race. The Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight. The Saxons settled + in Essex, the country of the East Saxons, Sussex, that of the South + Saxons, and Wessex, of the West Saxons. The Angles settled in East Anglia. + Now an examination of barrows shows that the Angles practised cremation + and urn burial, which was not so common amongst the Jutes and Saxons, and + the fibulae found in the tombs of these tribes differ considerably in + shape and size. The contents of these graves throw much light on the + history of the people, their customs and habits. The action of the plough + has often obliterated the traces of ancient barrows. It is advisable that + the position of all such mounds should be carefully noted and recorded, + and where possible excavations made which may help in settling many vexed + questions, and enable us to understand more fully the condition of the + pagan Saxon, ere the light of Christianity had dawned upon him. + </p> + <p> + Our names for the days of the week tell us of the gods of our Saxon + forefathers, whom they worshipped in their pagan and unregenerate state. + Sun-day, Moon-day, Tuisco’s-day, Woden’s-day, Thor’s-day, + Frya’s-day, Saeter’s-day, link us on to the times when these + “whelps from the kennels of barbarism,” as the Britons loved + to call their conquerors, swept away the old British Church, and + established their heathen rites and customs. Their religion resembled that + of their Scandinavian neighbours. Each village had its sacred spot, some + clearing in the forest, a tree, or well, whither the people resorted to + pray to their gods, and practise superstitious rites and customs which + lingered long after the introduction of Christianity, and even still + survive. They had also a few temples whither the freemen came three times + a year. + </p> + <p> + Driven out of England the ancient British Church found a refuge in the + wilds of Wales and Cornwall, where it lived on and flourished vigorously, + allied to the Churches of Ireland and Scotland, sending out missionaries + to the Continent of Europe, having schools and colleges, monasteries, and + numerous churches. Llancarvan, in Glamorganshire, was a celebrated seat of + learning; and all places named Bangor, such as Bangor-Iscaed, St. Asaph, + and many others, possessed schools and colleges. The village names of + numerous places in Wales and Cornwall record the labours of many earnest, + saintly men, who brought Christianity to the savage folk in these wild + regions. There are nearly five hundred names of these holy men in Wales + alone, whose memory is retained by this simple record; and Cornwall is + dotted over with churches dedicated to men and women whose names are + strange, and of whom we know nothing. History tells us of some of these + early saints and martyrs, of St. Alban, the first British martyr, who was + slain 303 A.D. during the Diocletian persecution in the city which bears + his name; of St. David, a Welsh prince, who followed the active life of + John the Baptist, and preached like him. The memory of early saints is + enshrined in the names, St. Ives, St. Neots, St. Bees, and in St. Edmund’s + Bury, named after St. Edmund, who was taken prisoner by Ingvar the Viking, + and having been bound to a tree, was scourged, and served as a target for + the arrows of the Danes, being afterwards beheaded. All these record the + bravery and zeal of the holy men of old who loved their God, and for His + sake feared not to die. + </p> + <p> + Nothing need be said of the conversion of the English. That is a story + which has been often told. The scene is again changed. The temples of + Woden and Thor at Canterbury and Godmundingham and elsewhere, with their + heathen altars and shrines and idols, have been changed into Christian + churches, and other houses of God have been raised in the various + kingdoms; while Paulinus, Berinus, Aidan, Winfrid, and other preachers, + travelled through the country, exhorting the people to accept the + Christian faith. + </p> + <p> + Memorials of these early Christian missionaries remain in many a village + churchyard. Often there stands near the village church an old stone cross, + its steps worn away by the rains and frosts of thirteen centuries; its + head has doubtless gone, broken off by the force of the gales, or by the + wild rage of human passion and Puritanical iconoclastic zeal; but it + preserves the memory of the first conversion of the Saxon villagers to + Christianity, and was erected to mark the spot where the people assembled + to hear the new preacher, and to consecrate it for this purpose. + </p> + <p> + In the life of St. Willibald we read that it was the custom of the Saxon + nation, on the estates of some of their nobles or great men, to erect, not + a church, but the sign of the Holy Cross, dedicated to God, beautifully + and honourably adorned, and exalted on high for the common use of daily + prayer. It is recorded also that St. Kentigern used to erect a cross in + any place where he had converted the people, and where he had been staying + for some time. Very probably the Saxon preacher would make use of the old + open-air meeting-place, where the pagan villagers used to worship Woden; + and thus the spots still used for public worship are in many cases the + same which used to echo with the songs of Thor and the prayers of pagan + Saxons. + </p> + <p> + These crosses were the rallying-points for Christian congregations before + churches arose, and the bells in their turrets summoned the people to the + service of God. In Somersetshire alone there are two hundred relics of the + piety of our forefathers; and the North of England and Scotland are + especially rich in crosses. No two are ever quite similar. Some are of + simple design or character; but many have such beautiful carving and + scrollwork that we are astonished at the skill of the workmen who, with + very simple and rude tools, could produce such wonderful specimens of art. + </p> + <p> + The pagan Saxons worshipped stone pillars; so in order to wean them from + their ignorant superstition, the Christian missionaries, such as St. + Wilfrid, erected these stone crosses, and carved upon them the figures of + the Saviour and His Apostles, displaying before the eyes of their hearers + the story of the cross written in stone. + </p> + <p> + The North of England has very many examples of the zeal of these early + preachers of the faith, and probably most of them were fashioned by the + monks and followers of St. Wilfrid, who was Archbishop of York at the + beginning of the eighth century. + </p> + <p> + When he travelled about his diocese a large body of monks and workmen + attended him; and amongst these were the cutters in stone who made the + crosses and erected them on the spots which Wilfrid consecrated to the + worship of God. + </p> + <p> + The Whalley cross is earlier than the time of Wilfrid. It is one of the + crosses of Paulinus, who was one of the priests sent by Pope Gregory to + help Augustine in the work of converting the Saxons, and who became + Archbishop of York. Under the shadow of this very cross Paulinus, who came + to England in 601 A.D., preached nearly thirteen hundred years ago. Indeed + an old monkish writer wished to represent that Augustine himself came to + Whalley and erected the cross, which he calls “St. Augustine’s + Cross”; but there is little doubt that Paulinus was the founder. In + Puritan times this and other relics of early faith suffered badly, and was + removed with two others from the churchyard, and used as a gatepost; but + the spoiler repented, and restored it once more to its old resting-place. + </p> + <p> + But how did the founders learn to make such beautiful patterns and + designs? St. Wilfrid had travelled much; he had been to Rome and seen the + wonderful examples of Roman skill in the great city. The Romans had left + behind them in England their beautiful pavements, rich in designs, with + splendid borders of fine workmanship. These, doubtless, the monks copied + on parchment in the writing-rooms of their monasteries, and gave their + drawings to the monks in the stone-shed, who reproduced them in stone. The + only tool they had to produce all this fine and delicate work was the + pick, and this increases our wonder at the marvels they were able to + accomplish. + </p> + <p> + There is a famous cross at Ruthwell, in Dumfriesshire, which for a short + time formed part of the kingdom of Northumbria. Scenes from early + Christian history are portrayed, and these are surrounded by bands with + sentences in Latin describing them. The lowest panel is too defaced for us + to determine the subjects; on the second we see the flight into Egypt; on + the third figures of Paul, the first hermit, and Anthony, the first monk, + are carved; on the fourth is a representation of our Lord treading under + foot the heads of swine; and on the highest there is the figure of John + the Baptist with the Lamb. On the opposite side are the Annunciation, the + Salutation, and other scenes of gospel history. On the side of the cross + is some beautiful scrollwork, which shows a wonderful development of skill + and art. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the Latin sentences there are five stanzas of an + Anglo-Saxon poem of singular beauty. It is the story of the crucifixion + told in touching words by the cross itself, which narrates its own sad + tale from the time when it was a growing tree by the woodside, until at + length, after the body of the Lord had been taken down— + </p> + <p> + “The warriors left me there,<br /> Standing + defiled with blood.” + </p> + <p> + On the head of the cross are inscribed the words, “Caedmon made me.” + This Caedmon was the holy monk, on whom the gift of writing verses was + bestowed by Heaven, who in the year 680 A.D. began to pour forth his songs + in praise of Almighty God, and told in Anglo-Saxon poetry the story of the + creation and the life of our Lord. The Bewcastle cross is somewhat similar + to that at Ruthwell. We see again the figure of our Lord standing on the + heads of swine, but the lower figure is represented with a hawk, the sign + of nobility, and is probably that of a person to whom the cross is a + memorial. The ornamentation on this cross is very perfect and beautifully + executed. The very beautiful cross at Eyam, in Derbyshire, differs both in + style and workmanship from almost any other. The shaft has evidently been + broken. In the panels of the head of the cross are figures of angels. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes we find some very strange beasts carved on the old crosses. On + the cross at Ilkley we observe some of these curious animals with their + long tails interlacing. Sometimes the tail is wound round the creature’s + body, and the idea of the artist was to represent the animal reduced to a + state of powerlessness. One forepaw is held up in sign of submission. + Above is a figure of our Lord triumphing over the powers of evil, and + these animals represent probably man’s lower nature owning the + supremacy of the King of Heaven. On the other side of the cross are + figures of the four evangelists. The upper half of the figures alone + appears dressed in flowing garments; each is carrying a book; circles of + glory surround their heads, which are the symbols of the evangelists. St. + Matthew has a man’s head; St. Mark a leopard’s; St. Luke’s + a calf’s; and St. John an eagle’s head. + </p> + <p> + The crosses at Hexham, where Archbishop Wilfrid founded a monastery, are + very ancient. We are able to tell the date of these stones, for they were + placed at the head and feet of the grave of Bishop Acca, who was a + follower of St. Wilfrid, and accompanied him on his missionary journeys. + Acca succeeded Wilfrid as Bishop of Hexham, and according to the old + chronicler Bede, “being a most active man and great in the sight of + God and man, he much adorned and added to his church.” Acca died in + 738 A.D., and as the monastery of Hexham was soon destroyed, these crosses + must have been erected eleven hundred and sixty-three years ago. + </p> + <p> + The cross at St. Andrew’s, Bishop Auckland, is of much later date, + and the workmanship is not nearly so fine and delicate as in the earlier + crosses. The Saxons had deteriorated as a race just before the Normans + came, and although the cross still appears on the flat stone, the design + on the shaft of the cross merely represents a hunting scene; and a Saxon + bowman is shown shooting at some animals. The religious conceptions of an + earlier and purer time have disappeared. The moustache of the sportsman + also shows that the stone belonged to a period very near the Norman + Conquest, when that fashion of wearing the hair was in vogue. + </p> + <p> + England is remarkable for these specimens of ancient art. On the Continent + there are very few of these elaborately carved crosses; but it is + noteworthy that wherever the English or Irish missionaries went, they + erected these memorials of their faith. In Switzerland, where they founded + some monasteries, there are some very similar to those in England. + </p> + <p> + There are several other kinds of crosses besides those in churchyards. + There are market crosses, called “cheeping” crosses after the + Anglo-Saxon <i>cheap</i>, to buy, from which Cheapside, in London, + Chippenham and Chipping Norton derive their names. Some crosses are + “pilgrim” crosses, and were erected along the roads leading to + shrines where pilgrimages were wont to be made, such as the shrine of St. + Thomas a Becket at Canterbury, Glastonbury, Our Lady of Walsingham. + Sometimes they were erected at the places where the corpse rested on its + way to burial, as the Eleanor crosses at Waltham and Charing, in order + that people might pray for the soul of the deceased. Monks also erected + crosses to mark the boundaries of the property of their monastery. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link114" id="link114"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/114.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="114h.jpg (26K)" src="images/114h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />OLD MARKET CROSS <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Time has dealt hardly with the old crosses of England. Many of them were + destroyed by the Puritans, who by the Parliamentary decree of 1643, + ordered that all altars and tables of stones, all crucifixes, images and + pictures of God and the saints, with all superstitious inscriptions, + should be obliterated and destroyed. In London, St. Paul’s Cross, + Charing Cross, and that in Cheapside, were levelled with the ground, and + throughout the country many a beautiful work of art which had existed + hundreds of years shared the same fate. Place-names sometimes preserve + their memory, such as Gerard’s Cross, in Buckinghamshire, Crosby, + Crossens, Cross Inn, Croston; these and many others record the existence + in ancient times of a cross, and probably beneath its shade the first + preachers of the gospel stood, when they turned the hearts of our heathen + ancestors, and taught them the holy lessons of the Cross. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link9" id="link9"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <h3> + ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE + </h3> + <p> + Saxon monasteries—Parish churches—Benedict Biscop—Aldhelm—St. + Andrew’s, Hexham—Brixworth Church—Saxon architecture—Norman + architecture—Characteristics of the style—Transition Norman— + Early English style—Decorated style—Perpendicular style. + </p> + <p> + The early Saxon clergy lived in monasteries, where they had a church and a + school for the education of the sons of thanes. Monastic houses, centres + of piety and evangelistic zeal, sprang up, the abodes of religion, + civilisation, peace, and learning. They were the schools of culture, + sacred and profane, of industry and agriculture; the monks were the + architects, the painters, the sculptors, the goldsmiths of their time. + They formed the first libraries; they taught the young; they educated + women in convents, and by degrees dispersed the shades of ignorance, + idolatry, and barbarism, and reformed England. + </p> + <p> + To record the number of these monastic houses which were erected in the + seventh and eighth centuries would require much space; and as our chief + concern is with the vestiges that remain in our English villages, and as + most of these Saxon monasteries were plundered and destroyed by the Danes, + or rebuilt on a grander scale by the Normans, we will not now enumerate + them. + </p> + <p> + After the country had been evangelised by the itinerant monks and + preachers, the next process was to establish a church in every village, + and to provide a pastor to minister therein. Archbishop Theodore + encouraged the thanes to build and endow churches on their estates, and + introduced to this country the parochial system, by means of which all + villages could have the services of a resident pastor. + </p> + <p> + Then the thane’s house was not considered complete without its + chapel; and in the scattered hamlets and village communities churches + arose, rudely built of wood and roofed with thatch, wherein the Saxon <i>ceorls</i> + and <i>cottiers</i> loved to worship. + </p> + <p> + The great Churchmen of the day were not content with such humble + structures. They had travelled to Rome, and seen there some of the fine + buildings dedicated for divine service; so they determined to have the + like in their own country. One of these noble builders was Benedict + Biscop, founder of the twin monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. When he + built the former, he imported foreign artists from Gaul, who constructed + the monastery after the Roman style, and amongst other things introduced + glazed windows, which had never been seen in England before. Nor was his + new house bare and unadorned. He brought from Rome vast stores of church + furniture, many books, and the “arch-chanter” John, to teach + his monks the music and ritual of Rome. + </p> + <p> + Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, and first Bishop of Sherborne, was one of + the foremost church-builders of the time, and the beautiful churches at + Malmesbury, Sherborne, Bradford-on-Avon, Frome, and Wareham, owe their + erection to his instrumentality. Wilfrid also was one of the saintly + architects of the period. Here is a description of the church of St. + Andrew, at Hexham, taken from the writings of Richard, prior of the + monastery there:— + </p> + <p> + “The foundations of this church St. Wilfrid laid deep in the earth + for the crypts and oratories, and the passages leading to them, which were + then with great exactness contrived and built under ground. The walls, + which were of great length, and raised to an immense height, and divided + into three several stones or tiers, he supported by square and other kinds + of well-polished columns. Also, the walls, the capitals of the columns + which supported them, and the arch of the sanctuary, he decorated with + historical representations, imagery, and various figures of relief, carved + in stone, and painted with a most agreeable variety of colour. The body of + the church he compassed about with pentices and porticoes, which, both + above and below, he divided with great and inexpressible art, by partition + walls and winding stairs. Within the staircases, and above them, he caused + flights of steps and galleries of stone, and several passages leading from + them both ascending and descending, to be so artfully disposed, that + multitudes of people might be there, and go quite round the church, + without being seen by anyone below in the nave. Moreover in the several + divisions of the porticoes or aisles, he erected many most beautiful and + private oratories of exquisite workmanship; and in them he caused to be + placed altars in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Michael, St. John + the Baptist, and the holy Apostles, martyrs, confessors, and virgins, with + all decent and proper furniture to each of them, some of which, remaining + at this day, appear like so many turrets and fortified places.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link118" id="link118"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="118.jpg (69K)" src="images/118.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The Danish wars had a disastrous effect on such noble structures raised by + these monastic architects, as well as on many a rustic village church, + which fell a prey to the ruthless invading bands of pagan warriors. But + frequently, as we study the history written in the stonework of our + churches, we find amid the massive Norman walls traces of the work of + Saxon builders, an arch here, a column there, which link our own times + with the distant past when England was divided into eight kingdoms, or + when Danegeld was levied to buy off the marauding strangers. + </p> + <p> + Roman buildings served as a model for our Saxon architects, and Roman + bricks were much used by them. Brixworth Church is perhaps the finest + specimen of our early Saxon churches. It has semicircular arches, made of + Roman bricks, springing from square massive piers with single abaci. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link120" id="link120"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="120.jpg (54K)" src="images/120.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + We will try to point out the distinguishing features of Saxon work, in + order that you may be able to detect the evidence of its existence in your + own village and neighbourhood. The walls are chiefly formed of rubble or + rag stone, having “long and short work,” <i>i.e.</i> long + block of cut stone laid alternately horizontally and vertically, at the + corners of the building and in the jambs of the doors. Often narrow ribs + of masonry run vertically up the walls, and a string-course runs + horizontally. The churches of Barnack and Wittering in Northamptonshire, + St. Michael’s, Oxford, and the towers of Earl’s Barton are + good examples of this. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link121" id="link121"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="121.jpg (41K)" src="images/121.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Saxon doorways have semicircular arches, and sometimes the head is shaped + in the form of a triangle. The jambs are square-edged, the stone of the + arch is plain, and a hood or arch of ribwork projecting from the surface + of the wall surrounds the doorway. Belfry windows have two + semicircular-headed lights divided by a <i>baluster</i> shaft, <i>i.e.</i> + a column resembling a turned-wood pillar. This feature is quite peculiar + to Saxon architecture. + </p> + <p> + Anglo-Saxon single-light windows have two splays, increasing in width from + the centre of the wall in which the window is placed. Norman windows have + only one splay on the internal side of the building. Saxon arches + separating the nave from the aisles and chancel are plain. There is no + sub-arch as in Norman buildings. They are often very small, sometimes only + five or six feet wide, and stand on square piers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link122" id="link122"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="122.jpg (38K)" src="images/122.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Some Saxon churches have crypts, but few of them remain. The crypt made by + St. Wilfrid at Hexham, mentioned above, still exists, and also one at + Ripon Cathedral, in which there is a small window called “Wilfrid’s + needle.” There is a legend about this which states that if a maid + goes through the “needle,” she will be married within the + year. Repton Church has a very perfect specimen of Saxon crypt. + </p> + <p> + The ground plan of Saxon churches differed. Many were cruciform, and + consisted of nave, transepts, and chancel. The east wall of the chancel + was often semicircular or polygonal, sometimes rectangular. The church of + St. Lawrence, at Bradford-on-Avon, mentioned by William of Malmesbury, is + a fine specimen of a Saxon church, and also the little church at Escombe, + Durham, and that of Deerhurst, Gloucestershire, recently rescued from + being used as a farmstead. + </p> + <p> + After the close of the thousandth year after the birth of Christ a new + impulse was given to church-building. People imagined that with that year + the millennium would arrive and the Second Advent take place. It would be + vain to build beautiful churches, if they were so soon to perish in the + general destruction of the world, as vain as to heap up treasure by means + of trade. Hence people’s minds were unsettled, and the churches left + in ruins. But when the millenary had safely passed away, they began to + restore the fallen shrines, and build new churches, and the late Saxon or + early Norman style came into vogue. Canute was a great church-builder, and + Edward the Confessor rebuilt Westminster Abbey after the new fashion. Then + came William the Conqueror with his Norman builders, and soon nearly every + village had its church, which was constructed, according to William of + Malmesbury, <i>novo aedificandi genere</i>. + </p> + <p> + We will now notice the characteristics of early Norman work, traces of + which you may be able to recognise in your own church. The doorways are + very remarkable, profusely adorned with richly carved ornamental mouldings + and sculpture. The archways are round, and are composed of a succession of + receding arches, all elaborately carved. The doorway of Malmesbury Church + has eight arches, recessed one within the other. These arches are + supported by one or more shafts, which are sometimes carved. Above the + door and below the arch is the tympanum, covered with sculpture, + representing scriptural subjects, such as the figure of the Saviour in + allusion to His saying, “I am the door,” or the <i>Agnus Dei</i>, + or Adam and Eve, or such legendary or symbolical subjects as St. George + and the Dragon, or the Tree of Life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link124" id="link124"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="124.jpg (77K)" src="images/124.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Porches are not very common in early Norman structures, but several still + exist, notably at Malmesbury, Balderton, and Brixworth. The windows are + usually small and narrow, the jambs being splayed only on the inside of + the church. Three such windows placed together usually give light over the + altar. The walls of Norman buildings are thick and massive, and are often + faced with cut stone. String-courses or mouldings projecting from the + walls, run horizontally along them, and are often adorned with the zigzag + or other Norman patterns of ornament. The tower often stands between the + nave and the chancel, and is usually low and massive. In the eastern + counties are found many round towers made of flint masonry. Flat + buttresses are a sure sign of Norman work, as they were not used in any of + the subsequent styles of architecture. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link125" id="link125"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="125.jpg (26K)" src="images/125.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The arches of the Norman builders are easily recognised. The piers in + country churches are nearly always cylindrical; but there are several + examples of massive square or octagonal piers, and also a number of round + columns attached, so as to form one pier. The <i>cushion</i> capital is + the most common form used in the Norman style. It is easily recognisable, + but difficult to be described; and perhaps the accompanying sketch will + enable the reader to discover a cushion capital when he sees it. The early + Norman builders loved to bestow much labour on their capitals; and while + preserving the usual cushion form, enriched them with much elaboration. + The <i>scallop</i> frequently occurs, and also the <i>volute</i>, which + was copied from the work of Roman builders, who themselves imitated the + Greek sculptures. Sometimes the capitals are elaborately carved with + figures of men, or animals, or foliage. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a name="link126" id="link126"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="126.jpg (99K)" src="images/126.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Norman arches resemble the doorways in having sub-arches recessed within + an outer arch, the intrados often being decorated with mouldings such as + the zigzag or the lozenge. The chancel arch is usually very elaborately + ornamented with various mouldings, which are very numerous and peculiar. + Those illustrated on the previous page are the most common. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link127" id="link127"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="127.jpg (52K)" src="images/127.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The Normans were also much skilled in vaulting with stone, as the crypts + in our churches testify. Over the vaulted roof of the aisles was the <i>triforium</i>, + a kind of gallery between this roof and the external roof of the church. + Very few of the wooden roofs of Norman churches remain. The fonts are + large, square or cylindrical in shape, and are decorated with mouldings or + sculpture, often very elaborate but rudely executed. At Winchester + Cathedral the font is carved with a representation of the baptism of King + Cynigils at Dorchester. Other favourite subjects were the creation of man, + the formation of Eve, the expulsion from Paradise, Christ upon the cross, + the Four Evangelists, the baptism of our Lord, and legendary or symbolical + representations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link128" id="link128"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="128.jpg (16K)" src="images/128.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + This style of architecture prevailed until about the middle of the twelfth + century, when the <i>Transition Norman</i> became in vogue. It is + characterised by the introduction of the pointed arch. Many conjectures as + regards its origin have been made. Some suppose that the idea of making + the arch pointed was suggested by the intersection of semicircular arches + in ornamental arcades. Others say that the Crusaders introduced it on + their return from the East, or that it was suggested by the Norman + vaulting, or from the form of the <i>vesica piscis</i>, the most ancient + of Christian symbols. The Cistercian monks were the first to introduce it + to this country, and the Cistercian abbeys of Fountains, Kirkstall, + Furness, and Tintern are noble specimens of Transition Norman work. + Religious zeal and enthusiasm are often reflected in the improved + condition of our churches, and the grand buildings of this period are + outward and visible signs of a great religious revival. Semicircular + arches, however, continued to be used for windows and for the triforium; + the capitals of the piers were decorated with foliage somewhat similar to + that used in a subsequent period. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link129" id="link129"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="129.jpg (37K)" src="images/129.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Then arose the Early English style of architecture which flourished from + about the year 1175 to 1275, and is characterised by a gradual abandonment + of the heavy and massive features of the Norman style, and the adoption of + lighter and more elegant forms of construction and decoration. Salisbury + Cathedral, erected 1220-1260 A.D., is the most perfect example of this + period. The arches are pointed, and the piers supporting them are often + composed of an insulated cylindrical column surrounded by slender detached + shafts, all uniting together under one capital, and divided into parts by + horizontal bands. In small churches plain octagonal or circular piers are + frequently used, as in the succeeding style, from which they can only be + distinguished by the mouldings. Mouldings are often the surest guides in + helping us to ascertain the date of a building. We have already studied + the Norman mouldings. In this style they are composed of bold rounds and + deep hollows, usually plain, or ornamented with the dog-tooth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link130" id="link130"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="130.jpg (11K)" src="images/130.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The lancet window is now introduced, at first of only one light, very + narrow and long, and differing from the Norman window in having a pointed + arch. At the east end of the chancel there are often three lancet windows, + the centre one higher than the rest, with one dripstone over them. The + first idea of window-tracery was the introduction of a plain + lozenge-shaped opening over a double lancet window, the whole being + covered by a single dripstone. From this simple arrangement it was not + difficult to develop the beautiful bar-tracery which came into vogue in + the subsequent period of English architecture. The capitals of the Early + English style are bell-shaped, at first quite plain, but subsequently + these are often covered with beautifully sculptured foliage of a very + graceful character. Circular windows at this period came into vogue in the + gables of churches. They were either plain or quatre-foiled. Norman towers + were sometimes capped with spires in the thirteenth century. The walls are + not so thick or massive as in the Norman period, and the buttresses are + stouter and more numerous, and project further from the wall. Flying + buttresses were also introduced at this period. We can generally + distinguish Early English work from that of the Norman style by its + lightness and elegance, as compared with the roughness and massiveness of + the latter; and its plainness and simplicity sufficiently distinguish it + from that of the Decorated period. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link131" id="link131"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="131.jpg (32K)" src="images/131.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The Decorated style (1275-1375) which prevailed during the reigns of the + three Edwards was ushered in by a period of Transition, during which there + was gradually developed the most perfect style which English architectural + skill has ever attained. In the thirteenth century our builders were + striving to attain the highest forms of graceful design and artistic + workmanship. In the fourteenth their work reached perfection, while in the + fifteenth there was a marked decline in their art, which in spite of its + elaborate details lacked the beauty of the Decorated style. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link132" id="link132"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="132.jpg (93K)" src="images/132.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The arches of this period are usually wider, and are distinguished from + those of the Early English by the character of the mouldings. The + ball-flower, consisting of a ball inclosed by three or four leaves, + somewhat resembling a rosebud, is the favourite ornament, and a + four-leaved flower is often used. Roll mouldings, quarter, half, or + three-quarters round, frequently occur, and produce a very pleasing + effect. The form of the arch is in many instances changed, and the + graceful <i>ogee</i> arch is introduced. The piers are round or octagonal + in village churches, and in large churches are formed by a cluster of + cylindrical shafts, not detached as in the preceding period, but closely + united. The capitals are bell-shaped, and in large churches richly + sculptured. Few of the wooden roofs remain, as they have been superseded + in later times; but the marks of the old roofs may often be seen on the + eastern wall of the tower. The windows are larger than those of the + earlier style, and are filled with geometrical and flowing tracery of + great variety and beauty. Small windows have heads shaped in the ogee or + trefoil forms. Square-headed windows are not uncommon, especially in the + clerestory, and in monastic churches circular windows are frequently met + with. It is characteristic of this style that the carving is not so deep + as in the previous work. We find groups of shallow mouldings separated by + one cut deeper than the others. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link133a" id="link133a"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="133a.jpg (30K)" src="images/133a.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link133b" id="link133b"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="133b.jpg (38K)" src="images/133b.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link134" id="link134"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="134.jpg (35K)" src="images/134.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + At length the glories of the Decorated period pass away and are merged and + lost in the <i>Perpendicular</i> which held sway from 1375 to 1540. The + work is now more elaborate and richer, but lacks the majestic beauty of + the Decorated style. It is easy to distinguish Perpendicular windows. They + are larger than any which we have seen before; the mullions are carried + straight up through the head of the window; smaller mullions spring from + the heads of the principal lights, and thus the windows are broken up into + panel-like compartments, very different from the beautiful curves of the + Decorated style. Simple pointed arches are still in use, but gradually + they become flattened; and the arch, commonly known as the Tudor arch, is + a peculiar feature of this style. In village churches the mouldings of the + arch are often continued down the piers without any capital or shaft. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link135" id="link135"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="135.jpg (42K)" src="images/135.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Piers are commonly formed from a square or parallelogram with the angles + fluted, having on the flat face of each side a semicyclindrical shaft. The + base mouldings are polygonal. The most common doorway is the Tudor arch + having a square head over it. The doors are often richly ornamented. There + are a large number of square-headed windows, and so proud were these + builders of their new style of window that they frequently inserted + Perpendicular windows in walls of a much earlier date. Hence it is not + always safe to determine the age of a church by an examination of the + windows alone. Panel-work tracery on the upper part of the interior walls + is a distinctive feature of this style. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link136a" id="link136a"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="136a.jpg (37K)" src="images/136a.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link136b" id="link136b"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="136b.jpg (16K)" src="images/136b.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The slope of the roof is much lower than before, and often the former + high-pitched roofs were at this period replaced by the almost flat roofs + prevalent in the fifteenth century. The parapets are often embattled. + </p> + <p> + The rose, the badge of the houses of York and Lancaster, is often used as + an ornamental detail, and also rows of the Tudor flower, composed of four + petals, frequently occur. One of the most distinctive mouldings is the <i>cavetto</i>, + a wide shallow hollow in the centre of a group of mouldings. Also we find + a peculiar wave, and a kind of double ogee moulding which are + characteristic of the style. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link137" id="link137"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="137.jpg (15K)" src="images/137.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Spires of this period are not very common, and usually spring from within + the parapet. The interiors of our churches were enriched at this time with + much elaborate decoration. Richly carved woodwork in screens, rood-lofts, + pulpits, and pews, sculptured sedilia and a noble reredos, and much + exuberance of decorative imagery and panel-work, adorned our churches at + this time, much of which was obliterated or destroyed by spoliators of the + Reformation period, the iconoclastic Puritans of the seventeenth century, + or the “restorers” of the nineteenth. However, we may be + thankful that so much remains to the present day of the work of our great + English church-builders, while we endeavour to trace the history of each + church written in stone, and to appreciate these relics of antiquity which + most of our villages possess. