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diff --git a/9163.txt b/9163.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1d8b522 --- /dev/null +++ b/9163.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3334 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement, No. 417, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 417 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #9163] +Release Date: October, 2005 +First Posted: September 10, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 417 *** + + + + +Produced by J. Paolucci, D. Kretz, J. Sutherland, and +Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 417 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 29, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 417. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Machine for Making Electric + Light Carbons.--2 figures + + The Earliest Gas Engine + + The Moving of Large Masses.--With engravings of the removal + of a belfry at Cresentino in 1776, and of the winged bulls from + Nineveh to Mosul in 1854 + + Science and Engineering.--The relation they bear to one another. + By WALTER R. BROWNE + + Hydraulic Plate Press.--With engraving + + Fast Printing Press for Engravings.--With engraving + + French Cannon + + Apparatus for Heating by Gas.--5 figures + + Improved Gas Burner for Singeing Machines.--1 figure + +II. TECHNOLOGY.--China Grass, or Rhea.--Different processes and + apparatus used in preparing the fiber for commerce + +III. ARCHITECTURE.--Woodlands, Stoke Pogis, Bucks.--With engraving. + +IV. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.--Volta Electric Induction as Demonstrated + by Experiment.--Paper read by WILLOUGHBY SMITH before the Society + of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians.--Numerous figures + + On Telpherage.--The Transmission of vehicles by electricity to a + distance.--By Prof. FLEEMING JENKIN + + New Electric Battery Lights + + The Siemens Electric Railway at Zankeroda Mines.--3 figures + + Silas' Chronophore.--3 figures + +V. NATURAL HISTORY.--A New Enemy of the Bee + + Crystallization of Honey + + An Extensive Sheep Range + +VI. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Zelkowas.--With full description + of the tree, manner of identification, etc., and several + engravings showing the tree as a whole, and the leaves, + fruit, and flowers in detail + +VII. MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.-The Disinfection of the Atmosphere. + --Extract from a lecture by Dr. R.J. LEE, delivered at the + Parkes Museum of Hygiene. London + + A New Method of Staining Bacillus Tuberculosis + + Cure for Hemorrhoids + + * * * * * + + + + +VOLTA-ELECTRIC INDUCTION. + +[Footnote: A paper read at the Society of Telegraph Engineers and +Electricians on the 8th November, 1883] + +By WILLOUGHBY SMITH. + + +In my presidential address, which I had the pleasure of reading before +this society at our first meeting this year, I called attention, +somewhat hurriedly, to the results of a few of my experiments on +induction, and at the same time expressed a hope that at a future date I +might be able to bring them more prominently before you. That date has +now arrived, and my endeavor this evening will be to demonstrate to you +by actual experiment some of what I consider the most important results +obtained. My desire is that all present should see these results, and +with that view I will try when practicable to use a mirror reflecting +galvanometer instead of a telephone. All who have been accustomed to the +use of reflecting galvanometers will readily understand the difficulty, +on account of its delicacy, of doing so where no special arrangements +are provided for its use; but perhaps with a little indulgence on your +part and patience on mine the experiments may be brought to a successful +issue. + +[Illustration: VOLTA-ELECTRIC INDUCTION.] + +Reliable records extending over hundreds of years show clearly with what +energy and perseverance scientific men in every civilized part of the +world have endeavored to wrest from nature the secret of what is termed +her "phenomena of magnetism," and, as is invariably the case under +similar circumstances, the results of the experiments and reasoning of +some have far surpassed those of others in advancing our knowledge. For +instance, the experimental philosophers in many branches of science were +groping as it were in darkness until the brilliant light of Newton's +genius illumined their path. Although, perhaps, I should not be +justified in comparing Oersted with Newton, yet he also discovered what +are termed "new" laws of nature, in a manner at once precise, profound, +and amazing, and which opened a new field of research to many of the +most distinguished philosophers of that time, who were soon engaged in +experimenting in the same direction, and from whose investigations arose +a new science, which was called "electro-dynamics." Oersted demonstrated +from inductive reasoning that every conductor of electricity possessed +all the known properties of a magnet while a current of electricity was +passing through it. If you earnestly contemplate the important adjuncts +to applied science which have sprung from that apparently simple fact, +you will not fail to see the importance of the discovery; for it was +while working in this new field of electro-magnetism that Sturgeon made +the first electro-magnet, and Faraday many of his discoveries relating +to induction. + +Soon after the discovery by Oersted just referred to, Faraday, with the +care and ability manifest in all his experiments, showed that when an +intermittent current of electricity is passing along a wire it induces +a current in any wire forming a complete circuit and placed parallel +to it, and that if the two wires were made into two helices and placed +parallel to each other the effect was more marked. This Faraday +designated "Volta-electric induction," and it is with this kind of +induction I wish to engage your attention this evening; for it is a +phenomenon which presents some of the most interesting and important +facts in electrical science. + +Here are two flat spirals of silk-covered copper wire suspended +separately, spider-web fashion, in wooden frames marked respectively A +and B. The one marked A is so connected that reversals at any desired +speed per minute from a battery of one or more cells can be passed +through it. The one marked B is so connected to the galvanometer and a +reverser as to show the deflection caused by the induced currents, which +are momentary in duration, and in the galvanometer circuit all on the +same side of zero, for as the battery current on making contact produces +an induced current in the reverse direction to itself, but in the same +direction on breaking the contact, of course the one would neutralize +the other, and the galvanometer would not be affected; the galvanometer +connections are therefore reversed with each reversal of the battery +current, and by that means the induced currents are, as you perceive, +all in the same direction and produce a steady deflection. The +connections are as shown on the sheet before you marked 1, which I think +requires no further explanation. + +Before proceeding, please to bear in mind the fact that the inductive +effects vary inversely as the square of the distance between the two +spirals, when parallel to each other; and that the induced current in +B is proportional to the number of reversals of the battery current +passing through spiral A, and also to the strength of the current so +passing. Faraday's fertile imagination would naturally suggest the +question, "Is this lateral action, which we call magnetism, extended to +a distance by the action of intermediate particles?" If so, then it is +reasonable to expect that all substances would not be affected in the +same way, and therefore different results would be obtained if different +media were interposed between the inductor and what I will merely call, +for distinction, the inductometer. + +With a view to proving this experimentally, Faraday constructed three +flat helices and placed them parallel to each other a convenient +distance apart. The middle helix was so arranged that a voltaic current +could be sent through it at pleasure. A differential galvanometer was +connected with the other helices in such a manner that when a voltaic +current was sent through the middle helix its inductive action on +the lateral helices should cause currents in them, having contrary +directions in the coils of the galvanometer. This was a very prettily +arranged electric balance, and by placing plates of different substances +between the inductor and one of the inductometers Faraday expected to +see the balance destroyed to an extent which would be indicated by the +deflection of the needle of the galvanometer. To his surprise he found +that it made not the least difference whether the intervening space was +occupied by such insulating bodies as air, sulphur, and shellac, or such +conducting bodies as copper and the other non-magnetic metals. These +results, however, did not satisfy him, as he was convinced that the +interposition of the non-magnetic metals, especially of copper, did +have an effect, but that his apparatus was not suitable for making it +visible. It is to be regretted that so sound a reasoner and so careful +an experimenter had not the great advantage of the assistance of +such suitable instruments for this class of research as the +mirror-galvanometer and the telephone. But, although he could not +practically demonstrate the effects which by him could be so clearly +seen, it redounds to his credit that, as the improvement in instruments +for this kind of research has advanced, the results he sought for have +been found in the direction in which he predicted. + +A and B will now be placed a definite distance apart, and comparatively +slow reversals from ten Leclanche cells sent through spiral A; you will +observe the amount of the induced current in B, as shown on the scale of +the galvanometer in circuit with that spiral. Now midway between the two +spirals will be placed a plate of iron, as shown in Plate 2, and at once +you observe the deflection of the galvanometer is reduced by less than +one half, showing clearly that the presence of the iron plate is in some +way influencing the previous effects. The iron will now be removed, but +the spirals left in the same position as before, and by increasing the +speed of the reversals you see a higher deflection is given on the +galvanometer. Now, on again interposing the iron plate the deflection +falls to a little less than one-half, as before. I wish this fact to be +carefully noted. + +The experiment will be repeated with a plate of copper of precisely the +same dimensions as the iron plate, and you observe that, although the +conditions are exactly alike in both cases, the interposition of the +copper plate has apparently no effect at the present speed of the +reversals, although the interposition of the iron plate under the same +conditions reduced the deflection about fifty per cent. We will now +remove the copper plate, as we did the iron one, and increase the speed +of the reversals to the same as in the experiment with the iron, and you +observe the deflection on the galvanometer is about the same as it was +on that occasion. Now, by replacing the copper plate to its former +position you will note how rapidly the deflection falls. We will now +repeat the experiment with a plate of lead; you will see that, like the +copper, it is unaffected at the low speed, but there the resemblance +ceases; for at the high speed it has but very slight effect. Thus these +metals, iron, copper, and lead, appear to differ as widely in their +electrical as they do in their mechanical properties. Of course it would +be impossible to obtain accurate measurements on an occasion like the +present, but careful and reliable measurements have been made, the +results of which are shown on the sheet before you, marked 3. + +It will be seen by reference to these results that the percentage of +inductive energy intercepted does not increase for different speeds of +the reverser in the same rate with different metals, the increase with +iron being very slight, while with tin it is comparatively enormous. It +was observed that time was an important element to be taken into account +while testing the above metals, that is to say, the lines of force took +an appreciable time to polarize the particles of the metal placed in +their path, but having accomplished this, they passed more freely +through it. + +Now let us go more minutely into the subject by the aid of Plate IV., +Figs. 1 and 2. In Fig. 1 let A and B represent two flat spirals, spiral +A being connected to a battery with a key in circuit and spiral B +connected to a galvanometer; then, on closing the battery circuit, an +instantaneous current is induced in spiral B. If a non-magnetic metal +plate half an inch thick be placed midway between the spirals, and the +experiment repeated, it will be found that the induced current received +by B is the same in amount as in the first case. This does not prove, +as would at first appear, that the metal plate fails to intercept the +inductive radiant energy; and it can scarcely be so, for if the plate is +replaced by a coil of wire, it is found that induced currents are set +up therein, and therefore inductive radiant energy must have been +intercepted. This apparent contradiction may be explained as follows: + +In Fig. 2 let D represent a source of heat (a vessel of boiling water +for instance) and E a sensitive thermometer receiving and measuring the +radiant heat. Now, if for instance a plate of vulcanite is interposed, +it cuts off and absorbs a part of the radiant heat emitted by D, and +thus a fall is produced in the thermometer reading. But the vulcanite, +soon becoming heated by the radiant heat cut off and absorbed by itself, +radiates that heat and causes the thermometer reading to return to about +its original amount. The false impression is thus produced that the +original radiated heat was unaffected by the vulcanite plate; instead of +which, as a matter of fact, the vulcanite plate had cut off the radiant +heat, becoming heated itself by so doing, and was consequently then the +radiating body affecting the thermometer. + +The effect is similar in the case of induction between the two spirals. +Spiral A induces and spiral B receives the induced effect. The metal +plate being then interposed, cuts off and absorbs either all or part of +the inductive radiant energy emitted by A. The inductive radiant energy +thus cut off, however, is not lost, but is converted into electrical +energy in the metal plate, thereby causing it to become, as in the case +of the vulcanite in the heat experiment, a source of radiation which +compensates as far as spiral B is concerned for the original inductive +radiant energy cut off. The only material difference noticeable in +the two experiments is that in the case of heat the time that elapses +between the momentary fall in the thermometer reading (due to the +interception by the vulcanite plate of the radiant beat) and the +subsequent rise (due to the interposing plate, itself radiating that +heat) is long enough to render the effect clearly manifest; whereas in +the case of induction the time that elapses is so exceedingly short +that, unless special precautions are taken, the radiant energy emitted +by the metal plate is liable to be mistaken for the primary energy +emitted by the inducing spiral. + +The current induced in the receiving spiral by the inducing one is +practically instantaneous; but on the interposition of a metal plate +the induced current which, as before described, is set up by the plate +itself has a perceptible duration depending upon the nature and mass of +metal thus interposed. Copper and zinc produce in this manner an induced +current of greater length than metals of lower conductivity, with the +exception of iron, which gives an induced current of extremely short +duration. It will therefore be seen that in endeavoring to ascertain +what I term the specific inductive resistance of different metals by +the means described, notice must be taken of and allowance made for +two points. First, that the metal plate not only cuts off, but itself +radiates; and secondly, that the duration of the induced currents +radiated by the plates varies with each different metal under +experiment. + +This explains the fact before pointed out that the apparent percentage +of inductive radiant energy intercepted by metal plates varies with the +speed of the reversals; for in the case of copper the induced current +set up by such a plate has so long a duration that if the speed of the +reverser is at all rapid the induced current has not time to exhaust +itself before the galvanometer is reversed, and thus the current being +on the opposite side of the galvanometer tends to produce a lower +deflection. If the speed of the reverser be further increased, the +greater part of the induced current is received on the opposite terminal +of the galvanometer, so that a negative result is obtained. + +We know that it was the strong analogies which exist between electricity +and magnetism that led experimentalists to seek for proofs that would +identify them as one and the same thing, and it was the result of +Professor Oersted's experiment to which I have already referred that +first identified them. + +Probably the time is not far distant when it will be possible to +demonstrate clearly that heat and electricity are as closely allied; +then, knowing the great analogies existing between heat and light, may +we not find that heat, light, and electricity are modifications of +the same force or property, susceptible under varying conditions of +producing the phenomena now designated by those terms? For instance, +friction will first produce electricity, then heat, and lastly light. + +As is well known, heat and light are reflected by metals; I was +therefore anxious to learn whether electricity could be reflected in +the same way. In order to ascertain this, spiral B was placed in this +position, which you will observe is parallel to the lines of force +emitted by spiral A. In this position no induced current is set up +therein, so the galvanometer is not affected; but when this plate of +metal is placed at this angle it intercepts the lines of force, which +cause it to radiate, and the secondary lines of force are intercepted +and converted into induced currents by spiral B to the power indicated +by the galvanometer. Thus the phenomenon of reflection appears to be +produced in a somewhat similar manner to reflection of heat and light. +The whole arrangement of this experiment is as shown on the sheet before +you numbered 5, which I need not, I think, more fully explain to you +than by saying that the secondary lines of force are represented by the +dotted lines. + +Supported in this wooden frame marked C is a spiral similar in +construction to the one marked B, but in this case the copper wire is +0.044 inch in diameter, silk-covered, and consists of 365 turns, with +a total length of 605 yards; its resistance is 10.2 ohms, the whole is +inclosed between two thick sheets of card paper. The two ends of the +spiral are attached to two terminals placed one on either side of the +frame, a wire from one of the terminals is connected to one pole of a +battery of 25 Leclanche cells, the other pole being connected with one +terminal of a reverser, the second terminal of which is connected to the +other terminal of the spiral. + +Now, if this very small spiral which is in circuit with the galvanometer +and a reverser be placed parallel to the center of spiral C, a very +large deflection will be seen on the galvanometer scale; this will +gradually diminish as the smaller spiral is passed slowly over the face +of the larger, until on nearing the edge of the latter the smaller +spiral will cease to be affected by the inductive lines of force from +spiral C, and consequently the galvanometer indicates no deflection. But +if this smaller spiral be placed at a different angle to the larger +one, it is, as you observe by the deflection of the galvanometer, again +affected. This experiment is analogous to the one illustrated by diagram +6, which represents the result of an experiment made to ascertain the +relative strength of capability or producing inductive effects of +different parts of a straight electro-magnet. + +A, Fig. 1, represents the iron core, PP the primary coil, connected +at pleasure to one Grove cell, B, by means of the key, K; S, a small +secondary coil free to move along the primary coil while in circuit with +the galvanometer, G. The relative strength of any particular spot can be +obtained by moving the coil, S, exactly over the required position. The +small secondary coil is only cut at right angles when it is placed in +the center of the magnet, and as it is moved toward either pole so the +lines of force cut it more and more obliquely. From this it would appear +that the results obtained are not purely dependent upon the strength of +the portion of the magnet over which the secondary coil is placed, but +principally upon the angle at which the lines of force cut the coil so +placed. It does not follow, therefore, that the center of the magnet is +its strongest part, as the results of the experiments at first sight +appear to show. + +It was while engaged on those experiments that I discovered that a +telephone was affected when not in any way connected with the spiral, +but simply placed so that the lines of force proceeding from the spiral +impinged upon the iron diaphragm of the telephone. Please to bear in +mind that the direction of the lines of force emitted from the spiral +is such that, starting from any point on one of its faces, a circle +is described extending to a similar point on the opposite side. The +diameter of the circles described decreases from infinity as the points +from which they start recede from the center toward the circumference. +From points near the circumference these circles or curves are very +small. To illustrate this to you, the reverser now in circuit with +spiral C will be replaced by a simple make and break arrangement, +consisting on a small electro-magnet fixed between the prongs of a +tuning-fork, and so connected that electro-magnet influences the arms of +the fork, causing them to vibrate to a certain pitch. The apparatus is +placed in a distant room to prevent the sound being heard here, as I +wish to make it inductively audible to you. For that purpose I have here +a light spiral which is in circuit with this telephone. Now, by placing +the spiral in front of spiral C, the telephone reproduces the sound +given out by the tuning-fork so loudly that I have no doubt all of you +can hear it. Here is another spiral similar in every respect to spiral +C. This is in circuit with a battery and an ordinary mechanical make and +break arrangement, the sound given off by which I will now make audible +to you in the same way that I did the sound of the tuning-fork. Now you +hear it. I will change from the one spiral to the other several times, +as I want to make you acquainted with the sounds of both, so that you +will have no difficulty in distinguishing them, the one from the other. + +There are suspended in this room self-luminous bodies which enable us by +their rays or lines of force to see the non-luminous bodies with which +we are surrounded. There are also radiating in all directions from me +while speaking lines of force or sound waves which affect more or +less each one of you. But there are also in addition to, and quite +independent of, the lines of force just mentioned, magnetic lines +of force which are too subtle to be recognized by human beings, +consequently, figuratively, we are both blind and deaf to them. However, +they can be made manifest either by their notion on a suspended magnet +or on a conducting body moving across them; the former showing its +results by attraction and repulsion, the latter by the production of an +electric current. For instance, by connecting the small flat spiral of +copper wire in direct circuit with the galvanometer, you will perceive +that the slightest movement of the spiral generates a current of +sufficient strength to very sensibly affect the galvanometer; and as +you observe, the amplitude of the deflection depends upon the speed +and direction in which the spiral is moved. We know that by moving a +conductor of electricity in a magnetic field we are able to produce an +electric current of sufficient intensity to produce light resembling +in all its phases that of solar light; but to produce these strong +currents, very powerful artificial magnetic fields have to be generated, +and the conductor has to be moved therein at a great expenditure of heat +energy. May not the time arrive when we shall no longer require these +artificial and costly means, but have learned how to adopt those forces +of nature which we now so much neglect? One ampere of current passing +through an ordinary incandescent lamp will produce a light equal to ten +candles, and I have shown that by simply moving this small flat spiral a +current is induced in it from the earth's magnetic field equal to 0.0007 +ampere. With these facts before us, surely it would not be boldness to +predict that a time may arrive when the energy of the wind or tide will +be employed to produce from the magnetic lines of force given out by the +earth's magnetism electrical currents far surpassing anything we have +yet seen or of which we have heard. Therefore let us not despise the +smallness of the force, but rather consider it an element of power from +which might arise conditions far higher in degree, and which we might +not recognize as the same as this developed in its incipient stage. + +If the galvanometer be replaced by a telephone, no matter how the spiral +be moved, no sound will be heard, simply because the induced currents +produced consist of comparatively slow undulations, and not of sharp +variations suitable for a telephone. But by placing in circuit this +mechanical make and break arrangement the interruptions of the current +are at once audible, and by regulating the movement of the spiral I can +send signals, which, if they had been prearranged, might have enabled +us to communicate intelligence to each other by means of the earth's +magnetism. I show this experiment more with a view to illustrate the +fact that for experiments on induction both instruments are necessary, +as each makes manifest those currents adapted to itself. + +The lines of force of light, heat, and sound can be artificially +produced and intensified, and the more intense--they are the more we +perceive their effects on our eyes, ears, or bodies. But it is not so +with the lines of magnetic force, for it matters not how much their +power is increased--they appear in no way to affect us. Their presence +can, however, be made manifest to our eyes or ears by mechanical +appliances. I have already shown you how this can be done by means of +either a galvanometer or a telephone in circuit with a spiral wire. + +I have already stated that while engaged in these experiments I found +that as far as the telephone was concerned it was immaterial whether it +was in circuit with a spiral or not, as in either case it accurately +reproduced the same sounds; therefore, much in the same way as lenses +assist the sight or tubes the hearing, so does the telephone make +manifest the lines of intermittent inductive energy. This was quite a +new phenomenon to me, and on further investigation of the subject I +found that it was not necessary to have even a telephone, for by simply +holding a piece of iron to my ear and placing it close to the center +of the spiral I could distinctly hear the same sounds as with the +telephone, although not so loud. The intensity of the sound was greatly +increased when the iron was placed in a magnetic field. Here is a small +disk of iron similar to those used in telephones, firmly secured in this +brass frame; this is a small permanent bar magnet, the marked end of +which is fixed very closely to, but not touching, the center of the iron +disk. Now, by applying the disk to my ear I can hear the same sounds +that were audible to all of you when the telephone in circuit with a +small spiral was placed in front of and close to the large spiral. To me +the sound is quite as loud as when you heard it; but now you are one and +all totally deaf to it. My original object in constructing two large +spirals was to ascertain whether the inductive lines of force given out +from one source would in any way interfere with those proceeding from +another source. By the aid of this simple iron disk and magnet it can be +ascertained that they do in no way interfere with each other; therefore, +the direction of the lines proceeding from each spiral can be distinctly +traced. For when the two spirals are placed parallel to each other at +a distance of 3 ft. apart, and connected to independent batteries and +transmitters, as shown in Plate 7, each transmitter having a sound +perfectly distinct from that of the other, when the circuits are +completed the separate sounds given out by the two transmitters can be +distinctly heard at the same time by the aid of a telephone; but, by +placing the telephone in a position neutral to one of the spirals, then +only the sound proceeding from the other can be heard. These results +occur in whatever position the spirals are placed relatively to each +other, thus proving that there is no interference with or blending of +the separate lines of force. The whole arrangement will be left in +working order at the close of the meeting for any gentlemen present to +verify my statements or to make what experiments they please. + +In conclusion, I would ask, what can we as practical men gather from +these experiments? A great deal has been written and said as to the best +means to secure conductors carrying currents of very low tension, +such as telephone circuits, from being influenced by induction from +conductors in their immediate vicinity employed in carrying currents of +comparatively very high tension, such as the ordinary telegraph wires. +Covering the insulated wires with one or other of the various metals has +not only been suggested but said to have been actually employed with +marked success. Now, it will found that a thin sheet of any known metal +will in no appreciable way interrupt the inductive lines of force +passing between two flat spirals; that being so, it is difficult to +understand how inductive effects are influenced by a metal covering as +described. + +Telegraph engineers and electricians have done much toward accomplishing +the successful working of our present railway system, but still there +is much scope for improvements in the signaling arrangements. In foggy +weather the system now adopted is comparatively useless, and resource +has to be had at such times to the dangerous and somewhat clumsy method +of signaling by means of detonating charges placed upon the rails. +Now, it has occurred to me that volta induction might be employed with +advantage in various ways for signaling purposes. For example, one or +more wire spirals could be fixed between the rails at any convenient +distance from the signaling station, so that when necessary intermittent +currents could be sent through the spirals; and another spiral could be +fixed beneath the engine or guard's van, and connected to one or more +telephones placed near those in charge of the train. Then as the train +passed over the fixed spiral the sound given out by the transmitter +would be loudly reproduced by the telephone and indicate by its +character the signal intended. + +One of my experiments in this direction will perhaps better illustrate +my meaning. The large spiral was connected in circuit with twelve +Leclanche cells and the two make and break transmitters before +described. They were so connected that either transmitter could be +switched into circuit when required, and this I considered the signaling +station. This small spiral was so arranged that it passed in front of +the large one at the distance of 8 in. and at a speed of twenty-eight +miles per hour. The terminals of the small spiral were connected to +a telephone fixed in a distant room, the result being that the sound +reproduced from either transmitter could be clearly heard and recognized +every time the spirals passed each other. With a knowledge of this fact +I think it will be readily understood now a cheap and efficient adjunct +to the present system of railway signaling could be obtained by such +means as I have ventured to bring to your notice this evening. + +Thus have I given you some of the thoughts and experiments which have +occupied my attention during my leisure. I have been long under the +impression that there is a feeling in the minds of many that we are +already in a position to give an answer to almost every question +relating to electricity or magnetism. All I can say is, that the more +I endeavor to advance in a knowledge of these subjects, the more am I +convinced of the fallacy of such a position. There is much yet to be +learnt, and if there be present either member, associate, or student to +whom I have imparted the smallest instruction, I shall feel that I have +not unprofitably occupied my time this evening. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON TELPHERAGE. + +[Footnote: Introductory address delivered to the Class of Engineering, +University of Edinburgh, October 30, 1883.] + +By Professor FLEEMING JENKIN, LL.D., F.R.S. + + +"The transmission of vehicles by electricity to a distance, +independently of any control exercised from the vehicle, I will call +Telpherage." These words are quoted from my first patent relating to +this subject. The word should, by the ordinary rules of derivation, be +telphorage; but as this word sounds badly to my ear, I ventured to adopt +such a modified form as constant usage in England for a few centuries +might have produced, and I was the more ready to trust to my ear in the +matter because the word telpher relieves us from the confusion which +might arise between telephore and telephone, when written. + +I have been encouraged to choose Telpherage as the subject of my address +by the fact that a public exhibition of a telpher line, with trains +running on it, will be made this afternoon for the first time. + +You are, of course, all aware that electrical railways have been run, +and are running with success in several places. Their introduction has +been chiefly due to the energy and invention of Messrs. Siemens. I do +not doubt of their success and great extension in the future--but when +considering the earliest examples of these railways in the spring of +last year, it occurred to me that in simply adapting electric motors to +the old form of railway and rolling stock, inventors had not gone far +enough back. George Stephenson said that the railway and locomotive were +two parts of one machine, and the inference seemed to follow that when +electric motors were to be employed a new form of road and a new type of +train would be desirable. + +When using steam, we can produce the power most economically in large +engines, and we can control the power most effectually and most cheaply +when so produced. A separate steam engine to each carriage, with its own +stoker and driver, could not compete with the large locomotive and heavy +train; but these imply a strong and costly road and permanent way. No +mechanical method of distributing power, so as to pull trains along at a +distance from a stationary engine, has been successful on our railways; +but now that electricity has given us new and unrivaled means for the +distribution of power, the problem requires reconsideration. + +With the help of an electric current as the transmitter of power, we +can draw off, as it were, one, two, or three horse-power from a hundred +different points of a conductor many miles long, with as much ease as we +can obtain 100 or 200 horse-power at any one point. We can cut off the +power from any single motor by the mere break of contact between two +pieces of metal; we can restore the power by merely letting the two +pieces of metal touch; we can make these changes by electro magnets with +the rapidity of thought, and we can deal as we please with each of +one hundred motors without sensibly affecting the others. These +considerations led me to conclude, in the first place, that when using +electricity we might with advantage subdivide the weight to be carried, +distributing the load among many light vehicles following each other in +an almost continuous stream, instead of concentrating the load in heavy +trains widely spaced, as in our actual railways. The change in the +distribution of the load would allow us to adopt a cheap, light form +of load. The wide distribution of weight, entails many small trains in +substitution for a single heavy train; these small trains could not be +economically run if a separate driver were required for each. But, as +I have already pointed out, electricity not only facilitates the +distribution of power, but gives a ready means of controlling that +power. Our light, continuous stream of trains can, therefore, be +worked automatically, or managed independently of any guard or driver +accompanying the train--in other words, I could arrange a self-acting +block for preventing collisions. Next came the question, what would be +the best form of substructure for the new mode of conveyance? Suspended +rods or ropes, at a considerable height, appeared to me to have great +advantages over any road on the level of the ground; the suspended rods +also seemed superior to any stiff form of rail or girder supported at a +height. The insulation of ropes with few supports would be easy; they +could cross the country with no bridges or earth-works; they would +remove the electrical conductor to a safe distance from men and cattle; +cheap small rods employed as so many light suspension bridges would +support in the aggregate a large weight. Moreover, I consider that a +single rod or rail would present great advantages over any double rail +system, provided any suitable means could be devised for driving a train +along a single track. (Up to that time two conductors had invariably +been used.) It also seemed desirable that the metal rod bearing the +train should also convey the current driving it. Lines such as I +contemplated would not impede cultivation nor interfere with fencing. +Ground need not be purchased for their erection. Mere wayleaves would +be sufficient, as in the case of telegraphs. My ideas had reached this +point in the spring of 1882, and I had devised some means for carrying +them into effect when I read the account of the electrical railway +exhibited by Professors Ayrton and Perry. In connection with this +railway they had contrived means rendering the control of the vehicles +independent of the action of the guard or driver; and this absolute +block, as they called their system, seemed to me all that was required +to enable me at once to carry out my idea of a continuous stream of +light, evenly spaced trains, with no drivers or guards. I saw, moreover, +that the development of the system I had in view would be a severe tax +on my time and energy; also that in Edinburgh I was not well placed for +pushing such a scheme, and I had formed a high opinion of the value of +the assistance which Professors Ayrton and Perry could give in designs +and inventions. + +Moved by these considerations, I wrote asking Professor Ayrton to +co-operate in the development of my scheme, and suggesting that he +should join with me in taking out my first Telpher patent. It has been +found more convenient to keep our several patents distinct, but my +letter ultimately led to the formation of the Telpherage Company +(limited), in which Professor Ayrton, Professor Perry, and I have equal +interests. This company owns all our inventions in respect of electric +locomotion, and the line shown in action to-day has been erected by this +company on the estate of the chairman--Mr. Marlborough R. Pryor, of +Weston. Since the summer of last year, and more especially since the +formation of the company this spring, much time and thought has been +spent in elaborating details. We are still far from the end of our work, +and it is highly probable what has been done will change rapidly by a +natural process of evolution. Nevertheless, the actual line now working +does in all its main features accurately reproduce my first conception, +and the general principles I have just laid down will, I think, remain +true, however great the change in details may be. + +The line at Weston consist of a series of posts, 60 ft. apart, with two +lines of rods or ropes, supported by crossheads on the posts. Each of +these lines carries a train; one in fact is the up line, and the other +the down line. Square steel rods, round steel rods, and steel wire ropes +are all in course of trial. The round steel rod is my favorite road at +present. The line is divided into sections of 120 ft. or two spans, and +each section is insulated from its neighbor. The rod or rope is at the +post supported by cast-iron saddles, curved in a vertical plane, so as +to facilitate the passage of the wheels over the point of support. +Each alternate section is insulated from the ground; all the insulated +sections are in electrical connection with one another--so are all the +uninsulated sections. The train is 120 ft. long--the same length as that +of a section. It consists of a series of seven buckets and a locomotive, +evenly spaced with ash distance pieces--each bucket will convey, as a +useful load, about 21/2 cwt., and the bucket or skep, as it has come to be +called, weighs, with its load, about 3 cwt. The locomotive also weighs +about 3 cwt. The skeps hang below the line from one or from two V +wheels, supported by arms which project out sideways so as to clear the +supports at the posts; the motor or dynamo on the locomotive is also +below the line. It is supported on two broad flat wheels, and is driven +by two horizontal gripping wheels; the connection of these with the +motor is made by a new kind of frictional gear which I have called nest +gear, but which I cannot describe to-day. The motor on the locomotive +as a maximum 11/2 horse-power when so much is needed. A wire connects one +pole of the motor with the leading wheel of the train, and a second wire +connects the other pole with the trailing wheel; the other wheels are +insulated from each other. Thus the train, wherever it stands, bridges a +gap separating the insulated from the uninsulated section. The insulated +sections are supplied with electricity from a dynamo driven by a +stationary engine, and the current passing from the insulated section +to the uninsulated section through the motor drives the locomotive. The +actual line is quite short, and can only show two trains, one on the up +and one on the down line; but with sufficient power at the station any +number of trains could be driven in a continuous stream on each line. +The appearance is that of a line of buckets running along a single +telegraph wire of large size. A block system is devised and partly made, +but is not yet erected. It differs from the earlier proposals in having +no working parts on the line. This system of propulsion is called by us +the Cross Over Parallel Arc. Other systems of supplying the currents, +devised both by Professors Ayrton and Perry and myself, will be tried on +lines now being erected; but that just described gives good results. The +motors employed in the locomotives were invented by Messrs. Ayrton and +Perry. They are believed to have the special advantage of giving a +larger power for a given weight than any others. One weighing 99 lb. +gave 11/2 horse-power in some tests lately made. One weighing 36 lb. gave +0.41 horse-power. + +No scientific experiments have yet been made on the working of the line, +and matters are not yet ripe for this--but we know that we can erect a +cheap and simple permanent way, which will convey a useful load of say +15 cwt. on every alternate span of 130 feet. This corresponds to 161/2 +tons per mile, which, running at five miles per hour, would convey 921/2 +tons of goods per hour. Thus if we work for 20 hours, the line will +convey 1850 tons of goods each way per diem, which seems a very fair +performance for an inch rope. The arrangement of the line with only one +rod instead of two rails diminishes friction very greatly. The carriages +run as light as bicycles. The same peculiarity allows very sharp curves +to be taken, but I am without experimental tests as yet of the limit +in this respect. Further, we now know that we can insulate the line +satisfactorily, even if very high potentials come to be employed. The +grip of the locomotive is admirable and almost frictionless, the gear is +silent and runs very easily. It is suited for the highest speeds, and +this is very necessary, as the motors may with advantage, run at 2,000 +revolutions per minute. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE FOR MAKING ELECTRIC LIGHT CARBONS. + + +One of the hinderances to the production of a regular and steady light +in electric illumination is the absence of perfect uniformity in the +carbons. This defect has more than once been pointed out by us, and we +are glad to notice any attempt to remedy an admitted evil. To this end +we illustrate above a machine for manufacturing carbons, invented by +William Cunliffe. The object the inventor has in view is not only the +better but the more rapid manufacture of carbons, candles, or electrodes +for electric lighting or for the manufacture of rods or blocks of carbon +or other compressible substances for other purposes, and his invention +consists in automatic machinery whereby a regular and uniform pressure +and compression of the carbon is obtained, and the rods or blocks are +delivered through the formers, in a state of greater density and better +quality then hitherto. The machine consists of two cylinders, A A', +placed longitudinally, as shown at Fig. 1, and in reversed position in +relation to each other. In each cylinder works a piston or plunger, a, +with a connecting rod or rods, b; in the latter case the ends of the +rods have right and left handed threads upon which a sleeve, c, with +corresponding threads, works. This sleeve, c, is provided with a hand +wheel, so that by the turning it the stroke of the plungers, a a, and +the size of the chambers, A A', is regulated so that the quantity of +material to be passed through the dies or formers is thereby determined +and may be indicated. In front of the chambers, A A', are fixed the dies +or formers, d d, which may have any number of perforations of the size +or shape of the carbon it is intended to mould. The dies are held in +position by clamp pieces, e e, secured to the end of the chambers A +A', by screws, and on each side of these clamp pieces are guides, with +grooves, in which moves a bar with a crosshead, termed the guillotine, +and which moves across the openings of the dies, and opening or closing +them. Near the front end of the cylinders are placed small pistons or +valves, f f, kept down in position by the weighted levers, g g (see Fig. +2, which is drawn to an enlarged scale), which, when the pressure in +the chamber exceeds that of the weighted levers connected to the safety +valve, f, the latter is raised and the guillotine bar, h, moved across +the openings of the dies by the connecting rods, h', thereby allowing +the carbon to be forced through the dies. In the backward movement +of the piston, a, a fresh supply of material is drawn by atmospheric +pressure through the hoppers, B B', alternately. At the end of the +stroke the arms of the rocking levers (which are connected by tension +rods with the tappet levers) are struck by the disk wheel or regulator, +the guillotine is moved back and replaced over the openings of the +dies, ready for the next charge, as shown. The plungers are operated by +hydraulic, steam, compressed air, or other power, the inlet and outlet +of such a pressure being regulated by a valve, an example of which is +shown at Fig. 1, and provided with the tappet levers, i i, hinged to the +valve chest, C, as shown, and attached to spindles, i' i', operating the +slide valves, and struck alternately at the end of each stroke, thus +operating the valves and the guillotine connections, i squared and i cubed. The +front ends of the cylinders may be placed at an angle for the more +convenient delivery of the moulded articles.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: MACHINE FOR MAKING ELECTRIC LIGHT CARBONS] + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW ELECTRIC BATTERY LIGHTS. + + +There has lately been held, at No. 31 Lombard Street, London, a private +exhibition of the Holmes and Burke primary galvanic battery. The chief +object of the display was to demonstrate its suitability for the +lighting of railway trains, but at the same time means were provided +to show it in connection with ordinary domestic illumination, as it is +evident that a battery will serve equally as well for the latter as for +the former purpose. Already the great Northern express leaving London at +5:30 P.M. is lighted by this means, and satisfactory experiments have +been made upon the South-western line, while the inventors give a long +list of other companies to which experimental plant is to be supplied. +The battery shown, in Lombard Street consisted of fifteen cells arranged +in three boxes of five cells each. Each box measured about 18 in. by +12 in. by 10 in., and weighed from 75 lb. to 100 lb. The electromotive +force of each cell was 1.8 volts and its internal resistance from 1/40 +to 1/50 of an ohm, consequently the battery exhibited had, under the +must favorable circumstances, a difference of potential of 27 volts at +its poles, and a resistance of 0.3 ohm. + +When connected to a group of ten Swan lamps of five candle power, +requiring a difference of potential of 20 volts, it raised them to vivid +incandescence, considerably above their nominal capacity, but it failed +to supply eighteen lamps of the same kind satisfactorily, showing that +its working capacity lay somewhere between the two. A more powerful lamp +is used in the railway carriages, but as there was only one erected it +was impossible to judge of the number that a battery of the size shown +would feed. _Engineering_ says the trial, however, demonstrated that +great quantities of current were being continuously evolved, and if, +as we understood, the production can be maintained constant for about +twenty-four hours without attention, the new battery marks a distinct +step in this kind of electric lighting. Of the construction of the +battery we unfortunately can say but little, as the patents are not yet +completed, but we may state that the solid elements are zinc and +carbon, and that the novelty lies in the liquid, and in the ingenious +arrangement for supplying and withdrawing it. + +Ordinarily one charge of liquid will serve for twenty-four hours +working, but this, of course, is entirely determined by the space +provided for it. It is sold at sevenpence a gallon, and each gallon is +sufficient, we are informed, to drive a cell while it generates 800 +ampere hours of current, or, taking the electromotive force at 1.8 +volts, it represents (800 x 1.8) / 746 = 1.93 horse-power hours. The +cost of the zinc is stated to be 35 per cent. of that of the fluid, +although it is difficult to see how this can be, for one horse-power +requires the consumption of 895.2 grammes of zinc per hour, or 1.96 lb., +and this at 18_l_. per ton, would cost 1.93 pence per pound, or 3.8 +pence per horse-power hour. This added to 3.6 pence for the fluid, would +give a total of 7.4 pence per horse-power per hour, and assuming twenty +lamps of ten candle power to be fed per horse-power, the cost would be +about one-third of a penny per hour per lamp. + +Mr Holmes admits his statement of the consumption of zinc does not agree +with what might be theoretically expected but he bases it upon the +result of his experiments in the Pullman train, which place the cost at +one farthing per hour per light. At the same time he does not profess +that the battery can compete in the matter of cost with mechanically +generated currents on a large scale, but he offers it as a convenient +means of obtaining the electric light in places where a steam engine or +a gas engine is inadmissible, as in a private house, and where the cost +of driving a dynamo machine is raised abnormally high by reason of a +special attendant having to be paid to look after it. + +But he has another scheme for the reduction of the cost, to which we +have not yet alluded, and of which we can say but little, as the details +are not at present available for publication. The battery gives off +fumes which can be condensed into a nitrogenous substance, valuable, it +is stated, as a manure, while the zinc salts in the spent liquid can be +recovered and returned to useful purposes. How far this is practicable +it is at present impossible to say, but at any rate the idea represents +a step in the right direction, and if the electricians can follow the +example of the gas manufacturers and obtain a revenue from the residuals +of galvanic batteries, they will greatly improve their commercial +position. There is nothing impossible in the idea, and neither is it +altogether novel, although the way of carrying it out may be. In 1848, +Staite, one of the early enthusiasts in electric lighting, patented a +series of batteries from which he proposed to recover sulphate, nitrate, +and chloride of zinc, but we never heard that he obtained any success. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW ELECTRIC RAILWAY. + + +The original electric railway laid down by Messrs. Siemens and Halske +at Berlin seems likely to be the parent of many others. One of the most +recent is the underground electric line laid down by the firm in the +mines of Zankerodain Saxony. An account of this railway has appeared in +_Glaser's Annalen_, together with drawings of the engine, which we are +able to reproduce. They are derived from a paper by Herr Fischer, read +on the 19th December, 1882, before the Electro-Technical Union of +Germany. The line in question is 700 meters long--770 yards--and has two +lines of way. It lies 270 meters--300 yards--below the surface of the +ground. It is worked by an electric locomotive, hauling ten wagons at a +speed of 12 kilometers, or 71/2 miles per hour. The total weight drawn is +eight tons. The gauge is a narrow one, so that the locomotive can be +made of small dimensions. Its total length between the buffer heads is +2.43 meters; its height 1.04 meters; breadth 0.8 meter; diameter of +wheels, 0.34 meter. From the rail head to the center of the buffers is a +height of 0.675 meter; and the total weight is only 1550 kilogrammes, or +say 3,400 lb. We give a longitudinal section through the locomotive. It +will be seen that there is a seat at each end for the driver, so that he +can always look forwards, whichever way the engine may be running. The +arrangements for connection with the electric current are very simple. +The current is generated by a dynamo machine fixed outside the mine, and +run by a small rotary steam engine, shown in section and elevation, at a +speed of 900 revolutions per minute. The current passes through a cable +down the shaft to a T-iron fixed to the side of the heading. On this +T-iron slide contact pieces which are connected with the electric engine +by leading wires. The driver by turning a handle can move his engine +backward or forward at will. The whole arrangement has worked extremely +well, and it is stated that the locomotive, if so arranged, could easily +do double its present work; in other words, could haul 15 to 16 tons of +train load at a speed of seven miles an hour. The arrangements for the +dynamo machine on the engine, and its connection with the wheels, are +much the same as those used in Sir William Siemens' electric railway now +working near the Giant's Causeway.--_The Engineer_. + +[Illustration: THE SIEMENS ELECTRIC RAILWAY AT ZANKERODA MINES.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EARLIEST GAS-ENGINE. + + +Lebon, in the certificate dated 1801, in addition to his first patent, +described and illustrated a three-cylinder gas-engine in which an +explosive mixture of gas and air was to have been ignited by an electric +spark. This is a curious anticipation of the Lenior system, not brought +out until more than fifty years later; but there is no evidence that +Lebon ever constructed an engine after the design referred to. It is an +instructive lesson to would-be patentees, who frequently expect to reap +immediate fame and fortune from their property in some crude ideas which +they fondly deem to be an "invention," to observe the very wide interval +that separates Lebon from Otto. The idea is the same in both cases; but +it has required long years of patient work, and many failures, to embody +the idea in a suitable form. It is almost surprising, to any one who has +not specially studied the matter, to discover the number of devices +that have been tried with the object of making an explosion engine, as +distinguished from one deriving its motive power from the expansion of +gaseous fluids. A narrative of some of these attempts has been presented +to the Societe des Ingenieurs Civils; mostly taken in the first place +from Stuart's work upon the origin of the steam engine, published in +1820, and now somewhat scarce. It appears from this statement that so +long ago as 1794, Robert Street described and patented an engine in +winch the piston was to be driven by the explosion of a gaseous mixture +whereof the combustible element was furnished by the vaporization of +_terebenthine_ (turpentine) thrown upon red hot iron. In 1807 De Rivaz +applied the same idea in a different manner. He employed a cylinder +12 centimeters in diameter fitted with a piston. At the bottom of the +cylinder there was another smaller one, also provided with a piston. +This was the aspirating cylinder, which drew hydrogen from an inflated +bag, and mixed it with twice its bulk of air by means of a two-way cock. +The ignition of the detonating mixture was effected by an electric +spark. It is said that the inventor applied his apparatus to a small +locomotive. + +In 1820 Mr. Cecil, of Cambridge, proposed the employment of a mixture of +air and hydrogen as a source of motive power; he gave a detailed account +of his invention in the _Transactions_ of the Cambridge Philosophical +Society, together with some interesting theoretical considerations. +The author observes here that an explosion may be safely opposed by +an elastic resistance--that of compressed air, for example--if such +resistance possesses little or no inertia to be brought into play; +contrariwise, the smallest inertia opposed to the explosion of a mixture +subjected to instantaneous combustion is equivalent to an insurmountable +obstacle. Thus a small quantity of gunpowder, or a detonating mixture of +air and hydrogen, may without danger be ignited in a large closed vessel +full of air, because the pressure against the sides of the vessel +exerted by the explosion is not more than the pressure of the air +compressed by the explosion. If a piece of card board, or even of paper, +is placed in the middle of the bore of a cannon charged with powder, the +cannon will almost certainly burst, because the powder in detonating +acts upon a body in repose which can only be put in motion in a period +of time infinitely little by the intervention of a force infinitely +great. The piece of paper is therefore equivalent to an insurmountable +obstacle. Of all detonating mixtures, or explosive materials, the most +dangerous for equal expansions, and the least fitted for use as motive +power, are those which inflame the most rapidly. Thus, a mixture +of oxygen and hydrogen, in which the inflammation is produced +instantaneously, is less convenient for this particular usage than a +mixture of air and hydrogen, which inflames more slowly. From this point +of view, ordinary gunpowder would make a good source of motive +power, because, notwithstanding its great power of dilatation, it is +comparatively slow of ignition; only it would be necessary to take +particular precautions to place the moving body in close contact with +the powder. Cecil pointed out that while a small steam engine could not +be started in work in less than half an hour, or probably more, a gas +engine such as he proposed would have the advantage of being always +ready for immediate use. Cecil's engine was the first in which the +explosive mixture was ignited by a simple flame of gas drawn into the +cylinder at the right moment. In the first model, which was that of +a vertical beam engine with a long cylinder of comparatively small +diameter, the motive power was simply derived from the descent of the +piston by atmospheric pressure; but Mr. Cecil is careful to state that +power may also be obtained directly from the force of the explosion. The +engine was worked with a cylinder pressure of about 12 atmospheres, and +the inventor seems to have recognized that the noise of the explosions +might be an objection to the machine, for he suggests putting the end of +the cylinder down in a well, or inclosing it in a tight vessel for the +purpose of deadening the shock. + +It is interesting to rescue for a moment the account of Mr. Cecil's +invention from the obscurity into which it has fallen--obscurity which +the ingenuity of the ideas embodied in this machine does not merit. It +is probable that in addition to the imperfections of his machinery, +Mr. Cecil suffered from the difficulty of obtaining hydrogen at a +sufficiently low price for use in large quantities. It does not +transpire that the inventor ever seriously turned his attention to the +advantages of coal gas, which even at that time, although very dear, +must have been much cheaper than hydrogen. Knowing what we do at +present, however, of the consumption of gas by a good engine of the +latest pattern, it may be assumed that a great deal of the trouble of +the gas engine builders of 60 years ago arose from the simple fact of +their being altogether before their age. Of course, the steam engine of +1820 was a much more wasteful machine, as well as more costly to build +than the steam engine of to-day; but the difference cannot have been so +great as to create an advantage in favor of an appliance which required +even greater nicety of construction. The best gas-engine at present made +would have been an expensive thing to supply with gas at the prices +current in 1820, even if the resources of mechanical science at that +date had been equal to its construction; which we know was not the case. +Still, this consideration was not known, or was little valued, by Mr. +Cecil and his contemporaries. It was not long, however, before Mr. Cecil +had to give way before a formidable rival; for in 1823 Samuel Brown +brought out his engine, which was in many respects an improvement upon +the one already described. It will probably be right, however, to regard +the Rev. Mr. Cecil, of Cambridge, as the first to make a practicable +model of a gas-engine in the United Kingdom.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + +Alabama has 2,118 factories, working 8,248 hands, with a capital +invested of $5,714,032, paying annually in wages $2,227,968, and +yielding annually in products $13,040,644. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MOVING OF LARGE MASSES. + +[Footnote: For previous article see SUPPLEMENT 367.] + + +The moving of a belfry was effected in 1776 by a mason who knew neither +how to read nor write. This structure was, and still is, at Crescentino, +upon the left bank of the Po, between Turin and Cazal. The following is +the official report on the operation: + +"In the year 1776, on the second day of September, the ordinary council +was convoked, ... as it is well known that, on the 26th of May last, +there was effected the removal of a belfry, 7 trabucs (22.5 m.) or +more in height, from the church called _Madonna del Palazzo_, with the +concurrence and in the presence and amid the applause of numerous people +of this city and of strangers who had come in order to be witnesses of +the removal of the said tower with its base and entire form, by means of +the processes of our fellow-citizen Serra, a master mason who took it +upon himself to move the said belfry to a distance of 3 meters, and to +annex it to a church in course of construction. In order to effect this +removal, the four faces of the brick walls were first cut and opened at +the base of the tower and on a level with the earth. Into the apertures +from north to south, that is to say in the direction that the edifice +was to take, there were introduced two large beams, and with these there +ran parallel, external to the belfry and alongside of it, two other rows +of beams of sufficient length and extent to form for the structure a bed +over which it might be moved and placed in position in the new spot, +where foundations of brick and lime had previously been prepared. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--REMOVAL OF A BELFRY AT CRESCENTINO IN 1776] + +"Upon this plane there were afterward placed rollers 31/2 inches in +diameter, and, upon these latter, there was placed a second row of beams +of the same length as the others. Into the eastern and western apertures +there were inserted, in cross-form, two beams of less length. + +"In order to prevent the oscillation of the tower, the latter was +supported by eight joists, two of these being placed on each side and +joined at their bases, each with one of the four beams, and, at their +apices, with the walls of the tower at about two-thirds of its height. + +"The plane over which the edifice was to be rolled had an inclination of +one inch. The belfry was hauled by three cables that wound around +three capstans, each of which was actuated by ten men. The removal was +effected in less than an hour. + +"It should be remarked that during the operation the son of the mason +Serra, standing in the belfry, continued to ring peals, the bells not +having been taken out. + +"Done at Crescentino, in the year and on the day mentioned." + +A note communicated to the Academie des Sciences at its session of May +9, 1831, added that the base of the belfry was 3.3 m. square. This +permits us to estimate its weight at about 150 tons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MOVING THE WINGED BULLS FROM NINEVEH TO MOSUL IN +1854] + +Fig. 1 shows the general aspect of the belfry with its stays. This is +taken from an engraving published in 1844 by Mr. De Gregori, who, during +his childhood, was a witness of the operation, and who endeavored to +render the information given by the official account completer without +being able to make the process much clearer. + +In 1854 Mr. Victor Place moved overland, from Nineveh to Mosul, the +winged bulls that at present are in the Assyrian museum of the Louvre, +and each of which weighs 32 tons. After carefully packing these in boxes +in order to preserve them from shocks, Place laid them upon their side, +having turned them over, by means of levers, against a sloping bank of +earth That he afterward dug away in such a manner that the operation was +performed without accident. He had had constructed an enormous car with +axles 0.25 m. in diameter, and solid wheels 0.8 m. in thickness (Fig. +2). Beneath the center of the box containing the bull a trench was dug +that ran up to the natural lever of the soil by an incline. This trench +had a depth and width such that the car could run under the box while +the latter was supported at two of its extremities by the banks. These +latter were afterward gradually cut away until the box rested upon the +car without shock. Six hundred men then manned the ropes and hauled the +car with its load up to the level of the plain. These six hundred men +were necessary throughout nearly the entire route over a plain that +was but slightly broken and in which the ground presented but little +consistency. + +The route from Khorsabad to Mosul was about 18 kilometers, taking into +account all the detours that had to be made in order to have a somewhat +firm roadway. It took four days to transport the first bull this +distance, but it required only a day and a half to move the other one, +since the ground had acquired more compactness as a consequence of +moving the first one over it, and since the leaders had become more +expert. The six hundred men at Mr. Place's disposal had, moreover, been +employed for three months back in preparing the route, in strengthening +it with piles in certain spots and in paving others with flagstones +brought from the ruins of Nineveh. In a succeeding article I shall +describe how I, a few years ago, moved an ammunition stone house, +weighing 50 tons, to a distance of 35 meters without any other machine +than a capstan actuated by two men.