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link10" id="link10"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <h3> + NORMAN VILLAGES AND THE <i>DOMESDAY BOOK</i> + </h3> + <p> + The coming of the Normans—<i>Domesday Book</i>—Its objects—Its + contents— Barkham in <i>Domesday</i>—Saxon families—Saxons + who retained their estates—Despoiled landowners—Village + officers and artisans— Villeins—<i>Bordarii</i>—<i>Cottarii</i>—<i>Servi</i>—Socmen—Presbyter—Names + of Normans—The teaching of <i>Domesday</i>. + </p> + <p> + There was a great stir in our English villages when the news was brought + to them that William of Normandy had landed in England, and intended to + fight for the English Crown. News travelled very slowly in those days. + First the villeins and the cottiers who were not fighting with their lord + heard that a great battle had been fought at Stamford Bridge, in + Yorkshire, in which their gallant King Harold had defeated his own brother + Tostig, aided by the King of Norway, Hardrada, and a large army. Then the + news reached them that William of Normandy had arrived, and that Harold + was marching night and day to meet him. Then they heard of the fatal + battle of Hastings; and when it was told them that their brave King Harold + was slain, and that William, the Norman, was the conqueror of England and + the acknowledged king of the country, all England groaned to hear the + fatal news. And then, after a few years, they found that their old lord + had been deprived of his estates, and a new, haughty, proud Norman, who + talked like a Frenchman, and laughed at their dear old Saxon language, + came and ruled over them. He brought Norman servants with him, who took + the best of the land, and made the Saxons do all the hard work on the + farm, treating them like slaves. + </p> + <p> + And now we must examine a most valuable document which throws a + wonderfully clear light on the condition of England just before and after + the Conquest. I refer to the <i>Domesday Book</i>, or survey of the + country which William caused to be made. The Anglo-Saxon chronicler tells + us that after a great Council at Gloucester the king “sent his men + over all England, into every shire, and caused to be ascertained how many + hundred hides were in the shire, or what land the king himself had, and + cattle within the land, or what dues he ought to have in twelve months + from the shire. Also he caused to be written how much land his archbishops + had, and his suffragan bishops, and abbots, and earls; and though I may + narrate somewhat prolixly, what or how much each man had who was a holder + of land in England, in land, or in cattle, and how much money it might be + worth. So very narrowly he caused it to be traced out, that there was not + one single hide, nor one yard of land, nor even, it is shame to tell, + though it seemed to him no shame to do, an ox, nor a cow, nor a swine was + left that was not set down in his writ. And all the writings were brought + to him afterwards.” + </p> + <p> + The commissioners appointed by the king, among whom were Remigius, Bishop + of Lincoln, and Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham, were to inquire the + following details concerning each parish:— + </p> + <p> + Its name. Who held it in the time of King Edward the Confessor. The + present possessor. Number of hides in the manor, number of ploughs, of + homagers, villeins, cottars, free tenants, tenants in socage; how much + wood, meadow, and pasture; number of mills and fishponds; the value in the + time of the last king; and its present value. + </p> + <p> + Such a survey was of immense value. Its object, according to the king, was + that every man might know and be satisfied with his rightful possessions, + and not with impunity usurp the property of others. But it was also of + great service to the king, so that he might know who were his vassals, the + amount of taxation which he could draw from them, and the actual strength + of his new kingdom. + </p> + <p> + The commissioners performed their work with much care and exactness. The + survey is wonderfully complete, and was compiled in a very short time. It + is of great value to the historians of subsequent ages. The writing of the + book is very clear and beautiful, the abbreviations alone presenting some + difficulty to an unaccustomed reader. No illuminations adorn the text. At + the head of each page the name of the county is written in red ink. The + book is preserved in an ancient chest in the Public Record Office, where + it was removed from the Chapter House at Westminster. + </p> + <p> + As an example we may take the <i>Domesday</i> description of the parish of + Barkham, which runs as follows:— + </p> + <p> + “IN CERLEDONE HD. + </p> + <p> + “Rex ten in dnio Bercheha. AElmer Tenuit de rege. E. Te 7 m iii + hid. Tra e iii car. In dnio e una, 7 vi uilli 7 iiii bord cu iii car. Ibi + v. ac pti. Silua de XL pore. Valuit iiii lib. T.R.E. 7 m: iii. lib.” + </p> + <p> + TRANSLATION. + </p> + <p> + “In the hundred of Charlton. + </p> + <p> + “The king holds Barkham in demesne. AElmer held it of King Edward. + Then, as now, it was rated for three hides. The land is three ploughlands. + In demesne there is one ploughland. There are six villeins, four borderers + with three ploughs. There are five acres of pasture. Wood for the + pasturage of forty hogs. It was worth 4l. in the time of King Edward, + afterwards, and now, 3l.” + </p> + <p> + King Edward here mentioned was Edward the Confessor. A hide, when it is + used as a measure of land, may be taken at about one hundred and twenty + acres. A ploughland was as much land as one plough with oxen could plough + in a year. The villeins were men who tilled their lord’s land, and + in return for certain services had holdings under him. The borderers were + cottagers who also worked for their lord and held smaller holdings, from + one to ten acres. In other entries we find the number of serfs recorded, + and also mention of the hall of the lord of the manor, where the manorial + courts were held, the church, the priest’s house, the names of + landowners and tenants, the mill, and of the various officers and artisans + who made up the village community. + </p> + <p> + <i>Domesday</i> tells us of the old Saxon families, many of whom lost + their estates when the Conqueror came, and were supplanted by the + favourites of the new king. Some of them contrived to weather the storm + and retain their lands. Almer, or Almar, the lord of Barkham, who + succeeded his brother Stigand as Bishop of Elmham in 1047, when the latter + became archbishop, was among the number of the dispossessed, and probably + found shelter with many of his compatriots in the cloister. Several of + William’s Norman adventurers married the heiresses of the old Saxon + gentry, and thus became possessed of great estates. Thus Robert D’Oili + married the daughter of Wigod, lord of Wallingford, and soon gained + possession of his father-in-law’s property. + </p> + <p> + However, the names of the fortunate Saxons who retained their estates are + few in comparison with those who were dispossessed. We find Edgar + Atheling, real heir to the throne, retaining a small estate; but he was a + feeble prince, and therefore not to be feared by William. His sister + Cristina had also land in Oxfordshire. Bishop Osbern, of Exeter, a kinsman + of the late king, also held his estates; and amongst the list we find + Seward the huntsman, of Oxfordshire; Theodric the goldsmith; Wlwi the + huntsman, of Surrey; Uluric the huntsman, of Hampshire, who were not + deprived of their lands, their occupations being useful to the king. + </p> + <p> + The list of despoiled landowners is a long one, and need not here be + recorded. One Brictric was very unfortunate. When ambassador to Baldwin of + Flanders he refused to marry the count’s daughter Maud. The slighted + lady became the Conqueror’s consort, and in revenge for her despised + love caused Brictric to be imprisoned and his estates confiscated, some of + which were given to the queen. The luckless relations and connections of + the late royal house were consistently despoiled, amongst them Editha, the + beautiful queen of King Edward, and daughter of Earl Godwin, of whom it + was written: “<i>Sicut spina rosam genuit Godwynus Editham</i>”; + and Gida, the mother of Harold; Godric, his son; and Gwith, his brother. + Harold himself—the earl, as he is called, and not the king, who + fought and died at Senlac, if he did not, as the romance states, end his + life as a holy hermit at Chester—had vast estates all over England, + which went to enrich William’s hungry followers. Hereward the Wake, + the English hero, also held in pre-Norman days many fat manors. Few of the + Saxon landowners were spared, and it is unnecessary here to record the + names of the Uchtreds, Turgots, Turchils, Siwards, Leurics, who held lands + “in the time of King Edward,” but whose place after Domesday + knows them no more. + </p> + <p> + <i>Domesday</i> tells us also the names of the officers and artisans who + played important parts in the old village communities. The <i>villani</i>, + or villeins, corresponding to the Saxon <i>ceorls</i>, were the most + important class of tenants in villeinage, and each held about thirty acres + in scattered acre or half-acre strips, each a furlong in length and a + perch or two in breadth, separated by turf balks. The villein thus + supported himself and his family, and in return was bound to render + certain services to the lord of the manor, to work on the home farm, and + provide two or more oxen for the manorial plough-team. He was not a free + tenant, could acquire no property, and his lord’s consent was needed + for the marriage of his daughters. But the law protected him from unjust + usage; his holdings were usually regranted to his son. He could obtain + freedom in several ways, and by degrees acquired the rights and privileges + of a free tenant. + </p> + <p> + Next to the villeins were the <i>bordarii</i>, who lived in <i>bords</i> + or cottages, <i>i.e.</i> boarded or wooden huts, and ranked as a lower + grade of villeins. They held about five acres, but provided no oxen for + the manorial plough-team. Below them were the <i>cottarii</i>, or + cottiers, who were bound to do domestic work and supply the lord’s + table. They corresponded to the modern labourer, but lacked his freedom. + The lowest class of all were the <i>servi</i>, or serfs, who corresponded + to the Saxon <i>theows</i>. In Norman times their condition was greatly + improved; they mingled with the cottiers and household servants, and + gradually were merged with them. + </p> + <p> + The <i>sochemanni</i>, or socmen, our yeomen, who abounded chiefly in the + Danish district of England, were inferior landowners who had special + privileges, and could not be turned out of their holdings, though they + rendered certain services to the lord of the manor, and in this respect + differed little from the villeins. <i>Domesday Book</i> also mentions a + class of men called <i>burs</i> or <i>geburs</i>, who were the same as <i>coliberti</i>; + also the <i>commendati</i>, who received privileges in return for services + rendered to the lord of the manor. + </p> + <p> + Each village community was self-contained, and had its own officers. + Although <i>Domesday Book</i> was not compiled in order to ascertain the + condition of the Church and its ministers, and frequently the mention of a + parish church is omitted where we know one existed, the <i>presbyter</i>, + or priest, is often recorded. Archbishop Egbert’s <i>Excerptiones</i> + ordained that “to every church shall be allotted one complete + holding (mansa), and that this shall be free from all but ecclesiastical + services.” According to the Saxon laws every tenth strip of land was + set aside for the Church, and <i>Domesday</i> shows that in many villages + there was a priest with his portion of land set apart for his support. + </p> + <p> + Then there was a <i>prepositus</i>, bailiff or reeve, who collected the + lord’s rents, assisted by a <i>bedellus</i>, beadle or + under-bailiff. <i>Bovarii</i>, or oxherds, looked after the plough-teams. + The <i>carpentarius</i>, or carpenter; the <i>cementarius</i>, or + bricklayer; the <i>custos apium</i>, or beekeeper; the <i>faber</i>, or + smith; the <i>molinarius</i>, or miller—were all important officers + in the Norman village; and we have mention also of the <i>piscatores</i> + (fishermen), <i>pistores</i> (bakers), <i>porcarii</i> (swineherds), <i>viccarii</i> + (cowmen), who were all employed in the work of the village community. + </p> + <p> + <i>Domesday Book</i> enables us to form a fairly complete picture of our + villages in Norman and late Saxon times. It tells us of the various + classes who peopled the village and farmed its fields. It gives us a + complete list of the old Saxon gentry and of the Norman nobles and + adventurers who seized the fair acres of the despoiled Englishmen. Many of + them gave their names to their new possessions. The Mandevilles settled at + Stoke, and called it Stoke-Mandeville; the Vernons at Minshall, and called + it Minshall-Vernon. Hurst-Pierpont, Neville-Holt, Kingston-Lysle, + Hampstead-Norris, and many other names of places compounded of Saxon and + Norman words, record the names of William’s followers, who received + the reward of their services at the expense of the former Saxon owners. <i>Domesday + Book</i> tells us how land was measured in those days, the various tenures + and services rendered by the tenants, the condition of the towns, the + numerous foreign monasteries which thrived on our English lands, and + throws much light on the manners and customs of the people of this country + at the time of its compilation. <i>Domesday Book</i> is a perfect + storehouse of knowledge for the historian, and requires a lifetime to be + spent for its full investigation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link147" id="link147"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="147.jpg (76K)" src="images/147.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link11" id="link11"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <h3> + NORMAN CASTLES + </h3> + <p> + Castle-building—Description of Norman castle—A Norman + household— Edwardian castles—Border castles—Chepstow—Grosmont—Raglan—Central + feature of feudalism—Fourteenth-century castle—Homes of + chivalry— Schools of arms—The making of a knight—Tournaments—Jousts—Tilting + at a ring—Pageants—“Apollo and Daphne”—Pageants + at Sudeley Castle and Kenilworth—Destruction of castles—Castles + during Civil War period. + </p> + <p> + Many an English village can boast of the possession of the ruins of an + ancient castle, a gaunt rectangular or circular keep or donjon, looking + very stern and threatening even in decay, and mightily convincing of the + power of its first occupants. The new masters did not feel very safe in + the midst of a discontented and enraged people; so they built these huge + fortresses with strong walls and gates and moats. Indeed before the + Conquest the Norman knights, to whom the weak King Edward the Confessor + granted many an English estate, brought with them the fashion of building + castles, and many a strong square tower began to crown the fortified + mounds. Thence they could oppress the people in many ways, and the writers + of the time always speak of the building of castles with a kind of + shudder. After the Conquest, especially during the regency of William’s + two lieutenants, Bishop Odo and Earl William Fitz-osbern, the Norman + adventurers who were rewarded for their services by the gift of many an + English manor, built castles everywhere. The wretched men of the land were + cruelly oppressed by forced labour in erecting these strongholds, which + were filled “with devils and evil men.” Over a thousand + castles were built in nineteen years, and in his own castle each earl or + lord reigned as a small king, coining his own money, making his own laws, + having power of life and death over his dependants, and often using his + power most violently and oppressively. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link150" id="link150"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="150.jpg (66K)" src="images/150.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The original Norman castle consisted of a keep, “four-square to + every wind that blew,” standing in a bailey court. It was a mighty + place with walls of great thickness about one hundred and fifty feet high. + It contained several rooms, one above the other. A deep well supplied the + inhabitants with water. Spiral stone steps laid in the thickness of the + wall led to the first floor where the soldiers of the garrison resided. + Above this was the hall, with a chimney and fireplace, where the lord of + the castle and his guests had their meals, and in the thickness of the + wall there were numerous chambers used as sleeping-apartments and + garderobes, and the existence of a piscina in one of these shows that it + was a small chapel or oratory. The upper story was divided by wooden + partitions into small sleeping-rooms; and unlike our modern houses, the + kitchen was at the top of the keep, and opened on the roof. + </p> + <p> + Descending some stone steps which led from the ground floor in ancient + time we should visit the dungeons, dark, gloomy, and dreadful places, + where deep silence reigns, only broken by the groans of despairing + captives in the miserable cells. In one of these toads and adders were the + companions of the captive. Another poor wretch reposed on a bed of sharp + flints, while the torture-chamber echoed with the cries of the victims of + mediaeval cruelty, who were hanged by their feet and smoked with foul + smoke, or hung up by their thumbs, while burning rings were placed on + their feet. In Peak Castle, Derbyshire, a poor, simple squire, one Godfrey + Rowland, was confined for six days without either food or drink, and then + released from the dungeon with his right hand cut off. In order to extract + a heavy ransom, to obtain lands and estates, to learn the secrets of + hidden treasure, the most ingenious and devilish tortures were inflicted + in these terrible abodes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link152" id="link152"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="152.jpg (97K)" src="images/152.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The same style of castle-building continued for a century and a half after + the Norman Conquest. It is possible to distinguish the later keeps by the + improved and fine-jointed ashlar stonework, by the more frequent use of + the stone of the district, instead of that brought from Caen, by the ribs + upon the groins of the vaulting of the galleries and chambers in the + walls, and by the more extensive use of ornaments in the bosses, windows, + doors, and fireplaces. The style of the decoration approaches the Early + English character. + </p> + <p> + The walls of the keep were not the only protection of the fortress. A moat + surrounds the whole castle, crossed by a drawbridge, protected on the side + remote from the castle by a barbican. High walls with an embattled parapet + surround the lower court, or ballium, which we enter by a gate defended by + strong towers. A portcullis has to be raised, and a heavy door thrown + back, before we can enter; while above in the stone roof of the archway + there are holes through which melted lead and pitch can be poured upon our + heads, if we attempt to enter the castle as assailants. In the lower court + are the stables, and the mound where the lord dispenses justice, and where + criminals and traitors are executed. Another strong gateway flanked by + towers protects the inner court, on the edge of which stands the keep + which frowns down upon us as we enter. + </p> + <p> + An immense household was supported in every castle. Not only were there + men-at-arms, but also cooks and bakers, brewers and tailors, carpenters, + smiths, masons, and all kinds of craftsmen; and all the crowd of workers + had to be provided with accommodation by the lord of the castle. Hence a + building, in the form of a large hall, was erected sometimes of stone, + usually of wood, in the lower or upper court for these soldiers and + artisans, where they slept and had their meals. + </p> + <p> + A new type of castle was introduced during the reigns of the three + Edwards. The stern, massive, and high-towering keep was abandoned, and the + fortifications arranged in a concentric fashion. A fine hall with kitchens + occupied the centre of the fortress; a large number of chambers was added, + and the inner and outer courts both defended by walls, as we have already + described, were introduced. The Edwardian castles of Caernarvon and + Beaumaris belong to this type of fortress. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link155" id="link155"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/155.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="155h.jpg (34K)" src="images/155h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />BROUGHTON CASTLE <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The border counties of Wales are remarkable for the number and beauty of + their ancient castles. On the site of British earthworks the Romans + established their camps. The Saxons were obliged to erect their rude + earthen strongholds in order to keep back the rebellious Welsh, and these + were succeeded by Norman keeps. Monmouthshire is famous for its castles; + out of the eleven hundred erected in Norman times twenty-five were built + in that county. There is Chepstow Castle, with its early Norman gateway + spanned by a circular arch flanked by round towers. In the inner court + there are the gardens and ruins of a grand hall, and in the outer the + ruins of a chapel with evidences of beautifully groined vaulting, and also + a winding staircase leading to the battlements. In the dungeon of the old + keep at the south-east corner of the inner court Roger de Britolio, Earl + of Hereford, was imprisoned for rebellion against the Conqueror, and in + later times Henry Martin, the regicide, lingered as a prisoner for thirty + years, employing his enforced leisure in writing a book in order to prove + that it is not right for a man to be governed by one wife. Then there is + Grosmont Castle, the fortified residence of the Earl of Lancaster; + Skenfrith Castle; White Castle, the <i>Album Castrum</i> of the Latin + records, the Landreilo of the Welsh, with its six towers, portcullis, and + drawbridge flanked by massive tower, barbican, and other outworks; and + Raglan Castle, with its splendid gateway, its Elizabethan banqueting-hall + ornamented with rich stone tracery, its bowling-green, garden terraces, + and spacious courts, an ideal place for knightly tournaments in ancient + days. Raglan is associated with the gallant defence of the castle by the + Marquis of Worcester in the Civil War. + </p> + <p> + The ancient castles of England were the central feature of feudal society. + They were the outward and visible sign of that system. M. Guizot in his <i>History + of Civilisation</i> says, “It was feudalism which constructed them; + their elevation was, so to speak, the declaration of its triumph.” + On the Continent they were very numerous long before castle-building + became the fashion in England, and every suzerain saw with displeasure his + vassal constructing his castle; for the vassal thus insured for himself a + powerful means of independence. The Norman barons in the troublous times + of Stephen lived a life of hunting and pillage; they were forced to have a + fortified retreat where they might shut themselves up after an expedition, + repel the vengeance of their foes, and resist the authorities who + attempted to maintain order in the country. + </p> + <p> + Others followed the example of the barons. The townsfolk fortified their + towns, monks their monasteries; and even within the town-walls many houses + had their towers and gates and barriers in order to keep back troublesome + visitors. + </p> + <p> + Here is a description of a French castle in the fourteenth century:— + </p> + <p> + “First imagine to yourself a superb position, a steep mountain, + bristling with rocks, furrowed with ravines and precipices; upon the + declivity is the castle. The small houses which surround it set off its + grandeur; the river seems to turn aside with respect; it forms a large + semicircle at its feet. This castle must be seen when, at sunrise, the + outward galleries glimmer with the armour of the sentinels, and the towers + are shown all brilliant with their large new gratings. Those high + buildings must be seen, which fill those who defend them with courage, and + with fear those who should be tempted to attack them. + </p> + <p> + “The door presents itself covered with heads of boars or wolves, + flanked with turrets and crowned with a high guard-house. Enter, there are + three inclosures, three moats, three drawbridges to pass. You find + yourself in a large square court, where are cisterns, and on the right and + left the stables, hen-houses, pigeon-houses, coach-houses; the cellars, + vaults, and prisons are below; above are the dwelling-apartments; above + these are the magazines, larders, or salting-rooms, and arsenals. All the + roofs are bordered with machicolations, parapets, guard-walks, and + sentry-boxes. In the middle of the court is the donjon, which contains the + archives and the treasure. It is deeply moated all round, and can only be + entered by a bridge, almost always raised. Although the walls, like those + of the castle, are six feet thick, it is surrounded up to half its height + with a chemise, or second wall, of large cut stones. This castle has just + been rebuilt. There is something light, fresh, laughing about it, not + possessed by the heavy massive castles of the last century.” + </p> + <p> + One would scarcely expect to hear a castle described as “light, + fresh, laughing”; yet so a fourteenth-century castle seemed to eyes + accustomed to the gloomy, stern, and massive structures of the eleventh + and twelfth centuries. In these no beauty or display of art was attempted. + Defence and safety were the only objects sought after in the construction + of our ancient strongholds. + </p> + <p> + Strange as it may seem, these castles were the birthplaces and homes of + chivalry. Women were raised to an exalted position, and honoured and + reverenced by knights and warriors. A prize won in a tournament was + esteemed of vastly greater value, if it were bestowed upon the successful + combatant by some lady’s hand. “Queens of Beauty” + presided at these contests of knightly skill and daring. The statutes and + ordinances for jousts and tournaments made by John Tiptoft, Earl of + Worcester, at the command of Edward IV., conclude thus: “Reserving + always to the queenes highness and the ladyes there present, the + attributing and gift of the prize after the manner and forme accustomed.” + If a knight was guilty of any impropriety of conduct, he was soundly + beaten by the other knights, in order to teach him to respect the honour + of the ladies and the rights of chivalry. + </p> + <p> + In the days of chivalry a knight vowed in somewhat extravagant language + eternal love to his particular lady fair, wore her glove or her guerdon on + his helmet, and swore to protect it with his life. Family ties and + domestic joys were cultivated. The wife of a knight was often herself a + warrior. Fair ladies have donned armour and followed their lords to the + Crusades; and often during her lord’s absence at the wars in France, + or Scotland, or the Holy Land, the wife would defend his fief and castle, + and sometimes was called upon to withstand a siege, when some neighbouring + lord coveted the fair estates of the absent warrior, and sought to obtain + them by force of arms. + </p> + <p> + The castles also were schools, not of learning, but of arms and chivalry, + where the sons of vassals were trained in all the qualites that become a + knight. The sons of vassals were sent to the castle of the suzerain to be + brought up with his sons. Numerous reasons have been assigned for the + origin of this custom, which we need not now enumerate. The practice, + however, became general, and concerning it an ancient work entitled <i>L’ordre + de la Chevalerie</i> records:— + </p> + <p> + “It is fitting that the son of the knight, while he is a squire, + should know how to take care of a horse; and it is fitting that he should + serve before and be subject to his lord; for otherwise he will not know + the nobleness of his lordship when he shall be a knight; and to this end + every knight shall put his son in the service of another knight, to the + end that he may learn to carve at table and to serve, and to arm and + apparel a knight in his youth. According as to the man who desires to + learn to be a tailor or a carpenter, it is desirable that he should have + for a master one who is a tailor or a carpenter; it is suitable that every + nobleman who loves the order of chivalry, and wishes to become and be a + good knight, should first have a knight for a master.” + </p> + <p> + When the young squire attained the age of manhood he was admitted to the + honour of knighthood, which was bestowed upon him with much ceremony and + dignity. First he was divested of his garments and put in a bath, a symbol + of purification; then they clothed him in a white tunic, a symbol of + purity, in a red robe, a symbol of the blood which he was bound to shed in + the service of the faith; and then in a close black coat, a reminder of + the death which awaited him. Then he was obliged to observe a fast for + twenty-four hours, and in the evening entered the church and there passed + the night in prayer. On the morrow after confession and the receiving of + Holy Communion, he heard a sermon upon the duties of knighthood, and then + advancing to the altar presented his sword to the priest, who blessed it. + Kneeling before his lord he was asked, “With what design do you + desire to enter into the order? If it is in order to become rich, to + repose yourself, and to be honoured without doing honour to chivalry, you + are unworthy of it, and would be to the order of chivalry what the + simoniacal priest is to the prelacy.” + </p> + <p> + His answers being satisfactory, knights, or ladies, advance and clothe him + with the equipments of his order, spurs, the hauberk or coat of mail, the + cuirass, the vambraces and gauntlets, and lastly his sword. Then his lord + gives him three blows of a sword on his shoulder, saying, “In the + name of God, of Saint Michael, and Saint George I dub thee knight,” + adding, “Be brave, adventurous, and loyal.” He then mounts his + horse, caracoles about, brandishing his lance, and afterwards in the + courtyard he repeats the performances before the people ever eager to take + part in the spectacle. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link161" id="link161"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="161.jpg (80K)" src="images/161.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The young knight was now able to take part in the jousts, and all kinds of + chivalric displays, which were common and frequent. Many castles have, + like that at Carisbrooke, a tilting-ground within the walls; but great and + important tournaments were held outside the castle. Richard I. appointed + five special places for the holding of tournaments, namely between Sarum + and Wilton, between Stamford and Wallingford, between Warwick and + Kenilworth, between Brakely and Mixeberg, and between Blie and Tykehill. + There was much pomp and ceremony attached to these knightly exercises. The + lists, as the barriers were called which inclosed the scene of combat, + were superbly decorated, and surrounded by pavilions belonging to the + champions, ornamented with their arms and banners. The seats reserved for + the noble ladies and gentlemen who came to see the fight were hung with + tapestry embroidered with gold and silver. Everyone was dressed in the + most sumptuous manner; the minstrels and heralds were clothed in the + costliest garments; the knights who were engaged in the sports and their + horses were most gorgeously arrayed. The whole scene was one of great + splendour and magnificence, and, when the fight began, the shouts of the + heralds who directed the tournament, the clashing of arms, the clang of + trumpets, the charging of the combatants, and the shouts of the + spectators, must have produced a wonderfully impressive and exciting + effect upon all who witnessed the strange spectacle. + </p> + <p> + The regulations and laws of the tournament were very minute. When many + preliminary arrangements had been made with regard to the examination of + arms and helmets and the exhibition of banners, etc., at ten o’clock + on the morning of the appointed day, the champions and their adherents + were required to be in their places. Two cords divided the combatants, who + were armed with a pointless sword and a truncheon hanging from their + saddles. When the word was given by the lord of the tournament, the cords + were removed, and the champions charged and fought until the heralds + sounded the signal to retire. It was considered the greatest disgrace to + be unhorsed. A French earl once tried to unhorse our King Edward I., when + he was returning from Palestine, wearied by the journey. The earl threw + away his sword, cast his arms around the king’s neck, and tried to + pull him from his horse. But Edward put spurs to his horse and drew the + earl from the saddle, and then shaking him violently, threw him to the + ground. + </p> + <p> + The joust (or just) differed from the tournament, because in the former + only lances were used, and only two knights could fight at once. It was + not considered quite so important as the grand feat of arms which I have + just described, but was often practised when the more serious encounter + had finished. Lances, or spears without heads of iron, were commonly used, + and the object of the sport was to ride hard against one’s adversary + and strike him with the spear upon the front of the helmet, so as to beat + him backwards from his horse, or break the spear. This kind of sport was + of course rather dangerous, and men sometimes lost their lives at these + encounters. In order to lessen the risk and danger of the two horses + running into each other when the knights charged, a boarded railing was + erected in the midst of the lists, about four or five feet high. The + combatants rode on separate sides of this barrier, and therefore they + could not encounter each other except with their lances. Sometimes two + knights would fight in mortal combat. If one knight accused the other of + crime or dishonour, the latter might challenge him to fight with swords or + lances; and, according to the superstition of the times, the victor was + considered to be the one who spoke the truth. But this ordeal combat was + far removed from the domain of sport. + </p> + <p> + When jousts and tournaments were abandoned, tilting on horseback at a ring + became a favourite courtly amusement. A ring was suspended on a level with + the eye of the rider; and the sport consisted in riding towards the ring, + and sending the point of a lance through it, and so bearing it away. Great + skill was required to accomplish this surely and gracefully. Ascham, a + writer in the sixteenth century, tells us what accomplishments were + required from the complete English gentleman of the period:— + </p> + <p> + “To ride comely, to run fair at the tilt or ring, to play at all + weapons, to shoot fair in bow, or surely in gun; to vault lustily, to run, + to leap, to wrestle, to swim, to dance comely, to sing, and play of + instruments cunningly; to hawk, to hunt, to play at tennis, and all + pastimes generally which be joined to labour, containing either some fit + exercises for war, or some pleasant pastime for peace—these be not + only comely and decent, but also very necessary for a courtly gentleman to + use.” + </p> + <p> + In the days of pageants and royal progresses these old castles were the + scenes of very lively exhibitions of rustic histrionic talent. The stories + of Greek and Roman mythology were ransacked to provide scenes and subjects + for the rural pageant. Shepherds and shepherdesses, gods and goddesses, + clowns and mummers, all took part in the rural drama which kings and + queens delighted to honour. When Queen Elizabeth visited the ancient and + historic castle of Sudeley, great preparations were made for the event, + and a fine classical pageant was performed in her presence, a sketch of + which may not be without interest. + </p> + <p> + The play is founded on the old classical story of Apollo and Daphne. The + sun-god Apollo was charmed by the beauty of the fair Daphne, the daughter + of a river-god, and pursued her with base intent. Just as she was about to + be overtaken, she prayed for aid, and was immediately changed into a + laurel tree, which became the favourite tree of the disappointed lover. + The pageant founded on this old classical legend commenced with a man who + acted the part of Apollo, chasing a woman who represented Daphne, followed + by a young shepherd bewailing his hard fate. He, too, loved the fair and + beautiful Daphne, but Apollo wooed her with fair words, and threatened him + with diverse penalties, saying he would change him into a wolf, or a + cockatrice, or blind his eyes. The shepherd in a long speech tells how + Daphne was changed into a tree, and then Apollo is seen at the foot of a + laurel tree weeping, accompanied by two minstrels. The repentant god + repeats the verse:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Sing you, play you; but sing and play my truth;<br /> + This tree my lute, these sighs my note of ruth:<br /> + The laurel leaf for ever shall be green,<br /> And + chastity shall be Apollo’s queen.<br /> If gods may + die, here shall my tomb be placed,<br /> And this + engraven, ‘Fond Phoebus, Daphne chaste.’” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + A song follows, and then, wonderful to relate, the tree opens, and Daphne + comes forth. Apollo resigns her to the humble shepherd, and then she runs + to Her Majesty the Queen, and with a great deal of flattery wishes her a + long and prosperous reign. + </p> + <p> + Such was the simple play which delighted the minds of our forefathers, and + helped to raise them from sordid cares and the dull monotony of continual + toil. In our popular amusements the village folk do not take part, except + as spectators, and therefore lose half the pleasure; whereas in the time + of the Virgin Queen the rehearsals, the learning the speeches by heart, + the dresses, the excitement, all contributed to give them fresh ideas and + new thoughts. The acting may not have been very good; indeed Queen + Elizabeth did not always think very highly of the performances of her + subjects at Coventry, and was heard to exclaim, “What fools ye + Coventry folk are!” But I think Her Majesty must have been pleased + at the concluding address of the players at Sudeley. After the shepherds + had acted a piece in which the election of the King and Queen of the Bean + formed a part, they knelt before the real queen, and said— + </p> + <p> + “Pardon, dread Sovereign, poor shepherds’ pastimes, and bold + shepherds’ presumptions. We call ourselves kings and queens to make + mirth; but when we see a king or queen we stand amazed. At chess there are + kings and queens, and they of wood. Shepherds are no more, nor no less, + wooden. In theatres workmen have played emperors; yet the next day + forgotten neither their duties nor occupation. For our boldness in + borrowing their names, and in not seeing Your Majesty for our blindness, + we offer these shepherds’ weeds; which, if Your Majesty vouchsafe at + any time to wear, it shall bring to our hearts comfort, and happiness to + our labours.” + </p> + <p> + When the queen visited Kenilworth Castle, splendid pageants were performed + in her honour. As she entered the castle the gigantic porter recited + verses to greet Her Majesty, gods and goddesses offered gifts and + compliments on bended knee, and the Lady of the Lake, surrounded by + Tritons and Nereids, came on a floating island to do homage to the + peerless Elizabeth and to welcome her to all the sport the castle could + afford. For an account of the strange conduct of Orion and his dolphin + upon this occasion, we refer our readers to Sir Walter Scott’s <i>Kenilworth</i>; + and the lover of pageants will find much to interest him in Gascoigne’s + <i>Princely Progress</i>. + </p> + <p> + The glories of our ancient castles have passed away; some indeed are + preserved, and serve as museums, or barracks, or the country house of some + noble lord; but most of them are in ruins. All traces of many a Norman + castle have completely vanished. There was once a castle at Reading, but + the only relics of it are the names Castle Hill and Castle Street. The + turbulent barons made such terrible use of their fortresses during the + troublous times of the civil war in Stephen’s reign that in the more + settled reign of Henry II. they were deprived of this means of oppression + and their castles destroyed wholesale. The civil war in the reign of + Charles I. was also another great cause of the destruction of these old + fortresses. They were of great service during the progress of the war to + those who were fortunate enough to possess them, and many of them in spite + of Cromwell’s cannon were most gallantly held and stoutly defended. + Donnington Castle, Berkshire, was bravely held in spite of a prolonged + siege during all the time that the war lasted by gallant Colonel Boys, who + beat off the flower of the Parliamentary army; and when in obedience to + the King’s command he yielded up the castle, he and his brave + garrison marched out with all the honours of war, having earned the + respect of both friend and foe. Many other castles could tell the story of + similar sieges in the days when “the gallants of England were up for + the King.” + </p> + <p> + But these brave sieges were the cause of their destruction. Cromwell when + in power recognised their strength; they were too dangerous, these + castles, and must be destroyed. His cannon-balls had rattled against their + stone walls without much effect during the war; but their fate was sealed + with that of their King, and the gunpowder of Cromwell’s soldiers + was soon employed in blowing up the walls that resisted him so long, and + left them battered and smoking ruins. + </p> + <p> + Since then the ivy has grown over them to hide their nakedness. Forlorn + and lonely the ruined castle stands. Where once loud clarion rang, the + night owls hoot; vulgar crowds picnic where once knights fought in all the + pride and pomp of chivalry. Kine feed in the grass-grown bailey court; its + glory is departed. We need no castles now to protect us from the foes of + our own nation. Civil wars have passed away, we trust, for ever; and we + hope no foreign foeman’s foot may ever tread our shores. But if an + enemy threatened to attack England her sons would fight as valiantly as in + the brave days of old, though earthen ramparts have replaced the ancient + castles and iron ships the old wooden walls of England. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link12" id="link12"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <h3> + MONASTERIES + </h3> + <p> + Beautiful surroundings—Benefits conferred by monasteries—Charity— + Learning—Libraries—Monks not unhappy—Netley—Cluny—Alcuin— + Monastic friendships—St. Bernard—Anselm—Monks shed + happiness around them—Desecration—Corruption of monasteries—Chaucer’s + prior—Orders of monks—Plan of a monastery—<i>Piers + Ploughman’s</i> description of a monastery—A day in a + monastery—Regulations as regards blood-letting—The infirmary—Food—Hospitium—Chapter-house. + </p> + <p> + In the neighbourhood of many of our villages stand the ruins of an old + monastery. Who were the builders of these grand and stately edifices? What + kind of men lived within those walls? What life did they lead? We will try + to picture to ourselves the condition of these noble abbeys, as they were + in the days of their glory, before the ruthless hands of spoilers and + destroyers robbed them of their magnificence. + </p> + <p> + It has often been remarked that the monks knew well how to choose the most + beautiful spots for their monastic houses, establishing them by the banks + of some charming river, surrounded by beautiful scenery and fertile + fields. + </p> + <p> + They loved the beauties of nature, and had a keen sense for discovering + them. They had a delicate and profound appreciation of the delights of the + country, and loved to describe the beauties that surrounded their + habitations. Nature in its loveliness and wild picturesqueness was a + reflection of God’s beauty, a temple of His light and goodness. + Moreover they built their monasteries amidst forests and wild scenery, far + from the haunts of men, seeking solitude, wherein they could renew their + souls by the sweetness of a life of contemplation, and consecrate their + energies to the service of God. In the days of war and bloodshed, of + oppression and lawlessness, holy men found it very difficult to be “in + the world and yet not of it.” Within the monastic walls they found + peace, seclusion, solitude; they prayed, they worked, they wrote and + studied. They were never idle. To worship, to labour, to fight as the <i>milites + Christi</i> with weapons that were not carnal, these were some of the + duties of the monks. + </p> + <p> + The world owes much to these dwellers in monasteries. They rescued the + people from barbarism, and uplifted the standard of the cross. They + emerged from their cells to direct councils, to preach and teach at the + universities, to build churches and cathedrals, and astonish the world by + their skill and learning. Who can tell what services they rendered to + their nation and to all mankind by pouring forth that ceaseless stream of + intercession day and night for the averting of the judgments of divine + wrath which the crimes and follies of men so richly deserved? “What + the sword is to the huntsman, prayer is to the monk,” says St. + Chrysostom; and well did they use this weapon for the spiritual and + material benefit of all. + </p> + <p> + Another great benefit they conferred upon the world was that of charity. + They were the true nurses of the poor. There were no poor laws, and union + workhouses, and hospitals. The monks managed to supply all the wants of + all who suffered from poverty, privation, and sickness. “The + friendship of the poor constitutes us the friends of kings,” says + St. Bernard; “but the love of poverty makes kings of us.” They + welcomed in their ranks poor men, who were esteemed as highly as those of + noble birth on entering the cloister. All men were equal who wore the monk’s + robe. + </p> + <p> + Amongst other services the monks rendered was the cultivation of learning + and knowledge. With wonderful assiduity they poured forth works of + erudition, of history, of criticism, recorded the annals of their own + times, and stored these priceless records in their libraries, which have + done such good service to the historians of modern times. The monasteries + absorbed nearly all the social and intellectual movement of the thirteenth + century. Men fired with poetical imagination frequently betook themselves + to the cloister, and consecrated their lives to the ornamentation of a + single sacred book destined for the monastery which gave them in exchange + all the necessaries of life. Thus the libraries of the monastic houses + were rich in treasures of beautifully illuminated manuscripts, which were + bound by members of the community. The Abbot of Spanheim in the fifteenth + century gives the following directions to his monks:— + </p> + <p> + “Let that one fasten the leaves together, and bind the book with + boards. You, prepare those boards; you, dress the leather; you, the metal + plates, which are to adorn the binding.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link172" id="link172"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/172.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="172h.jpg (40K)" src="images/172h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />NETLEY ABBEY, SOUTH TRANSEPT <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Terrible is it to think of the dreadful destruction of these libraries at + the time of the spoliation of monasteries and of the priceless treasures + which they contained. + </p> + <p> + We are apt to suppose that the lives of the monks were gloomy, hard, + severe, and that few rays of the sunshine of happiness could have + penetrated the stern walls of the cloister. But this does not appear to + have been the case. The very names of monasteries show that they rejoiced + in their solitude and labour. Netley Abbey was called the Joyous Place, <i>loeto + loco</i>; and on the Continent there are many names which bear witness to + the happiness that reigned in the cloister. Moreover the writings of the + monks proclaim the same truth. Cluny is called by Peter Damien his <i>hortus + deliciarum</i> (garden of delights), and it is recorded that when Peter de + Blois left the Abbey of Croyland to return to France he stopped seven + times to look back and contemplate again the place where he had been so + happy. Hear how Alcuin laments on leaving the cloister for the Court of + Charlemagne:— + </p> + <p> + “O my cell! sweet and well-beloved home, adieu for ever! I shall see + no more the woods which surround thee with their interlacing branches and + aromatic herbs, nor thy streams of fish, nor thy orchards, nor thy gardens + where the lily mingles with the rose. I shall hear no more those birds + who, like ourselves, sing matins and celebrate their Creator, in their + fashion—nor those instructions of sweet and holy wisdom which sound + in the same breath as the praises of the Most High, from lips and hearts + always peaceful. Dear cell! I shall weep thee and regret thee always.” + </p> + <p> + The life was very peaceful, entirely free from care, and moreover lighted + by the whole-hearted friendships which existed between the brethren. A + chapter might be written on the love of the cloister, which like that of + David for Jonathan, was “wonderful, passing the love of women.” + Thus St. Bernard burst out in bitter grief at the loss of a brother monk:— + </p> + <p> + “Flow, flow, my tears, so eager to flow! he who prevented your + flowing is here no more! It is not he who is dead, it is I who now live + only to die. Why, oh, why have we loved, and why have we lost each other?” + </p> + <p> + The letters of Anselm to Lanfranc and Gondulph, his dearest friends, + abound in expressions of the most affectionate regard and deep true + friendship. He writes:— + </p> + <p> + “How can I forget thee? Can a man forget one who is placed like a + seal upon his heart? In thy silence I know that thou lovest me; and thou + also, when I say nothing, thou knowest that I love thee. What can my + letter tell thee that thou knowest not already, thou who art my second + soul?” + </p> + <p> + The monks’ lot was not sad and melancholy. They loved God and His + service, and rejoicing in their mutual regard and affection were happy in + their love and work. Orderic Vitalis writes, “I have borne for + forty-two years with happiness the sweet yoke of the Lord.” Moreover + they shed happiness on those who dwelt around them, on the crowds of + masons and carpenters, traders and workmen, who dwelt under the shadow of + the monastery or farmed the fields of the monastic estates. No institution + was ever more popular; no masters more beloved. They took a hearty + interest in the welfare of all their tenants, and showed an active + sympathy for all. The extent of their charity was enormous. In a French + abbey, when food was scarce, they fed 1,500 to 2,000 poor in the course of + the year, gave monthly pensions to all the families who were unable to + work, entertained 4,000 guests, and maintained eighty monks—a + wonderful record truly. + </p> + <p> + The influence of the monastery was felt in all the surrounding + neighbourhood—the daily services, the solemn and majestic chants, + the processions, must have created a deep impression on the minds of + people. Many of the great writers and thinkers of subsequent ages have + appreciated the wonderful labours of the monks. Dr. Johnson wrote:— + </p> + <p> + “I never read of a hermit, but in imagination I kiss his feet; never + of a monastery, but I fall on my knees and kiss the pavement.” + </p> + <p> + And now these noble buildings, hallowed by a thousand memories, exist only + as dishonoured ruins. Some have been pulled down entirely, and the site + used for gaols or barracks. Convicts labour where once monks prayed. The + renowned abbey of Cluny is a racing stable, and Le Bec, the home of + Anselm, has suffered a like profanation. Factories have invaded some of + these consecrated sites. Many have been used as quarries for generations. + All the carved and wrought stone has been cut off, and used for making + bridges and roads and private houses. Nature has covered the remains with + clinging ivy, and creeping plants, and wild flowers, and legends cluster + round the old stones and tell the story of their greatness and their ruin. + The country folk of western Ireland show the marks on the stones furrowed + by the burning tears of the monks when they were driven out of their holy + home. I am describing the condition of the monasteries in the days of + their glory, when the spirit of the religious orders was bright and pure + and enthusiastic. It cannot be denied that often the immense wealth which + kings and nobles poured into the treasury of the monks begat luxury and + idleness. Boccaccio in Italy, and even Dante, and our own Chaucer, write + vigorously against the corruption of the monks, their luxury, love of + sport, and neglect of their duty. Thus Chaucer wrote of a + fourteenth-century prior:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Therefore he was a prickasoure a right:<br /> + Greihounds he hadde as swift as foul of flight:<br /> + Of pricking and of hunting for the hare<br /> Was + all his lust, for no cost wolde he spare.<br /> I saw his + sleves purfiled at the hond<br /> With gris, and that the + finest in the loud.<br /> And for to fasten his hood + under his chinne,<br /> He hadde of gold ywrought a + curious pinne:<br /> A love-knotte in the greter end ther + was.<br /> His head was balled, and shone as any glas,<br /> + And eke his face, as it had been anoint.<br /> He + was a lord full fat and in good point<br /> His eye + stepe, and rolling in his bed,<br /> That stemed as a + forneis of led.<br /> His botes souple, his hors in gret + estat,<br /> Now certainly he was a fayre prelat.<br /> + He was not pale as a forpined gost.<br /> A + fat swan loved he best of any rost.<br /> His palfrey was + as broune as is a bery.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Many were the efforts to reform the abuses which crept into the monastic + houses. Holy men grieved over the scandals of the times in which they + lived. Many monasteries remained until the end homes of zeal and religion, + and the unscrupulous tools of Henry VIII. could find naught to report + against them. The only charge they could fabricate against one monastery + was “that the monks would do evil, if they could.” + </p> + <p> + The foundation of the various orders of monks shows the efforts which were + from time to time made by earnest men to revive the zeal and religious + enthusiasm characteristic of the early dwellers in monasteries. The + followers of St. Benedict and St. Columba were the first monks of the + western Church who converted the peoples of England, Germany, Belgium, and + Scandinavia. The Benedictines had many houses in England in Saxon times. + In the tenth and eleventh centuries flourished a branch of the + Benedictines, the order of Cluny, who worked a great religious revival, + which was continued in the twelfth by the order of the Cistercians, + founded at Citeaux in Burgundy. Some of our most beautiful English abbeys—Fountains, + Kirkstall, Rievaulx, Tintern, Furness, and Byland—all belonged to + this order. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the new orders of + preaching friars founded by St. Francis and St. Dominic arose, and + exercised an immense influence in the world. They did not shut themselves + up in the cloister, but went everywhere, preaching in the market-places, + and tending the sick, the lepers, and the outcasts. At first they were + immensely popular, but the orders degenerated like their predecessors, and + long before the Reformation laid themselves open to the derision and the + scoffs of the more enlightened men of the age. Since the days of the + Friars there has been no building of monasteries in England. Wealth, + luxury, and corruption had destroyed the early piety of the monks, and + rich men preferred to give their wealth for the purpose of founding + colleges and hospitals, rather than in increasing the number of religious + houses. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link178" id="link178"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="178.jpg (21K)" src="images/178.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + We will now visit these monasteries, and try to picture them as they stood + in the days of their glory, and see the daily life which the monks led. + The rules of the orders differed somewhat, some being stricter than + others; and likewise the arrangements of the buildings were not all based + upon one plan. The Carthusian monasteries differ widely from those of the + other orders, owing to the rule that each monk should have his separate + cell, wherein he lived and had his food, and only met his brethren in + church and in the chapter-house. We will examine the usual plan of a + monastery, the main buildings of which clustered round the cloister-court. + This was called the paradise, around which was a covered ambulatory. Here + the monks read and wrote, and sometimes had little spaces partitioned off + for studies, with bookstands and cupboards. It was the great centre of the + monastic life. The earlier ambulatories were open, but in the fourteenth + century they had windows looking on to the cloister-court, filled with + stained glass. The monks must have found the open cloister a somewhat + chilly place for writing, and although their fingers were endured to + hardness, had sometimes to abandon their tasks. Orderic Vitalis tells us + that his fingers were so numbed by the cold in a hard winter that he was + obliged to leave his writing until a more congenial season. + </p> + <p> + On the north of the cloister-court stood the monastic church, the grandest + and noblest of the monastic buildings, adorned with shrines, and tombs, + and altars. Several of our cathedrals were monastic churches, and afford + us some idea of the splendour and magnificence of these stately buildings. + Many other churches built by the monks, quite as large and noble as any of + our cathedrals, are now in ruins, with only a wall or a buttress remaining + to mark the site of the once noble minster. The church was usually + cruciform, with nave and aisles. East of the high altar in the choir stood + the lady-chapel, and round the choir a retro-choir, or presbytery. There + was a door on the south side of the church, opposite the eastern + ambulatory, for the entrance of the monks. The south transept formed part + of the eastern side of the cloister. On the same side stood the + chapter-house, a large chamber richly ornamented with much architectural + detail, and adorned with mural paintings. Between the chapter-house and + the church there is a narrow room, which was the sacristy, and on the + south of the chapter-house a building in two stories, the ground floor + being the frater-house, where the monks retired after meals to converse, + the upper room being the dortor, or dormitory, where they slept. A passage + often separated the chapter-house from this building. + </p> + <p> + On the south side of the cloister-court stood the refectory, a long room + in which the monks took their meals; and on the west was a range of + buildings the use of which differed in various monasteries, in some for + cellars and larders, in others for dormitories. Sometimes this western + building was the <i>domus conversorum</i>, or house of the lay brethren. + The abbot’s lodging was a fine house, consisting of hall, chambers, + kitchen, buttery, and cellars, capable of entertaining a large number of + guests, and frequently stood on the east side of the chapter-house quite + separate from the other buildings. In small monastic houses governed by a + prior his residence often formed the western side of the cloister-court. + The farmery, or infirmary, where sick monks were nursed during illness, + was a separate building, having its own kitchen, refectory, and chapel. + The hospitium was also a separate building near the outer gate of the + abbey, and consisted of a hall, dormitories, and a chapel, in which each + night a goodly company of guests were entertained and courteously welcomed + by the hospitaller. A high wall surrounded the abbey precincts, in which + was the outer gate, consisting of a porter’s lodge, a prison, and a + large room in which the manorial court was held, or the abbot met the + representatives of the townsfolk in order to direct their affairs and + choose their chief magistrate or settle their differences. + </p> + <p> + The author of <i>Piers Ploughman</i> gives a description of the appearance + of a monastery in the fourteenth century. As he approached the monastic + buildings he was so bewildered by their greatness and beauty that for a + long time he could distinguish nothing certainly but stately buildings of + stone, pillars carved and painted, and great windows well wrought. In the + centre quadrangle he notices the stone cross in the middle of grass sward. + He enters the minster, and describes the arches as carved and gilded, the + wide windows full of shields of arms and merchants’ marks on stained + glass, the high tombs under canopies, with armed effigies in alabaster, + and lovely ladies lying by their sides in many gay garments. He passes + into the cloister, and sees it pillared and painted, and covered with + lead, and conduits of white metal pouring water into bronze lavatories + beautifully wrought. The chapter-house was like a great church, carved and + painted like a parliament-house. Then he went into the refectory, and + found it a hall fit for a knight and his household, with broad tables and + clean benches, and windows wrought as in a church. And then he wandered + and wondered at “the halls full high and houses full noble, chambers + with chimneys and chapels gay,” and kitchens fit for a king in his + castle, and their dorter or dormitory with doors full strong, their + fermerye (infirmary) and frater, and many more houses, and strong stone + walls, enough to harbour the queen. The author was evidently amazed at all + the sights which he witnessed in the monastery. + </p> + <p> + We will now see the monks at work, and spend a day with them in their + monastic home. It is not easy definitely to map out a monk’s day. + The difficulty arises in a measure from the want of distinct marks of + time. A monastic day was divided into twelve hours of uncertain length, + varying according to the season; but the religious observances began at + midnight, when the brethren rose at the sound of a bell in the dortor for + the continuous service of Mattins and Lauds. They then retired to sleep, + until the bell again summoned them at sunrise, when Prime was said, + followed by the morning Mass, private masses and confessions, and the + meeting of the Chapter; after this, work; then Tierce; then High Mass, + followed by Sext. A short time was then devoted to reading, during which + the <i>ministri</i> and the reader at table dined; and then the monks sat + down to dinner. This was the first food of the day, though the weaker + brethren were allowed to sustain themselves with wine and water, or bread + steeped in wine. Dinner was followed by a brief rest in the dormitory. If + the monks did not wish to sleep they could read in the dorter; but they + were to be careful not to disturb their resting brethren by any noise, + such as that caused by turning over the leaves of their books. At one o’clock + the bell rang for None, a short service consisting of a hymn, two psalms, + some collects, the Lord’s Prayer, and versicles. Then the brethren + washed themselves, had a stoup of wine in the frater, and worked until + Evensong, which was followed by supper. After supper they read in the + cloister until the bell rang for Collation, which consisted of a reading + in the chapter-house, whence they retired to the fratery for a draught of + wine or beer. Then followed Compline, and then the monks were ready for + bed, and retired to the dortor. Even there rules followed them, and + directed them how they were to take off their shoes, and “to behave + with more quiet, self-restraint, and devotion than elsewhere.” + </p> + <p> + I have not exhausted all the services which the monks attended. In + addition to the principal ones there were several minor functions, at + which devotion to the Blessed Virgin was the chief feature. The life was + hard and the discipline severe; and lest the animal spirits of the monks + should rise too high, the course of discipline was supplemented by + periodical blood-letting. The doctors of the day were firm believers in + the utility of this practice, and perhaps it had special advantages for + dwellers in monasteries. According to the mediaeval metrical treatise on + medicine, <i>Flos Medicinae</i>, or <i>Regimen Sanitatis Salerni</i>— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Spiritus uberior exit per phlebotomaniam.” + </p> + <p> + “It maketh cleane your braine, releeves your eie,<br /> + It mends your appetite, restoreth sleep,<br /> Correcting + humours that do waking keep;<br /> And inward parts and + sences also clearing<br /> It mends the voyce, touch, + smell, taste, hearing.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + According to the <i>Observances</i> of the Augustinian Priory at Barnwell, + Cambridge, each brother was compelled to be bled seven times a year. It + was probably a welcome duty, as the monks enjoyed a regular holiday, and + were solaced with unwonted good fare. + </p> + <p> + Those who wished to be bled asked leave in Chapter, and having received a + formal licence, attended High Mass. After the gospel they left the quire, + and were bled in the farmery, where they remained three days. During this + period they were excused attendance at the daily services, except on very + special occasions; and minute directions are given for their personal + comfort. They were allowed fire and lights, with suitable food, eggs and + vegetables being specially mentioned; and they might take exercise within + the precincts, and even beyond them, should the prelate give them leave. + The infirmary seems to have been the most cheerful place in the monastery. + Its inmates were “to lead a life of joy and freedom from care, in + comfort and happiness.” Conversation was freely permitted, though + sarcastic and abusive language was strictly forbidden. “Games of + dice and chess, and other games unsuitable to those who lead a religious + life, were forbidden”; “because beyond all doubt they are + offensive to God, and frequently give occasion to strife and contention + among those who play them.” We notice that invalids were allowed to + walk in the “vineyards”; evidently the monks grew their own + grapes, and made their own wine. The infirmary must have been well + frequented. The complaints which are often specially mentioned as likely + to compel the monks to resort to it are “irksomeness of life in the + cloister,” “long continuance of silence,” “fatigue + in the quire or extension of fasting,” and “sleeplessness and + overwork.” + </p> + <p> + With regard to blood-letting the various orders had different customs. The + Benedictines and Cluniacs had no stated times or seasons for the + operation. The Cistercians prescribe bleeding four times in the year. The + Carthusians were bled five times, and the Dominicans four times in the + year. + </p> + <p> + The food of the monastery was varied and plentiful. Fish and flesh were + brought to the table, the former being obtained from the monastic + stew-ponds. Fruit was supplied, both raw and cooked, and a good supply of + beer and wine. Wine seems to have been very commonly used, and some + relaxation was evidently permitted in the matter of drink. + </p> + <p> + The hospitium, or guest-house, is worthy of a visit. Thither flocked a + mixed crowd of knights and dames, monks and clerks, palmers, friars, + traders with their wares, minstrels with their songs, and beggars, + enjoying to the full the hospitality of the monks, who recognised it as + one of their duties “to entertain strangers.” The religious + houses were, to a great extent, the inns of the Middle Ages; and when they + were situated on the high roads, the guests were numerous and their + entertainment costly. We are reminded, however, by the <i>Observances</i> + of Barnwell Priory that “by showing hospitality to guests the + reputation of the monastery is increased, friendships are multiplied, + animosities are blunted, God is honoured, charity is increased, and a + plenteous reward in heaven is promised.” It was enjoined that the + hosteller, or brother in charge of the hospitium, should have “facility + of expression, elegant manners, and a respectable bringing up; and if he + have no substance to bestow he may at any rate exhibit a cheerful + countenance and agreeable conversation, for friends are multiplied by + agreeable words.” He had to provide clean cloths and towels, cups + without flaws, spoons of silver, mattresses, blankets and untorn sheets, + pillows, quilts, etc. His duties are laid down with much minuteness; every + morning he was required to go through the inventory, lest anything should + be missing. + </p> + <p> + The meeting in the chapter-house we must not omit to describe. When all + the brethren had taken their seats, one monk went to the pulpit and read + aloud the martyrology for the day. Then some psalms and collects were + read, and a portion of the monastic rule, and briefs announcing the deaths + of persons in whom the brethren were interested. The <i>tabula</i>, or + notice-board, recording the names of those who were responsible for + certain duties, was read; and a sermon followed. After the precentor had + given minute instructions with regard to the reading and singing of the + services for the day, the abbot said: “Speak of your own order.” + This was the call to confession; and any brother who was conscious that he + had transgressed any rule, or neglected his duty, came forward and asked + pardon for his fault. This was followed by the report of the <i>circator</i>, + whose duty was to play the spy, and discover the faults of the monks. And + after this the brethren accused each other. One brother started up saying: + “I accuse —— a brother.” The accused came forward + and stood before the abbot, waiting patiently for the charge. The accuser + then stated the charge, which was admitted, or denied, by the accused. If + the abbot judged him to be flogged, the culprit might not be flogged by + his accuser. He rose from his knees and modestly divested himself of his + garments, remaining covered from his girdle downwards; and he who flogged + him might not cease till the abbot bade him. Then he helped the brother to + put on his clothes, who bowed to the abbot and went back to his place. The + Chapter, after this exciting interlude, proceeded to transact the temporal + business of the house, and then adjourned. + </p> + <p> + The chapter-house was often the scene of great events in the history of + England. At Reading Abbey in this noble chamber parliaments were held. + Here Heraclius, the patriarch of Jerusalem, presented to Henry II. the + keys of the Holy Sepulchre, and invoked his aid in the crusade against the + Saracens. Here the bishops assembled and excommunicated Longchamp, + Chancellor and Regent of the country. Here the marriage contract between + John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster was signed, when there were great + rejoicings in the ancient town, and tilts and tournaments took place + daily. These gay scenes must have greatly disturbed the tranquil life of + the monks, and contrasted strangely with their normal condition. + </p> + <p> + The picture of monastic life, which a study of the records of a monastery + brings before us, is strange and alien to our present ideas; but it is + brightened by a spirit of sincere religion and true charity, and helps us + to understand the attraction of the convent walls in turbulent and + troublous times. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link13" id="link13"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE MANOR-HOUSE + </h3> + <p> + Evolution of a country house—Saxon house—Addition of separate + sleeping-chambers—Castles—Tudor houses—Old manor-houses—Secret + chambers—Rectories and vicarages—Duty of hospitality—Kelvedon + Rectory—Allington—Tithe-barns—Alfriston clergy-house—Almshouses— + Hermitages—Little Budworth—Knaresborough—Reclusorium or + anchor-hold— Laindon—Rattenden—Female recluses—Whalley. + </p> + <p> + The two principal houses in an English village are the manor-house and the + rectory, wherein according to the theories of the modern political + Socialist and agitator “the two arch-tyrants” of the labourers + dwell, the squire and the parson. There is much of interest in the growth + and evolution of the country house, which resulted in the construction of + these old, pleasant, half-timbered granges and manor-houses, which form + such beautiful features of our English villages. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link189" id="link189"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/189.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="189h.jpg (37K)" src="images/189h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />SOUTHCOTE MANOR SHOWING MOAT AND PIGEON-HOUSE <br /><br /> <a + name="link190" id="link190"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="190.jpg (58K)" src="images/190.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In our description of the village in Anglo-Saxon times we gave a picture + of a house of a Saxon gentleman, which consisted mainly of one large hall, + wherein the members of the household lived and slept and had their meals. + There was a chapel, and a kitchen, and a ladies’ bower, usually + separated from the great hall, and generally built of wood. In Norman + times the same plan and arrangements of a country house continued. The + fire still burnt in the centre of the hall, the smoke finding its way out + through a louvre in the roof. Meals were still served on tables laid on + trestles, which were removed when the meal was finished. The lord and + lady, their family and guests, dined at the high table placed on the dais, + as in a college hall, the floor of which was boarded. The household and + retainers dined in the space below, which was strewn with rushes and + called “the marsh,” which, according to Turner’s <i>History + of Domestic Architecture</i>, “was doubtless dirty and damp enough + to deserve that name.” The timbers of the roof in the better houses + were moulded, the walls hung with tapestry, and at the lower end of the + hall was a screen, above which in later times was the minstrels’ + gallery. The screen formed a passage which led into a separate building at + right angles to the hall, containing the cellar, buttery, and kitchen. + Parallel with this at the upper end of the hall was a building of two + stories, one used as a parlour, and the other was called the “great + chamber,” where the lady and her guests retired after dining in the + hall. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link191" id="link191"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="191.jpg (42K)" src="images/191.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Later on a greater refinement of domestic customs was introduced. In the + twelfth century a separate sleeping-chamber for the lord was added. The + next century saw him and his lady dining in a room apart from his + servants, a custom which was much satirised by the author of <i>Piers + Ploughman</i>, who wrote— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Now hath each rich a rule<br /> To + eaten by themselve,<br /> In a privy parlour<br /> For + poor man sake,<br /> Or in a chamber with a chimney;<br /> + And leave the chief hall,<br /> That was made + for meals<br /> Men to eaten in.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Evidently the author did not approve of the new fashion. But the + advantages of the custom were much appreciated by the squires and ladies + of the day, and this process of development led to a multiplication of + rooms, and the diminution of the size of the great hall. The walls were + raised, and an upper room was formed under the roof for sleeping + accommodation. There are many old farmhouses throughout the country, once + manor-houses, which retain in spite of subsequent alterations the + distinguishing features of this mediaeval style of architecture. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link192" id="link192"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="192.jpg (40K)" src="images/192.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The nobles built their castles as late as the fourteenth century; but + under the Tudor monarchs, when the government of the country was strong + and more settled, fortified dwellings were deemed no longer necessary, and + the great landowners built splendid country houses. English domestic + architecture then reached the period of its highest perfection. Instead of + castles men built palaces, the noblest specimens of our English style, + before it became corrupted. Hatfield House and Hampton Court are its best + examples. + </p> + <p> + During the fifteenth century the common hall had decreased in importance; + and now in smaller houses it disappeared altogether, and a grand entrance + hall usually took its place. The number of rooms was increased enormously, + and corridors were introduced. The principal features of an Elizabethan + house are the gallery and noble staircase. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link193" id="link193"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="193.jpg (110K)" src="images/193.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Early in the seventeenth century Inigo Jones introduced the revived + classic style of architecture into England, and entirely altered the + appearance and arrangement of our manor-houses. Palladio was the + originator of this style. The old English model was declared obsolete, and + fashion dictated that Italian villas must supersede the old houses. These + new buildings were very grand with their porticos and colonnades; but the + architects cared little for comfort and convenience. Indeed a witty + nobleman suggested to the owner of one of these new houses that he had + better hire a lodging over the way and look at it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link194" id="link194"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/194.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="194h.jpg (30K)" src="images/194h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />OLD MANOR HOUSE, UPTON COURT <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The old manor-houses are often surrounded by a moat, and not unfrequently + contain secret rooms and underground passages, which were often used as + places of refuge in troublous times. Those held by recusants usually had + two or three hiding-places ingeniously contrived, which must have baffled + all pursuers, and were needed for the concealment of the Roman Catholic + priest, in the days when his services were proscribed. There are two + cleverly designed hiding-places at Ufton Court, Berkshire, which was held + by the Roman Catholic family of Perkins. In a subterranean vault under an + old house at Hurley, in which the bones of monks were discovered, the + supporters of William of Orange used to meet to plan his succession to the + English Crown. The walls of many of the manor-houses and halls in + Lancashire and Yorkshire could tell of many a plot for the restoration of + the Stuarts to the throne, and of many a deep health drunk to “Bonnie + Charlie,” while the chorus rang— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “He’s over the seas and far awa’,<br /> + He’s over the seas and far awa’,<br /> But + of no man we’ll stand in awe,<br /> But drink his + health that’s far awa’.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + The rectories and vicarages scattered over the country have passed through + the same transformation as the manor-houses, which they much resembled. + The rectory was often surrounded by a moat, with an entrance protected by + a gatehouse. The duty of entertaining strangers and travellers was always + duly recognised by the clergy, and entailed a heavy charge upon their + income. Those who lived off the main roads used to provide accommodation + for an occasional guest, but the rectors in the more frequented districts + had frequently to entertain many travellers. There <i>is</i> a description + of the rectory-house of Kelvedon, Essex, in a deed dated 1356, which runs + as follows:— + </p> + <p> + “One hall situate in the manor of the said abbot and convent + [Westminster] near the said church, with a soler and chamber at one end of + the hall, and with a buttery and cellar at the other. Also one other house + in three parts, namely a kitchen with a convenient chamber in the end of + the said house <i>for guests</i>, and a bakehouse. Also one other house in + two parts next the gate at the entrance of the manor for a stable and + cow-house. He [the vicar] shall also have a convenient grange, to be built + within a year at the expense of the prior and convent. He shall also have + the curtilage with the garden adjoining the hall on the north side + enclosed as it is with hedges and ditches.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link196" id="link196"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="196.jpg (60K)" src="images/196.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Here the house for guests is an important feature of the clergyman’s + house; and about the same date, in 1352, we find the Bishop of Winchester + ordering the prior and convent of Merton to provide “a competent + manse for the vicar, viz. a hall with two rooms, one at one end of the + hall, and the other at the other end, with a drain to each, and a suitable + kitchen with fireplace and oven, and a <i>stable for six horses</i>, all + covered with tiles, and completed within one year, such place to remain to + the use of the said vicar and his successors.” Unless the vicar was + a very sporting parson he would not require a stable for six horses, and + this was doubtless intended for the accommodation of the steeds of his + guests. + </p> + <p> + The descriptions of these old rectory-houses are interesting. The Rector + of Allington, Kent, possessed a house consisting of “a hall, + parlour, and chamber over the parlour, stairs-head, beside the parson’s + bedchamber, parson’s lodging-chamber, study, chamber behind the + chimney, chamber next adjoining westward, buttery, priest’s chamber, + servants’ chamber, kitchen, mill-house, boulting-house, larder, + entries, women’s chamber; gatehouse, still beside the gate, barn + next the gate; cartlage, barn next the church, garden-house, court.” + The barn next the church was probably the tithe-barn. Tithe was then paid + in kind; hence a barn was required to contain the dues of the + parishioners. Sometimes these tithe-barns are very large and long, + especially when the tithe-owner was the abbot of some monastery. Near + Reading there is still standing the barn of the abbey, and at Cholsey, in + Berkshire, there is one of the finest specimens of the kind in England. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link199" id="link199"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/199.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="199h.jpg (35K)" src="images/199h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />STONE TITHE BARN, BRADFORD-ON-AVON <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + There still remain several of these old pre-Reformation parsonages and + rectories. The most noted is the clergy-house at Alfriston, Sussex, which + has been carefully preserved. It follows the usual type of + fourteenth-century house, and consists of a fine hall, the lower part + divided off by a screen, a soler of two stories at one end, and a kitchen + at the other. It is built of oak framework, filled in with “wattle + and daub.” There is a large chimney and grate in the hall, and huge + beams support the thatched roof. Parsonages of mediaeval times remain at + West Dean, Sussex; at King’s Stanley and Notgrove, Gloucestershire; + Wonstone, Hants; Helmsley, Yorkshire; and at several other places. The + Rectory of Shellingford, Berks, though much disguised by modern additions, + is an original fourteenth-century house. + </p> + <p> + In many villages there are old almshouses founded by pious benefactors for + “poor brethren and sisters.” As we enter the quiet courtyard + paved with cobble stones, the spirit of olden days comes over us. The + chapel where daily prayer is said morning and evening; the panelled + dining-hall, with its dark oaken table; the comfortable rooms of the + brethren; the time-worn pump in the courtyard—all recall the memory + of old times, when life was more tranquil, and there was less hurry and + busy bustling. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes we meet with a curious little house built of stone or timber, + erected along the great highways, near some bridge or ford, wherein a + “holy hermit” once dwelt, and served his generation by + directing travellers to the nearest monastery or rectory, and spent his + days in seclusion and prayer. Such indeed is the traditional idea of the + hermit’s life; but the real hermit of the Middle Ages did not always + live a very lonely or ascetic life. He was supported by the alms of the + charitable and did no work, but lived an idle life, endured no hardships, + and escaped not the scoffs of the satirical. <i>Piers Ploughman</i> tells + us of workmen—“webbers and tailors, and carters’ knaves, + and clerks without grace, who liked not long labour and light wages; and + seeing that lazy fellows in friars’ clothing had fat cheeks, forsook + their toil and turned hermits. They lived in boroughs among brewers and + begged in churches.” They had a good house, with sometimes a + chaplain to say daily Mass for them, a servant or two to wait on them, and + plenty of food and drink provided by a regular endowment or the donations + of the charitable. They did not shut themselves up in their cells and hold + no intercourse with their fellow-men; and herein they differed from the + recluses who were not supposed to go outside the doors of their + anchorages. Both males and females were enrolled as recluses, but only the + latter seem to have taken upon themselves the vows of complete seclusion. + </p> + <p> + Several of these hermitages remain. There is one at Little Budworth, in + Cheshire, in the park of Sir Philip Egerton. Warkworth has a famous one, + consisting of a chapel hewn out of the rock, with an entrance porch, and a + long, narrow room with a small altar at the east end, wherein the hermit + lived. At Knaresborough, Yorkshire, there is a good example of a + hermitage, hewn out of the rock, consisting of a chapel, called St. Robert’s + Chapel, with groined roof, which was used as the living-room of the + hermit. This chapel was the scene of Eugene Aram’s murder. At + Wetheral, near Carlisle; Lenton, near Nottingham; on the banks of the + Severn, near Bewdley, Worcestershire, there are anchorages, and also at + Brandon, Downham, and Stow Bardolph, in Norfolk. Spenser in the <i>Faery + Queen</i> gives the following description of a hermit’s cell:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “A little lowly hermitage it was,<br /> Down + by a dale, hard by a forest’s side,<br /> Far from + resort of people that did pass<br /> In traveill to and + froe; a little wyde<br /> There was an holy Chappell + edifyde,<br /> Wherein the hermite dewly wont to say<br /> + His holy things, each morne and eventyde;<br /> Hereby + a chrystall streame did gently play,<br /> Which from a + sacred fountaine welled forth alway.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Within the churchyard of many a town or village church, and usually + attached to the church, stood a reclusorium, or anchor-hold, wherein a + recluse, male or female, once resided. At Laindon Church, Essex, there is + a fine specimen of a house of this kind attached to the west end. + Generally the anchor-hold was a small room, built of wood, connected with + the church. Frequently there is a room over the porch of a church which + may have been used for this purpose, the recluse living usually in the + church. At Rettenden, Essex, there is a room over the vestry which has + evidently been an anchor-hold. There was a window, now blocked up, through + which the recluse could see the high altar, and the celebration of the + holy mysteries, and another for him to look out, hold converse with his + friends, and receive their alms. The church of St. Patricio, near + Crickhowel, South Wales, has an anchor-hold; also Clifton Campville + Church, Staffordshire; Chipping Norton Church, Oxfordshire; Warmington + Church, Warwickshire; and many churches have rooms over the porch which + were formerly used by recluses. The church itself was frequently the + habitation of the anchorite. There is a notice of a hermit who lived in + St. Cuthbert’s Church, Thetford, and performed divine service + therein. + </p> + <p> + Of female recluses we gather many details in the <i>Ancren Riewle</i> of + Bishop Poore of Salisbury, who left very minute directions for the + regulation of their austere and solitary lives. The little cell had an + altar where the anchoress frequently prayed, and through a window saw the + elevation of the Host in the daily Mass. The walls were covered with mural + paintings. There was a table, a fire, and a cat lying before it. An + unglazed window with a shutter was covered by a black curtain, through + which she could converse with anyone outside without being seen. She was + not allowed to put her head out of the open window. “A peering + anchoress, who is always thrusting her head outward, is like an untamed + bird in a cage,” says the good bishop. The long hours of solitude + were spent in devotion, working embroidery, reading her few books, talking + to her servant or to those who desired to speak with her through the + curtained window. + </p> + <p> + The poor caged birds must often have wished to break the bars of their + cage, and occasionally they escaped from their solitary confinement. In + the churchyard of Whalley, Lancashire, there are two cottages which stand + upon the site of a reclusorium, founded by Henry, Duke of Lancaster, in + 1349. Here in the reign of Henry VI. lived one Isole de Heton, who wearied + of her lot, and left the anchor-hold, an example which was followed by + several of her successors. A scandal having arisen, the hermitage was + dissolved. + </p> + <p> + Many a sad story of ruined hopes and broken hearts could these walls tell, + which were the living tombs of many a devout or erring sister, who, + wounded in the world’s war, sought the calm seclusion of a cell, and + found there the peace which elsewhere they had failed to find. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link14" id="link14"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV + </h2> + <h3> + PARISH CHURCHES + </h3> + <p> + The Porch—Font—Stone benches—Pews—Pulpits—Rood-lofts—Destruction + of—Screens—Royal arms—Chancel—Stalls—<i>Misereres</i>—Lectern—High + altar and its furniture—Piscina—Credence—Aumbry—Sedilia—Easter + sepulchre—Reredos—Shrines—Numerous altars—Chantry + chapels— Hagioscopes—Images—Low side windows—Vestries—Vestments—Churches + in olden times—Reading pews—Galleries—Destruction and + profanation— Evils of “restoration.” + </p> + <p> + In the centre of our village stands the church, always the most important + and interesting building in the place. We will suppose that it has not + suffered overmuch at the hands of the “restorers” of the + nineteenth, or the Puritans of the seventeenth, or the spoliators of an + earlier century, so that we may observe all those details which + characterise an ancient church. In spite of all the vandalism which has + taken place, in spite of the changes in ceremonial and forms of worship, + our beautiful old churches still retain relics of the past which time has + spared. + </p> + <p> + We will enter the church and notice first the porch, often a large + structure with a chamber above. Why was it made so large? According to the + Sarum use several services took place in the porch. Parts of the baptismal + service and of the marriage service and the churching of women were there + performed; hence the porch was an important building, and it was necessary + to make it rather large. Above the door there is frequently a niche for + the image of the patron saint of the church, which has not usually escaped + the destructive hand of the Puritan. The room over the porch was + frequently inhabited by a recluse, as I have already recorded in the + previous chapter. Near the door always stands the font, signifying that + baptism is the entrance to the Church of Christ. Ancient fonts are large + enough to allow the infant to be totally immersed, and are made of stone + or lead. Childrey Church, in our county of Berks, has a fine cylindrical, + leaden font, of Norman date, carved with figures of bishops. Norman fonts + are frequently carved, the favourite subjects being the Baptism of our + Lord, the Twelve Apostles, and the evangelistic symbols. Early English and + Decorated fonts are not usually carved, but in the Perpendicular style + they are rich with ornamentation, the Seven Sacraments being a not + uncommon design. We have sometimes noticed the symbols of Freemasonry + carved on fonts, as at Bray, in Berkshire. To the same period belong the + splendid spire-shaped font-covers, of immense weight, of which I am + sometimes a little fearful, lest the mechanism by which they are raised + should become damaged, and terrible disaster follow during the progress of + a baptismal service. At Sonning, Berks, there is a small stone desk + attached to a pillar for the service-book to rest on. + </p> + <p> + The nave of the church is now filled with seats for the use of the + congregation. In early times they do not seem to have been considered + necessary, and until the fourteenth century the stone benches ranged + against the walls were the only seats provided. Even as late as the + fourteenth century it does not appear that many churches had pews, but in + the fifteenth they became general. The hideous monstrosities of + post-Reformation times did not then disfigure our churches. The pews were + low open seats made of oak, sometimes carved at the back, and panelled, + with the ends higher than the rest, and often richly carved. Many rich men + left money in their wills for the <i>puying</i> of churches. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link206" id="link206"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="206.jpg (41K)" src="images/206.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + It was not until the beginning of the seventeenth century that the fashion + of erecting high pews set in, which so disfigured our churches, and were + frequently censured by the authorities. Some of these (as at Whalley) + resemble four-posted beds; others are like cattle-pens, large square boxes + with seats all round, wherein the occupants sit and sleep, screened from + the rest of the congregation. The carving of the woodwork of these + erections is often very elaborate. Modern pews are happily based upon the + more primitive fashion. + </p> + <p> + Preaching not being considered such an important part of the service in + pre-Reformation times, pulpits in churches of that period were not so + usual as in modern churches. Monastic refectories had pulpits, which the + reader occupied when he read to his brethren during meals. Beaulieu Abbey + has the most ancient pulpit in this country, which evidently belongs to + the thirteenth century. + </p> + <p> + The churches of Devonshire and Norfolk have wooden pulpits of the + fifteenth century, which were painted and gilded, the figures of the four + doctors of the church—SS. Augustine, Ambrose, Gregory, and Jerome—being + the favourite subjects. In 1603 the churchwardens were ordered to provide + in every church “a comely and decent pulpit.” Hence most of + our pulpits date from this period. The sides were panelled and carved with + scrollwork; and at the same time a sounding-board was introduced. + Occasionally the hour-glass which regulated the length of the preacher’s + discourse remains, with its beautiful scroll-worked stand. + </p> + <p> + The most striking feature of the pre-Reformation Church was the rood-loft, + a narrow long gallery above the beautifully decorated screen, which + separated the chancel from the nave. In this loft was erected the rood, or + figure of our blessed Lord on the cross, together with figures of the + Virgin and St. John on each side. Both the screen and the loft were richly + panelled and ornamented with tracery and carvings, and before them hung + one or more lamps. Sometimes tall candlesticks stood on pillars on each + side of the figures. A staircase of stone, constructed in the wall near + the chancel-arch, led to the rood-loft, and the blocked-up archway of this + rood-stair frequently remains. The priest stood in the rood-loft to read + the gospel and epistle, and sometimes preached there; official notices + were read, and from it the bishop used to give the Benediction. The + rood-cloth, or veil, hid the rood during Lent, and in some churches we + have seen the roller which was used to raise this veil. A special altar, + called the rood-altar, used to stand under the screen. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link208" id="link208"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="208.jpg (62K)" src="images/208.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The Reformers played havoc with these old rood-lofts and screens, which + were regarded as monuments of idolatry and superstition. The churchwardens’ + account-books of many churches bear witness to this destruction. Those of + St. Giles’, Reading, tell of certain <i>items</i> “for pulling + down the rood and carting away the rubbish.” Instead of the figure + of our Lord they put up the royal arms; and one John Serjente, of Hytchen, + is licensed in 1614— + </p> + <p> + “to paynte in all the Churches and Chappells, within this Realme of + England, the Kinges Majesties armes in due forme with helme creste mantell + and supporters as they oughte to be—and to wright in fayre text + letters the tenn commandments, the beliefe, and the Lord’s prayer, + with some other fruitefull and profitable sentences of holye scripture.” + </p> + <p> + In spite of this destruction of the ancient roods, several lofts still + remain, <i>e.g.</i> at Bradninch, Cullompton, Dartmouth, Hartland, Kenton, + Ugborough, and Plymtree, in Devonshire; in several places in + Somersetshire, and at Charlton-on-Otmoor (erected in 1485) and + Handborough, Oxfordshire. A very large number of the old screens remain, + ornamented with the arms of Elizabeth or James I. + </p> + <p> + Proceeding eastward we enter the chancel, so called because it is inclosed + with <i>cancelli</i>, or the lattice-work of the screen. If the church was + formerly connected with some monastery we shall see some beautifully + carved wooden stalls with rich canopies over them. The seats are curiously + constructed. They can be turned up, and beneath the seats is a projecting + bracket of wood, commonly adorned with carved work—animals, birds, + leaves, and flowers, and often with grotesque, satirical, and irreverent + devices. They are called miserere-stalls, and were used by the monks or + canons to lean against during the portions of the long mediaeval services, + when they were not allowed to be seated. As this practice was a concession + to human weakness or infirmity, the seats were called in France <i>misericordes</i>, + and in England <i>misereres</i>. The subjects of the sculptures are often + extremely curious. Domestic scenes, fables, such as the “Fox and the + Grapes,” demons carrying off monks, “The Seven Deadly Sins,” + are some of these subjects. Miss Phipson has published a learned work on + <i>Choir Stalls and their Carvings</i>, which contains reproductions of + three hundred of her sketches of curiously wrought <i>misereres</i>. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link210" id="link210"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/210.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="210h.jpg (31K)" src="images/210h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> VILLAGE CHURCH IN THE VALE <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The lectern formerly stood in the chancel; and then, as now, was often in + the form of a large eagle, emblematic of St. John. Most of these + reading-desks belong to the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, and are + made of wood, latten, iron, or stone, as well as of brass. There is a very + curious wooden one at East Hendred, Berks, representing a foot resting on + the head of a dragon, emblematic of the word of God conquering the powers + of evil. Ancient wooden double reading-desks are not uncommon. The + ornamentation usually denotes the period when they were constructed. + </p> + <p> + And now we approach the high altar of the church, made of stone, covered + with a beautifully worked frontal and cloth, and inclosed at the sides + with curtains suspended on iron rods projecting from the wall. A crucifix + hangs above the altar, and two candlesticks stand, one on each side. The + furniture and accessories of the altar in pre-Reformation times were + numerous. There was the pyx, a box or vessel of precious metal, in which + the Host was reverently preserved for the purpose of giving communion to + the sick and infirm. There were two small cruets or vessels for containing + the wine and water used in Holy Communion, one engraved with the letter + “V” (<i>vinum</i>), and the other “A” (<i>aqua</i>). + An <i>osculatorium</i>, or pax tablet, of ivory or wood, overlaid with + gold, was used for giving the kiss of peace during the High Mass just + before the reception of the Host. Of church plate generally we shall write + in a subsequent chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link212" id="link212"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="212.jpg (23K)" src="images/212.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />NORMAN PISCINA, ROMSEY CHURCH, HANTS <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + On the south we see the piscina, which is contained in a beautifully + carved niche—a hollow basin with a stone drain, wherein the priest + washed his hands before consecrating the elements, and poured the water + from the rinsed chalice. Above it in the niche was the credence, a shelf + of stone, on which were placed the chalice and paten and all things + necessary for the celebration. In some churches there is a separate + credence table. On the north side was the aumbry, or locker, where the + sacred vessels, altar linen, and service books were kept, guarded by a + strong wooden door. The doors have usually disappeared, but a very large + number of churches have the hole in the wall which was formerly the + aumbry. + </p> + <p> + On the south side are the sedilia, or stone seats, for the assistant + clergy, frequently with canopies richly carved, and usually three in + number. Opposite to the sedilia in the north wall is a large arch, within + which the holy sepulchre was set up at Easter. This was a wooden structure + made for the deposition of the consecrated elements of the Eucharist from + the evening of Good Friday until the morning of Easter Day; during which + time it was watched by a quasi-guard, after the manner of our Lord’s + sepulchre. The books of St. Lawrence, Reading, record:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"Anno 1498. In primis payed for Wakyng of the Sepulchre viii'd." + +"Anno 1510. It. payed to Walter Barton to the new Sepulchur iiii'li +xiii's x'd." +</pre> + <p> + As this sum of money was a considerable one at that period, the sepulchre + must have been an object of unusual magnificence. Sometimes it was a + permanent structure of stone, carved with figures of soldiers watching the + tomb of our Lord. Behind the altar was the reredos. In village churches + these screens were made up of recessed stone panels, surrounded by + sculptured wallflowers and other devices; but in large churches they were + very ornate, enriched with niches, statues, tabernacle-work, and other + adornments. Many of them were destroyed at the Reformation, together with + the stone altars. Some were covered up and concealed by plaster, in order + to preserve them from iconoclastic violence. They were buried and + forgotten, until by some happy accident their existence was revealed in + modern times. Nearly all large churches, and some village churches, + especially those connected with a monastery, had shrines, or receptacles + for the body or relics of a saint. Some of them were fixed, and made of + stone or wood, adorned with rich tabernacle-work, such as the shrine of + St. Cuthbert at Durham, or of St. Frideswide at Oxford; and others were + portable, shaped like coped boxes, covered with precious metal, enamels, + and engraving. Sculptured stones in the walls of our churches often mark + the spot in the building where relics were stored. + </p> + <p> + It is evident from the existence of niches and piscinas in other parts of + the church, besides in the south wall near the high altar, that there + formerly existed many altars in the sacred building. At the east end of + each aisle we usually find these indications of the existence of an altar, + which belonged to a chantry chapel, separated from the rest of the church + by a screen. Here a priest said Mass daily for the soul of the founder of + the chantry, his ancestors, and posterity. Ancient stone altars still + remain in some of our churches. Sometimes they have been removed from + their place, and used as tombstones, or in paving the floor of the church. + They can be recognised by the five crosses engraved on them, one at each + corner, and one in the centre of the stone. + </p> + <p> + Hagioscopes, or squints, are openings in the thickness of the wall, + enabling worshippers in the chantry chapels to witness the elevation of + the Host at the high altar. They are usually plain; but in some churches + we find these curious apertures moulded and decorated with architectural + designs. + </p> + <p> + Pre-Reformation churches had several wooden images of saints, most of + which were destroyed by the iconoclastic zeal of the Reformers or + Puritans. The brackets on which these figures stood often remain, though + the images have disappeared. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link215" id="link215"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="215.jpg (37K)" src="images/215.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Low side windows, commonly called “Lepers’ windows,” are + very frequently found in our churches, and usually on the south wall of + the chancel. Their object has been, and is, much disputed among + antiquaries. The vulgar idea is that poor lepers used to come to this + window to see the celebration of the Mass; but unfortunately it is quite + impossible in many cases to see the high altar through this window, and + moreover lepers were not allowed to enter a churchyard. Another idea is + that they were used as confessionals, the priest in the church hearing the + confession of the penitent who knelt on the grass in the churchyard. A + more inconvenient arrangement could not have been devised; and this idea + might be at once dismissed, were it not that one of Henry’s + commissioners for suppressing monasteries and chantries wrote: “We + think it best that the place where these friars have been wont to hear + outward confession of all-comers at certain times of the year, be walled + up, and that use to be done for ever.” It appears that sometimes at + any rate the low side windows were used for this purpose. However, I am + inclined to think that they were intended for the use of the anchorites or + recluses, who dwelt in churches. The windows were not glazed, but had iron + bars on the outside, and a wooden shutter on the inside of the church. + These windows were probably their means of communication with the outside + world. + </p> + <p> + Many village churches then, as now, had no vestry. Where a <i>vestiarium</i> + existed it was usually on the north side of the chancel, and its contents + were more elaborate than the plain surplice stole and hood of recent + times. In the vestry press we should find an alb of fine white linen, + somewhat similar to a surplice, ornamented with “apparels,” <i>i.e.</i> + embroidery, on the cuffs and skirts; a girdle made of white silk + embroidered with colours; an amice, or oblong piece of fine linen, worn on + the head or as a collar; a stole with embroidered ends; a maniple, or + strip of ornamented linen worn by the priest in his left hand during + celebrations; dalmatic, chasuble and other vestments which the ornate + ritual of the mediaeval church required. + </p> + <p> + Before the Reformation the appearance of our churches was certainly + splendid, and differed much from the Puritan simplicity of later times. + The walls were covered with mural paintings. The windows, soon to be + </p> + <p> + “Shorn of their glass of a thousand colourings,<br /> Through which + the deepened glories once could enter,” + </p> + <p> + were then resplendent with stained glass. Above, the rood looked down on + all the worshippers. Everywhere there was beautifully carved woodwork, + gilded and painted, tombs of knights and dames all painted and adorned, + altars with rich embroidered hangings. The floor was composed of encaustic + tiles, and had many memorial brasses. Armour, crests, and banners hung + upon the walls. Lights burned before numerous images, and the whole + appearance of our churches was gorgeous and magnificent. + </p> + <p> + Many changes have taken place since. Coatings of whitewash hide the mural + paintings. Sacrilegious hands “have broken down all the carved work + with axes and hammers.” The stone altars have disappeared, and + instead we have “an honest table decently covered.” + Reading-pews for the clergy were set up, and in the last century the + hideous “three decker,” which hid the altar and utterly + disfigured the sacred building. Instead of the low open seats great square + high pews filled the nave. Hideous galleries were erected which obstructed + the windows and hid the architectural beauties of former days. The old + timber roofs were covered, and low flat ceilings substituted. Brasses were + torn up and sold by dishonest churchwardens, and old monuments broken and + defaced. The old stained-glass windows were destroyed. The Communion table + was taken from the east end of the chancel, and seats erected round it. + Crosses were defaced everywhere, and crucifixes destroyed. Puritan + profanation and wanton destruction devastated our churches to a degree + which has never been equalled since the hordes of heathens and barbaric + Danish invaders carried fire and sword into the sanctuaries of God. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link218" id="link218"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="218.jpg (56K)" src="images/218.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Much harm was done by the Goths and Vandals of the nineteenth century. + Many old churches, replete with a thousand memories of the past, were + pulled down entirely, and modern structures of “Victorian Gothic” + style erected in their place, which can have none of the precious + associations which the old churches had. Much harm was done to the old + features of many churches by so-called “restoration,” carried + out by men ignorant of architecture and antiquities. But we are learning + better now. The Society of Antiquaries has done much to prevent + injudicious restoration and the destruction of our old churches, and if + any incumbent and his parishioners are thinking of restoring their church, + they cannot do better than to consult the secretaries of that learned + body, who will show how best to preserve the interesting memorials of the + past which time has spared. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link15" id="link15"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV + </h2> + <h3> + CHURCH PLATE + </h3> + <p> + Spoliation—Few remains of pre-Reformation plate—Testimony of + inventories—Plate found in graves of bishops—Characteristics + of chalices in different periods—Inscriptions—Devices on + patens— Censers—Pyx—Monstrance—Chrismatory—Pax—Sacring + bell—Elizabethan chalice—Bridal cup—Post-Reformation + plate—Hall marks. + </p> + <p> + We have already mourned over the wanton destruction of much that was of + intense interest and value in our churches; but the most systematic + robbery and spoliation of our church goods at the time of the Reformation + were carried out in the matter of church plate. Henry VIII. stripped our + cathedrals and conventual churches of almost all that was valuable, and + the unscrupulous commissioners of Edward VI. performed a like office for + our parish churches and chantries. A large number of the old chalices were + also melted down and converted into Communion cupsduring the reigns of + Edward VI. and Elizabeth. Hence of all the vast store of church plate + which our churches possessed before the Reformation, at the present time + throughout all England only thirty-four chalices and seventy-three patens + remain. It is true that not all the ancient vessels fell into the hands of + the commissioners of the king. In the churchwardens’ account books + of the period we read of sundry sales of church plate. Evidently the + parishioners had some presentiment of the coming spoliation; so they sold + their valuables, and kept the proceeds of the sale for “the paving + of the streets,” or other parochial necessities. + </p> + <p> + The ancient inventories of church goods show the deplorable loss of the + valuables of the church which has taken place. Thus at the church of St. + Lawrence, Reading, in the year 1517, the inventory tells us of the + following: a cross of silver and gilt; a censer of silver gilt; another + censer; a ship of silver for holding incense; another ship of silver; two + candlesticks of silver; two books bound in silver; two basins of silver; a + pyx of silver gilt, with a silver pin; a monstrance of silver gilt; a + silver gilt chrismatory for the holy oil; a pax; two cruets; a bell; a + chalice, with a crucifix enamelled on the foot and the Trinity on the + paten; another chalice, with a crucifix engraved on the foot and a hand on + the paten; another chalice similarly described; another similar to first + chalice; and two others, with a crucifix on the foot and a vernicle, or <i>vera + icon</i> (a representation of our Lord’s face miraculously + delineated on the napkin of St. Veronica). All these vessels were made of + silver or silver gilt. Nor were these all the treasures. There were + several reliquaries of silver gilt containing parts of the holy cross; a + gridiron, with a bone of St. Lawrence, and other articles contained in + silver boxes; and many books bound with silver clasps. The total weight of + silver in this church amounted to seven hundred ounces. + </p> + <p> + Village churches were, of course, less sumptuously furnished than this + important town church, which being situated under the shadow of one of the + largest and most important abbeys in the kingdom, would receive many + costly gifts and benefactors. But the inventories of village churches show + that there was no lack of plate, rich altar hangings, copes, and + vestments, which helped to swell the goodly heap of spoil. In country + churches in Oxfordshire there were silver chalices and patens, pyxes, + censers, candlesticks, chrismatories, crosses, sanctus bells, and other + articles of plate. + </p> + <p> + It was the practice in mediaeval times to place in the coffin of a bishop + a chalice and paten; hence some of the earliest specimens of church plate + which we possess have been recovered from episcopal graves.[<a + href="#linkb3">3</a>] The Rites of Durham enjoin that on the death of a + bishop he was to be buried “with a little chalice of silver, other + metal, or wax” aid upon his breast within the coffin.[<a + href="#linkb4">4</a>] Most of these were made of pewter or lead, but some + have been found of silver gilt, latten, and tin. It is perhaps scarcely + necessary for our present purposes to describe these early specimens of + sacred vessels, as the number of them is so limited; and few of my readers + will be able to discover any mediaeval examples amongst the plate of their + own church. However, I will point out a few peculiarities of the plate of + each period. + </p> + <p> + The earliest chalice, used in the church of Berwick St. James, Wilts, + until a few years ago, and now in the British Museum, dates from the + beginning of the thirteenth century. Its bowl is broad and shallow, the + stem and knot (by which the vessel was held) and foot being plain and + circular. Then the makers (from 1250 to 1275) fashioned the stem and knot + separately from the bowl and foot, and shaped them polygonally. During the + remaining years of the century the foot was worked into ornate lobes. Then + the bowl is deepened and made more conical. About 1350 the custom arose of + laying the chalice on its side on the paten to drain at the ablutions at + Mass; and as the round-footed chalices would have a tendency to roll, the + foot was made hexagonal for stability. Henceforth all the mediaeval + chalices were fashioned with a six-sided foot. By degrees the bowl became + broader and shallower, and instead of the base having six points, its form + is a sexfoil without any points. Several old chalices are engraved with + the inscription— + </p> + <p> + Calicem salutaris accipiam et nomen Domini inbocabo. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link223" id="link223"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="223.jpg (15K)" src="images/223.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In one of the compartments of the base there was a representation of a + crucifix, or the Virgin, or ihc, or xpc. + </p> + <p> + The usual devices on ancient patens were the <i>Manus Dei</i>, or hand of + God, in the act of blessing; on later ones the vernicle, or face of our + Lord; the Holy Trinity; the Holy Lamb; the sacred monogram. The oldest + paten in existence is that found at Chichester Cathedral in a coffin, and + its date is about the year 1180. In the centre is a rude engraving of the + <i>Agnus Dei</i>, and it bears the inscription— + </p> + <p> + Agnus Dei qui tollis pecata mundi miserere nobis. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link224" id="link224"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="224.jpg (33K)" src="images/224.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The grave of Bishop Grostete at Lincoln yielded up an ancient paten + (1230-53), which has the figure of a bishop vested, the right hand raised + in the act of blessing, the left holding a crozier. The oldest piece of + church plate still in use is a remarkable paten at Wyke Church, near + Winchester, the date of which is about 1280. It bears an engraving of the + <i>Agnus Dei</i> holding a banner, and around the rim is the legend— + </p> + <p> + CUNTA: CREO: VIRTUTE: REGO: PIETATE REFORMO. + </p> + <p> + Another favourite inscription was <i>Benedicamus patrem et filium cum + spiritu sancto</i>; but on the paten in the church of Great Waltham, + Essex, the important word <i>spiritu</i> is omitted for want of room. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link225" id="link225"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="225.jpg (37K)" src="images/225.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + We have already mentioned several of the important pieces of church plate + which were in use in mediaeval times. Censers, or thuribles, were common + in all our ancient parish churches, sometimes of gold or silver, more + usually of brass or latten, and were in the shape of a covered vase or + cup, perforated so as to allow the fumes of burning incense to escape. + Most of our English censers are now in museums, but several ancient ones + are still in use in the private chapels of Roman Catholic families. + </p> + <p> + Old inventories always mention a pyx, a box or vessel of gold or silver, + in which the Host was reserved for the sick and infirm. It often resembles + a chalice, except that instead of the bowl there is a covered receptacle + for the Host. A beautiful specimen was dug up a few years ago in the + churchyard of Yateley, Hants. Another vessel was the monstrance, in which + the Blessed Sacrament was carried in procession, and exposed on the altar. + The form varied. Sometimes monstrances were made in the shape of a tower, + or a covered chalice; sometimes in the form of images carrying silver + pyxes, elaborately ornamented with many jewels. Processions were always a + great feature of mediaeval worship; hence the monstrance was frequently in + use, especially on such occasions as the celebrations of Corpus Christi + Day. + </p> + <p> + Holy oil was much used in the services, as in the Roman Catholic Church at + the present time. It was blessed by a bishop on Maundy Thursday, and used + in Baptism, Confirmation, and Extreme Unction, as well as at the + Consecration of Churches, Ordination, and the Coronation of Kings. The + vessel for holding the oil was an important piece of church plate, and was + called a chrismatory. Usually there were three distinct vessels, one for + holding the oil for the sick, a second for use at confirmations, and a + third for the baptismal oil. Sometimes these vessels are labelled with the + words EXT. UNC., CAT., and CHR., according to the recommendation of St. + Charles Borromeo, in order that each oil might be kept for its proper use, + and that no confusion might arise. + </p> + <p> + The pax was a small tablet of silver or other precious metal, used for + giving the kiss of peace during High Mass. The celebrant kissed the + tablet, and held it aloft before all the people. It was usually adorned + with a representation of the <i>Agnus Dei</i>. Of the cruets containing + wine and water for the celebration we have already written. Then there was + a sacring bell, often made of silver, which was rung during the service at + the time of the elevation of the Host, and at the sound the congregation + knelt. + </p> + <p> + We have now examined the aumbry, and noted its contents, upon which the + commissioners in the reign of Edward VI. made such shameful inroads. + Henceforth the plate was confined to a chalice and paten, alms-dish, and + usually a large silver flagon. The form of the chalice was entirely + changed. As we have noticed, the bowl of the pre-Reformation chalices + became smaller and shallower, on account of the gradually introduced + practice of refusing the wine to the laity. Now in the year 1562 the size + of the bowl was greatly enlarged, and the “Communion cup” took + the place of the “Massing chalice.” Some poor parishes were + obliged to content themselves with pewter vessels. St. Lawrence’s + Church, Reading, had a curious bridal cup, which was carried before all + brides who were married in that church. The custom of drinking wine in the + church at marriages is enjoined in the Hereford Missal, and the Sarum + Missal ordered that the bread immersed in the wine, and consumed by the + company, should first be blessed by the priest. Some of these + post-Reformation vessels are extremely interesting. They record the + thankofferings of pious donors on the occasion of some great event in the + national annals, such as the Restoration, or of some private mercy + vouchsafed to the individual. They record the connection of some family + with the parish, the arms they bore; and the Hall marks tell us of their + date, which is often anterior to the date of the inscription. + </p> + <p> + Hall marks were first introduced in 1300 by Edward I. in order to keep up + the purity of silver, and consisted of the lion’s or leopard’s + head crowned. This was called the king’s mark. The maker’s + mark was introduced in 1363, and was some initial or badge chosen by the + silversmith. To these were added in 1438 the year letter or assayer’s + mark, a different letter being chosen for each year. When the alphabet was + exhausted, another with differently shaped letters was begun. In 1545 the + lion passant was introduced, and since 1784 the portrait of the reigning + sovereign has appeared. With the assistance of Mr. Cripps’ <i>Old + English Plate</i>, which contains a list of the alphabets used in marking + plate, it is not very difficult to discover the date of any piece of + silver. Inventories of church plate are being made in many counties and + dioceses, and no more useful work can be undertaken by our local + antiquarian societies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb3" id="linkb3"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [3] <i>Mediaeval Chalices and Patens</i>, by W.H. St. John Hope and T.M. + Fallow. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb4" id="linkb4"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [4] Surtees Society, vol. xv. pp. 45, 49. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link16" id="link16"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI + </h2> + <h3> + MONUMENTAL EFFIGIES AND BRASSES + </h3> + <p> + Reverence for the dead—Cists—Stone coffins—Devices—Introduction + of effigies—Cross-legged effigies—Wooden effigies—Incised + effigies—Brasses—Essentially English—Vast number of + brasses— Palimpsests—Destruction—Costumes and fashions—Ecclesiastics— + Lawyers—Soldiers—Canopies and inscriptions—Punning + inscriptions— Contractions—Emblems—Heraldry. + </p> + <p> + The pious care which we all love to bestow on the mortal remains of our + nearest and dearest, and the respect and honour with which all men regard + the bodies of departed heroes, kings, saints, and warriors, have produced + a remarkable series of sepulchral monuments, examples of which may be + found everywhere. The cairns and tumuli of the primitive races which + inhabited our island were the results of the same feelings of reverent + regard which inspired the beautifully carved mediaeval monuments, the + memorial brass, or the cross-shaped tombstone of to-day. + </p> + <p> + I have already mentioned the cromlechs and barrows and other memorials of + the early inhabitants of Britain. We have seen the cists of Saxon times, + the coffins formed of several stones placed together in the form of a + table. The Normans introduced stone coffins for the sepulchre of their + great men, many of which may be seen in our cathedrals and old conventual + churches. On the lids of their coffins they frequently cut a single cross. + When the style of architecture changed to that of the Early English and + Decorated periods, monumental slabs were ornamented with much greater + richness and elaboration, and inscriptions were added, and also some + device which showed the trade, rank, or profession of the departed. Thus + the chalice and paten denoted a priest; a sword showed the knight; an axe, + a forester; an ink-horn, a notary; shears, a wool merchant. + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of the thirteenth century it occurred to someone to + preserve the likeness of his departed friend as well as the symbols of his + rank and station. So effigies were introduced upon the surface of the + slabs, and were carved flat; but ere fifty years had passed away the art + of the sculptor produced magnificent monumental effigies. Knights and + nobles lie clad in armour with their ladies by their sides. Bishops and + abbots bless the spectators with their uplifted right hands. Judges lie in + their official garb, and merchants with the emblems of their trade. At + their feet lie animals, usually having some heraldic connection with the + deceased, or symbolical of his work—<i>e.g.</i> a dragon is trodden + down beneath the feet of a bishop, signifying the defeat of sin as the + result of his ministry. The heads of effigies usually rest on cushions, + which are sometimes supported by two angels. + </p> + <p> + A peculiar characteristic of the military effigies in England is that the + knights are often represented with the legs crossed. Many speculations + have been made with regard to the meaning of this fashion of cross-legged + effigy. It is a popular superstition, in which for some years the writer + shared, that such effigies represented Crusaders. We were told in our + young days that when the knight had his legs crossed at the feet he had + gone to the Crusades once; when at the knees, that he had been to two + Crusades; and when crossed at the thighs, he had been thrice to rescue the + Holy City from the hands of the infidels. All this seemed very plausible + and interesting, but it is undoubtedly a myth. Many known Crusaders have + their effigies with uncrossed legs, and many who never went to the + Crusades have cross-legged effigies. Moreover, there are no such monuments + in any foreign country which swelled the army of Crusaders. Hence we must + abandon the pleasing superstition, and reconcile ourselves to the fact + that no particular signification can be assigned to these cross-legged + effigies, and that only fashion prompted the mediaeval sculptors to adopt + this attitude for their figures. This mode prevailed until about the year + 1320. + </p> + <p> + At the close of the fifteenth century the art of making monumental + effigies degenerated together with the skill of the architects of that + period. We see the husband and wife kneeling facing each other, with a + faldstool before each figure. A company of small figures below the + effigies represent the children, the boys on one side, the girls on the + other. + </p> + <p> + Early wooden effigies were also in use. There is one much battered by the + careless hands of former generations of villagers in the rural church of + my parish of Barkham. The artists often used much colour, gilding, and + enamel in making these effigies; and often rich canopies were erected over + them, containing fine tabernacle-work and figures of saints in niches. + </p> + <p> + Another form of effigy was commonly in use, in addition to the figures + just described. These are called incised effigies, which were cut in + outline upon flat slabs of stone, the lines being filled in with enamelled + metals. Thorton Abbey, Lincolnshire, and Brading, in the Isle of Wight, + have examples of this work. But the great expense of these enamels, and + also their frailty when exposed in the pavements of churches, led to the + use of brass; and hence arose the introduction of memorial brasses for + which our country is famous. + </p> + <p> + We owe the application of brass to memorial tablets to the artists of + Flanders, and the date of their introduction is about the middle of the + thirteenth century. The execution of almost all of our English brasses is + due to native artists. Foreign brasses are usually of great size, and + consist of a quadrangular sheet of metal, on which is engraved the figure, + usually under a canopy, the background being ornamented with rich diaper, + foliage, or scrollwork, and the incisions filled with colouring. Several + brasses in England conform to this style of workmanship, and are evidently + the production of foreign artists. The English brasses, on the contrary, + consist of separate pieces, with an irregular outline, corresponding with + that of the figure. They have no brass background; and for delicacy of + engraving and general appearance the English brasses are by far the best. + </p> + <p> + The names of the makers of brasses have been almost entirely lost. Two + only bear marks which are supposed to be those of the engraver. No other + country can boast of so large a number of these memorials as England, in + spite of the hard usage they have received and their wanton destruction. + About four thousand remain; and constantly we find the matrices cut in + stone slabs, from which brasses have been torn; so that we may assume that + quite as many have been destroyed as those which survive. The southern and + eastern counties are most richly furnished with these monuments, whereas + the western and northern counties have but few brasses. Norfolk, Suffolk, + Essex, and Kent are the most rich in this respect. The earliest brass of + which we have any record is that of Simon de Beauchamp, who died before + 1208. This is mentioned by Leland. The earliest brass now in existence is + that of Sir John D’Aubernown at Stoke Dabernon, Surrey, which was + fashioned in 1277. In the fourteenth century a very large number of + brasses, remarkable for their beauty of form and execution, were made. The + artistic workmanship began to decline in the fifteenth century, and in the + following became utterly degenerate. + </p> + <p> + It was not an uncommon practice for subsequent generations to appropriate + the memorials of their predecessors. Such brasses are called palimpsests. + By the carelessness of churchwardens, by fraud, or spoliation, brasses + were taken from the churches, and acquired by some maker in the town. When + a new one was required, the tradesman would take from his stock, and on + the reverse engrave the figure of the individual whose memory he was + called upon to perpetuate. Hence when brasses are taken up from the + pavements, frequently the remains of a much earlier memorial are found on + the reverse side. There is an example of this curious method of procedure + at St. Lawrence’s Church, Reading, where on the reverse of a brass + to the memory of Walter Barton was found the remains of the brass of Sir + John Popham, who was buried at the Charterhouse, London. This monastery + was dissolved in 1536, the monuments sold, Sir John Popham’s brass + among them, which was evidently soon converted into a memorial of Walter + Barton. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the original brass was appropriated as it lay, the figure being + slightly altered to suit the style of costume prevalent at the later date. + In other cases the engraver did not even trouble himself to alter the + figure, and simply added a new inscription and shield of arms. + </p> + <p> + The wanton destruction and gross neglect of churchwardens, both before and + after the Reformation, were very great. At St. Mary’s Church, + Reading, the accounts tell a sad tale of the disgraceful damage in the + year 1547:— + </p> + <p> + “Receyvid of John Saunders for iii cwt lacking ix’li of metall + that was taken upp of the graves, and of olde candlestycks at vi’s + the hundred xlvj’s ii’d.” + </p> + <p> + Evidently a clean sweep was made of most of the memorial brasses in the + church, and few escaped destruction. The tale is too familiar. Most + churches have suffered in the same way. + </p> + <p> + The study of brasses throws much light upon the costumes and fashions of + the day when they were engraved. We see priests, who may be recognised by + the tonsure and vestments, amongst which we find the alb, amice, stole, + maniple, and chasuble. The pastoral staff, ring, mitre, sandals, tunic, + dalmatic, and gloves mark the graves of bishops and mitred abbots. + </p> + <p> + A close skull-cap, a long robe with narrow sleeves, a hood, tippet, and + mantle buttoned on the right shoulder, compose the dress of judges and + officers of the law, as depicted on brasses. The changes in the fashion + and style of armour, which took place between the fourteenth and the + seventeenth centuries, are all accurately represented in these memorials; + and also the picturesque costumes of ladies with their curious headgear; + and the no less various fashions of the male civilian’s dress. A + study of brasses is an admirable guide to the prevailing style of dress + during the periods of their construction. + </p> + <p> + The beautiful canopies over the heads of the figures are well worthy of + attention, and also the inscriptions. These usually take the form of Latin + verses; and although many were written by learned abbots and scholars, the + classical knowledge displayed is somewhat faulty. Here are a few examples:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + Respice quid prodest precentis temporis aebum<br /> Omne quod est, + nichil est, preter amare deum. + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Sometimes the author of the inscription recorded his name, as did the + learned Dame Elizabeth Hobby on a brass at Shottesbrooke, which runs— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + O multum dilecte senex, pater atqz bocate,<br /> Del quia + grandaebis, bel quia probus eras.<br /> Annos bixisti nobies decem, + atqz satelles<br /> Fidus eras regum, fidus erasqz tuis.<br /> + Iam satis functus baleas, sed tu, deus alme,<br /> Sic + mihi concedas bibere siqz mori. + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Variety was added sometimes by jumbling together various languages, + Norman-French, Latin, and English being often oddly combined. + </p> + <p> + People in the Middle Ages loved punning and playing upon the sound of + words. Thus a brass to the memory of Thomas Hylle (or Hill) has some + verses beginning “<i>Mons</i> in valle jacet.” John Day, the + printer, had a very extravagant and jocular epitaph beginning— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Here lies the Daye that darkness could not blynd.” + </p> + <p> + “He set a Fox to wright how Martyrs runne<br /> By death to + lyfe”— + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + alluding to his publication of Foxe’s <i>Book of Martyrs</i>. His + widow probably married a man named Stone. Hence we read— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Als was the last encreaser of his store,<br /> Who mourning + long for being left alone,<br /> Sett upp this tombe, her self turned + to a Stone.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + “Orate pro anima,” or “of your charite pray for the soul + of ——” were usual inscriptions. + </p> + <p> + It is somewhat difficult for the unpractised eye to read inscriptions on + brasses, owing to the contractions and omissions of letters. Thus <i>m</i> + and <i>n</i> are often omitted, and a line is placed over the adjoining + letter to indicate the omission. Thus a=ia stands for <i>anima</i>, leg=u + for <i>legum</i>. The letter <i>r</i> is also left out. Z stands for <i>que</i>, + and there are many other contractions, such as D=ns for <i>Dominus</i>, + D=s for <i>Deus</i>, E=ps for <i>Episcopus</i>, g=ia for <i>gratia</i>, + m=ia for <i>misericordia</i>, and many others. + </p> + <p> + The study of the emblems and devices is full of interest. Of + ecclesiastical emblems we have the symbols of the Holy Trinity—God + the Father represented as an aged person, holding a crucifix on which the + dove, an emblem of the Holy Spirit, is alighting—representations of + our Lord, angels, saints,[<a href="#linkb5">5</a>] evangelists, the fylfot + cross, roses, and figures of Death. Sometimes the figure on the brass + holds a heart in his hand, which indicates a response on the part of the + deceased to the old invitatory “Sursum corda.” + </p> + <p> + The armorial bearings of the deceased are usually represented on brasses, + and also personal or professional devices. The founders of churches hold + representations in miniature of the churches which they founded. Bishops + and abbots have a pastoral staff; priests, a chalice, or a book; wool + merchants have woolpacks beneath their feet, and other tradesmen have + similar devices denoting their special calling. Merchants’ marks + also frequently appear; and the mediaeval taste for punning is shown by + frequent rebuses formed on the names of the deceased, <i>e.g.</i> a + peacock, for one named Pecok; a fox, for a Foxley; four tuns and a cross, + for Master Croston. + </p> + <p> + England may well be proud of the brass memorials of her worthy sons and + daughters. It is, however, terribly sad to see the destruction which + fanatical and greedy folk have wrought on these beautiful monuments. As we + have already noticed, the spoliators of the Reformation period + accomplished much wanton destruction, and removed tombs “for + greedinesse of the brasse.” Cromwell’s soldiers and + commissioners did a vast deal more damage, violating sepulchres and + monuments, and destroying brasses everywhere. A third cause of the + defacement and loss of these valuable memorials has been the gross + carelessness of churchwardens and incumbents, who during any alterations + or restoration of their churches have allowed them to be sold, destroyed, + or appropriated by the builders. Truly we have entered upon a diminished + inheritance. It behoves us to preserve with the utmost vigilance and care + the memorials which fanaticism, greed, and carelessness have spared. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb5" id="linkb5"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [5] The following are the principal emblems of the Apostles:— St. + Andrew, a cross saltier; St. Bartholomew, a knife; St. James the Great, a + pilgrim’s staff, wallet, escallop shell; St. James the Less, a + fuller’s bat, or saw; St. John, a chalice and serpent; St. Jude, a + boat in his hand, or a club; St. Matthew, a club, carpenter’s + square, or money-box; St. Matthias, a hatchet, battle-axe, or sword; St. + Paul, a sword; St. Peter, keys; St. Philip, a tau cross, or a spear; St. + Simon, fishes; St. Thomas, an arrow or spear. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link17" id="link17"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII + </h2> + <h3> + THE PARISH CHEST + </h3> + <p> + Contents of the parish chest—Parish registers—Effect of Civil + War— Burials in woollen—“Not worth £600”—Care + bestowed upon registers— Curious entries—Astrology—Gipsies—Jester—Heart-burial—Plagues—Royal + visits—Licences for eating flesh, for to be touched for king’s + evil— Carelessness of custody of registers—Churchwardens’ + account books—Their value—Curious entries—Sports and + pastimes—Paschall money—Brief books—Strange entries in + registers and account books—Dog-whippers— King’s evil—Treating + bishops and poor scholars of Oxford. + </p> + <p> + The parish chest in the vestry usually contains many documents, which are + of profound interest to the student of village antiquities. It contains + the old churchwardens’ account books, the parish registers, lists of + briefs, and often many other papers and records which bear on the history + of the parish. The old register books record the names of past generations + of villagers, and many curious facts about the parish and its people, + which are not found in the dull dry columns of our modern books. + </p> + <p> + Parish registers were first ordered by Thomas Cromwell in the year 1538, + and from that date many of our registers begin.[<a href="#linkb6">6</a>] + But all vicars did not obey the injunctions of Viceregent Cromwell; they + were renewed by Edward VI. in 1547 and by Queen Elizabeth in 1559, and + most of our old register books begin with this date. James I. ordered that + the registers should be written over again in a parchment book, the + entries previously having been recorded on paper. Hence many of our books, + although they begin with the year 1538, are really copies of the paper + records made previous to 1603. + </p> + <p> + The disturbances of the Civil War period caused much neglect in the + keeping of the registers. The incumbent was often driven away from his + flock, and parish registrars were chosen by the parishioners and approved + and sworn before a justice of the peace. Here is a record of this business + taken from the books of this parish:— + </p> + <p> + “Whereas Robtr Williams of the prish of Barkham in the County of + Berks was elected and chosen by the inhabitants of the same prish to be + there prish Register, he therefore ye sd Ro: Wms was approved and sworne + this sixteenth day of November 1653. Ri: Bigg, J.P.” + </p> + <p> + Henceforth the children are registered as having been <i>born</i>, not <i>baptised</i>, + until the Restoration brought back the clergyman to his flock again, and + the entries are written in a scholarly hand, and the disorder of the + previous years ceases. + </p> + <p> + In 1679 an Act was passed requiring that the dead should be buried in + woollen, the purpose being to lessen “the importation of linen from + beyond the seas, and the encouragement of the woollen and paper + manufacturers of this kingdom.” A penalty of £5 was inflicted + for a violation of this Act; and as frequently people preferred to be + buried in linen, a record of the fine appears—<i>e.g.</i> at Gayton, + Northamptonshire, where we find in the register— + </p> + <p> + “1708. Mrs. Dorothy Bellingham was buryed April 5, in <i>Linnen</i>, + and the forfeiture of the Act payd fifty shillings to ye informer and + fifty shillings to ye poor of the parishe.” + </p> + <p> + Pope wrote the following lines on the burial of Mrs. Oldfield, the + actress, with reference to this custom:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Odious! in woollen! ’twould a saint provoke<br /> + (Were the last words that poor Narcissa spoke);<br /> + No, let a charming chintz and Brussels lace<br /> Wrap + my cold limbs, and shade my lifeless face.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Sometimes after the name in the register is added the words, “Not + worth £600.” This refers to the Act of William III. in 1694, + which required that all persons baptised, married, or buried, having an + estate of that value, should pay a tax of twenty shillings. The money was + required for carrying on the war with France, and the Act was in force for + five years. This description of the personal estate was not intended to be + invidious, but was of practical utility in enforcing the Act. + </p> + <p> + The parish registers reflect with wonderful accuracy the life of the + people, and are most valuable to the student of history. Clergymen took + great pride in recording “the short and simple annals of the poor.” + A Gloucestershire rector (1630 A.D.) wrote in his book the following good + advice which might with advantage be taken in many other villages:— + </p> + <p> + “If you will have this Book last, bee sure to aire it att the fier, + or in the Sunne, three or four times a yeare—els it will grow + dankish and rott, therefore look to it. It will not be amisse when you + find it dankish to wipe over the leaves with a dry wollen cloth. This + Place is very much subject to dankishness; therefore I say looke to it.” + </p> + <p> + A study of the curious entries which we occasionally find conveys much + remarkable information. Sometimes, in the days of astrology, in order to + assist in casting the nativity, it is recorded that at the time of the + child’s birth “the sun was in Libra,” or “in + Taurus.” Gipsies were evidently numerous in the sixteenth century, + as we constantly find references to “the roguish AEgyptians.” + The domestic jester finds his record in the entry: “1580. March 21, + William, fool to my Lady Jerningham.” The suicide is “infamously + buried.” Heart-burial is often recorded, as at Wooburn, Bucks: + “1700. Cadaver Edi Thomas, equitis aurati, hic inhumatum fuit + vicessimo tertio die Junii.” + </p> + <p> + Records of the visitations of the plague are very numerous in all parts of + England, as at Egglescliffe, Durham: “1644. In this year there died + of the plague in this towne one and twenty people; they are not all buried + in the churchyard, and are not in the Register.” Sometimes masses of + human bones are found buried in fields outside towns and villages, + memorials of this devastating plague. + </p> + <p> + Parish clerks have not always had very musical voices when they shout out + the “Amens.” The Rector of Buxted, Sussex (1666 A.D.), records + with a sigh of relief the death of his old clerk, “whose melody + warbled forth as if he had been thumped on the back with a stone.” + </p> + <p> + Sometimes royal visits to the neighbourhood are recorded, even a royal + hunt, as when James I. hunted the hare at Fordham, Cambridgeshire. The + register of Wolverton gives “a license for eating flesh on + prohibited days granted to Sir Tho. Temple, on paying 13s. 4d.” + Storms, earthquakes, and floods are described; and records of certificates + granted to persons to go before the king to be touched for the disease + called the king’s evil. + </p> + <p> + The Civil War is frequently mentioned, and also caused the omission of + many entries. At Tarporley, Cheshire, there is a break from 1643 to 1648, + for which the rector thus accounts:— + </p> + <p> + “This intermission hapned by reason of the great wars obliterating + memorials, wasting fortunes, and slaughtering persons of all sorts.” + </p> + <p> + Parish registers have fared ill and suffered much from the gross + carelessness of their custodians. We read of the early books of Christ + Church, Hants, being converted into kettle-holders by the curate’s + wife. Many have been sold as waste paper, pages ruthlessly cut out, and + village schoolbooks covered with the leaves of old registers. The + historian of Leicestershire writes of the register of Scraptoft:— + </p> + <p> + “It has not been a plaything for young pointers—it has not + occupied a bacon scratch, or a bread and cheese cupboard—it has not + been scribbled on within and without; but it has been treasured ever since + 1538, to the honour of a succession of worthy clergymen.”—<i>O + si sic omnes</i>! + </p> + <p> + The churchwardens’ account books are even of greater value to the + student of history than the registers, priceless as the latter are for + genealogical purposes. The Bishop of Oxford states that “in the old + account books and minute books of the churchwardens in town and country we + possess a very large but very perishable and rapidly perishing treasury of + information on matters the very remembrance of which is passing away, + although their practical bearing on the development of the system of local + government is indisputable, and is occasionally brought conspicuously + before the eye of the people by quaint survivals.... It is well that such + materials for the illustration of this economic history as have real value + should be preserved in print; and that the customs which they illustrate + should be reclaimed by History from the misty region of folklore, whilst + they can.” Many of these account books date from pre-Reformation + times, and disclose the changes which took place in the fabric of our + churches, the removal of roods and other ecclesiastical furniture, during + the Reformation. They are usually kept with great exactness, and contain + an accurate record of the receipts and expenditure for each year. Some of + the entries are very curious, and relate to the sports and pastimes of our + ancestors, the mystery plays, and church ales, which were all under the + patronage of the churchwardens. The proceeds of these entertainments were + devoted to the maintenance of the church, and were included in the + accounts, as well as the necessary cost of the merry diversions. Thus in + the books of St. Lawrence’s Church, Reading, we find such items as + the following:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + s. d. +"1499. Paid for a coat for Robin Hood 5 4 + " for a supper to Robin Hood and + his company 1 6 + " for making the church clean + against the day of drinking + in the said church 4" + +"1531. Paid for five ells of canvass for a coat + for Maid Marian 1 6-1/4" +</pre> + <p> + “Bells for the Morris dancers,” “liveries and coats,” + “bread and ale,” “horse-meat of the horses for the kings + of Colen on May Day,” are some of the items which appear in these + books. + </p> + <p> + Another book tells us about the “Gatherings” at Hock-tide, + when on one day the men stopped the women, and on the next the women the + men, and refused to let them go until they gave money. The women always + succeeded in collecting the most money. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + s. d. +"It'm. receyved of the men's gatherynge 7 3 + " " " women's gatherynge 37 5" +</pre> + <p> + Traces of this custom are still found in many country places. The practice + of “hocking” at Hungerford and “lifting” in + Lancashire subsist still, but the money collected is no longer devoted to + any pious uses. + </p> + <p> + The item “Paschall money at Easter” frequently occurs. This + was originally a collection for the Paschal taper, which burned before the + high altar at Eastertide. When, in the reign of Elizabeth, the taper was + no longer used, the money was devoted to buying the bread and the wine for + the Easter Communion. Another item which often appears is a payment of + “Smoke farthings” to the bishop of the diocese at his + Visitation Court. This is another name for Peter’s pence, formerly + given to the Pope. In the accounts of Minchinhampton we find the entry + under the year 1576: “For Pentecost money, otherwyse peter pence, + sometyme payed to Antecryst of Rome xvi’d.” After the + Reformation the tax was collected, but given to the bishop. + </p> + <p> + There are very many other points of interest which a study of the + churchwardens’ books presents. In more recent times we find constant + payments for the slaughter of sparrows, and many other items which + scarcely come under the head of ecclesiastical charges.[<a href="#linkb7">7</a>] + But of course the vestry was then the council chamber of the parish, which + managed all the temporal affairs of the village community. Possibly, in + these days of Poor Law Unions, District and County Councils, our affairs + may be managed better; but there is much to be said in favour of the older + system, and Parish Councils are not much of an improvement on the old + vestries. + </p> + <p> + Another book which our parish chest contains is the Brief Book. Briefs + were royal letters which were sent to the clergy directing that + collections be made for certain objects. These were very numerous and + varied. The building of St. Paul’s Cathedral after the Great Fire, a + fire at Drury Lane Theatre, rebuilding of churches, the redemption of + English slaves taken by pirates, the construction of harbours in Scotland, + losses by hail, floods, French refugees, Reformed Episcopal churches in + Great Poland and Polish Prussia, Protestants in Copenhagen, loss by fire, + colleges in Philadelphia—these and many other objects were commended + to the liberality of Churchmen. The sums collected were usually very + small, and Pepys wrote in his <i>Diary</i>, June 30th, 1661:— + </p> + <p> + “To church, when we observe the trade of briefs is come now up to so + constant a course every Sunday that we resolve to give no more to them.” + </p> + <p> + The granting of briefs gave rise to much abuse, and they were finally + abolished by the advice of Lord Palmerston. + </p> + <p> + The contents of the parish chest afford an unlimited mass of material for + those who love to study the curious customs of our forefathers and their + strange usages. Here is a record of a much-married person:— + </p> + <p> + “Mary Blewitt, ye wife of nine husbands successively, buried eight + of ym, but last of all ye woman dy’d and was buried, May 7th 1681.” + </p> + <p> + In the margin of the register is written, “This was her funeral + text.” + </p> + <p> + The register of Sparsholt, Berks, records an instance of the body of a + dead man being arrested for debt. The entry is:— + </p> + <p> + “The corpse of John Matthews, of Fawler, was stopt on the churchway + for debt, August 27, 1689. And having laine there fower days, was by + Justices warrant buryied in the place to prevent annoyances—but + about sixe weekes after it was by an order of Sessions taken up and buried + in the churchyard by the wife of the deceased.” + </p> + <p> + A dog-whipper was an ancient parish official, whose duty was to drive out + all dogs from the church. The Wakefield accounts contain the items:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"1616. Paid to Gorby Stork for whippinge s. d. + doggs 2 6" + +"1703. For hatts shoes and hoses for sexton + and dog-whipper 18 6" +</pre> + <p> + Another official was the person appointed to arouse members of the + congregation from their slumbers during divine service. The parish + accounts of Castleton record:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + s. d. +"1702. Paid to sluggard waker 10 0" +</pre> + <p> + Sometimes the cost of a journey to London was defrayed by the parish in + order to enable a sufferer to be touched for the king’s evil. The + Ecclesfield accounts contain the following entry relating to this custom:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"1641. Given to John Parkin wife towards her + travell to London to get cure of his Majestie + for the disease called the Evill, which her s. d. + Sonen Thorn is visited withall 6 8" +</pre> + <p> + The clergymen were required to keep a register of all who were so touched, + in order that they might not again go to the king and receive the bounty + which accompanied the touch. Hence we read in the register of Hambleden, + Bucks:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"1685. May 17, Mary Wallington had a certificate to goe before the King +for a disease called the King's Evil." +</pre> + <p> + The treating of bishops and clergy is often noticed in the accounts. + Sometimes a sugar-loaf was presented, as at St. James’, Bristol:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"1629. Paid for a sugar loaf for the Lord Bishop 15's 10'd" +</pre> + <p> + Sometimes items relate to their refreshment:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"1593. Pd for a galland of beer given to the + Beishopp of Hereford iiii'd" + +"1617. Pd for a quart of wine and sugar bestowed + upon two preachers x'd" +</pre> + <p> + The status of students at the Universities was not so high in former days + as at present, and poor scholars used to beg their way to Oxford and + Cambridge, and receive the assistance of the charitable. Hence we read in + the Leverton accounts:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"1562. Gave to a pore scholar at Oxford. 2s. 0d." +</pre> + <p> + With this record of “a pore scholar” we must leave our study + of the contents of the parish chest, which afford such valuable and + accurate information about village and town life of ancient times. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb6" id="linkb6"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [6] 812 registers begin in 1538, 40 of which contain entries prior to that + date. 1,822 registers date from 1538 to 1558, and 2,448 from 1558 to 1603. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb7" id="linkb7"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [7] In the Whitchurch books we find: “1671. Paide for a coate and + wastcoate for good wife Clarke 13s., also for linen and shoes; to the + Chiurgeons for looking at Ezechiell Huller’s legg £3.” + And such-like entries. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link18" id="link18"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII + </h2> + <h3> + STAINED GLASS, TILES, AND MURAL PAINTINGS + </h3> + <p> + Destruction of old windows—Wilfrid’s glass-window makers—Glass, + stained and painted—Changes in style—Work of foreign artists—Inlaid + tiles—Ironwork on doors and screens—Norman hinges—Mediaeval + plumbing work—Mural decoration, frescoes, and wall-painting—Cause + of their destruction—St. Christopher—Consecration crosses—Norman + art—Favourite subjects—Yew trees in churchyards—Lich-gates—The + churchyard—Curious epitaphs. + </p> + <p> + No branch of archaeology is more interesting than the study of our + stained-glass windows, which illustrate so clearly the faith, history, and + customs of our ancestors. We have again to thank the fanatics of the + Reformation and Cromwellian periods for the shameful destruction of so + many beautiful windows. How great has been the loss to art and history + caused by their reckless demolition! And in addition to this miserable + violence our windows have suffered greatly from the ignorant indifference + of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, which allowed priceless + examples of old glass to be removed and replaced by the hideous specimens + of the modern glass-painters. + </p> + <p> + In Saxon times this art found a home in England, the <i>artifices + lapidearum et vitrearum fenestrarum</i> having been invited to this + country by Wilfrid, Bishop of York, in 709. The earliest specimen of + ancient glass now in existence is in the choir-aisles of Canterbury + Cathedral, where it was probably fixed when the cathedral was rebuilt + after the fire in 1174. + </p> + <p> + Coloured glass is of two kinds: (1) <i>Stained glass</i>, made by mixing + metallic oxides with the glass when in a state of fusion, the colours thus + going through the whole mass; (2) <i>Painted glass</i>, in which colouring + is laid upon the white or tinted glass, and fixed by the action of fire. + As the style of architecture changed, so the art of the glass-painter + changed with it. In the Early English period the colours were very rich, + and the designs consisted of medallions containing subjects taken from + Holy Scripture, or the lives of the saints, upon grounds of ruby and blue. + Mosaic patterns form the groundwork of the medallions, and a border of + scrolls and foliage incloses the whole design. The outlines of the figures + are formed by the lead. In the Decorated period the medallions disappear, + and in their place we find single figures of large size under canopies. + Instead of the mosaic backgrounds diaper-work in whole colours is used. + Lights and shades are introduced in the dresses and canopies, and foliage + is painted on the panes. The artists of this period first introduced + heraldic devices into the windows. A border of white glass intervenes + between the window and the medallion. + </p> + <p> + When the Perpendicular style was in vogue the art of the glass-painter + degenerated, as did that of the architect. Stained glass was little used, + and the artists painted with enamel colours their designs upon the glass. + The figures were larger than before, and the canopies of great size and + with much architectural detail, landscapes and buildings appearing in the + background. During this period inscriptions began to be used. In the + sixteenth century the progress of the art was in the same direction. Large + figures, and groups of figures, fill the whole window, and the existence + of mullions is disregarded in the execution of the design. Glass-painting + flourished until the Civil War period, and then died out. + </p> + <p> + English churches benefited much by the work of foreign artists. The great + Florentine Francesco di Lievi da Gambassi visited this country. There is a + letter dated 1434, written “to the master glass-painter Gambassi, + then in Scotland, and who made works in glass of various kinds, and was + held to be the best glass-painter in the world.” How much must we + regret the destruction of the windows made by this excellent artist in + Holyrood chapel and elsewhere by fanatical mobs! The Fairford windows are + perhaps the finest and most interesting in England. The story runs that + they were made in Germany for a church in Rome, and that the vessel + conveying them was captured by an English ship; and as the noble church at + Fairford was then being built, the glass was sent there and given to it. + Shiplake Church, Oxfordshire, has some of the beautiful glass which once + adorned the ruined church of St. Bertin at St. Omer, plundered during the + French Revolution. + </p> + <p> + Some good work was accomplished in the seventeenth century by English + artists, who practised enamel painting, notably by Jervais, who in 1717 + executed from designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds the beautiful west window of + New College Chapel, Oxford. + </p> + <p> + The floors of our churches were enriched with inlaid tiles. Various + patterns and designs were impressed upon them when the clay was moist, a + metallic glaze covered the surface, and then the tiles were placed in the + furnace. Many designs are found on ancient tiles, such as heraldic + devices, monograms, sacred symbols with texts, architectural designs, + figures, and patterns. The age of the tiles may be determined by comparing + the designs imprinted upon them with the architectural decorations + belonging to particular periods. In the sixteenth century many Flemish + tiles were brought to England, and superseded those of English + manufacture. + </p> + <p> + In the Middle Ages no branch of art was neglected. Even the smith, who + made the ironwork for the doors, locks, and screens, was an artist, and + took pains to adapt his art to the style of architecture prevailing in his + time. Norman doors are remarkable for their beautifully ornamented hinges. + They have curling scrollwork, and a large branch in the form of the letter + C issuing from the straight bar near the head. Early English doors have + much elaborate scrollwork, with foliage and animals’ heads. During + the Decorated period the hinges are simpler, on account of the carved + panelling on the doors, and they continue to become plainer in the + subsequent period. The knockers on the doors often assume very grotesque + forms, as at Durham Cathedral. The mediaeval plumber was also an artist, + and introduced shields of arms, fleur-de-lis, and other devices, for the + enrichment of spires, and pipes for carrying off water from the roof. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link254" id="link254"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="254.jpg (40K)" src="images/254.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + No part of the ancient decoration of our churches has suffered more than + the paintings and frescoes which formerly adorned their walls. In the + whole of the country there are very few of the ancient edifices which + retain any traces of the numerous quaint designs and figures painted on + the inner surfaces of their walls during the Middle Ages. Our ancestors + used to make free use of colour for the purpose of architectural + decoration, and employed several means in order to produce the effect. + They sometimes used fresco, by means of which they produced pictures upon + the walls covered with plaster while the plaster was wet. Sometimes they + employed wall-painting, <i>i.e.</i> they covered the walls when the + plaster was dry with some pictorial representation. The distinction + between fresco and wall-painting is frequently forgotten. Most of the + early specimens of this art are monochromes, but subsequently the painters + used polychrome, which signifies surface colouring in which various + colours are employed. The vaulted ceilings, the timber roof, the screens + and canopies, the monuments with their effigies, as well as the surface of + the walls, were often coloured with diaper-work. Colour and gilding were + marked features in all mediaeval buildings, and even richly carved fonts + and sculptural monuments were embellished with this method of decoration. + The appearance of our churches in those times must have been very + different from what it is now. Then a blaze of colour met the eye on + entering the sacred building, the events of sacred history were brought to + mind by the representations upon the walls, and many an unlearned rustic + acquired some knowledge of biblical history from the contemplation of the + rude figures with which his village church was adorned. + </p> + <p> + “Even the very walls of this dread place,<br /> And the tall windows, + with their breathing lights,<br /> Speak to the adoring heart.” + </p> + <p> + The practice of painting the walls of our churches dates as far back as + Saxon times; but very few fragments of pre-Norman art remain. Of Norman + work we have numerous examples, and sometimes it is found that the early + specimens of the art have been painted over in later Gothic times, and + ruder and larger figures have eclipsed the more careful work of previous + ages. An example of this was discovered in the church of St. Lawrence, + Reading, where no less than five distinct series of paintings were + discovered, painted one over another. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link256" id="link256"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="256.jpg (27K)" src="images/256.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Several circumstances have combined to obliterate these specimens of the + art of former days. It was not the intention of the Reformers themselves + to destroy them. They distinguished carefully between “an embossed + and gilt image, and a process of a story painted with the gestures and + action of many persons; and commonly the sum of the story written withal + hath another use in it than one dumb idol or image standing by itself.” + It was left to the Puritans, impelled by fanaticism and ignorance, to make + “a slanderous desolation of the places of prayer,” and it is + to them we owe much of the destruction of the old mural paintings. At the + end of the eighteenth century there was a prejudice against these works of + art; for in 1773 we find the Bishop of London refusing to allow Reynolds, + West, and Barry to clothe the naked walls of St. Paul’s Cathedral + with pictures painted by themselves. Coated over by layers of plaster, or + whitewashed until all traces were obliterated, these relics of ancient art + have remained for generations, and it is only when an old church is being + restored, and the coats of plaster and whitewash removed, that their + presence is revealed; and then too often the colours fade away on exposure + to the air. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link257" id="link257"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="257.jpg (43K)" src="images/257.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + One of the favourite subjects of mural decoration was a figure of St. + Christopher with the Infant Saviour on his shoulder.[<a href="#linkb8">8</a>] + He usually has a staff, and strange-looking fish swim about his feet as he + crosses the river; on one side there is a hermitage, with the figure of a + hermit holding a lantern to guide the saint, and on the other a windmill. + This figure usually was painted on the wall opposite the principal + entrance, as it was deemed lucky to see St. Christopher on first entering + a church. Moreover the sight of the saint was a preservative against + violent death during the day, and also a preventive against drowsiness + during the service, as the following verses show:— + </p> + <p> + “Christophori sancti speciem quicunque tuetur Illo + namque die nullo languore tenetur.” + </p> + <p> + Churchwardens’ accounts record the painting of these figures— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +"1503-4. It. payd to mylys paynter for payntyng + of Seynt X'fer viii's iiii'd" + +"1521. It. payd to John Payne for payntyng + of Sent Leonard left by the wyffs + onpaynted xx'd" +</pre> + <p> + A curious order was issued by Edward III. for arresting painters to work + in St. Stephen’s Chapel at Westminster, to which artists of every + description were liable to surrender as often as the king required their + services. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link259" id="link259"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="259.jpg (40K)" src="images/259.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In Saxon times Consecration crosses were painted on the interior walls, + twelve in number, on the spots where the bishop marked the cross with holy + oil; and sometimes twelve crosses were carved or painted on the exterior + walls. During Norman times the art made progress, and there are many + specimens of mural decoration of this period, which correspond with the + mouldings generally used then; but not many scenes and figures were + depicted. Representations of bishops, <i>Agnus Dei</i>, scenes from the + life of our Lord, the apostles, the Last Judgment, St. George, scenes from + the life of St. Nicholas, St. John writing the Apocalypse, were favourite + subjects. At Copford the painter evidently tried to make the chancel + figuratively to represent the glories of heaven. + </p> + <p> + During the reign of Henry III. great progress was made, and travelling + monks roamed the country leaving behind them in many a village church + traces of their skill in artistic decoration. The murder of St. Thomas of + Canterbury now became a favourite subject, also the lives of St. Catherine + of Alexandria, St. Nicholas, St. Margaret, St. Edmund, the Seven Acts of + Mercy, and the wheel of fortune. In the fourteenth century the Doom was + the usual decoration of the space over the chancel arch, and scenes from + the New Testament, legends of saints, “moralities,” etc., were + depicted on the walls. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the + artists paid little respect to the work of their predecessors, and + frequently painted new designs over the earlier mural decorations. They + also adorned very beautifully the roofs and screens. The arrival of the + Flemings in the eastern counties is shown by the portraying of subjects + and saints not usually worshipped in England. The figures of St. George + become more numerous and also of St. Christopher, who were regarded with + much superstitious reverence by all classes. + </p> + <p> + The vanity of human greatness is taught by the morality, “Les Trois + Rois Morts et les Trois Rois Vifs,” representing three kings going + gaily hunting meeting three skeletons, the remains of kings once as + powerful as they. “The Dance of Death,” so popular abroad, + also appears in some English churches. The wholesale destruction of so + many specimens of mediaeval art cannot be too strongly condemned and + deplored. If any of my readers should be fortunate enough to discover any + traces of colouring hidden away beneath the coats of whitewash on the + walls of their church, I would venture to advise them to very carefully + remove the covering, and then to consult Mr. Keyser’s book on <i>Mural + Decorations</i>, where they will find an account of the best methods for + preserving these valuable specimens of early art. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link261" id="link261"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="261.jpg (38K)" src="images/261.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + In the churchyard stands the old weather-beaten yew tree, looking like a + sentinel keeping watch over the graves of our forefathers. Some of these + trees are remarkable for their age; the yews at Fountains Abbey, in + Yorkshire, were probably in a flourishing condition so long ago as the + year 1132, and some are older still. Why they were planted in churchyards + it is difficult to ascertain. It has been conjectured that they were + planted in so secure a spot in order that the men might provide themselves + with bows, as all the bows used by the English, with which they did such + execution against their enemies, were made of yew. Others contend that its + green boughs were used instead of palms on Palm Sunday, or for funerals. + But I think that they were regarded with veneration by our forefathers + when they were still heathen, and that some religious symbolism—such + as of immortality—attached to them; and that when the Christian + teachers came they made use of this religious sentiment of the people, + planted the Christian cross by the side of the yew, and under its shade + preached lessons of true immortality, of which the heathen ideals were + only corrupt legends and vain dreams. + </p> + <p> + At the entrance of the churchyard there is often a lich-gate, <i>i.e.</i> + a corpse-gate, where the body may rest while the funeral procession is + formed. <i>Lych</i> is the Saxon word for a dead body, from which + Lich-field, “the field of dead bodies,” is derived. Bray, in + Berkshire, famous for its time-serving vicar, is also famous for its + lich-gate, which has two rooms over it. + </p> + <p> + “God’s acre” is full of holy associations, where sleep + “the rude forefathers of the hamlet.” There stands the village + cross where the preachers stood in Saxon times and converted the people to + Christianity, and there the old sundial on a graceful stone pedestal. + Sometimes amid the memorials of the dead stood the parish stocks. Here in + olden days fairs were held, and often markets every Sunday and holiday, + and minstrels and jugglers thronged; and stringent laws were passed to + prevent “improper and prohibited sports within the churchyard, as, + for example, wrestling, football, handball under penalty of twopence + forfeit.” Here church ales were kept with much festivity, dancing, + and merry-making; and here sometimes doles were distributed on the + tombstones of parochial benefactors, and even bread and cheese scrambled + for, according to the curious bequests of eccentric donors. + </p> + <p> + And then there are the quaint epitaphs on the gravestones, of which many + have made collections. Here is one to the memory of the driver of a coach + that ran from Aylesbury to London:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Parker, farewell! thy journey now is ended,<br /> + Death has the whip-hand, and with dust is blended;<br /> + Thy way-bill is examined, and I trust<br /> Thy + last account may prove exact and just,<br /> When He who + drives the chariot of the day,<br /> Where life is light, + whose Word’s the living way,<br /> Where + travellers, like yourself, of every age,<br /> And every + clime, have taken their last stage,<br /> The God of + mercy and the God of love,<br /> Show you the road to + Paradise above.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Here is another to the memory of a once famous Yorkshire actor, buried at + Beverley:— + </p> + <p> + “In memory of Samuel Butler, a poor player that struts and frets his + hour upon the stage, and then is heard no more. Obt. June 15th, 1812, Aet. + 62.” + </p> + <p> + Here is a strange one from Awliscombe, Devon:— + </p> + <p> + “Here lie the remains of James Pady, brickmaker, late of this + parish, in hopes that his clay will be remoulded in a workmanlike manner, + far superior to his former perishable materials. + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Keep death and judgment always in your eye,<br /> + Or else the devil off with you will fly,<br /> And + in his kiln with brimstone ever fry;<br /> If you neglect + the narrow road to seek,<br /> Christ will reject you + like a half-burnt brick.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Those interested in the brave mortals who go down to the sea in ships will + like to read the following verses which appear on the tomb of William + Harrison, mariner, buried in Hessle Road Cemetery, Hull:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Long time I ploughed the ocean wide,<br /> A + life of toil I spent;<br /> But now in harbour safe + arrived<br /> From care and discontent.<br /> + “My anchor’s cast, my sails are + furled,<br /> And now I am at rest;<br /> + Of all the ports throughout the world,<br /> Sailors, + this is the best.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + The following original epitaph in a neighbouring churchyard compares very + favourably with the flattering and fulsome inscriptions prevalent at the + beginning of the nineteenth century, written in what has been called + “lapidary style ”:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “He was——<br /> But + words are wanting to say what;<br /> Say what is just and + kind,<br /> And he was that.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <a name="linkb8" id="linkb8"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [8] At Sedgeford the Infant is portrayed with three heads, illustrating + the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link19" id="link19"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX + </h2> + <h3> + CHURCH BELLS + </h3> + <p> + Bell customs and village life—Antiquity of bells—Christening + of bells—“Ancients”—Inscriptions—Dedications—Inscriptions + of praise—Leonine verses—Curious inscriptions—Historical + events recorded—Uses of bells—Passing bell—Pancake bell—Curfew—Guiding + bells—Names of benefactors—Great bells—Sanctus bell—Sacring + bell—Frequent ringing of bell—Change-ringing—Care of + bells. + </p> + <p> + Bells play an important part in village life, and there are few more + interesting branches of the study of village antiquities than bell-lore. + Ringing customs throw much light upon the manners and doings of our + ancestors. Bells rang to commemorate the great events in history, news of + which was conveyed to the quiet village; they sounded forth the joys and + sorrows of the parishioners in their generations, pealed merrily at their + weddings, and mourned for them at their funerals. As the bell “Roland” + of Ghent seemed endowed with a human voice, and was silenced for ever by + Charles V. lest it should again rouse the citizens to arms, so these bells + in our village steeples seem to speak with living tongues and tell the + story of our village life. + </p> + <p> + Bells have great antiquity. Odoceus, Bishop of Llandaff, in 550 A.D., is + said to have taken the bells away from his cathedral during a time of + excommunication. Bede mentions them in the seventh century. In 680 + Benedict, Abbot of Wearmouth, imported some from Italy, and in the tenth + century St. Dunstan hung many. Ireland probably had bells in the time of + St. Patrick, who died in 493, and a bell that bears his name is preserved + at Belfast. The earliest Saxon bells were not cast, but were made of + plates of iron riveted together, and were probably used as hand-bells. + </p> + <p> + Bells were usually christened. Those of Crowland Abbey were named Pega, + Bega, Tatwin, Turketyl, Betelin, Bartholomew, and Guthlac. A fire in 1091 + destroyed this peal. Those of the priory of Little Dunmow, Essex, + according to an old chartulary, were new cast and baptised in 1501. + </p> + <p> + “Prima in honore Sancti Michaelis Archangeli.”<br /> “Secunda + in honore Sancti Johannis Evangelisti.”<br /> “Tertia in honore + S. Johannis Baptisti.”<br /> “Quarta in honore Assumptionis + beatae Mariae.”<br /> “Quinta in honore Sanctae Trinitatis et + omnium sanctorum.” + </p> + <p> + The tenor bell at Welford, Berks, has the inscription, “Missi de + celis habeo nomen Gabrielis 1596.” + </p> + <p> + Bells dating from before the year 1600 are called “ancients,” + and it is a very pleasant discovery to find one of these in our church + tower; and still more so if it be a pre-Reformation bell. Unfortunately a + large number of “ancients” have been recast, owing chiefly to + the craze for change-ringing which flourished in England between 1750 and + 1830. The oldest bell in this country is said to be St. Chad’s, + Claughton, which bears the date 1296. Pre-Reformation bells are very + seldom dated. + </p> + <p> + Mediaeval bells have many curious inscriptions on them, which record the + name of the donor, the bell-founder, together with heraldic and other + devices. The inscriptions are often written in the first person, the bell + being supposed to utter the sentiment, as it sends forth its sound. A + study of the inscriptions on bells is full of interest. The earliest are + simple dedications of the bell to our Lord, or to some saint. The + principal inscriptions of this class are: “Jesus,” “Jesus + Nazarenus Rex Judeorum,” “Sit nomen IHC benedictum,” + “Sum Rosa Pulsata Mundi Maria Vocata,” “Sum Virgo Sancta + Maria.” The invocation, “Ora pro nobis,” very frequently + is inscribed on bells, followed by the name of some saint, and almost + every saint in the Calendar is duly honoured in some bell inscription. + </p> + <p> + Bells were always rung on joyful occasions; hence inscriptions expressing + thankfulness and praise were appropriate. Consequently we find such words + as “Laus et Gloria Deo,” “Laus Deo Gratia + Benefactoribus,” “Alleluja,” “Praise God,” + and other similar inscriptions of praise. + </p> + <p> + Some old bells have Latin hexameter verses inscribed on them, composed by + monks, which are called Leonine verses, from one Leoninus, a monk of + Marseilles, who lived in the early part of the twelfth century. A few + examples of these will suffice:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Est michi collatum ihc illud nomen amaetum.”<br /> + “Protege Virgo pia quos convoco Sancta Maria.”<br /> + “Voce mea viva depello cunta nocina.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + This refers to the belief that the ringing of bells drives away all demons + and tempests, storms and thunders, and all other hurtful things. One bell + proudly asserts:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Me melior vere non est campana sub ere.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Inscriptions in English are often quaint and curious. Here is one from + Somerset:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “My treble voice<br /> Makes hearts + rejoice.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Another self-complacent bell asserts— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “If you have a judicious ear,<br /> You’ll + own my voice is sweet and clear.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Loyal inscriptions are often found, such as— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “For Church and King<br /> We always + ring.” + </p> + <p> + “I was made in hope to ring<br /> At + the crownacion of our King.” + </p> + <p> + “Ye people all that hear me ring<br /> Be + faithful to your God and King.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + A bell that has been recast sometimes praises the merits of its new + founder at the expense of its first maker, as at Badgworth, Gloucester:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Badgworth ringers they are mad,<br /> Because + Rigbe made me bad;<br /> But Abel Rudhall you may see<br /> + Hath made me better than Rigbe.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Sometimes all the bells which compose a peal tell their various uses. Thus + at Bakewell we find some verses on each bell:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + 1. “When I begin our merry Din<br /> This + Band I lead from discord free;<br /> And for the + fame of human name,<br /> May every Leader copy Me.” + </p> + <p> + 2. “Mankind, like us, too oft are found<br /> Possess’d + of nought but empty sound.” + </p> + <p> + 3. “When of departed Hours we toll the knell,<br /> Instruction + take and spend the future well.” + </p> + <p> + 4. “When men in Hymen’s Bands unite,<br /> Our + merry peals produce delight;<br /> But when Death + goes his dreary Rounds,<br /> We send forth sad and + solemn sounds.” + </p> + <p> + 5. “Thro’ grandsires and Tripples with pleasure men + range,<br /> Till Death calls the Bob and brings on + the Last Change.” + </p> + <p> + 6. “When Vict’ry crowns the Public Weal<br /> With + Glee we give the merry Peal.” + </p> + <p> + 7. “Would men like us join and agree<br /> They’d + live in tuneful Harmony.” + </p> + <p> + 8. “Possess’d of deep sonorous Tone<br /> This + Belfry King sits on his throne;<br /> And when the + merry Bells go round,<br /> Adds to and mellows ev’ry + Sound;<br /> So in a just and well pois’d + State,<br /> Where all Degrees possess due Weight,<br /> + One greater Pow’r one greater Tone<br /> + Is ceded to improve their own.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + A Rutland bell has the following beautiful inscription:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Non clamor sed amor cantat in aure Dei.”<br /> + (“Not noise but love sings in the ear of God.”) + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Historical events are sometimes recorded, as at Ashover, Derbyshire, where + a recasted bell states:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “This old bell rung the downfall of Buonaparte and + broke, April 1814.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + The uses of bells are often shown by their inscriptions. People were + aroused by their sound each morning in many places, as at St. Ives, where + a bell is inscribed— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Arise and go about your business.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + The villagers were summoned to extinguish fires by ringing of bells. Thus + Sherborne, Dorset, has a bell inscribed— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Lord, quench this furious flame:<br /> Arise, + run, help put out the same.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Bell-ringing customs are very numerous.[<a href="#linkb9">9</a>] The + passing bell has many variants. In some places three times three strokes + are sounded for a man, three times two for a woman, and three times one + for a child. Out of the first-named of these practices probably arose the + phrase, “Nine tailors make a man,” which is usually explained + as more properly signifying “nine tellers make a man.” Then we + have a pancake bell, which formerly summoned people to confession, and not + to eat pancakes; a gleaning bell, an eight hours’ bell rung at 4 + a.m., noon, and 8 p.m. The curfew bell survives in many places, which, as + everyone knows, was in use long before William the Conqueror issued his + edict. Peals are rung on “Oak Apple Day,” and on Guy Fawkes’ + Day, “loud enough to call up poor Guy.” Church bells played a + useful part in guiding the people homewards on dark winter evenings in the + days when lands were uninclosed and forests and wild moors abounded, and + charitable folk, like Richard Palmer, of Wokingham, left bequests to pay + the sexton for his labour in ringing at suitable times when the sound of + the bells might be of service to belated travellers. Names of benefactors + often find a permanent memorial on the bells which they gave; as at + Binstead, Hants, where a bell has the inscription— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Doctor Nicholas gave five pound<br /> To + help cast this peal tuneable and sound.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + And another bell in the same tower records the name of our famous + Berkshire bell-founders, the Knight family. The inscription runs:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Samuel Knight made this ring<br /> In + Binstead steeple for to ding.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <a name="link271" id="link271"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="271.jpg (71K)" src="images/271.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + The story of our great bells, of “Great Toms,” “Big + Bens,” “Great Peters,” need not be told here. They wake + the echoes of our great cities, and are not heard among the hills and + dales of rural England. Outside the church at the apex of the gable over + the chancel arch there is sometimes a small bell-cote, wherein the sanctus + or saunce bell once hung. This was rung during the service of High Mass + when the <i>Ter Sanctus</i> was sung, in order that those who were engaged + at their work might know when the canon of the Mass was about to begin, in + order that they might kneel at the sound and pray to God. At Bosham + Harbour the fishermen used to so join in the service of the sanctuary, and + it is said that when George Herbert’s sanctus bell sounded for + prayers, the ploughmen stopped from their work for a few moments and + prayed. The sanctus bell differed from the sacring bell, which was a + hand-bell rung inside the church at the elevation of the Host. + </p> + <p> + Old churchwardens’ accounts record the very frequent ringing of + bells. In addition to the Great Festivals, Corpus Christi Day, Church + feasts and ales, the occasions of royal visits, of episcopal visitations, + victories, and many other great events, were always celebrated by the + ringing of the church bells. In fact by the fondness of English folk for + sounding their bells this country earned the title in the Middle Ages of + “the ringing island.” Peal-ringing was indeed peculiar to + England. It was not until the seventeenth century that change-ringing + became general, and our old bells suffered much at the hands of the + followers of the new fashion. + </p> + <p> + In recent years the study of our church bells has made great progress, and + many volumes have been written upon the bells of various counties. Too + long have our bells been left to the bats and birds, and the belfry is + often the only portion of a church which is left uncared for. We are + learning better now, and the bells which have sounded forth the joys and + sorrows of our villagers for so many generations are receiving the + attention they deserve. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb9" id="linkb9"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [9] A collection of these will be found in my book on <i>Old English + Customs Extant at the Present Time</i>. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link20" id="link20"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX + </h2> + <h3> + THE MEDIAEVAL VILLAGE + </h3> + <p> + Local government—Changes in the condition of villeins and labourers— + Famine and pestilence—Effects of the Great Plague—Spirit of + independence—Picture of village life—Church house—Church + ales— Pilgrimages—Markets—Old English fair—Wars—Hastings—Hereward + the Wake—Great Civil War—Restoration—Beacons. + </p> + <p> + Let us try to imagine the ordinary life and appearance of a mediaeval + English village in the “piping times of peace.” Of course, no + two villages are quite alike; each has many distinguishing features; but a + strong family likeness is observable. In the Middle Ages a village was + much more independent than it is now. Then there were no Acts of + Parliament to control its affairs, and it regulated its own conduct much + to its own satisfaction, without any outside interference. Of course, + sometimes things were managed badly; but the village knew it had only + itself to blame, and therefore could not grumble at the Government, or the + fickleness of members of Parliament, or the unreasonable conduct of Local + Government Boards. Was not the lord of the manor quite capable of trying + all criminals? and did not the rector and the vestry settle everything to + the satisfaction of everyone, without any “foreigners” asking + questions, or interfering? + </p> + <p> + The position of the villeins and <i>cottiers</i> has changed considerably + since the days of William the Norman. The former were now free tenants, + who paid rent for their land to the lord of the manor, and were not bound + to work for him, while the latter worked for wages like our modern + agricultural labourer. There was thus in the twelfth century a gradual + approximation to modern conditions on many estates; the home farm was + worked by hired labourers who received wages; while the villeins had + bought themselves off from the obligation of doing customary work by + paying a quit-rent. + </p> + <p> + We should like to know something of the way in which our ancestors farmed + their land, and fortunately several bailiffs have left us their account + books very carefully kept, and one Walter de Henley in 1250 wrote a book + on the <i>Art of Husbandry</i>, which gives us much information. The rent + of land was about sixpence per acre. They ploughed three times a year, in + autumn, April, and at midsummer, and used oxen for their plough-teams. + Women helped their husbands in ploughing and harvest work. An old writer + describes the farmer’s wife “walking by him with a long goad, + in a cutted cote cutted full high.” Pigs and poultry were numerous + on a mediaeval farm, but sheep were the source of the farmer’s + wealth. Large flocks of divers breeds roamed the hills and vales of rural + England, and their rich fleeces were sent to Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent + for the manufacture of cloth by the Flemish weavers. After the Black + Death, a great plague which ravaged the country in 1348, the labourers + were fewer in number, and their wages higher; hence the farmers paid + increased attention to their sheep, which yielded rich profits, and + required few labourers to look after them. + </p> + <p> + Prior to the advent of this grim visitor, the Great Plague, the prosperity + of our villages had greatly increased. The people were better fed and + better clothed than any of their neighbours on the Continent. Moreover + they were free men, and enjoyed their freedom. There was much happiness in + our English villages in those days, and “Merry England” was + not a misnomer. There were, however, two causes of suffering which for a + time produced untold wretchedness—two unwelcome visitors who came + very frequently and were much dreaded—famine and pestilence. There + is necessarily a sameness in the records of these pestilences. + </p> + <p> + The chief famine years were 1315 and 1316, but there is hardly any period + of five years from the death of Edward I. to the coming of Henry of + Richmond without these ghastly records of the sufferings of the people. + Disease not only arrested the growth of the population, but reduced it + considerably. It was mostly of a typhoid nature. The undrained soil, the + shallow stagnant waters which lay upon the surface of the ground, the + narrow and unhealthy homes, the filthy and neglected streets of the towns, + the excessive use of salted provisions and absence of vegetables, + predisposed the people to typhoid diseases, and left them little chance of + recovery when stricken down with pestilence. + </p> + <p> + The Great Plague arrived in England in 1348 from the shores of Italy, + whither it had been wafted from the East. It was probably carried to the + port of Bristol by travelling merchants, whence it spread with alarming + rapidity over the whole land. Whole villages were depopulated, and about + one-third of the people of England perished. It is difficult for us to + imagine the sorrow and universal suffering which the plague caused. Its + effects were, however, beneficial to the villagers who survived. Naturally + labourers became very scarce and were much sought after. Wages rose + enormously. The tenants and rustics discovered that they were people of + importance. Manor lords found it too expensive to farm their lands, and + were eager to hand them over to their tenants, many of whom became much + richer and more independent than formerly. The spirit of independence + pervaded all classes. There came to our village many wandering friars, + followers of Wiklif, who preached discontent to the labouring rustics, + told them that the gentry had no right to lord it over them, that they + were as good as their masters, who ought not to live in fine houses in + luxury supported by their toil and the sweat of their brows. And when + oppressive taxes were levied, the rustics revolted, and gained much for + which they strove. The golden age of the English labourer set in, when + food was cheap, wages high, and labour abundant. A fat pig could be bought + for fourpence, and three pounds of beef for a penny; and in spite of + occasional visits of the plague, the villager’s lot was by no means + unhappy. + </p> + <p> + Here is a picture of village life in those days. The village church stood + in the centre of the hamlet, with a carefully made fence around it, in + order that no swine or foul beast might desecrate the graves. Surrounded + by the churchyard, with its yew tree and lich-gate, the church was very + similar to the old building wherein the villagers still worship. All the + houses had thatched roofs, and chief among the other dwellings stood the + lord’s hall. Near the church was a curious building called the + church house, which has almost entirely passed away, except in the records + of old churchwardens’ accounts. It was a large building, in which + could be stored wool, lime, timber, sand, etc., and was often let to + pedlars, or wandering merchants, to deposit their goods during the fair. + </p> + <p> + In this building there was a long low room with a large fireplace and + hearth, around which a dozen or more could sit in comfort, except when the + wind blew the smoke down the wide, open chimney; but our ancestors were + accustomed to smoky chimneys, and did not mind them. In the centre of the + room was a large oak table. This was the scene of some very festive + gatherings. Aubrey thus describes the church house:— + </p> + <p> + “In every parish was a church house, to which belonged spits, + crocks, and other utensils for dressing provisions. Here the housekeepers + met. The young people were there too, and had dancing, bowling, shooting + at butts, etc., the ancients [<i>i.e.</i> old folks] sitting gravely by, + and looking on.” + </p> + <p> + The churchwardens bought, and received presents of, a large quantity of + malt, which they brewed into beer and sold to the company. Hence these + feasts were called “church ales,” and were held on the feast + of the dedication of the church, the proceeds being devoted to the + maintenance of the poor. Sometimes they were held at Whitsuntide also, + sometimes four times a year, and sometimes as often as money was wanted or + a feast desired. An arbour of boughs was erected in the churchyard on + these occasions called Robin Hood’s Bower, where the maidens + collected money for the “ales,” and “all went merry as a + marriage bell”—rather too merry sometimes, for the ale was + strong and the villagers liked it, and the ballad-singer was so merry, and + the company so hearty—and was it not all for a good cause, the + support of the poor? The character of these festivals deteriorated so + much, until at last “church ales” were prohibited altogether, + on account of the excess to which they gave rise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link279" id="link279"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/279.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="279h.jpg (31K)" src="images/279h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> AN ANCIENT VILLAGE <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + There was a large amount of gaiety in the old villages in those days. Men + were not in so great a hurry to grow rich as they are now. The Church + authorised many holidays in the course of the year; and what with May Day + festivities, Plough Mondays, Hocktide and Shrovetide sports, harvest + suppers, fairs, and “ales,” the villagers had plenty of + amusement, and their lives certainly could not be described as dull. + Sometimes the village would be enlivened by the presence of a company of + pilgrims on their way to the shrine of St. Thomas at Canterbury, or to + Holywell, blessed by St. Winifred, in order to be cured of some disease. + Although these pilgrims were deemed to be engaged on a religious duty, + they certainly were not generally very serious or sad. Chaucer describes a + very joyous pilgrimage in his <i>Canterbury Tales</i>, how the company met + at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark, including the knight and the abbot, the + prioress and the shipman, the squire and the merchant, the ploughman and + sompnour (or summoner, “of whose visage children were sore afeard”), + and rode forth gaily in the spring sunshine— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “The holy blissful martyr for to seek,<br /> That + them hath holpen when that they were sick.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Pilgrim crosses are numerous all over England, where the pilgrims halted + for their devotions by the way, and sometimes we find churches planted on + the roadside far from human habitations, with no parishioners near them; + and some people wonder why they were so built. These were pilgrim + churches, built for the convenience of the travellers as they wended their + way to Canterbury. The villages through which they passed must have been + much enlivened by the presence of these not very austere companies. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary lives of the farmers were diversified by the visits to the + weekly markets held in the neighbouring town, where they took their fat + capons, eggs, butter, and cheese. Here is a curious relic of olden times, + an ancient market proclamation, which breathes the spirit of former days, + and which was read a few years ago at Broughton-in-Furness, by the steward + of the lord of the manor, from the steps of the old market cross. These + are the words:— + </p> + <p> + “O yes, O yes, O yes![<a href="#linkb10">10</a>] The lord of the + manor of Broughton and of this fair and market strictly chargeth and + commandeth on Her Majesty’s behalf, that all manners of persons + repairing to this fair and market do keep Her Majesty’s peace, upon + pain of five pounds to be forfeited to Her Majesty, and their bodies to be + imprisoned during the lord’s pleasure. Also that no manner of person + within this fair and market do bear any bill, battle-axe, or other + prohibited weapons, but such as be appointed by the lord’s officers + to keep this fair or market, upon pain of forfeiture of all such weapons + and further imprisonment. Also, that no manner of person do pick any + quarrel, matter, or cause for any old grudge or malice to make any + perturbation or trouble, upon pain of five pounds, to be forfeited to the + lord, and their bodies to be imprisoned. Also, that none buy or sell in + corners, back sides, or hidden places, but in open fair or market, upon + pain of forfeiture of all such goods and merchandise so bought and sold, + and their bodies to imprisonment. Also, that no manner of persons shall + sell any goods with unlawful mete or measures, yards or weights, but such + as be lawful and keep the true assize, upon pain of forfeiture of all such + goods and further imprisonment. Lastly, if any manner of persons do here + find themselves grieved, or have any injuries or wrong committed or done + against them, let them repair to the lord or his officers, and there they + shall be heard according to right, equity, and justice. God save the Queen + and the lord of the manor!” + </p> + <p> + And besides the weekly markets there were the great annual fairs, which + lasted many days, and were frequented by all classes of the population. + These fairs were absolutely necessary for the trade of the country in the + days when few people travelled far from their own homesteads, and even the + towns with their small number of inhabitants did not afford a sufficient + market for the farmer’s and trader’s stock. + </p> + <p> + The greatest of all English fairs was held in the little village of + Stourbridge, near Cambridge, now almost absorbed by the University town. + Hither flocked merchants and traders from all parts of Europe. Flemish + merchants brought their fine linen and cloths from the great commercial + cities of Belgium. Genoese and Venetian traders came with their stores of + Eastern goods. Spaniards and Frenchmen brought their wines, and the + merchants of the Hanse towns of Germany sold furs and flax, ornaments and + spices, while in return for all these treasures our English farmers + brought the rich fleeces of their sheep, their corn, horses, and cattle. + The booths were planted in a cornfield, and the circuit of the fair, which + was like a well-governed city, was over three miles. The shops were built + in streets or rows, some named after the various nations that congregated + there, and others after the kind of goods offered for sale. There were + Garlick Row, Bookseller’s Row, Cook Row; there were a cheese fair, a + hop fair, a wool fair, and every trade was represented, together with + taverns, eating-houses, and in later years playhouses of various + descriptions. In the eighteenth century one hundred thousand pounds’ + worth of woollen manufactures was sold in a week in one row alone. A + thousand pack-horses were used to convey the goods of the Lancashire + merchants to this famous fair. Now railways have supplanted the + pack-horses; fairs have had their day; the trade of the country can now be + carried on without them; and their relics with their shows and + shooting-galleries and steam roundabouts have become a nuisance. + </p> + <p> + The peaceful life of the villagers was sometimes disturbed by the sounds + and sights of conflict. The exciting tales of war are connected with the + history of many an English village, and many “little Wilhelmines” + and labouring “grandsires” have discovered “something + large and round,” traces of these ancient conflicts and “famous + victories.” + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “For often when they go to plough<br /> The + ploughshare turns them out,<br /> ‘And many + thousand men,’ quoth he,<br /> ‘Were slain in + that great victory.’” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Many a lance and sword, and gilt spur, beautifully enamelled, which once + decked the heel of a noble knight, have been found in our fields, and + remind us of those battles which were fought so long ago. + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “The knights + are dust,<br /> Their + good swords rust,<br /> Their souls are with the saints, + we trust.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Sometimes the spectres of armed knights and warriors are supposed to haunt + these scenes of ancient slaughter, and popular superstition has handed + down the memory of the battles which were fought so long ago. It tells us + of the mythical records of the fights of King Arthur and his Knights of + the Round Table by the banks of the River Douglas, which ran with blood + for three days, so terrible was the slaughter. It tells us how stubbornly + the Britons resisted the Roman armies, so that on one occasion not one + Briton was left to tell the tale of their defeat. + </p> + <p> + When we visit the site of some battle with the history book in our hand, + it is possible to imagine the lonely hillside peopled again with the dense + ranks of English archers, or hear the clanging of the armour as the + men-at-arms charged for “St. George and merry England”; and + the air will be full again of the battle-cries, of the groans of the + wounded and the shouts of the victors. + </p> + <p> + Visit the scene of the battle of Hastings. Here on the high ground, + flanked by a wood, stood the brave English, under the leadership of + Harold, with his banner, woven with gold and jewels, shining conspicuously + in the morning sunlight. Here they stood in the form of a wedge; there + they turned the Normans, and put them to flight. Then the Normans rallied, + pretended to fly, decoyed the brave English from their position, and by + stratagem succeeded in defeating them at last. Or go to the Madingley + Windmill, near Cambridge, and see the fifteen miles of rich drained + cornfields which intervene between “Ely’s stately fane” + and the spot on which you are standing. Here read Kingsley’s + well-known story of <i>Hereward; or, The Last of the English</i>, and + instead of the rich cornfields you will see that black abyss of mud and + bottomless slime into which sank the flower of Norman chivalry as they + tried to cross that treacherous bog to conquer the gallant Hereward and to + plunder the monastery of Ely, the last stronghold of the English. On they + came, thousands upon thousands, rushing along the floating bridge which + they had formed, until at last it gave way beneath the weight, and the + black slime swallowed up the miserable wretches. + </p> + <p> + Or let us take our stand on the Round Tower, near the summit of the Edge + Hill, and see the site of the first battle between the troops of Charles + I. and the soldiers of the Parliament. The whole of that green lane was + lined with troops. In a cottage which stood at our feet the king + breakfasted before the battle; from that mound he surveyed the forces of + the enemy. Just as the bells in yonder church had ceased to ring for + service on Sunday afternoon the cannon began to roar, and the fight + commenced. There Prince Rupert charged with headlong fury, carrying all + before him. And so we can follow the fortunes of the fight until the brave + Cavaliers retired to rest— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered<br /> + The weary to sleep, and the wounded to die.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + The memory of many a fight is recorded in the names of the fields, places, + and hills on which the battle raged. Lichfield (<i>i.e.</i> the field of + the dead), Battlefield, Battle, Battleflats, Standard Hill, Slaughterford, + and many others, all tell the tale of war and slaughter. + </p> + <p> + In some parts of the country, especially in Oxfordshire, there are fine + avenues of trees, which appear to lead to a large house; but when you have + walked to the end of the trees there is nothing to be seen. These avenues + tell the tale of war, of the destruction of the manor-house of some old + Royalist who fought for his king when the “Roundheads” and + Cromwell’s “Ironsides” were more than a match for the + gallant Cavaliers. His house was destroyed, he and his sons killed, unless + they were fortunate enough to escape to France and wait the merry time + “when the king should enjoy his own again.” How many of our + uplands and gentle vales have been stained with blood, and seen the + terrible horrors of war, of which we in these favoured days know nothing + from our own experience! We read about the sad battles and sieges which + have taken place in other countries, but can hardly imagine the time when + hostile soldiers were riding through our village lanes, and the noise of + the cannon was booming in the distance, as on that famous Sunday morning + in October, 1642, when Richard Baxter was disturbed in his preaching at + Alcester by that strange sound, and knew that the terrible conflict had + begun between the king and Parliament. Our English villages suffered very + much. All farming was stopped, manor-houses destroyed, some of the best + blood in England spilt, and many a home made desolate. Indeed, in some + parts of the country the people had literally no bread to eat, and no + clothing to cover their nakedness; and Cromwell ordered collections to be + made in London for the relief of the distressed people in Lancashire. Then + the old clergyman was driven from his flock, and some commissioner + appointed who wrote in the register-books of the parish the names of the + children who were born, but did not record their baptism as the clergyman + did. And then some black-gowned Puritan, with his hair cut short, came and + took possession of the living, and preached very long sermons about + Cromwell “girding his sword upon his thigh,” and about blinded + Papists, and about Mahershalal-hash-baz, who made haste to divide the + spoil. + </p> + <p> + But in the glorious year 1660 everyone began to throw up his cap and + welcome right royally the king from over the water; and the long-faced + Puritan disappeared, and the writing in the register-books changed into + that of a scholarly hand; and many of our churches were enriched by + thankofferings of plate and other gifts, because the good people of + England rejoiced exceedingly that their loved Church and her services were + restored to them; and “the king at last enjoyed his own again.” + The memory of the adventures of King Charles II., when he was endeavouring + to escape from England after the last crushing defeat of the royal troops + at Worcester, called by Cromwell “the crowning mercy,” still + lingers in many of the country villages through which the unfortunate + monarch passed. The king and a few faithful followers avoided the towns, + passed the ford of the Salwarp at Hemford Mill, and proceeded by Chester + Lane to Broadwaters and Kinfare Heath. Presently they reached Brewood + Forest, where there stood two old hunting-lodges, built by the Giffards in + troublous times as hiding-places for proscribed Papists. They were called + White Ladies and Boscobel, and were inhabited by staunch Royalists named + Penderel; so the king knew he would be safe there. He was disguised as a + forester with leathern jerkin and trunk hose, his long hair cropped, and + his hands blackened. All day he lay concealed in a coppice, and in the + evening, under the name of Will Jackson, he supped with the Penderels, and + then tried to cross the Severn, but all the fords and bridges were + guarded. The next day he and Colonel Carlos remained concealed in a large + oak near Boscobel, and the memory of Royal Oak day is still preserved. He + had other narrow escapes, and was saved by Mistress Jane Lane, the + beautiful daughter of Colonel Lane. A pass had been obtained for her and + her groom to go to Abbot’s Leigh, near Bristol. The plan was + arranged that the king should act as groom; so Charles mounted his horse, + and Mistress Lane sat behind him on a pillion, and together they rode + through Warwickshire to Bristol. The king was nearly captured at Long + Marston, for some troopers of Cromwell suspected the party, and came to + examine the house where they rested. The cook, however, set Charles to + wind up the jack, and because he was awkward struck him with the + basting-ladle just as the soldiers entered the kitchen. Their suspicions + were thus removed; and in this old house the remains of the jack are still + preserved. The poor king was disappointed of his ship; the skipper + unfortunately told his wife that he was going to take the king to France, + and she was angry, and locked him up in his room, so that he could not + fulfil his engagement. At last Lord Wilmot procured a ship for the + fugitive king, who set sail joyfully from Shoreham, near Brighton, and + reached Paris in safety. There must have been great excitement in the + villages of England when the troopers were scouring the country in all + directions, and the unfortunate king was known to be wandering about + disguised as a servant. + </p> + <p> + If there are any hills or high ground in your neighbourhood commanding an + extensive view of the country, it is probable that in olden days a beacon + was placed there, so that the country might be aroused in case of an + invasion, and frequently we find that the tower of a church was used as a + beacon, and occasionally the iron brazier remains, as at Little Budworth, + Cheshire. When the Spaniards determined to invade England in the reign of + “Good Queen Bess,” and sent the Invincible Armada, consisting + of an enormous number of ships and men and guns, bonfires were placed on + every hill; and when a gallant merchant vessel brought the news that the + Spaniards were coming, the bonfires were lighted, and everyone prepared to + resist their attack. Macaulay has told us in very stirring verse of how + the news spread, as each fire was lighted, + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “From Eddystone to Berwick bounds, from Lynn to + Milford Bay”; + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + how Beachy Head caught the signal from St. Michael’s Mount, and sent + it swiftly over the country from tower to hill-top, + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Till Skiddaw saw the fire that burned on Gaunt’s + embattled pile,<br /> And the red glare of Skiddaw roused + the burghers of Carlisle.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Again, within the memory of the old inhabitants of your village, the hill + beacons were brought into use when Napoleon I. threatened to invade + England; and on January 31, 1803, by some mistake, the fire on Hume + Castle, in Berwickshire, was lighted; other beacons responded, and ere + morning dawned thousands were marching ankle-deep through the dense mud of + the winter roads to their appointed stations. The mistake was not without + its uses, as Napoleon saw that England was ready, and did not venture to + attack our shores. A similar accident took place in the reign of Henry + VIII. There was a conspiracy against the king by the Roman Catholics, who + did not like their monasteries being destroyed, called “The + Pilgrimage of Grace.” Beacons were erected on the heights of Pendel, + in Lancashire, and on the various hills of Yorkshire and Derbyshire; but + the beacon on Pendel was fired before the conspirators were quite ready + for action, and their plot came to nothing. + </p> + <p> + Once again in the history of our country were these beacon fires lighted; + but it was not to announce the approach of an enemy, but to reflect the + gladness of the nation which for so many years had enjoyed the reign of so + good a ruler as Queen Victoria, who has now passed away from us, and whom + the whole nation mourns. And as we witnessed the sudden blaze of the + beacons we thought, perhaps, of other occasions when they were used, and + were thankful that rejoicings and thanksgivings were the cause, and not + invasions or conspiracies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb10" id="linkb10"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [10] This is a corruption of the old Norman-French word <i>oyez</i>, + “hear ye.” + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link21" id="link21"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI + </h2> + <h3> + VILLAGE SPORTS AND PASTIMES + </h3> + <p> + Decay of old sports—Twelfth Night—Shrovetide—Mothering + Sunday— Hocktide—May Day—Miracle plays—St. John’s + Day—Rush-bearing—Beating the bounds—Archery—Quintain—Football—Christmas + games—Stocks— Cucking-stool. + </p> + <p> + It is the custom of some writers to represent the lot of an English + villager in past ages as having been particularly hard and disagreeable; + to enlarge upon the scanty wages which he received; and to compare his + position unfavourably with that of the agricultural labourer of the + present day. I have already pointed out that the small wages which he + received are no test of his poverty, because he received so much more in + lieu of wages; and certainly he had far more opportunities of enjoyment + and recreation than the present generation has. Now we have scarcely any + village games or sports, except when some energetic rector or curate + starts a cricket club. Old social customs, which added such diversity to + the lives of the rustics two centuries ago, have died out. The village + green, the source of so much innocent happiness, is no more; and a recent + writer has observed that the ordinary existence of agricultural labourers + is so dull that in East Anglia they have almost forgotten how to laugh! + </p> + <p> + We will now try to realise how our village forefathers used to enjoy + themselves, how they used to spend their holidays, and to picture to + ourselves the scenes of happy social intercourse which once took place in + our own hamlet. Every season of the year had its holiday customs and + quaint manner of observance, some of them confined to particular counties, + but many of them universally observed. + </p> + <p> + On the eve of Twelfth Night, January 5th, we see the good farmer and his + labourers in Devonshire joining hands round his apple trees, and singing— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Here’s to thee, old + apple tree!<br /> Hence thou mayst bud, and whence thou + mayst blow!<br /> And whence thou mayst bear apples enow!<br /> + Hats full! caps + full!<br /> Bushel, + bushel, sacks full,<br /> And my + pockets full too! Huzza!” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + A hearty supper followed, and with laughter, songs, and good wishes to the + farmer and his wife, the company passed a very joyous evening. In + Herefordshire, Yorkshire, and other parts of England similar customs + prevailed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link294" id="link294"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/294.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="294h.jpg (38K)" src="images/294h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> ANN HATHAWAY’S COTTAGE <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + Then followed Twelfth Night, which was celebrated by great rejoicings and + merry-makings, a game called the choosing of kings and queens being + played, and Twelfth Night cakes consumed in plenty. The next Monday was + called Plough Monday, when the labourers used to draw a plough round the + parish and receive presents of money, favouring the spectators with + sword-dancing and mumming, preparatory to beginning to plough after the + Christmas holidays. The men were decked out with gay ribbons, and were + accompanied by morris-dancers. The Christmas holidays lasted these twelve + days, and during them it was customary for the gentlemen to feast the + farmers, and for the farmers to feast their labourers. Then came the + Shrovetide festivities, on Shrove Tuesday, when pancakes, football, and + cock-fighting, and a still more barbarous custom of throwing sticks at + hens, were generally in vogue. On Mid-Lent Sunday, commonly called “Mothering + Sunday,” it was the pleasing custom for servants and apprentices to + carry cakes or furmity as presents to their mother, and to receive from + her a cake with her blessing. This was called “going a-mothering.” + The old poet Herrick alludes to the custom in Gloucestershire in these + words:— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “I’ll to thee a simnell bring,<br /> ’Gainst + thou go’st a-mothering;<br /> So that when she + blesseth thee,<br /> Half that blessing thou’lt + give me.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Then came the diversions of Hocktide, on the second Monday and Tuesday + after Easter, when the men and women intercepted the public on alternate + days with ropes, and boldly exacted money for pious purposes. There was a + Hocktide play, which was acted before Queen Elizabeth, and caused her much + amusement. She gave the players two bucks and five marks of money, which + delighted them exceedingly. + </p> + <p> + Very shortly afterwards the great rural festival of our forefathers took + place, the glad May Day, when, in the early dawn, the lads and lassies + left their towns and villages, and going into the woods to the sound of + music, gathered the may or blossomed branches of the tree, and bound them + with wreaths of flowers. At sunrise they returned, and decorated the + lattices and doors with the sweet-smelling spoil of their joyous journey, + and spent the rest of the day in sports and pastimes, and dancing round + the Maypole. The setting-up of the May-pole was a very joyous ceremony. A + long string of oxen, gaily decked with flowers, drew to the village green + the time-honoured pole, decked with streamers, flowers, and flags, where + it was raised amidst laughter and shouts; and the Queen of the May was + enthroned in an arbour and all danced round; and the morris-dancers, Robin + Hood, Friar Tuck, and Maid Marian performed wonderful antics as they led + the revels. Targets were set up at the other end of the green, and archery + formed an important part of the day’s pleasures. The preachers at + the time of the Reformation thought the people made an idol of the + Maypole, and condemned the innocent amusements, which were revived again + when Charles II. came to the throne. After May Day our villagers had not + long to wait until the Whitsuntide holiday came round— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “A day of jubilee,<br /> An + ancient holiday;<br /> When, lo! the rural revels are + begun,<br /> And gaily echoing to the laughing sky,<br /> + On the smooth-shaven green,<br /> Resounds + the voice of mirth.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + I have already given a description of these Whitsuntide rejoicings in a + preceding chapter. + </p> + <p> + Then there were the miracle plays, or “mysteries,” as they + were called, in June, on Corpus Christi Day, which were performed before + the Reformation, principally in the neighbourhood of large monasteries; + Coventry, Chester, London, York being specially renowned for these + performances. The subjects were taken from Holy Scripture, or from the + lives of saints, and were intended to teach the people religious + knowledge, but the scenes were disfigured by many absurdities and + grotesque perversions. Their history is a curious one, too long to enter + upon in this chapter; but often in the open fields, at the bottom of + natural amphitheatres, were these plays performed, very similar in + construction to the famous passion play performed by the peasants, at Ober + Ammergau, in Bavaria, the last surviving specimen of the ancient religious + drama. + </p> + <p> + Then there were the bonfires to be lighted on St. John’s Day upon + the hillsides, and the dance of the young people around them, the more + venturesome youths leaping through the flames, all carrying home the + firebrands and forming a glad procession. Afterwards followed the busy + harvest-time, when everyone was too hard at work, and too tired at the end + of the day’s labours, to think of holiday-making; but at length came + the harvest home, when the last sheaf was gathered in, and the harvest + supper was a very joyous occasion. With light hearts, smiling faces, and + cheerful shouts, the harvest labourers and their wives and children, + carrying green boughs, a sheaf of wheat, and rude flags, formed a glad + procession to the farmer’s house, where they found the fuelled + chimney blazing wide, and “the strong table groaning beneath the + smoking sirloin.” The feast over, they retired to some near hillock, + and made the welkin ring with their shouts, “Holla, holla, holla, + largess!”—largess being the presents of money and good things + which the farmer had bestowed. Such was the harvest home in the good old + days, a joy and delight to both old and young. Shorn of much of its + merriment and quaint customs, it still lingers on; but modern habits and + notions have deprived it of much of its old spirit and light-heartedness. + </p> + <p> + The floors of the old churches were formerly unpaved and unbearded, simply + made of clay, and were covered over with rushes. Once a year there was a + great ceremony, called “rush-bearing.” Rushes were cut in the + neighbouring marsh, and made up into long bundles, decked with ribands and + flowers. Then a procession was formed, everyone bearing a bundle of + rushes, or placing them in the rush-cart beautifully adorned; and with + music, drums, and ringing of bells, they marched to the church and strewed + the floor with their honoured burdens. Long after the rushes ceased to be + used in church the ceremony was continued, and I have myself witnessed a + rush-bearing procession such as I have described. A village feast, + followed by dancing round the May-pole, generally formed the conclusion to + the day’s festivities. + </p> + <p> + “Beating the bounds” of the parish was another annual + ceremony, which often took place on Ascension Day and is still in use at + Oxford. Boundaries of property were not so clearly defined in those days + as they are now; and hedgerows, walls, and railings were scarce. The + bounds of the parish were often marked by trees, called “gospel + trees,” because the clergyman used to read the gospel for the day + under their shade. The people carried a processional cross and willow + wands, and boys were generally flogged at the boundaries, or ducked in the + river, if that constituted a boundary, in order to impress upon their + memories where the bounds were. The village feast afterwards made some + amends to them for their harsh treatment. + </p> + <p> + The village sports were a great source of enjoyment, and were frequently + indulged in. The time-honoured archery developed the skill of our English + bowmen, and won for them many a battle before the days of gunpowder and + cannons. Then there was the very ancient game of the quintain, which + consisted of an upright post with a cross-post turning upon a pin. At one + end of the latter was a broad board, at the other a heavy sand-bag. The + play, which required skill and dexterity, was to ride against the broad + end with a lance, and pass by before the sandbag, swinging round, could + strike the player to the ground. This was a common sport at wedding + festivities. There were also the games of singlestick, cudgelling, and + wrestling, which had many votaries, and the famous game of quarter-staff, + so general in Berkshire, and so graphically described in <i>The Scouring + of the White Horse</i>, by Mr. Hughes. An old parishioner of mine was the + reputed champion of this game, which has now almost died out. Football is + an ancient sport, and the manner formerly in vogue most nearly resembles + the game authorised by the Rugby rules. The football was thrown down in + the churchyard, and the object was to carry it perhaps two or three miles, + every inch of ground being keenly contested. “Touch-downs” + were then unknown, but it is evident from old records that “scrimmages” + and “hacking” were much in vogue. Sack-racing, grinning + through horse-collars, running after pigs with greased tails, were some of + the lighter forms of amusement which pleased the villagers. + </p> + <p> + Then in the winter evenings there were “carols” to be + practised for Christmas, and each village boasted of its own musicians, + who played violins, flutes, clarionets, and other instruments in church, + before the days of harmoniums and organs. Their music might not be of a + very first-rate order, but they delighted in it, took an interest in it; + and how pleased they were to take part in the service, and to play over + their favourite hymn tunes, with a great many twirls and variations, to + their children during the winter evenings! Christmas brought its + accustomed merry-makings. In the north every farmer gave two feasts, one + called “t’ ould foaks’ neet,” and the other + “t’ young foaks’ neet.” Here is Sir Walter Scott’s + description of an ancient Christmas:— + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “And well our Christian sires of old<br /> Loved + when the year its course had roll’d<br /> And + brought blithe Christmas back again,<br /> With all its + hospitable train.<br /> Domestic and religious rite<br /> + Gave honour to the holy night:<br /> On + Christmas Eve the bells were rung;<br /> On Christmas Eve + the Mass was sung;<br /> That only night in all the year<br /> + Saw the staled priest the chalice rear.<br /> The + damsel donn’d her kirtle sheen;<br /> The hall was + dressed with holly green;<br /> Forth to the wood did + merry men go,<br /> To gather in the mistletoe.<br /> + Then open wide the baron’s hall,<br /> To + vassal, tenant, serf, and all;<br /> Power laid his rod + of rule aside,<br /> And Ceremony doft’d his pride.<br /> + The heir with roses in his shoes,<br /> That + night might village partner choose;<br /> The lord, + underogating, share<br /> The vulgar game of ‘post + and pair.’<br /> All hailed with uncontrolled + delight<br /> The general voice, the happy night,<br /> + That to the cottage, as the crown,<br /> Brought + tidings of salvation down.<br /> <br /> “The + fire, with well-dried logs supplied,<br /> Went roaring + up the chimney wide;<br /> The huge hall-table’s + oaken face<br /> Scrubb’d till it shone, the day of + grace,<br /> Bore then upon its massive board<br /> No + mark to part the squire and lord.<br /> Then was brought + in the lusty brawn,<br /> By old blue-coated serving man;<br /> + Then the grim boar’s head frowned on high<br /> + Crested with bays and rosemary.<br /> Well + can the green-garb’d ranger tell<br /> How, when, + and where the monster fell;<br /> What dogs before his + death he tore,<br /> And all the baiting of the boar;<br /> + While round the merry wassail bowl,<br /> Garnished + with ribbons, blithe did trowl.<br /> Then the huge + sirloin reek’d: hard by<br /> Plum-porridge stood, + and Christmas pie;<br /> Nor fail’d old Scotland to + produce<br /> At such high time her savoury goose.<br /> + Then came the merry maskers in,<br /> And + carols roared with blithesome din;<br /> If unmelodious + was the song,<br /> It was a hearty note, and strong.<br /> + Who lists may in this mumming see<br /> Traces + of ancient mystery;<br /> White shirts supply the + masquerade,<br /> And smutted cheeks the visor made;<br /> + But, oh! what masquers, richly dight,<br /> Can + boast of bosoms half so light!<br /> England was merry + England when<br /> Old Christmas brought his sports + again.<br /> ’Twas Christmas broach’d the + mightiest ale;<br /> ’Twas Christmas told the + merriest tale.<br /> A Christmas gambol oft would cheer<br /> + A poor man’s heart through half the year.” + </p> + <br /> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Such was the manner of keeping Christmas in olden times; and if “the + mightiest ale” was sometimes too mighty, and although the + intemperance of our forefathers was a vice much to be deplored, at any + rate their hearty manner of keeping this annual feast was effectual in + promoting “goodwill amongst men,” and in cheering the hearts + of the poor. + </p> + <p> + In this chapter I have attempted to show the varied amusements and + recreations in which our village ancestors took part. On the old village + green, which in too many of our villages has been inclosed and become a + thing of the past, many of these sports and pastimes once took place. + There stood the village stocks, in which the refractory paid the penalty + of their misdeeds; and sometimes, too, a pillory was added, which held + fast the head, arms, and legs of the culprit, while the villagers, rude + vindicators of the law, threw stones, rotten eggs, and other missiles at + the unhappy victim. At the edge of the pond you might have seen a long + plank which turned on a swivel, with a chair at the end overhanging the + water. This was called a “cucking-stool,” and was used to duck + scolds or brawlers. The culprit was placed in the chair, and the other end + of the plank was raised several times, so that the ardour of the culprit + was effectually cooled by frequent immersions. These were rough methods of + administering justice, but often very effectual in checking vice. + </p> + <p> + The social customs which formerly existed in each village, the sports and + pastimes associated with the village green, the May Day festivals, and the + Christmas carollings were of great value, inasmuch as they tended to + infuse some poetical feeling into the minds of the people, softened the + rudeness of rustic manners, and gave the villagers simple pleasures which + lightened their labours. They prevented them from growing hard, grasping, + and discontented with their lot. They promoted good feeling between the + farmers and their labourers. The customs of the town were a poor exchange + for the ancient country manners and amusements; and it was a sad day for + our country when the villagers lost their simplicity and the power of + appreciating the primitive pleasures of rural England. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link303" id="link303"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/303.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="303h.jpg (22K)" src="images/303h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br />OLD STOCKS AND WHIPPING-POST <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <a name="link22" + id="link22"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII + </h2> + <h3> + THE VILLAGE INN + </h3> + <p> + Monastic inns—Village inns—Highwaymen—Inn signs—Famous + inns— Man-traps. + </p> + <p> + In almost every village in England there is an inn. Before the Reformation + there were very few of these hostelries, as travellers were always + accommodated at the monasteries, each of which, as we have seen, had a + hospitium, or guest-house, where their wants were attended to by special + officers appointed for the purpose, and where they could remain for + several days. But the destruction of the monasteries produced many changes + in the condition of the country; it introduced the necessity of a poor + law, for the poor were always relieved by the monasteries; it required the + erection of schools and places for education, as all the education of the + country had been carried on in these monastic buildings; and when the old + guesthouses ceased to exist, travellers, merchants, and pedlars required + some place in which to lodge when they moved about the country, and inns + became plentiful as time went on. Hence in almost every village in England + there is an inn, which is generally a landmark; and if you wish to direct + a stranger to some place where he desires to go, you doubtless tell him to + turn to the right by “The Bull,” or to keep straight on until + he comes to “The Magpie.” Indeed, a friend of mine, who is a + strong teetotaler, asserts that the only good use inns have is to help + people to find their road. But old inns have a great history. In former + days they used to be meeting-places of plotters and conspirators. All the + distinguished people in the country used to pass through the villages and + towns on the great roads through the country, and when the horses were + being changed they used to partake of the good fare which the landlord + provided. Those were busy times for the old inns, when there was stabling + for fifty or sixty horses, and the coaches used to rattle through the + village to the inn door long before the iron horses began to drag their + freight of passengers along the iron roads, and the scream of the engines + took the place of the cheerful notes of the posthorn. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes a gentleman would ride to an inn door on a beautiful, + fleet-looking steed, and receive a hearty welcome from the landlord; but + the pistols in his belt looked ominous, and presently some soldiers would + steal noiselessly into the inn where the gentleman was refreshing himself, + and there would be heard the sounds of vigorous fighting; and often, in + some wonderful way, Claude Duval or the noted Dick would fight his way + out, whistle to his steed, jump into the saddle, and ride away before his + less nimble pursuers had recovered from their astonishment. Very many + exciting scenes have taken place in our old inns, but in these days + railways have changed all things; and in many streets where the coaches + used to rattle along, and the place was alive with merry sounds, the moss + now grows, and all is silence and desolation. We should certainly think it + inconvenient to take three days to travel from London to Bath, and it + would not be pleasant to have a visit from Dick Turpin on the way, and to + have all one’s valuables appropriated by that notorious highwayman; + but in these days of worry and busy bustling it would be refreshing to + catch a glimpse of those quiet times when people were not so much in a + hurry, and to hear the sound of the posthorn once more instead of the + whistle of the steam-engine. + </p> + <p> + The quaint-looking pictures and curious names which attract our notice as + we pass an inn door have some queer stories to tell. We notice a very + curious collection of animals sometimes, and a strange assortment of + things; and the reason why our ancestors put some of these curious things + together is somewhat difficult for us to find out. In olden days, other + houses of tradesmen besides inns had signs. Grocers, tailors, + candlestick-makers, all had signs; but most of these have disappeared, + except one belonging to a certain sweep of my acquaintance, whose house is + adorned with the figure of a man coming out of a globe, with the motto, + “Help me through the world.” Over their doors barbers still + have their poles, which represented once the fact that the barber was + prepared to bandage up wounded arms and legs, and to perform the office of + blood-letting; the stripes on the pole were intended to represent the + bandages, and the barber was the surgeon of the town. We do not seem to + have so much blood to spare as our forefathers, as the barber always bled + his customers once or twice a year, especially in the springtime, the + operation being considered very beneficial. + </p> + <p> + One reason for the curious mixture of animals and other things which we + see on signboards is that an apprentice, when he had finished his time and + begun to set up for himself, adopted some sign, and then joined with it + the sign of his old master. This will account for such curiosities as + “The Lamb and Dolphin,” “The Goose and Gridiron,” + “The Fox and Seven Stars,” combinations of things for which it + would otherwise be difficult to account. Another reason is that signs were + taken from the armorial bearings, or crests, of some popular character, or + of some great family in the neighbourhood. For example, I may mention + “The Bear with the Ragged Staff,” which was the crest of + Richard Nevil, Earl of Warwick, commonly called “The Kingmaker,” + who was slain in the battle of Barnet, 1471 A.D. “The Blue Boar” + was one of the badges of the House of York. “The Bull” is a + very common sign, because it was a very common crest, and we have them in + all colours—black, red, white; lions also rage in blue, white, and + red attire. Sometimes we meet with “The Cross Keys,” the + keeper of which was probably an old servant or tenant of an abbey or + monastery, and chose his sign from that of the monastery with which he was + connected. Frequently, in olden times, a cross was erected at the meeting + of two or three roads, or where the pilgrims to Canterbury used to pass; + afterwards an inn was built near it, and was, in many cases, called the + Cross Inn. + </p> + <p> + One very common cause of curious signs is the way in which the original + word has been corrupted by ignorant people frequently repeating words + which they did not understand, and thus changing their whole meaning. You + may have seen an inn described as “The Swan with Two Necks”—a + very rare bird indeed. But it was never intended to disfigure the bird by + giving it two necks; the original sign was “The Swan with Two <i>Nicks</i>” + and nicks were the marks which were cut on a swan’s bill to + distinguish it from other swans, so that it might be known to whom the + bird belonged. But <i>nicks</i> became <i>necks</i> in course of + conversation, until at last a fabulous creature with two beautifully + curved necks appeared on the signboard. This same cause will account for + the two strange signs, “Bull and Gate” and “Bull and + Mouth.” The original signs were “Boulogne Gate” and + “Boulogne Mouth,” <i>i.e.