--_A. De Rochas, in La Nature_. + + * * * * * + +[NATURE.] + + + + +SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. + + +In the address delivered by Mr. Westmacott, President of the Institution +of Mechanical Engineers to the English and Belgian engineers assembled +at Liege last August, there occurred the following passage: "Engineering +brings all other sciences into play; chemical or physical discoveries, +such as those of Faraday, would be of little practical use if engineers +were not ready with mechanical appliances to carry them out, and make +them commercially successful in the way best suited to each." + +We have no objection to make to these words, spoken at such a time and +before such an assembly. It would of course be easy to take the converse +view, and observe that engineering would have made little progress in +modern times, but for the splendid resources which the discoveries of +pure science have placed at her disposal, and which she has only had to +adopt and utilize for her own purposes. But there is no need to quarrel +over two opposite modes of stating the same fact. There _is_ need on +the other hand that the fact itself should be fairly recognized and +accepted, namely, that science may be looked upon as at once the +handmaid and the guide of art, art as at once the pupil and the +supporter of science. In the present article we propose to give a few +illustrations which will bring out and emphasize this truth. + +We could scarcely find a better instance than is furnished to our hand +in the sentence we have chosen for a text. No man ever worked with a +more single hearted devotion to pure science--with a more absolute +disregard of money or fame, as compared with knowledge--than Michael +Faraday. Yet future ages will perhaps judge that no stronger impulse was +ever given to the progress of industrial art, or to the advancement of +the material interests of mankind, than the impulse which sprang from +his discoveries in electricity and magnetism. Of these discoveries +we are only now beginning to reap the benefit. But we have merely to +consider the position which the dynamo-electric machine already occupies +in the industrial world, and the far higher position, which, as almost +all admit, it is destined to occupy in the future, in order to see +how much we owe to Faraday's establishment of the connection between +magnetism and electricity. That is one side of the question--the debt +which art owes to science. But let us look at the other side also. Does +science owe nothing to art? Will any one say that we should know as much +as we do concerning the theory of the dynamo-electric motor, and the +laws of electro-magnetic action generally, if that motor had never +risen (or fallen, as you choose to put it) to be something besides the +instrument of a laboratory, or the toy of a lecture room? Only a short +time since the illustrious French physicist, M. Tresca, was enumerating +the various sources of loss in the transmission of power by electricity +along a fixed wire, as elucidated in the careful and elaborate +experiments inaugurated by M. Marcel Deprez, and subsequently continued +by himself. These losses--the electrical no less than the mechanical +losses--are being thoroughly and minutely examined in the hope of +reducing them to the lowest limit; and this examination cannot fail to +throw much light on the exact distribution of the energy imparted to a +dynamo machine and the laws by which this distribution is governed. +But would this examination ever have taken place--would the costly +experiments which render it feasible ever have been performed--if the +dynamo machine was still under the undisputed control of pure science, +and had not become subject to the sway of the capitalist and the +engineer? + +Of course the electric telegraph affords an earlier and perhaps as good +an illustration of the same fact. The discovery that electricity would +pass along a wire and actuate a needle at the other end was at first a +purely scientific one; and it was only gradually that its importance, +from an industrial point of view, came to be recognized. Here again art +owes to pure science the creation of a complete and important branch of +engineering, whose works are spread like a net over the whole face +of the globe. On the other hand our knowledge of electricity, and +especially of the electrochemical processes which go on in the working +of batteries, has been enormously improved in consequence of the use of +such batteries for the purposes of telegraphy. + +Let us turn to another example in a different branch of science. +Whichever of our modern discoveries we may consider to be the most +startling and important, there can I think be no doubt that the most +beautiful is that of the spectroscope. It has enabled us to do that +which but a few years before its introduction was taken for the very +type of the impossible, viz., to study the chemical composition of the +stars; and it is giving us clearer and clearer insight every day into +the condition of the great luminary which forms the center of our +system. Still, however beautiful and interesting such results may be, +it might well be thought that they could never have any practical +application, and that the spectroscope at least would remain an +instrument of science, but of science alone. This, however, is not the +case. Some thirty years since, Mr. Bessemer conceived the idea that +the injurious constituents of raw iron--such as silicon, sulphur, +etc.--might be got rid of by simple oxidation. The mass of crude metal +was heated to a very high temperature; atmospheric air was forced +through it at a considerable pressure; and the oxygen uniting with these +metalloids carried them off in the form of acid gases. The very act +of union generated a vast quantity of heat, which itself assisted the +continuance of the process; and the gas therefore passed off in a highly +luminous condition. But the important point was to know where to +stop; to seize the exact moment when all or practically all hurtful +ingredients had been removed, and before the oxygen had turned from them +to attack the iron itself. How was this point to be ascertained? It was +soon suggested that each of these gases in its incandescent state would +show its own peculiar spectrum; and that if the flame rushing out of the +throat of the converter were viewed through a spectroscope, the moment +when any substance such as sulphur, had disappeared would be known +by the disappearance of the corresponding lines in the spectrum. The +anticipation, it is needless to say, was verified, and the spectroscope, +though now superseded, had for a time its place among the regular +appliances necessary for the carrying on of the Bessemer process. + +This process itself, with all the momentous consequences, mechanical, +commercial, and economical, which it has entailed, might be brought +forward as a witness on our side; for it was almost completely worked +out in the laboratory before being submitted to actual practice. In this +respect it stands in marked contrast to the earlier processes for the +making of iron and steel, which were developed, it is difficult to say +how, in the forge or furnace itself, and amid the smoke and din of +practical work. At the same time the experiments of Bessemer were +for the most part carried out with a distinct eye to their future +application in practice, and their value for our present purpose is +therefore not so great. The same we believe may be said with regard +to the great rival of the Bessemer converter, viz., the Siemens open +hearth; although this forms in itself a beautiful application of the +scientific doctrine that steel stands midway, as regards proportion of +carbon, between wrought iron and pig iron, and ought therefore to be +obtainable by a judicious mixture of the two. The basic process is +the latest development, in this direction, of science as applied to +metallurgy. Here, by simply giving a different chemical constitution +to the clay lining of the converter, it is found possible to eliminate +phosphorus--an element which has successfully withstood the attack of +the Bessemer system. Now, to quote the words of a German eulogizer of +the new method, phosphorus has been turned from an enemy into a friend; +and the richer a given ore is in that substance, the more readily and +cheaply does it seem likely to be converted into steel. + +These latter examples have been taken from the art of metallurgy; and it +may of course be said that, considering the intimate relations between +that art and the science of chemistry, there can be no wonder if the +former is largely dependent for its progress on the latter. I will +therefore turn to what may appear the most concrete, practical, and +unscientific of all arts--that, namely, of the mechanical engineer; and +we shall find that even here examples will not fail us of the boons +which pure science has conferred upon the art of construction, nor even +perhaps of the reciprocal advantages which she has derived from the +connection. + +The address of Mr. Westmacott, from which I have already taken my text, +supplies in itself more than one instance of the kind we seek--instances +emphasized by papers read at the meeting where the address was spoken. +Let us take, first, the manufacture of sugar from beetroot. This +manufacture was forced into prominence in the early years of this +century, when the Continental blockade maintained by England against +Napoleon prevented all importation of sugar from America; and it has now +attained very large dimensions, as all frequenters of the Continent must +be aware. The process, as exhaustively described by a Belgian engineer, +M. Melin, offers several instances of the application of chemical and +physical science to practical purposes. Thus, the first operation in +making sugar from beetroot is to separate the juice from the flesh, the +former being as much as 95 per cent. of the whole weight. Formerly this +was accomplished by rasping the roots into a pulp, and then pressing the +pulp in powerful hydraulic presses; in other words, by purely mechanical +means. This process is now to a large extent superseded by what is +called the diffusion process, depending on the well known physical +phenomena of _endosmosis_ and _exosmosis_. The beetroot is cut up into +small slices called "cossettes," and these are placed in vessels filled +with water. The result is that a current of endosmosis takes place from +the water toward the juice in the cells, and a current of exosmosis +from the juice toward the water. These currents go on cell by cell, and +continue until a state of equilibrium is attained. The richer the water +and the poorer the juice, the sooner does this equilibrium take place. +Consequently the vessels are arranged in a series, forming what is +called a diffusion battery; the pure water is admitted to the first +vessel, in which the slices have already been nearly exhausted, and +subtracts from them what juice there is left. It then passes as a thin +juice to the next vessel, in which the slices are richer, and the +process begins again. In the last vessel the water which has already +done its work in all the previous vessels comes into contact with fresh +slices, and begins the operation upon them. The same process has been +applied at the other end of the manufacture of sugar. After the juice +has been purified and all the crystallizable sugar has been separated +from it by boiling, there is left a mass of molasses, containing so much +of the salts of potassium and sodium that no further crystallization of +the yet remaining sugar is possible. The object of the process called +osmosis is to carry off these salts. The apparatus used, or osmogene, +consists of a series of trays filled alternately with molasses and +water, the bottoms being formed of parchment paper. A current passes +through this paper in each direction, part of the water entering the +molasses, and part of the salts, together with a certain quantity of +sugar, entering the water. The result, of thus freeing the molasses +from the salts is that a large part of the remaining sugar can now be +extracted by crystallization. + +Another instance in point comes from a paper dealing with the question +of the construction of long tunnels. In England this has been chiefly +discussed of late in connection with the Channel Tunnel, where, however, +the conditions are comparatively simple. It is of still greater +importance abroad. Two tunnels have already been pierced through the +Alps; a third is nearly completed; and a fourth, the Simplon Tunnel, +which will be the longest of any, is at this moment the subject of +a most active study on the part of French engineers. In America, +especially in connection with the deep mines of the Western States, +the problem is also of the highest importance. But the driving of such +tunnels would be financially if not physically impossible, but for +the resources which science has placed in our hands, first, by the +preparation of new explosives, and, secondly, by methods of dealing with +the very high temperatures which have to be encountered. As regards the +first, the history of explosives is scarcely anything else than a record +of the application of chemical principles to practical purposes--a +record which in great part has yet to be written, and on which we cannot +here dwell. It is certain, however, that but for the invention of +nitroglycerine, a purely chemical compound, and its development in +various forms, more or less safe and convenient, these long tunnels +would never have been constructed. As regards the second point, the +question of temperature is really the most formidable with which the +tunnel engineer has to contend. In the St. Gothard Tunnel, just before +the meeting of the two headings in February, 1880, the temperature +rose as high as 93 deg. Fahr. This, combined with the foulness of the air, +produced an immense diminution in the work done per person and per horse +employed, while several men were actually killed by the dynamite gases, +and others suffered from a disease which was traced to a hitherto +unknown species of internal worm. If the Simplon Tunnel should be +constructed, yet higher temperatures may probably have to be dealt with. +Although science can hardly be said to have completely mastered these +difficulties, much has been done in that direction. A great deal of +mechanical work has of course to be carried on at the face or far end of +such a heading, and there are various means by which it might be done. +But by far the most satisfactory solution, in most cases at least, is +obtained by taking advantage of the properties of compressed air. Air +can be compressed at the end of the tunnel either by steam-engines, +or, still better, by turbines where water power is available. This +compressed air may easily be led in pipes to the face of the heading, +and used there to drive the small engines which work the rock-drilling +machines, etc. The efficiency of such machines is doubtless low, chiefly +owing to the physical fact that the air is heated by compression, and +that much of this heat is lost while it traverses the long line of pipes +leading to the scene of action. But here we have a great advantage from +the point of view of ventilation; for as the air gained heat while being +compressed, so it loses heat while expanding; and the result is that a +current of cold and fresh air is continually issuing from the +machines at the face of the heading, just where it is most wanted. In +consequence, in the St. Gothard, as just alluded to, the hottest parts +were always some little distance behind the face of the heading. +Although in this case as much as 120,000 cubic meters of air (taken +at atmospheric pressure) were daily poured into the heading, yet the +ventilation was very insufficient. Moreover, the high pressure which is +used for working the machines is not the best adapted for ventilation; +and in the Arlberg tunnel separate ventilating pipes are employed, +containing air compressed to about one atmosphere, which is delivered +in much larger quantities although not at so low a temperature. +In connection with this question of ventilation a long series of +observations have been taken at the St. Gothard, both during and since +the construction; these have revealed the important physical fact +(itself of high practical importance) that the barometer never stands at +the same level on the two sides of a great mountain chain; and so have +made valuable contributions to the science of meteorology. + +Another most important use of the same scientific fact, namely, the +properties of compressed air, is found in the sinking of foundations +below water. When the piers of a bridge, or other structure, had to be +placed in a deep stream, the old method was to drive a double row of +piles round the place and fill them in with clay, forming what is +called a cofferdam. The water was pumped out from the interior, and the +foundation laid in the open. This is always a very expensive process, +and in rapid streams is scarcely practicable. In recent times large +bottomless cases, called caissons, have been used, with tubes attached +to the roof, by which air can be forced into or out of the interior. +These caissons are brought to the site of the proposed pier, and are +there sunk. Where the bottom is loose sandy earth, the vacuum process, +as it is termed, is often employed; that is, the air is pumped out from +the interior, and the superincumbent pressure then causes the caisson +to sink and the earth to rise within it. But it is more usual to employ +what is called the plenum process, in which air under high pressure +is pumped into the caisson and expels the water, as in a diving bell. +Workmen then descend, entering through an air lock, and excavate the +ground at the bottom of the caisson, which sinks gradually as the +excavation continues. Under this system a length of some two miles of +quay wall is being constructed at Antwerp, far out in the channel of the +river Scheldt. Here the caissons are laid end to end with each other, +along the whole curve of the wall, and the masonry is built on the top +of them within a floating cofferdam of very ingenious construction. + +There are few mechanical principles more widely known than that of +so-called centrifugal force; an action which, though still a puzzle +to students, has long been thoroughly understood. It is, however, +comparatively recently that it has been applied in practice. One of the +earliest examples was perhaps the ordinary governor, due to the genius +of Watt. Every boy knows that if he takes a weight hanging from a string +and twirls it round, the weight will rise higher and revolve in a larger +circle as he increases the speed. Watt saw that if he attached such an +apparatus to his steam engine, the balls or weights would tend to rise +higher whenever the engine begun to run faster, that this action might +be made partly to draw over the valve which admitted the steam, and that +in this way the supply of steam would be lessened, and the speed would +fall. Few ideas in science have received so wide and so successful an +application as this. But of late years another property of centrifugal +force has been brought into play. The effect of this so-called force is +that any body revolving in a circle has a continual tendency to fly off +at a tangent; the amount of this tendency depending jointly on the mass +of