</i> the gate and harbour of the town + of Boulogne, in France, which was captured by the English under King Henry + VIII. in the year 1544. The English were very pleased to hear of the + defeat of the French, and of the taking of that important town, and + several inns were named in honour of the event; but the French “Boulogne” + was too much for our good English mouths to speak, so it became “Bull + and.” + </p> + <p> + Another name which puzzled our forefathers was “<i>La Belle Sauvage</i>” + (“the Beautiful Savage”), which was named after a noted savage + beauty who was the rage at Paris. Others assert that the name of the + landlady was Isabella Savage, shortened into Bella Savage. However, in + course of time the name was altered into “Bell and Savage,” + and a picture representing this odd combination stood over the door. In + the same way the original sign, “Whip and Nag,” between which + there is often a very close connection, became “Whip and Egg”; + and the reason why these two articles should be placed together is not so + evident. So also there does not seem any reason for an inn to be called + “Bag o’ Nails”; but when we are told that the original + word was “Bacchanals,” <i>i.e.</i> followers of Bacchus, the + old god of wine, we can understand how the corruption, “Bag o’ + Nails,” arose. Before the days of licensing, when everyone could + sell liquor who chose without obtaining any licence from the magistrates, + it was the custom to put a bush over the doorway, in order to inform the + passers-by that liquor could be purchased there. This is the origin of the + saying, “Good wine needs no bush.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link310" id="link310"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/310.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="310h.jpg (37K)" src="images/310h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> VILLAGE INN WITH OLD TITHE BARN OF READING ABBEY <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + “The Catherine Wheel” tells us the sad story of St. Catherine, + who was born at Alexandria, and for converting fifty heathen philosophers + to Christianity was sentenced by the Emperor Maxentius to death on a + wheel, devised by most ingenious cruelty, armed with knives, saws, and + nails. It is recorded that she was rescued from this fate, but was + afterwards beheaded (305 A.D.). It is curious that this instrument of + torture and the story of St. Catherine’s heroism should be recorded + on a signboard. But it may have been brought before the public by a + certain miracle play, founded on the life of St. Catherine, which used to + be performed on festival days. However, the Catherine wheel appears + frequently on the coats-of-arms of several families, and it may be that + the sign was taken from these. + </p> + <p> + “The George,” also, is a very popular sign; and the “St. + George of merry England” is the patron saint of this country, and + the battle-cry of her knights and yeomen of ancient days. Who does not + remember that stirring scene on St. George’s Mount during the + Crusades, described in Sir Walter Scott’s <i>Talisman</i>, when King + Richard tore down the Austrian banner, which the Austrian monarch had + dared to erect beside the Royal Standard of England? St George is + generally represented as slaying a dragon. He was a soldier who served + gallantly under the Emperor Diocletian, and commanded a legion of + soldiers; he was a Christian, and by the dragon whom he slew is meant the + devil, red with the blood of the Christians. So popular a personage as St. + George, whose name inspired our ancestors with courage, and was often + borne by them into the heart of the foe, would soon be recorded in + paintings and become a general sign. “The Goat” is a common + sign, and is taken from the crest of the Duke of Bedford; but “The + Goat and Compasses” has puzzled many people as to its origin. It + appears to be a corruption of a pious expression, “God encompasseth + us”; and this shows how strangely words may be twisted and converted + by ignorant and careless usage. + </p> + <p> + There are some very noted inns where great events have taken place, + amongst which I may mention the Bull Inn at Coventry. Here Henry VII. was + entertained the night before the battle of Bosworth Field, when he won for + himself the English crown. Here Mary Queen of Scots was detained by order + of Elizabeth. Here the conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot met to devise + their scheme for blowing up the Houses of Parliament. And when the + citizens refused to open their gates to Charles I. and his soldiers, no + doubt there were great disputings amongst the frequenters of “The + Bull” as to what would be the result of their disloyal refusal. + </p> + <p> + Some of the inns in remote country places did not enjoy a very enviable + reputation, and were little better than man-traps, where the unfortunate + traveller was robbed and murdered. At Blewbury, in Berkshire, there was an + inn, the landlord of which was suspected of murdering his guests with + great secrecy and mystery, and no one could tell what he did with the + bodies of the victims he was supposed to have murdered. A few years ago an + old tree in the neighbourhood of the inn was blown down, and on digging up + the roots a skeleton was found among them. People wondered how it could + have been placed there, but at last a very old inhabitant told the story + of the mysterious disappearance of the bodies of the late landlord’s + guests, and the mystery was at length accounted for. Whenever he slew a + man he planted a tree, placing the body of the murdered victim beneath it. + The constables never thought of looking there; and probably under every + tree which he planted (and there were several), when their roots are dug + up, the bones of his numerous victims will be discovered. + </p> + <p> + Another story is connected with the old “Hind’s Head” at + Bracknell, which was another of these mantraps, where many travellers + slept to rise no more. One winter’s night a stout-hearted farmer + stayed there, and joined several jovial companions round the kitchen fire. + They ate and drank merrily, and at last the serving-maid showed the + traveller to his chamber. She told him that he was surrounded by robbers + and murderers, showed him a trap-door at the side of the bed, on which if + he stepped he would tumble headlong into a deep well. She directed him to + tie the bed into a bundle, put it on the trap-door, and escape by the + window. He did so; down went the bundle, instead of the farmer, into the + well, and he managed to effect his escape. Rousing the neighbourhood he + captured the villains, who were all executed, and the bones of many of + their victims were found in the well. Happily such inns were rare. + </p> + <p> + To describe the conditions of the old inns for which England was famous, + of the good fare which awaited the travellers by the coach, of the + spacious corridors, of the comfortable beds hung with silk and smelling of + lavender; to tell of all the great folk who entered their doors—kings, + queens, poets, generals, highwaymen, statesmen, grooms, conspirators, + coachmen—all this would require much space to relate. When railways + came in, their ancient glory departed; the old stables are destroyed; + grass grows in the courtyard; and the object of their existence has almost + ceased to be. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="link23" id="link23"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII + </h2> + <h3> + VILLAGE SUPERSTITIONS AND FOLKLORE + </h3> + <p> + Belief in witches—Survival of water ordeal—Witches turned into + hares— Cruelties practised on witches—Bishop Jewel on the + “evil eye”— Fairies—Berkshire popular + superstitions—Field-names—Homes of famous men—Washington + Irving’s description of an English village—Rural exodus—Conclusion. + </p> + <p> + There is yet another class of subjects connected with old village life, of + absorbing interest and importance. I refer to the old superstitions and + folklore which still linger on in the recollections of the “oldest + inhabitant,” and which ought to be at once treasured up, lest they + should be altogether lost. The generation of those who believed firmly in + the power of the “evil eye” of the witch, and who feared to + disturb the revels of the fairies on their rings and mounds, is only just + passing away. An old gipsy has told me some strange stories of the + superstitions of former days. He has told me of the witch at Farnham who + made the cows wild and prevented them from giving milk; of another witch + who lived at Henley-on-Thames, and who when thrown into the river “floated + like a cork.” Here we have a survival of the old Saxon method of + trying culprits by the water ordeal, often used in examining witches. This + particular witch could turn herself into a hare, so my venerable gipsy + friend, aged one hundred and six years, informed me, and the dogs hunted + her. He told me of the Tadley witch, who “wished” several + people, and greatly injured them. It seems to have been a common practice + of the old witches to turn themselves into hares, in order to vex the + squires, justices, and country parsons, who were fond of hunting, as the + old dames could elude the speed of the swiftest dogs. An old writer states + “that never hunters nor their dogs may be bewitched, they cleave an + oaken branch, and both they and their dogs pass over it.” Mary Dore, + a witch of Beaulieu, Hampshire, used to turn herself into a hare in order + to escape detection when caught in the act of wood-stealing, to which she + was somewhat addicted. + </p> + <p> + Old women were rather harshly used in the days when people believed in the + power of witches. If any farmer’s cattle died, it was immediately + concluded that the animals were bewitched; and some wretched old woman was + singled out, and summarily tried and burnt. If anyone fell ill, some + “witch” had evidently a waxen image of the sufferer, and stuck + needles into it; and such was the power of the witch that, wherever the + person was, he felt the stab of the cruel needle. Hence the witch had to + be found and burnt. If the corn crops failed, was not witchcraft the + cause? for had not old Mother Maggs been heard to threaten Farmer Giles, + and had not her black cat been seen running over his fields? Even good + Bishop Jewel did not disbelieve in the power of the evil eye. In preaching + before Queen Elizabeth he said: “It may please Your Grace to + understand that witches and sorcerers are marvellously increased within + Your Grace’s realm. Your Grace’s subjects pine away even unto + the death, their colour fadeth, their flesh rotteth, their speech is + benumbed, their senses are bereft. I pray God they never practise further + than on the subject.” To so great an extent did faith in the witches’ + fatal power prevail. Our forefathers used to believe in the existence of + other, and more pleasant little companions than the old toothless witches—the + bright little fairies who, on account of the neglect which they have + received from the present generation of Englishmen, have, so it is + reported, left our shores in disgust, never to return. The previous + inhabitants of our villages did not so treat them; and did not the fairies + always bring them luck? They nailed the horseshoe to the stable door to + keep out the witches, lest the old beldams should ride their steeds by + night to the witches’ revels; but no one wished to exclude the + fairies. Did not the dairymaids find the butter ready churned, and the + cows milked by these kind assistants? Was there not an old lady in + Yorkshire who knew all about the fairies, had often heard them making + butter, and had seen the butter smeared all over the gate by a little + green man with a queer cap who had been seen slipping under a culvert? + Canon Atkinson told us of this lady who knew all these strange things, and + of the Hart Hall “Hob” who worked so hard with his flail, and + of many other curious folk who frequented the Yorkshire moors in olden + days. The last witch had just died before he went to Danby, but he found + the whole atmosphere of the folklore firmament so surcharged with the + being and work of the witch, that he seemed able to trace her presence and + her activity in almost every nook and corner of the neighbourhood. + </p> + <p> + The wells all over England were haunted by fairies, and is it not + confidently asserted that “the good people” (as the fairies + are called) live in wilds and forests, and shun great cities because of + the wickedness which exists therein? Have they never appeared to the + lonely traveller, clothed in green, with long hair floating over their + shoulders, and with faces more blooming than the blush of a summer + morning? Then there were the fairy rings formed by the dancing of their + merry feet. + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “Some say the screech-owl, at each midnight hour,<br /> + Awakes the fairies in yon ancient tower.<br /> Their + nightly dancing ring I always dread,<br /> Nor let my + sheep within that circle tread;<br /> When round and + round all night, in moonlight fair,<br /> They dance to + some strange music in the air.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + Then there were brownies; and knockers, who worked in mines, and showed + rich veins of silver; and elves—all of whom were included in old + village superstitions, and many were the tales told of the good deeds they + did, and the luck they brought. Nor must we forget the story of the + invisible smith who inhabited Wayland Smith’s Cave, in Berkshire. + Whenever a farmer tied up his horse in the cave, and left the money on a + particular stone, on his return he found his horse shod by the kind + efforts of the invisible smith. There is also the old Berkshire story of + the old witch who lived in a cave by the roadside, and who, by the power + of her “evil eye,” could stop the strongest team of horses, so + that, however much the carters lashed and swore at them, the animals would + not budge an inch until she permitted them to go. Here are a few of the + common superstitions current in Berkshire. If a corpse be kept over a + Sunday another death will occur before the week is out; should a big + bumble-bee enter the window, a guest may be expected; and when the + woodpecker, commonly called the yaffle, laughs, they say the rain is + coming. When the thick mist lies in the valley, the people say it is the + White Lady, a belief closely akin to the Dame Blanche, who is said in + Normandy to haunt streams. If one row of freshly sown seeds or potatoes + does not come up, it foretells a death in the family. If a girl mends her + clothes on her back, she risks having a drunken husband. A screech-owl is + unlucky, and so also is it if a bird fly against the window. + </p> + <p> + A woman came to the rectory a few years ago for a drop of sacramental + wine, which she wanted for an infant who had “the graspings.” + This complaint I discovered to be a craving for something, accompanied by + restlessness; and it was supposed that a drop of sacramental wine would + cure an infant so troubled. If the mother before the child was born craved + for drink, this craving was communicated to the child, and could only be + remedied by a drop of wine used in Holy Communion. This superstition, + which I have met with elsewhere, probably is a relic of pre-Reformation + days, and of sacramental Reservation. + </p> + <p> + A tramp was passing through a Hampshire village a short time ago, and + calling at a house, begged for a glass of water. The woman who lived there + said that she was sorry she could not give him water to drink, as there + was a child in the house unbaptised, and therefore it would be unlucky. + The origin of this superstition it is difficult to trace. + </p> + <p> + These are some of the legends and superstitions which linger amongst us. + Every neighbourhood has its stories, its legends, and romantic histories. + It is a sad pity that these should pass away without any record being + made. Many curious customs and ceremonies relating to christenings, + marriages, and burials linger in remote hamlets; and charms, curious + remedies, and other relics of the quaint superstitions of our forefathers, + are full of interest to the lover of our English villages. + </p> + <p> + As we walk in the fields, or study the old map of the parish, the names of + the fields invite our attention. These are full of interest, and often + tell us about matters which would be entirely forgotten. Some names tell + us of the great forests which used to exist all over the country, when + kings and noblemen, outlaws and poachers, used to hunt the deer and the + wild boars in many a successful run. These forests were large tracts of + country in its natural state, partly wood, partly heather and grass, which + were owned by the king, and were especially brought under the harsh forest + laws of the Norman sovereigns. + </p> + <p> + Some of our field-names remind us of the existence of these old forests + where corn now grows, and also of swamps and islands where everything now + is dry and far removed from water. Sometimes they tell us of the old + common lands which used to be farmed by the villeins and borderers, and of + the strange way in which they used to manage their farming. Each man used + to keep one or more oxen for the village plough until they made up the + team into eight; then they ploughed the land in strips of an acre or + half-acre each, divided by a bit of unploughed turf called a balk. Each + strip was a furlong, <i>i.e.</i> a “furrow long,” <i>i.e.</i> + the length of the drive of a plough before it is turned. This was forty + rods, or poles, and four of these furrows made up the acre. These pieces + of land were called “shots,” and there were “headlands,” + or common field-ways, to each shot; and “gored acres,” which + were corners of the fields which could not be cut up into strips, and odds + and ends of unused land, which were called “No Man’s Land,” + or “Jack’s Land.” It is curious, too, that all the + strips belonging to one man did not lie together, but were scattered all + over the common land, which must have been a very inconvenient arrangement + for farming purposes. There were also in each village community a + blacksmith, whose duty it was to keep in repair the ironwork of the + village ploughs, a carpenter for the woodwork, and a pound-keeper, or + punder, who looked after the stray cattle. Many of the “balks” + still remain on the hillsides where these old common lands existed, and + the names of the fields bear witness to the prevalence of this old field + system. + </p> + <p> + They tell us, too, of the way in which attempts were made to force the + growth of particular crops, and in many parishes you will find a “flax + piece,” which reminds us of a foolish Act of Henry VIII. ordering + the cultivation of that plant. Metals, too, which have long ago been + worked out, and trades which no longer exist, have left their traces + behind in the names of our lanes and fields. Also they speak of the early + days when the wolf or the bear might be seen in our woods or fields, or of + the beaver which loved the quietude of our streams, of the eagle which + carried off the lambs undisturbed by sound of the keeper’s gun. + Sometimes he was disturbed in his thefts by the flight of a good strong + English arrow, which came from a sturdy English bow drawn by a good strong + English arm. The English archers were famous everywhere, and many a battle + has been won by their valour and their skill. A law was passed in the + reign of Edward IV. that every Englishman should have a bow of his own + height, and that butts for the practice of archery should be set up in + every village; and every man was obliged to shoot up and down on every + feast-day, or be fined one halfpenny. Consequently, in some villages we + find a field called “The Butts,” where this old practice took + place.[<a href="#linkb11">11</a>] + </p> + <p> + Many villages are associated with the lives of distinguished men—authors, + soldiers, and statesmen. Perhaps your village may have bred other poets + besides “the mute inglorious Milton” of Gray’s <i>Elegy</i>. + Not far from where I am writing was Pope’s early home, the village + of Binfield, which he calls— + </p> + <table summary="poems"> + <tr> + <td> + <p> + “My paternal home,<br /> A little + house, with trees arow,<br /> And, like its master, very + low.” + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + On the other side lies the village of Three Mile Cross, where Miss Mitford + lived and wrote “Our Village”; and Arborfield, called in her + book Arborleigh, about which she tells some pleasant stories, is the + adjoining parish. Sometimes, as I ride down a grassy lane, a favourite + haunt of the distinguished authoress, I seem to see her seated on a fallen + tree weaving her pretty romances, while her favourite dog, which she often + describes, plays and barks around her. A few miles in another direction + lies Eversley, the loved abode of Charles Kingsley, about whom many + stories linger in the countryside. To visit the uncomfortable brick-paved + study where he wrote, the garden where he used to pace and think out his + great thoughts, is delightfully refreshing and invigorating to a jaded + writer. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link323" id="link323"></a><br /> <br /><br /> <a + href="images/323.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="323h.jpg (34K)" src="images/323h.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> OLD COTTAGES <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + These are only instances of places which have become interesting on + account of the famous men who once lived in them; and England has many + heroes of the sword and pen whose lives each Englishman should study; and + when you visit their dwelling-places you will recall their achievements, + and perhaps endeavour to imitate their examples. Here is an instance of + how little the villagers know of the distinguished men who once lived + amongst them. The great Duke of Wellington did not live a very long time + ago, and yet some friends of mine who were staying at Strathfieldsaye, + near the Iron Duke’s house, and made inquiries amongst the villagers + about their recollections of the hero of Waterloo, could obtain no + information. At last one venerable rustic vouchsafed the extraordinary + intelligence, “I believe as ’ow ’e were very good at war”! + What a thing it is to be famous! + </p> + <p> + Much more remains to be said upon the various subjects which this history + of our village suggests. But the day is closing, and our walk through its + sequestered lanes and our thoughts about the various scenes which yonder + venerable oaks have witnessed, must cease. But enough has been said to + show what a wealth of interest lies beneath the calm exterior of ordinary + village life. An American truly observes that everything in the rural life + of England is associated with ideas of order, of quiet, sober, + well-established principles, of hoary usage, and reverent custom—the + growth of ages of regular and peaceful existence. The impression which the + appearance of an English village left on his mind is beautifully described + in the following passage:— + </p> + <p> + “The old church of remote architecture with its low, massive portal, + its gothic tower, its windows rich with tracery and painted glass, its + scrupulous preservation, its stately monuments of warriors and worthies of + olden times, ancestors of the present lords of the soil; its tombstones, + recording successive generations of sturdy yeomanry, whose progeny still + plough the same fields, and kneel at the same altar; the parsonage, a + quaint, irregular pile, partly antiquated, but repaired and altered in the + tastes of various eyes and occupants; the stile and footpath leading from + the churchyard, across pleasant fields, and along shady hedgerows, + according to an immemorial right-of-way; the neighbouring village, with + its venerable cottages, its public green sheltered by trees, under which + the forefathers of the present race have sported; the antique family + mansion, standing apart in some little rural domain, but looking down with + a protecting air on the surrounding scene. All these common features of + English landscape evince a calm and settled security, and hereditary + transmission of homebred virtues and local attachments, that speak deeply + and touchingly for the moral character of the nation.” + </p> + <p> + One of the most distressing features of modern village life is the + continual decrease of its population. All our young men flock to the + towns, attracted by the greater excitement which town life offers, as + compared with the more homely pleasures of the country. The rural exodus + is an alarming and very real danger to the welfare of social England. + Agricultural machinery has greatly diminished the number of labourers + required on a farm. Agricultural depression and the decreased value of + land have caused many old country families to close their old + manor-houses, as they cannot afford to live on their estates. + </p> + <p> + Let us hope that those whose happy lot it is to live in the quiet hamlets + of our native land, afar from the noise and din of busy towns, will learn + to love more deeply their village homes, and interest themselves in their + surroundings. To those who read the history of their native place, each + house and field, each stone and tree, will tell its story, and recount the + wonders it has witnessed. And as the stories of wars and fights, of + superstition and of crime, fall on our ears, we shall be thankful that our + lot is cast in more peaceful days, when no persecutions, religious or + political, disturb the tranquillity of our village life. And when we read + of the piety and simplicity of our forefathers, their veneration of their + church, their love of home, their innocent joys and social customs, we + should strive to imitate their virtues which have materially helped to + make England a great and powerful nation. It is hoped that these chapters + upon the old life of our country, and the manners and customs of our + forefathers, may induce many of my readers to read and study history more + deeply, may serve to create an interest in the relics that remain to us of + the past, and to preserve the fleeting traditions that Time doth + consecrate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkb11" id="linkb11"></a><br /> + </p> + <p> + [11] In many cases the name “Butts” refers to the fact of the + land, under the common-field system, <i>abutting</i> on meadows or roads, + <i>e.g.</i> “Butt-close,” in the parish of St. Mary Bourne. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="linkappendix" id="linkappendix"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + APPENDIX + </h2> + <h3> + BOOKS AND DOCUMENTS RELATING TO PAROCHIAL HISTORY + </h3> + <p> + To anyone who sets himself the task of writing a history of his village, + the following notes may be useful. With regard to the etymology of the + name, concerning which absurd errors are made in most guide books and old + county histories, it would be well to consult Canon Taylor’s <i>Words + and Places</i>, being careful to study the earliest form of the word in <i>Domesday</i> + and old documents. Bede’s <i>History</i>, the <i>Anglo-Saxon + Chronicles</i>, and other old English chronicles, published by Bohn, may + contain some allusions to the parish and neighbourhood, and also Kemble’s + <i>Saxons in England</i>. The <i>Domesday Book</i> is, of course, a mine + of wealth. The Public Record Office contains many documents which will be + of great service—the <i>Testa de Neville</i> (Edward II.), <i>Marshall + Rolls, Nonarum Inquisitiones, Pipe Rolls, Patent Rolls, Close Rolls, + Hundred Rolls, Inquisitiones post-mortem</i>, and the <i>Feet of Fines</i>. + The <i>Manor Court Rolls</i>, if they still exist, in the custody of the + lord of the manor, should also be consulted. The journals of local + antiquarian societies and county histories will of course be examined. The + history of the families connected with the parish must be traced. The + British Museum and the College of Arms contain fine collections of <i>Heralds’ + Visitations</i>, and Burke’s <i>Landed Gentry</i> and Dugdale’s + <i>Baronage</i> are the chief sources of information. Old <i>wills</i> + will yield much information, many of which are in course of publication by + the Index Society, and county archaeolgical journals; and Somerset House + and many diocesan registries contain the original documents. The + Historical Manuscripts Commission has published many volumes of borough + records which are of great service, and the lives of any great men + connected with the parish may be studied in the <i>Dictionary of National + Biography</i>. As we have already pointed out, the parish chest contains + valuable sources of information upon the history of the village, and its + contents should be carefully examined. + </p> + <p> + The registers of the diocese contain many documents relating to the + ecclesiastical history of the parish, and from them we can obtain a list + of the rectors or vicars. If the church was connected with any monastery, + Dugdale’s <i>Monasticon</i> will furnish some information. The + Public Record Office contains the documents <i>Taxatio Ecclesiastica P. + Nicholai IV.</i> and <i>Valor Ecclesiasticus</i>, which give an account of + the value of the first-fruits and tenths, and also some volumes on the + sale of chantries, and the inventories of church goods. The name of the + saint to whom the church is dedicated must not always be accepted, in + spite of years of usage, and should be confirmed by reference to some + early will of a chief person of the village buried in the church, which + usually gives the name of the patron saint. The story of the church writ + in stone should be traced by the various styles of architecture, with the + help of Rickman’s <i>Gothic Architecture</i> or Parker’s <i>Glossary + of Gothic Architecture</i>. If there has ever been a monastery in the + parish, Dugdale’s <i>Monasticon</i> should be consulted; and if + there are any remains of a castle, Clark’s <i>Mediaeval Military + Architecture in England</i> will be useful. Prehistoric remains, such as + barrows, earthworks, pit dwellings, and caves should be described; also + any Roman roads and villas; the flora and fauna of the neighbourhood, + geology, folklore, and dialect. + </p> + <p> + The following books are recommended:— + </p> + <p> + Evans’ <i>Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain</i>.<br /> Evans’ + <i> Ancient Bronze Implements</i>.<br /> Boyd Dawkins’ <i>Cave + Hunting</i>.<br /> Boyd Dawkins’ <i>Early Man in Britain</i>.<br /> + Greenwell’s <i>British Barrows</i>.<br /> Fergusson’s <i>Rude + Stone Monuments</i>.<br /> Cox’s <i>How to Write the History of a + Parish</i>.<br /> Wright’s <i>Essays on Archaeological Subjects</i>.<br /> + Parker’s <i>Mediaeval Domestic Architecture</i>.<br /> Sims’ <i>Manual + for the Topographer and Genealogist</i>.<br /> Burn’s <i>History of + Parish Registers</i>.<br /> Seebohm’s <i>English Village Community</i>.<br /> + Toulmin Smith’s <i>English Gilds</i>.<br /> Haine’s <i>Manual + of Monumental Brasses</i>.<br /> Bloxam’s <i>Principles of Gothic + Architecture</i>.<br /> Tanner’s <i>Notitia Monastica</i>.<br /> Cutts’ + <i>Middle Ages</i>.<br /> Lee’s <i>Glossary of Liturgical and + Ecclesiastical Terms</i>. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="linkindex" id="linkindex"></a><br /> <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + INDEX + </h2> + <p> + Akeman Street, 60<br /> Aldhelm, church-builder, 103<br /> Alfriston + clergy-house, 180<br /> <i>Alignements</i>, 46<br /> Allington rectory, 180<br /> + Almshouses, 181<br /> Altars, 191<br /> Amphitheatre, Roman, 67<br /> + Anchoresses, 183<br /> Anchor-hold, 183<br /> Anglo-Saxon villages, 74-89<br /> + Archery, 277, 298<br /> Architecture, English, 102-24<br /> Arresting a dead + body, 227<br /> Arrow-heads, 20<br /> <i>Art of Husbandry</i>, 255<br /> + Astrology, belief in, 222<br /> Aumbry, 192<br /> Avebury cromlech, 46 + </p> + <p> + B + </p> + <p> + Ball-flower moulding, 118<br /> Barkham in <i>Domesday</i>, 128<br /> + Barnack Church, 106<br /> Barrows or tumuli, 23-3<br /> " long + and round, 25<br /> " near churchyards, 23<br /> + " Saxon, 90-3<br /> " their + contents, 24, 29<br /> Basilica, Roman, 66<br /> Beacons, 268<br /> Beating + the bounds, 276<br /> Bede, 75<br /> Bell-ringing customs, 250<br /> Bells, + 245-53<br /> " christening of, 246<br /> + " inscription on, 247-50<br /> Benedict + Biscop, 103<br /> Benedictine monks, 161<br /> Bewcastle cross, 98<br /> + Bishops, treating of, 229<br /> Black Death, 255<br /> Blood-letting, 167-9<br /> + Blowing Stone, 52<br /> <i>Bordarii</i>, 131<br /> Border castles, 140<br /> + Brachycephalic race, 21<br /> Brasses, monumental, 212-18<br /> Bridal cup, + 207<br /> Brief Book, 226<br /> Brighthampton, pit dwellings at, 33<br /> + British Church, 93<br /> " oppida, 34<br /> + " roads, 60, 61<br /> " saints + and martyrs, 94<br /> Bronze Age, 21, 40<br /> Budworth hermitage, 182<br /> + Burial urns, 29, 30<br /> " urns in woollen, + 220 + </p> + <p> + C + </p> + <p> + Caesar’s camps, 50<br /> Camps, 50-52<br /> Carthusian monks, 162<br /> + Castles, 135-53<br /> Cave men, 16<br /> Celts, 21, 34, 37, 56<br /> + Cemeteries, Saxon, 92<br /> Censers, 205<br /> Chancels, 190<br /> Charles + II., adventures of, 267<br /> Chaucer’s satire on monks, 160<br /> + Chepstow Castle, 140<br /> Chest, parish, 218-29<br /> Chivalry, 143, 148<br /> + Chrismatory, 206<br /> Christmas in olden time, 278<br /> Chun Castle, 51<br /> + Church ales, 258<br /> Church bells, 245-53<br /> " house, + 258<br /> " plate, 200-8<br /> " + yard, 243<br /> Churches, parish, 184 99<br /> + Churchwardens’ account books, 223-6<br /> Cistercian monks, 114, 161<br /> + Civil War, effects of, 153, 220, 265<br /> Cloister of monastery, 163<br /> + Cluny, monks of, 161<br /> Consecration crosses, 239<br /> Conversion of + Saxons, 94, 95<br /> Crannogs, 38<br /> Cremation, 28, 29, 92<br /> + Cromlechs, 46-9<br /> Crosses, Saxon, 95-101<br /> Cross-legged effigies, + 211<br /> Cucking-stool, 280 + </p> + <p> + D + </p> + <p> + Decay of old sports, 271<br /> Decorated architecture, 117<br /> Desecration + of monasteries, 159<br /> Devil’s Highway, 61<br /> Dog-tooth + ornament, 116<br /> Dog-whipper, 228<br /> Dolichocephalic race, 19<br /> + Dolmen, 49, 50<br /> <i>Domesday Book</i>, 125-34<br /> Donnington Castle, + 152<br /> Druids, 48, 50 + </p> + <p> + E + </p> + <p> + Early English architecture, 115-17<br /> Earthworks, 50-6<br /> Easter + sepulchre, 193<br /> Edge Hill, battle of, 264<br /> Edwardian castles, 140<br /> + Emblems on brasses, 217<br /> Enstone, menhir at, 45<br /> Eslithic man, 14<br /> + Epitaphs, curious, 243<br /> Ermyn Street, 60<br /> “Evil eye,” + 291-3 + </p> + <p> + F + </p> + <p> + Fairford windows, 232<br /> Fairies, 56, 293<br /> Fairs, 261<br /> + Feudalism, 141<br /> Field-names, 296-8<br /> Flint implements, discovery + of, 11<br /> Flint implements, 15, 20<br /> Fonts, 186<br /> Food in barrows, + 24, 25<br /> Football, 277<br /> Force-pump, Roman, 68<br /> Frescoes, 234<br /> + Friars, preaching, 161<br /> Future life, belief in, shown by barrows, 24 + </p> + <p> + G + </p> + <p> + Gambassi, glass-painter, 232<br /> <i>Geburs</i>, 82<br /> Gentleman, + accomplishments of a, 149<br /> Geological changes, 11-13<br /> Glaciers in + Britain, 12<br /> Glass, stained, 230-3<br /> Glastonbury, pit dwellings at, + 37, 41, 42<br /> Green, village, 8, 280<br /> Grims-dike, 54, 55<br /> + Grosmont Castle, 141<br /> Guizot on castles, 141 + </p> + <p> + H + </p> + <p> + Hagioscopes, 194<br /> Hall marks, 208<br /> Harvest homes, 275<br /> + Hastings, battle of, 264<br /> Heart burial, 222<br /> Hedsor, pile + dwellings at, 37, 38<br /> <i>Hereivard the Wake</i>, 264<br /> Hermits, 181<br /> + Hexham church, 104<br /> " crosses, 99<br /> + Highwaymen, 283<br /> Hocktide sports, 225, 273<br /> Homes of famous men, + 298<br /> Hospitium of monastery, 169<br /> House, evolution of country, + 172-7<br /> Hundreds, origin of, 87<br /> Hurstbourne, Hants, pit dwellings + at, 34 + </p> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + Ice Age, 12, 13<br /> Iknield Street, 60<br /> Ilkley cross, 99<br /> Inigo + Jones, 176<br /> Inns, 7, 282-90<br /> Inventories, 201<br /> Iron Age, 21<br /> + " work in churches, 233<br /> <i>Itinerary</i> + of Antoninus, 59 + </p> + <p> + J + </p> + <p> + Jervais, glass-painter, 232<br /> Johnson, Dr., on monasteries, 159 + </p> + <p> + K + </p> + <p> + Keep of Norman castle, 137<br /> Kelvedon rectory, 179<br /> Kenilworth + Castle, 151<br /> King’s evil, 228<br /> Knaresborough hermitage, 182<br /> + Knighthood, admission to, 145 + </p> + <p> + L + </p> + <p> + Laindon reclusorium, 183<br /> Lammas lands, 79<br /> Lecterns, 191<br /> + Legends, 44, 55, 263<br /> “Lepers’ windows,” 195<br /> + Lich-gate, 242<br /> Local Government, 254<br /> Low side windows, 195 + </p> + <p> + M + </p> + <p> + Manor-house, 172-7<br /> Manors, 79, 133<br /> Man-traps, 289<br /> Markets, + 260<br /> May Day, 225, 273<br /> Mediaeval village, 254-70<br /> Menhir, 45<br /> + “Merry England,” 256<br /> Milestones, Roman, 61<br /> Miracle + plays, 274<br /> <i>Misereres</i>, 191<br /> Monasteries, Saxon, 102<br /> + " 154-71<br /> " charity + of, 159<br /> Monastic day, 166, 167<br /> " inns, + 282<br /> Monks, benefits conferred by, 155<br /> " corruption + of, 160<br /> Monstrances, 206<br /> Monumental effigies, 209-12<br /> + Mothering Sunday, 273<br /> Mouldings, Decorated, 118, 120<br /> " + Early English, 116<br /> " Norman, + 112<br /> " Perpendicular, 123<br /> Mural + paintings, 234-41 + </p> + <p> + N + </p> + <p> + Neolithic man, 15, 18, 20, 37<br /> Norman architecture, 109-15<br /> " + castles, 135-53<br /> " place-names, + 132<br /> " villages, 125-34<br /> Normans, + coming of, 125 + </p> + <p> + O + </p> + <p> + Ockwells manor-house, 173<br /> Ogee arch, 118<br /> Organised condition of + society among prehistoric races, 31<br /> Ornaments, Saxon, 91<br /> <i>Osculatorium</i>, + 192<br /> Oxford, poor scholar of, 229 + </p> + <p> + P + </p> + <p> + Pageants, 149-52<br /> Paleolithic man, 14<br /> Palimpsests, 213<br /> + Parish chest, 218-29<br /> " registers, + 218-23<br /> Paschall money, 225<br /> Pastimes, 271-81<br /> Pavements, + Roman, 71, 72<br /> Pax, 192, 206<br /> Perpendicular architecture, 120<br /> + Pews, 187<br /> <i>Piers Ploughman</i>, 165, 174, 181<br /> Pile dwellings, + 37-43<br /> Pilgrimages, 259<br /> Piscina, 192<br /> Pit dwellings, 33-7<br /> + Place-names, 76, 101<br /> Plague, 255-7<br /> Plate, church, 200-8<br /> + " " in bishop’s + coffin, 202<br /> Ploughman’s lament, 84<br /> Plough Monday, 272<br /> + Porch, 185<br /> “Pot-boilers,” 36<br /> Pre-Reformation plate, + 202-5<br /> Pulpits, 188<br /> Pytheas of Marseilles, 10<br /> Pyx, 191, 206 + </p> + <p> + Q + </p> + <p> + Quintain, 277 + </p> + <p> + R + </p> + <p> + Raglan Castle, 141<br /> Reading Abbey, 171<br /> Reading-pews, 197<br /> + Reclusorium, 183<br /> " at Rettenden, 183<br /> + Rectories, 177-81<br /> Registers, parish, 218-23<br /> Religion of Saxons, + 93<br /> “Restoration,” 199<br /> Rollright Stones, 46, 47<br /> + Roman relics, 57-73<br /> " rig, 54<br /> + " roads, 58-62<br /> " villas, + 70-3<br /> Rood-loft, 188<br /> Royal arms in churches, 190<br /> Rural + exodus, 300<br /> Rush-bearing, 276<br /> Ruthwell cross, 97<br /> Ryknield + Street, 60 + </p> + <p> + S + </p> + <p> + Sacring bell, 252<br /> St. Christopher, 238<br /> Salisbury Cathedral, 115<br /> + Saltways, 61<br /> Sanctus bell, 252<br /> Saxon architecture, 106-9<br /> + " house, 172<br /> " monasteries, + 102<br /> " place-names, 76, 77<br /> " + relics, 90-101<br /> Saxons, coming of, 74, 75<br /> + Screens, 189<br /> Secret chambers, 177<br /> Settle, Victoria Cave at, 17<br /> + Shires, origin of, 88<br /> Shrovetide sports, 273<br /> Signs of inns, + 284-8<br /> Silchester, 54, 62-70<br /> Slavery under Saxons, 84<br /> + Sluggard waker, 228<br /> Smoke farthings, 226<br /> <i>Socmen</i>, 83, 131<br /> + Spenser’s description of hermitage, 182<br /> Sports and pastimes, + 271-81<br /> Stocks, 280<br /> Stonehenge, 46<br /> Stone monuments, 44-50<br /> + Stourbridge Fair, 261<br /> Sudeley Castle, pageant at, 149-51<br /> + Sun-worship, relics of, 27<br /> Superstitions, 44, 295<br /> Switzerland, + pile dwellings in, 38-41 + </p> + <p> + T + </p> + <p> + “Terraces,” 19<br /> <i>Tesserae</i>, 65, 71<br /> Thanes, 80<br /> + Thane’s house, 81<br /> Thuribles, 205<br /> Tiles, 233<br /> + Tournaments, 146-9<br /> Tudor arch, 121<br /> " houses, + 175<br /> Tumuli, <i>see</i> Barrows<br /> Turf monuments, 53, 54<br /> + Twelfth Night, 272<br /> Tympana, Norman, 110 + </p> + <p> + U + </p> + <p> + Uffington, 52-4<br /> Ufton Court, Berks, 176, 178 + </p> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + Vernicle, 201<br /> Vestry, contents of, 196<br /> Vicarages, 177-81<br /> + Villas, Roman, 70-3<br /> Villeins, 130, 255 + </p> + <p> + W + </p> + <p> + Wars, 262-70<br /> Watling Street, 60<br /> Wayland Smith’s Cave, 27, + 294<br /> Whalley cross, 96<br /> " reclusorium, + 184<br /> White Castle, 141<br /> White Horse Hill, 53<br /> Whittenham + Clumps, 52<br /> Wilfrid, St., 96, 104, 108, 230<br /> Witches, 291<br /> + " turned into hares, 292<br /> Woollen, + burials in, 220<br /> Worlebury, pit dwellings at, 34 + </p> + <p> + Y + </p> + <p> + Yeomen, 83, 131<br /> Yew tree in churchyard, 241 + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of English Villages, by P. 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