the body and on the velocity of the rotation. It is the former of +these conditions which is now taken advantage of. For if we have a +number of particles all revolving with the same velocity, but of +different specific gravities, and if we allow them to follow their +tendency of moving off at a tangent, it is evident that the heaviest +particles, having the greatest mass, will move with the greatest energy. +The result is that, if we take a mass of such particles and confine them +within a circular casing, we shall find that, having rotated this casing +with a high velocity and for a sufficient time, the heaviest particles +will have settled at the outside and the lightest at the inside, while +between the two there will be a gradation from the one to the other. +Here, then, we have the means of separating two substances, solid +or liquid, which are intimately mixed up together, but which are of +different specific gravities. This physical principle has been taken +advantage of in a somewhat homely but very important process, viz., the +separation of cream from milk. In this arrangement the milk is charged +into a vessel something of the shape and size of a Gloucester cheese, +which stands on a vertical spindle and is made to rotate with a velocity +as high as 7,000 revolutions per minute. At this enormous speed the +milk, which is the heavier, flies to the outside, while the cream +remains behind and stands up as a thin layer on the inside of the +rotating cylinder of fluid. So completely does this immense speed +produce in the liquid the characteristics of a solid, that if the +rotating shell of cream be touched by a knife it emits a harsh, grating +sound, and gives the sensation experienced in attempting to cut a stone. +The separation is almost immediately complete, but the difficult point +was to draw off the two liquids separately and continuously without +stopping the machine. This has been simply accomplished by taking +advantage of another principle of hydromechanics. A small pipe opening +just inside the shell of the cylinder is brought back to near the +center, where it rises through a sort of neck and opens into an exterior +casing. The pressure due to the velocity causes the skim milk to rise in +this pipe and flow continuously out at the inner end. The cream is at +the same time drawn off by a similar orifice made in the same neck and +leading into a different chamber. + +Centrifugal action is not the only way in which particles of different +specific gravity can he separated from each other by motion only. If +a rapid "jigging" or up-and-down motion be given to a mixture of such +particles, the tendency of the lighter to fly further under the action +of the impulse causes them gradually to rise to the upper surface; this +surface being free in the present case, and the result being therefore +the reverse of what happens in the rotating chamber. If such a mixture +be examined after this up-and down motion has gone on for a considerable +period, it will be found that the particles are arranged pretty +accurately in layers, the lightest being at the top and the heaviest +at the bottom. This principle has long been taken advantage of in such +cases as the separation of lead ores from the matrix in which they are +embedded. The rock in these cases is crushed into small fragments, and +placed on a frame having a rapid up-and-down-motion, when the heavy lead +ore gradually collects at the bottom and the lighter stone on the top. +To separate the two the machine must be stopped and cleared by hand. In +the case of coal-washing, where the object is to separate fine coal from +the particles of stone mixed with it, this process would be very costly, +and indeed impossible, because a current of water is sweeping through +the whole mass. In the case of the Coppee coal-washer, the desired +end is achieved in a different and very simple manner. The well known +mineral felspar has a specific gravity intermediate between that of the +coal and the shale, or stone, with which it is found intermixed. If, +then, a quantity of felspar in small fragments is thrown into the +mixture, and the whole then submitted to the jigging process, the result +will be that the stone will collect on the top, and the coal at the +bottom, with a layer of felspar separating the two. A current of water +sweeps through the whole, and is drawn off partly at the top, carrying +with it the stone, and partly at the bottom, carrying with it the fine +coal. + +The above are instances where science has come to the aid of +engineering. Here is one in which the obligation is reversed. The rapid +stopping of railroad trains, when necessary, by means of brakes, is a +problem which has long occupied the attention of many engineers; and the +mechanical solutions offered have been correspondingly numerous. Some +of these depend on the action of steam, some of a vacuum, some of +compressed air, some of pressure-water; others again ingeniously utilize +the momentum of the wheels themselves. But for a long time no effort +was made by any of these inventors thoroughly to master the theoretical +conditions of the problem before them. At last, one of the most +ingenious and successful among them, Mr. George Westinghouse, resolved +to make experiments on the subject, and was fortunate enough to +associate with himself Capt. Douglas Galton. Their experiments, carried +on with rare energy and perseverance, and at great expense, not only +brought into the clearest light the physical conditions of the question +(conditions which were shown to be in strict accordance with theory), +but also disclosed the interesting scientific fact that the friction +between solid bodies at high velocities is not constant, as the +experiments of Morin had been supposed to imply, but diminishes rapidly +as the speed increases--a fact which other observations serve to +confirm. + +The old scientific principle known as the hydrostatic paradox, according +to which a pressure applied at any point of an inclosed mass of liquid +is transmitted unaltered to every other point, has been singularly +fruitful in practical applications. Mr. Bramah was perhaps the first +to recognize its value and importance. He applied it to the well known +Bramah press, and in various other directions, some of which were less +successful. One of these was a hydraulic lift, which Mr. Bramah proposed +to construct by means of several cylinders sliding within each other +after the manner of the tubes of a telescope. His specification of +this invention sufficiently expresses his opinion of its value, for it +concludes as follows: "This patent does not only differ in its nature +and in its boundless extent of claims to novelty, but also in its claims +to merit and superior utility compared with any other patent ever +brought before or sanctioned by the legislative authority of any +nation." The telescope lift has not come into practical use; but lifts +worked on the hydraulic principle are becoming more and more common +every day. The same principle has been applied by the genius of Sir +William Armstrong and others to the working of cranes and other machines +for the lifting of weights, etc.; and under the form of the accumulator, +with its distributing pipes and hydraulic engines, it provides a store +of power always ready for application at any required point in a large +system, yet costing practically nothing when not actually at work. This +system of high pressure mains worked from a central accumulator has +been for some years in existence at Hull, as a means of supplying power +commercially for all the purposes needed in a large town, and it is +at this moment being carried out on a wider scale in the East End of +London. + +Taking advantage of this system, and combining with it another +scientific principle of wide applicability, Mr. J.H. Greathead has +brought out an instrument called the "injector hydrant," which seems +likely to play an important part in the extinguishing of fires. This +second principle is that of the lateral induction of fluids, and may be +thus expressed in the words of the late William Froude: "Any surface +which in passing through a fluid experiences resistance must in so doing +impress on the particles which resist it a force in the line of motion +equal to the resistance." If then these particles are themselves part +of a fluid, it will result that they will follow the direction of the +moving fluid and be partly carried along with it. As applied in the +injector hydrant, a small quantity of water derived from the high +pressure mains is made to pass from one pipe into another, coming in +contact at the same time with a reservoir of water at ordinary pressure. +The result is that the water from the reservoir is drawn into the second +pipe through a trumpet-shaped nozzle, and may be made to issue as +a stream to a considerable height. Thus the small quantity of +pressure-water, which, if used by itself, would perhaps rise to a height +of 500 feet, is made to carry with it a much larger quantity to a much +smaller height, say that of an ordinary house. + +The above are only a few of the many instances which might be given to +prove the general truth of the fact with which we started, namely, the +close and reciprocal connection between physical science and mechanical +engineering, taking both in their widest sense. It may possibly be worth +while to return again to the subject, as other illustrations arise. +Two such have appeared even at the moment of writing, and though their +practical success is not yet assured, it may be worth while to cite +them. The first is an application of the old principle of the siphon to +the purifying of sewage. Into a tank containing the sewage dips a siphon +pipe some thirty feet high, of which the shorter leg is many times +larger than the longer. When this is started, the water rises slowly and +steadily in the shorter column, and before it reaches the top has left +behind it all or almost all of the solid particles which it previously +held in suspension. These fall slowly back through the column and +collect at the bottom of the tank, to be cleared out when needful. The +effluent water is not of course chemically pure, but sufficiently so +to be turned into any ordinary stream. The second invention rests on +a curious fact in chemistry, namely, that caustic soda or potash will +absorb steam, forming a compound which has a much higher temperature +than the steam absorbed. If, therefore, exhaust-steam be discharged +into the bottom of a vessel containing caustic alkali, not only will it +become condensed, but this condensation will raise the temperature of +the mass so high that it may be employed in the generation of fresh +steam. It is needless to observe how important will be the bearing of +this invention upon the working of steam engines for many purposes, +if only it can be established as a practical success. And if it is so +established there can be no doubt that the experience thus acquired will +reveal new and valuable facts with regard to the conditions of chemical +combination and absorption, in the elements thus brought together. + +WALTER R. BROWNE. + + * * * * * + + + + +HYDRAULIC PLATE PRESS. + + +One of the most remarkable and interesting mechanical arrangements at +the Imperial Navy Yard at Kiel, Germany, is the iron clad plate bending +machine, by means of which the heavy iron clad plates are bent for the +use of arming iron clad vessels. + +Through the mechanism of this remarkable machine it is possible to bend +the strongest and heaviest iron clad plates--in cold condition--so that +they can be fitted close on to the ship's hull, as it was done with the +man-of-war ships Saxonia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden, each of which +having an iron strength of about 250 meters. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED HYDRAULIC PLATE PRESS.] + +One may make himself a proximate idea of the enormous power of pressure +of such a machine, if he can imagine what a strength is needed to bend +an iron plate of 250 meters thickness, in cold condition; being also 1.5 +meters in width, and 5.00 meters in length, and weighing about 14,555 +kilogrammes, or 14,555 tons. + +The bending of the plates is done as follows: As it is shown in the +illustration, connected herewith, there are standing, well secured into +the foundation, four perpendicular pillars, made of heavy iron, all +of which are holding a heavy iron block, which by means of female nut +screws is lifted and lowered in a perpendicular direction. Beneath the +iron block, between the pillars, is lying a large hollow cylinder in +which the press piston moves up and down in a perpendicular direction. +These movements are caused by a small machine, or, better, press +pump--not noticeable in the illustration--which presses water from +a reservoir through a narrow pipe into the large hollow cylinder, +preventing at the same time the escape or return of the water so forced +in. The hollow cylinder up to the press piston is now filled with water, +so remains no other way for the piston as to move on to the top. The +iron clad plate ready to undergo the bending process is lying between +press piston and iron block; under the latter preparations are already +made for the purpose of giving the iron clad plate such a form as it +will receive through the bending process. After this the press piston +will, with the greatest force, steadily but slowly move upward, until +the iron clad plate has received its intended bending. + +Lately the hydraulic presses are often used as winding machines, that +is, they are used as an arrangement to lift heavy loads up on elevated +points. + +The essential contrivance of a hydraulic press is as follows: + +One thinks of a powerful piston, which, through, human, steam, or water +power, is set in a moving up-and-down motion. Through the ascent of the +piston, is by means of a drawing pipe, ending into a sieve, the water +absorbed out of a reservoir, and by the lowering of the piston water is +driven out of a cylinder by means of a narrow pipe (communication pipe) +into a second cylinder, which raises a larger piston, the so-called +press piston. (See illustration.) + +One on top opening drawing valve, on the top end of the drawing pipe +prevents the return of the water by the going down of the piston; and a +barring valve, which is lifted by the lowering of the piston, obstructs +the return of the water by the ascent of the piston, while the drawing +valve is lifted by means of water absorbed by the small drawing +pipe.--_Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FAST PRINTING PRESS FOR ENGRAVINGS. + + +_Uber Land und Meer_, which is one of the finest illustrated newspapers +published in Germany, gives the following: We recently gave our readers +an insight into the establishment of _Uber Land und Meer_, and to-day we +show them the machine which each week starts our paper on its journey +around the world--a machine which embodies the latest and greatest +progress in the art of printing. The following illustration represents +one of the three fast presses which the house of Hallberger employs in +the printing of its illustrated journals. + +With the invention of the cylinder press by Frederick Koenig was verified +the saying that the art of printing had lent wings to words. Everywhere +the primitive hand-press had to make way for the steam printing machine; +but even this machine, since its advent in London in 1810, has itself +undergone so many changes that little else remains of Koenig's invention +than the principle of the cylinder. The demands of recent times for +still more rapid machines have resulted in the production of presses +printing from a continuous roll or "web" of paper, from cylinders +revolving in one given direction. The first of this class of presses +(the "Bullock" press) was built in America. Then England followed, +and there the first newspaper to make use of one was the _Times_. The +Augsburg Machine Works were the first to supply Germany with them, and +it was this establishment which first undertook to apply the principle +of the web perfecting press (first intended for newspaper work only, +where speed rather than fine work is the object sought) to book +printing, in which far greater accuracy and excellence is required, and +the result has been the construction of a rotary press for the highest +grade of illustrated periodical publications, which meets all the +requirements with the most complete success. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED FAST PRINTING PRESS FOR ENGRAVERS] + +The building of rotary presses for printing illustrated papers was +attempted as early as 1874 or 1875 in London, by the _Times_, but +apparently without success, as no public mention has ever been made of +any favorable result. The proprietor of the _London Illustrated News_ +obtained better results. In 1877 an illustrated penny paper, an +outgrowth of his great journal, was printed upon a rotary press which +was, according to his statement, constructed by a machinist named +Middleton. The first one, however, did not at all meet the higher +demands of illustrated periodical printing, and, while another machine +constructed on the same principle was shown in the Paris Exposition of +1878, its work was neither in quality nor quantity adequate to the needs +of a largely circulated illustrated paper. A second machine, also on +exhibition at the same time, designed and built by the celebrated French +machinist, P. Alauzet, could not be said to have attained the object. +Its construction was undertaken long after the opening of the +Exposition, and too late to solve the weighty question. But the +half-successful attempt gave promise that the time was at hand when a +press could be built which could print our illustrated periodicals more +rapidly, and a conference with the proprietors of the Augsburg Machine +Works resulted in the production by them of the three presses from which +_Uber Land und Meer_ and _Die Illustrirte Welt_ are to-day issued. As +a whole and in detail, as well as in its productions, the press is the +marvel of mechanic and layman. + +As seen in the illustration, the web of paper leaves the roll at its +right, rising to a point at the top where it passes between two hollow +cylinders covered with felt and filled with steam, which serve to dampen +the paper as may be necessary, the small hand-wheel seen above these +cylinders regulating the supply of steam. After leaving these cylinders +the paper descends sloping toward the right, and passes through two +highly polished cylinders for the purpose of recalendering. After this +it passes under the lowest of the three large cylinders of the press, +winds itself in the shape of an S toward the outside and over the middle +cylinder, and leaves the press in an almost horizontal line, after +having been printed on both sides, and is then cut into sheets. The +printing is done while the paper is passing around the two white +cylinders. The cylinder carrying the first form is placed inside and +toward the center of the press, only a part of its cog-wheel and its +journal being shown in the engraving. The second form is placed upon the +uppermost cylinder, and is the outside or cut form. Each one of the form +cylinders requires a separate inking apparatus. That of the upper one is +placed to the right at the top, and the bottom one is also at the right, +but inside. Each one has a fountain the whole breadth of the press, +in which the ink is kept, and connected with which, by appropriate +mechanism, is a system of rollers for the thorough distribution of the +ink and depositing it upon the forms. + +The rapidity with which the impressions follow each other does not allow +any time for the printing on the first side to dry, and as a consequence +the freshly printed sheet coming in contact with the "packing" of the +second cylinder would so soil it as to render clean printing absolutely +impossible. To avoid this, a second roll of paper is introduced into the +machine, and is drawn around the middle cylinder beneath the paper which +has already been printed upon one side, and receives upon its surface +all "offset," thus protecting and keeping perfectly clean both the +printed paper and the impression cylinder. This "offset" web, as it +leaves the press, is wound upon a second roller, which when full is +exchanged for the new empty roller--a very simple operation. + +The machines print from 3,500 to 4,000 sheets per hour _upon both +sides_, a rate of production from twenty-eight to thirty-two times as +great as was possible upon the old-fashioned hand-press, which was +capable of printing not more than 250 copies upon _one side_ in the same +time. + +The device above described for preventing "offset" is, we believe, the +invention of Mr. H.J. Hewitt, a well known New York printer, 27 Rose +Street. + + * * * * * + + + + +FRENCH CANNON. + + +Five new cannons, the largest yet manufactured in France, have been +successfully cast in the foundry of Ruelle near Angouleme. They are made +of steel, and are breech loading. The weight of each is 97 tons, without +the carriage. The projectile weighs 1,716 pounds, and the charge or +powder is 616 pounds. To remove them a special wagon with sixteen wheels +has had to be constructed, and the bridges upon the road from Ruelle to +Angouleme not being solid enough to bear the weight of so heavy a +load, a special roadway will be constructed for the transport of these +weapons, which are destined for coast defences and ironclads. + + * * * * * + + + + +WOODLANDS, STOKE POGIS, BUCKS. + + +The illustration represents a house recently reconstructed. The +dining-room wing was alone left in the demolition of the old premises, +and this part has been decorated with tile facings, and otherwise +altered to be in accordance with the new portion. The house is +pleasantly situated about a mile from Stoke Church of historic fame, +in about 15 acres of garden, shrubbery, and meadow land. The hall and +staircase have been treated in wainscot oak, and the whole of the work +has been satisfactorily carried out by Mr. G. Almond, builder, of +Burnham, under the superintendence of Messrs. Thurlow & Cross, +architects.--_The Architect_. + +[Illustration: WOODLANDS, STOKE POGES, BUCKS] + + * * * * * + + + + +CHINA GRASS. + + +The following article appeared in a recent number of the _London Times_: + +The subject of the cultivation and commercial utilization of the China +grass plant, or rhea, has for many years occupied attention, the +question being one of national importance, particularly as affecting +India. Rhea which is also known under the name of ramie, is a textile +plant which was indigenous to China and India. It is perennial, easy of +cultivation, and produces a remarkably strong fiber. The problem of its +cultivation has long being solved, for within certain limits rhea can +be grown in any climate. India and the British colonies offer unusual +facilities, and present vast and appropriate fields for that enterprise, +while it can be, and is, grown in most European countries. All this has +long been demonstrated; not so, however, the commercial utilization of +the fiber, which up to the present time would appear to be a problem +only partially solved, although many earnest workers have been engaged +in the attempted solution. + +There have been difficulties in the way of decorticating the stems of +this plant, and the Indian Government, in 1869, offered a reward of +L5,000 for the best machine for separating the fiber from the stems and +bark of rhea in its green or freshly cut state. The Indian Government +was led to this step by the strong conviction, based upon ample +evidence, that the only obstacle to the development of an extensive +trade in this product was the want of suitable means for decorticating +the plant. This was the third time within the present century that rhea +had become the subject of official action on the part of the Government, +the first effort for utilizing the plant dating from 1803, when Dr. +Roxburg started the question, and the second from 1840, when attention +was again directed to it by Colonel Jenkins. + +The offer of L5,000, in 1869, led to only one machine being submitted +for trial, although several competitors had entered their names. This +machine was that of Mr. Greig, of Edinburgh, but after careful trial +by General (then Lieutenant Colonel) Hyde it was found that it did not +fulfill the conditions laid down by the Government, and therefore the +full prize of L5,000 was not awarded. In consideration, however, of the +inventor having made a _bona fide_ and meritorious attempt to solve +the question, he was awarded a donation of L1,500. Other unsuccessful +attempts were subsequently made, and eventually the offer of L5,000 was +withdrawn by the Government. + +But although the prize was withdrawn, invention did not cease, and the +Government, in 1881, reoffered the prize of L5,500. Another competition +took place, at which several machines were tried, but the trials, as +before, proved barren of any practical results, and up to the present +time no machine has been found capable of dealing successfully with this +plant in the green state. The question of the preparation of the fiber, +however, continued to be pursued in many directions. Nor is this to be +wondered at when it is remembered that the strength of some rhea fiber +from Assam experimented with in 1852 by Dr. Forbes Royle, as compared +with St. Petersburg hemp, was in the ratio of 280 to 160, while the wild +rhea from Assam was as high as 343. But, above and beyond this, rhea has +the widest range of possible applications of any fiber, as shown by an +exhaustive report on the preparation and use of rhea fiber by Dr. Forbes +Watson, published in 1875, at which date Dr. Watson was the reporter on +the products of India to the Secretary of State, at the India Office. +Last year, however, witnessed the solution of the question of +decortication in the green state in a satisfactory manner by M.A. +Favier's process, as reported by us at the time. + +This process consists in subjecting the plant to the action of steam for +a period varying from 10 to 25 minutes, according to the length of time +the plant had been cut. After steaming, the fiber and its adjuncts +were easily stripped from the wood. The importance and value of this +invention will be realized, when it is remembered that the plant is +cultivated at long distances from the localities where the fiber +is prepared for the market. The consequence is, that for every +hundredweight of fiber about a ton of woody material has to be +transported. Nor is this the only evil, for the gummy matter in which +the fiber is embedded becomes dried up during transport, and the +separation of the fiber is thus rendered difficult, and even impossible, +inasmuch as some of the fiber is left adhering to the wood. + +M. Favier's process greatly simplifies the commercial production of the +fiber up to a certain point, for, at a very small cost, it gives the +manufacturer the whole of the fiber in the plant treated. But it still +stops short of what is required, in that it delivers the fiber in +ribbons, with its cementitious matter and outer skin attached. To remove +this, various methods have been tried, but, as far as we are aware, +without general success--that is to say, the fiber cannot always +be obtained of such a uniformly good quality as to constitute a +commercially reliable article. Such was the position of the question +when, about a year ago, the whole case was submitted to the +distinguished French chemist, Professor Fremy, member of the Institute +of France, who is well-known for his researches into the nature of +fibrous plants, and the question of their preparation for the market. +Professor Fremy thoroughly investigated the matter from a chemical point +of view, and at length brought it to a successful and, apparently, a +practical issue. + +One great bar to previous success would appear to have been the absence +of exact knowledge as to the nature of the constituents of that portion +of the plant which contains the fiber, or, in other words, the casing or +bark surrounding the woody stem of the rhea. As determined by Professor +Fremy, this consists of the cutose, or outer skin, within which is the +vasculose containing the fiber and other conjoined matter, known as +cellulose, between which and the woody stem is the pectose, or gum, +which causes the skin or bark, as a whole, fiber included, to adhere to +the wood. The Professor, therefore, proceeded to carefully investigate +the nature of these various substances, and in the result he found +that the vasculose and pectose were soluble in an alkali under certain +conditions, and that the cellulose was insoluble. He therefore dissolves +out the cutose, vasculose, and pectose by a very simple process, +obtaining the fiber clean, and free from all extraneous adherent matter, +ready for the spinner. + +In order, however, to insure as a result a perfectly uniform and +marketable article, the Professor uses various chemicals at the several +stages of the process. These, however, are not administered haphazard, +or by rule of thumb, as has been the case in some processes bearing in +the same direction, and which have consequently failed, in the sense +that they have not yet taken their places as commercial successes. The +Professor, therefore, carefully examines the article which he has to +treat, and, according to its nature and the character of its components, +he determines the proportions of the various chemicals which he +introduces at the several stages. All chance of failure thus appears to +be eliminated, and the production of a fiber of uniform and reliable +quality removed from the region of doubt into that of certainty. The two +processes of M. Favier and M. Fremy have, therefore, been combined, and +machinery has been put up in France on a scale sufficiently large +to fairly approximate to practical working, and to demonstrate the +practicability of the combined inventions. + +The experimental works are situated in the Route d'Orleans, Grand +Montrouge, just outside Paris, and a few days ago a series of +demonstrations were given there by Messrs. G.W.H. Brogden and Co., of +Gresham-house, London. The trials were carried out by M. Albert Alroy, +under the supervision of M. Urbain, who is Professor Fremy's chief +assistant and copatentee, and were attended by Dr. Forbes Watson, Mr. +M. Collyer, Mr. C.J. Taylor, late member of the General Assembly, New +Zealand, M. Barbe, M. Favier, Mr. G. Brogden, Mr. Caspar, and a number +of other gentlemen representing those interested in the question at +issue. The process, as carried out, consists in first treating the rhea +according to M. Favier's invention. The apparatus employed for this +purpose is very simple and inexpensive, consisting merely of a stout +deal trough or box, about 8 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and 1 ft. 8 in. deep. +The box has a hinged lid and a false open bottom, under which steam is +admitted by a perforated pipe, there being an outlet for the condensed +water at one end of the box. Into this box the bundles of rhea were +placed, the lid closed, steam turned on, and in about twenty minutes it +was invariably found that the bark had been sufficiently softened to +allow of its being readily and rapidly stripped off by hand, together +with the whole of the fiber, in what may be called ribbons. Thus the +process of decortication is effectively accomplished in a few minutes, +instead of requiring, as it sometimes does in the retting process, days, +and even weeks, and being at the best attended with uncertainty as +to results, as is also the case when decortication is effected by +machinery. + +Moreover, the retting process, which is simply steeping the cut plants +in water, is a delicate operation, requiring constant watching, to say +nothing of its serious inconvenience from a sanitary point of view, on +account of the pestilential emanations from the retteries. Decortication +by steam having been effected, the work of M. Favier ceases, and +the process is carried forward by M. Fremy. The ribbons having been +produced, the fiber in them has to be freed from the mucilaginous +secretions. To this end, after examination in the laboratory, they are +laid on metal trays, which are placed one above the other in a vertical +perforated metal cylinder. When charged, this cylinder is placed within +a strong iron cylinder, containing a known quantity of water, to which +an alkali is added in certain proportions. Within the cylinder is a +steam coil for heating the water, and, steam having been turned on, the +temperature is raised to a certain point, when the cylinder is closed +and made steam-tight. The process of boiling is continued under pressure +until the temperature--and consequently the steam pressure--within the +cylinder has attained a high degree. + +On the completion of this part of the process, which occupies about +four hours, and upon which the success of the whole mainly depends, +the cementitious matter surrounding the fiber is found to have been +transformed into a substance easily dissolved. The fibrous mass is then +removed to a centrifugal machine, in which it is quickly deprived of its +surplus alkaline moisture, and it is then placed in a weak solution of +hydrochloric acid for a short time. It is then transferred to a bath +of pure cold water, in which it remains for about an hour, and it is +subsequently placed for a short time in a weak acid bath, after which it +is again washed in cold water, and dried for the market. Such are the +processes by which China grass may become a source of profit alike to +the cultivator and the spinner. A factory situate at Louviers has been +acquired, where there is machinery already erected for preparing the +fiber according to the processes we have described, at the rate of one +ton per day. There is also machinery for spinning the fiber into yarns. +These works were also visited by those gentlemen who were at the +experimental works at Montrouge, and who also visited the Government +laboratory in Paris, of which Professor Fremy is chief and M. Urbain +_sous-chef_, and where those gentlemen explained the details of their +process and made their visitors familiar with the progressive steps of +their investigations. + +With regard to the rhea treated at Montrouge, we may observe that it was +grown at La Reolle, near Bordeaux. Some special experiments were also +carried out by Dr. Forbes Watson with some rhea grown by the Duke of +Wellington at Stratfield-saye, his Grace having taken an active interest +in the question for some years past. In all cases the rhea was used +green and comparatively freshly cut. One of the objects of Dr. Watson's +experiments was, by treating rhea cut at certain stages of growth, +to ascertain at which stage the plant yields the best fiber, and +consequently how many crops can be raised in the year with the best +advantage. + +This question has often presented itself as one of the points to be +determined, and advantage has been taken of the present opportunity with +a view to the solution of the question. Mr. C.J. Taylor also took with +him a sample of New Zealand flax, which was successfully treated by +the process. On the whole, the conclusion is that the results of +the combined processes, so far as they have gone, are eminently +satisfactory, and justify the expectation that a large enterprise in the +cultivation and utilization of China grass is on the eve of being opened +up, not only in India and our colonies, but possibly also much nearer +home. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR HEATING BY GAS. + + +This new heating apparatus consists of a cast iron box, E, provided with +an inclined cover, F, into which are fixed 100 copper tubes that are +arranged in several lines, and form a semi-cylindrical heating surface. +The box, E, is divided into two compartments (Fig. 5), so that the air +and gas may enter simultaneously either one or both of the compartments, +according to the quantity of heat it is desired to have. Regulation is +effected by means of the keys, G and G', which open the gas conduits +of the solid and movable disk, H, which serves as a regulator for +distributing air through the two compartments. This disk revolves by +hand and may be closed or opened by means of a screw to which it is +fixed. + +Beneath the tubes that serve to burn the mixture of air and gas, there +is placed a metallic gauze, I, the object of which is to prevent the +flames from entering the fire place box. These tubes traverse a sheet +iron piece, J, which forms the surface of the fire place, and are +covered with a layer of asbestos filaments that serve to increase the +calorific power of the apparatus. + +[Illustration: GOMEZ'S APPARATUS FOR HEATING BY GAS. + +FIG. 1.--Front View. Scale of 0.25 to 1. FIG. 2.--Section through AB. +FIG.3.--Plan View. FIG. 4.--Section through CD. FIG. 5.--Transverse +Section through the Fireplace. Scale of 0.50 to 1.] + +The cast iron box, E, is inclosed within a base of refractory clay, L, +which is surmounted by a reflector, M, of the same material, that is +designed to concentrate the heat and increase its radiation. This +reflector terminates above in a dome, in whose center is placed a +refractory clay box. This latter, which is round, is provided in the +center with a cylinder that is closed above. The box contains a large +number of apertures, which give passage to the products of combustion +carried along by the hot air. The carbonic acid which such products +contain is absorbed by a layer of quick-lime that has previously been +introduced into the box, N. + +This heating apparatus, which is inclosed within a cast iron casing +similar to that of an ordinary gas stove, is employed without a chimney, +thus permitting of its being placed against the wall or at any other +point whatever in the room to be heated.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GAS BURNER FOR SINGEING MACHINES. + + +Since the introduction of the process of gas-singeing in finishing +textiles, many improvements have been made in the construction of the +machines for this purpose as well as in that of the burners, for the +object of the latter must be to effect the singeing not only evenly and +thoroughly, but at the same time with a complete combustion of the gas +and avoidance of sooty deposits upon the cloth. The latter object is +attained by what are called atmospheric or Bunsen burners, and in which +the coal gas before burning is mixed with the necessary amount of +atmospheric air. The arrangement under consideration, patented abroad, +has this object specially in view. The main gas pipe of the machine is +shown at A, being a copper pipe closed at one end and having a tap at +the other. On this pipe the vertical pipes, C, are screwed at stated +intervals, each being in its turn provided with a tap near its base. On +the top of each vertical table the burner, IJ, is placed, whose upper +end spreads in the shape of a fan, and allows the gas to escape through +a slit or a number of minute holes. Over the tube, C, a mantle, E, is +slipped, which contains two holes, HG, on opposite sides, and made +nearly at the height of the outlet of the gas. When the gas passes out +of this and upward into the burner, it induces a current of air up +through the holes, HG, and carries it along with it. By covering these +holes with a loose adjustable collar, the amount of admissible air can +be regulated so that the flame is perfectly non-luminous, and therefore +containing no free particles of carbon or soot. The distance of the +vertical tubes, C; and of the fan-shaped burners is calculated so that +the latter touch each other, and thus a continuous flame is formed, +which is found to be the most effective for singeing cloth. Should it be +deemed advisable to singe only part of the cloth, or a narrow piece, +the arrangement admits of the taps, D, being turned off as +desired.--_Textile Manufacturer_. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +SILAS' CHRONOPHORE. + + +In many industries there are operations that have to be repeated +at regular intervals, and, for this reason, the construction of an +apparatus for giving a signal, not only at the hour fixed, but also at +equal intervals, is a matter of interest. The question of doing this has +been solved in a very elegant way by Mr. Silas in the invention of the +apparatus which we represent in Fig. 1. It consists of a clock whose +dial is provided with a series of small pins. The hands are insulated +from the case and communicate with one of the poles of a pile contained +in the box. The case is connected with the other pole. A small vibrating +bell is interposed in the circuit. If it be desired to obtain a signal +at a certain hour, the corresponding pin is inserted, and the hand +upon touching this closes the circuit, and the bell rings. The bell is +likewise inclosed within the box. There are two rows of pins--one of +them for hours, and the other for minutes. They are spaced according to +requirements. In the model exhibited by the house Breguet, at the Vienna +Exhibition, there were 24 pins for minutes and 12 for hours. Fig. 2 +gives a section of the dial. It will be seen that the hands are provided +at the extremity with a small spring, r, which is itself provided with +a small platinum contact, p. The pins also carry a small platinum or +silver point, a. In front of the box there will be observed a small +commutator, M, (Fig. 1). The use of this is indicated in the diagram +(Fig. 3). It will be seen that, according as the plug, B, is introduced +into the aperture to the left or right, the bell. S, will operate as an +ordinary vibrator, or give but a single stroke. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SILAS' CHRONOPHORE.] + +P is the pile; C is the dial; and A is the commutator. + +It is evident that this apparatus will likewise be able to render +services in scientific researches and laboratory operations, by sparing +the operator the trouble of continually consulting his watch.--_La +Lumiere Electrique_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + * * * * * + +[THE GARDEN.] + + + + +THE ZELKOWAS. + + +Two of the three species which form the subject of this article are not +only highly ornamental, but also valuable timber trees. Until recently +they were considered to belong to the genus Planera, which, however, +consists of but a single New World species; now, they properly +constitute a distinct genus, viz., Zelkova, which differs materially +from the true Planer tree in the structure of the fruit, etc. Z. +crenata, from the Caucasus, and Z. acuminata, from Japan, are quick +growing, handsome trees, with smooth bark not unlike that of beech or +hornbeam; it is only when the trees are old that the bark is cast off in +rather large sized plates, as is the case with the planes. The habit of +both is somewhat peculiar; in Z. crenata especially there is a decided +tendency for all the main branches to be given off from one point; +these, too, do not spread, as for instance do those of the elm or beech, +but each forms an acute angle with the center of the tree. The trunks +are more columnar than those of almost all other hardy trees. Their +distinct and graceful habit renders them wonderfully well adapted for +planting for effect, either singly or in groups. The flowers, like those +of the elm, are produced before the leaves are developed; in color they +are greenish brown, and smell like those of the elder. It does not +appear that fruits have yet been ripened in England. All the Zelkowas +are easily propagated by layers or by grafting on the common elm. + +[Illustration: YOUNG ZELKOWA TREE (21 FEET HIGH)] + +_Zelkcova crenata_--The Caucasian Zelkowa is a native of the country +lying between the Black and the Caspian Sea between latitudes 35 deg. and +47 deg. of the north of Persia and Georgia. According to Loudon, it was +introduced to this country in 1760, and it appears to have been planted +both at Kew and Syon at about that date. A very full account of the +history, etc., of the Zelkowa, from which Loudon largely quotes, was +presented to the French Academy of Science by Michaux the younger, who +speaks highly of the value of the tree. In this he is fully corroborated +by Mirbel and Desfontaine, on whom devolved the duty of reporting on +this memoir. They say that it attains a size equal to that of the +largest trees of French forests, and recommend its being largely +planted. They particularly mention its suitability for roadside avenues, +and affirm that its leaves are never devoured by caterpillars, and that +the stems are not subject, to the canker which frequently ruins the elm. +The name Orme de Siberie, which is or was commonly applied to Zelkova +crenata in French books and gardens, is doubly wrong, for the tree is +neither an elm nor is it native of Siberia. In 1782 Michaux, the father +of the author of the paper above mentioned, undertook, under the +auspices, of a Monsieur (afterward Louis XVIII.), a journey into Persia, +in order to make botanical researches. + +[Illustration: FOLIAGE OF A YOUNG ZELKOWA TREE, WITH FLOWERS AND FRUIT.] + +"Having left Ispahan, in order to explore the province of Ghilan, he +found this tree in the forests which he traversed before arriving +at Recht, a town situated on the Caspian Sea. In this town he had +opportunities of remarking the use made of the wood, and of judging how +highly it was appreciated by the inhabitants." The first tree introduced +into Europe appears to have been planted by M. Lemonnier, Professor of +Botany in the Jardin des Plautes, etc., in his garden near Versailles. +This garden was destroyed in 1820, and the dimensions of the tree +when it was cut down were as follows: Height 70 feet, trunk 7 feet in +circumference at 5 feet from the ground. The bole of the trunk was 20 +feet in length and of nearly uniform thickness; and the proportion of +heart-wood to sap-wood was about three quarters of its diameter. This +tree was about fifty years old, but was still in a growing state and in +vigorous health. The oldest tree existing in France at the time of the +publication of Loudon's great work, was one in the Jardin des Plantes, +which in 1831 was about 60 feet high. It was planted in 1786 (when a +sucker of four years old), about the same time as the limes which form +the grand avenue called the Allee de Buffon. "There is, however, a much +larger Zelkowa on an estate of M. le Comte de Dijon, an enthusiastic +planter of exotic trees, at Podenas, near Nerac, in the department of +the Lot et Garonne. This fine tree was planted in 1789, and on the 20th +of January, 1831. it measured nearly 80 feet high, and the trunk was +nearly 3 feet in diameter at 3 feet from the ground." A drawing of this +tree, made by the count in the autumn of that year, was lent to Loudon +by Michaux, and the engraving prepared from that sketch (on a scale of 1 +inch to 12 feet) is herewith reproduced. At Kew the largest tree is one +near the herbarium (a larger one had to be cut down when the herbarium +was enlarged some years ago, and a section of the trunk is exhibited +in Museum No. 3). Its present dimensions are: height, 62 feet; +circumference of stem at 1 foot from the ground, 9 feet 8 inches; ditto +at ground level, 10 feet; Height of stem from ground to branches, 7 +feet; diameter of head, 46 feet. The general habit of the tree is quite +that as represented in the engraving of the specimen at Podenas. The +measurements of the large tree at Syon House were, in 1834, according to +Loudon: Height, 54 feet; circumference of of stem, 6 feet 9 inches; +and diameter of head, 34 feet; the present dimensions, for which I am +indebted to Mr. Woodbridge, are: Height, 76 feet; girth of trunk at 21/2 +feet from ground, 10 feet; spread of branches, 36 feet. + +[Illustration: FLOWERS AND FRUIT OF ZELKOVA CRENATA (_Planera +Richardi_).] + +IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova crenata, Spach in Ann. des Sc. nat. 2d ser. 15, +p. 358. D. C. Prodromus, xvii., 165 Rhamnus ulmoides, Gueldenst. It., +p. 313. R carpinifolius, Pall. Fl Rossica, 2 p. 24, tab. 10. Ulmus +polygama, L C. Richard in Mem. Acad. des Sciences de Paris, ann. 1781. +Planera Richardi, Michx. Fl. bor. Amer. 2, p. 248; C.A. Meyer, Enumer. +Causas. Casp., n. 354; Dunal in Bulletin Soc. cent d'Agricult. de +l'Herault. ann. 1841, 299, 303, et ann. 1843, 225, 236. Loudon, Arbor, +et Frut. Brit., vol. 3, p. 1409. Planera crenata, Desf. Cat. Hort. Paris +et hortul, fere omnium. Michaux fil. Mem. sur le Zelkowa, 1831. Planera +carpinifolia, Watson, Dend. Brit., t. 106. Koch Dendrologie, zweit +theil, sweit. Abtheil. p. 425. + +[Illustration: ZELKOWA TREE AT PODENAS + +Showing peculiar habit of branching. In old trees the effect is very +remarkable in winter as at Oxford, Versailles (_Petit Trianon_) and +Syon.] + +_Var pendula_ (the weeping Zelkowa).--This is a form of which I do not +know the origin or history. It is simply a weeping variety of the common +Zelkowa. I first saw it in the Isleworth Nurseries of Messrs. C. Lee & +Son, and a specimen presented by them to Kew for the aboretum is now +growing freely. I suspect that the Zelkova crenata var. repens of M. +Lavallee's "Aboretum Segrezianum" and the Planera repens of foreign +catalogues generally are identical with the variety now mentioned under +the name it bears in the establishment of Messrs. Lee & Son. + +[Illustration: FOLIAGE OF A FULL-GROWN ZELKOWA TREE.] + +_Z. acuminata_ is one of the most useful and valuable of Japanese timber +trees. It was found near Yeddo by the late Mr. John Gould Veitch, and +was sent out by the firm of Messrs. J. Veitch & Sons. Maximowicz also +found the tree in Japan, and introduced it to the Imperial Botanic +Gardens of St. Petersburg, from whence both seeds and plants were +liberally distributed. In the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ for 1862 Dr. +Lindley writes as follows: "A noble deciduous tree, discovered near +Yeddo by Mr. J. G. Veitch, 90 feet to 100 feet in height, with a +remarkably straight stem. In aspect it resembles an elm. We understand +that a plank in the Exotic Nursery, where it has been raised, measures 3 +feet 3 inches across. Mr. Veitch informs us that it is one of the most +useful timber trees in Japan. Its long, taper-pointed leaves, with +coarse, very sharp serratures, appear to distinguish it satisfactorily +from the P. Richardi of the northwest of Asia." There seems to be no +doubt as to the perfect hardiness of the Japanese Zelkowa in Britain, +and it is decidedly well worth growing as an ornamental tree apart +from its probable value as a timber producer. A correspondent in the +periodical just mentioned writes, in 1873, p. 1142, under the signature +of "C.P.": "At Stewkley Grange it does fairly well; better than most +other trees. In a very exposed situation it grew 3 feet 5 inches last +year, and was 14 feet 5 inches high when I measured it in November; +girth at ground, 83/4 inches; at 3 feet, 5 inches." The leaves vary in +size a good deal on the short twiggy branches, being from 3 inches to +31/2 inches in length and 11/4 inches to 11/2 inches in width, while those on +vigorous shoots attain a length of 5 inches, with a width of about half +the length. They are slightly hairy on both surfaces. The long acuminate +points, the sharper serratures, the more numerous nerves (nine to +fourteen in number), and the more papery texture distinguish Z. +acuminata easily from its Caucasian relative, Z. crenata. The foliage, +too, seems to be retained on the trees in autumn longer than that of the +species just named; in color it is a dull green above and a brighter +glossy green beneath. The timber is very valuable, being exceedingly +hard and capable of a very fine polish. In Japan it is used in the +construction of houses, ships, and in high class cabinet work. In case +99, Museum No. 1 at Kew, there is a selection of small useful and +ornamental articles made in Japan of Keyaki wood. Those manufactured +from ornamental Keyaki (which is simply gnarled stems or roots, or +pieces cut tangentially), and coated with the transparent lacquer for +which the Japanese an so famous, are particularly handsome. In the +museum library is also a book, the Japanese title of which is given +below--"Handbook of Useful Woods," by E. Kinch. Professor at the +Imperial College of Agriculture, at Tokio, Japan. This work contains +transverse and longitudinal sections of one hundred Japanese woods, and +numbers 45 and 46 represent Z. acuminata. It would be worth the while of +those who are interested in the introduction and cultivation of timber +trees in temperate climates to procure Kinch's handbook. + +IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova acuminata, D.C. Prodr., xvii., 166; Z. Keaki, +Maxim. Mel. biol. vol. ix, p. 21. Planera acuminata, Lindl. in Gard. +Chron. 1862, 428; Regel, "Gartenflora" 1863, p. 56. P Japonica, Miq. +ann. Mus. Ludg Bat iii., 66; Kinch. Yuyo Mokuzai Shoran, 45, 46. P. +Keaki, Koch Dendrol. zweit. theil zweit Abtheil, 427. P. dentata +japonica, Hort. P. Kaki, Hort. + +[Illustration: FLOWERING TWIG OF PLANERA GMELINI.] + +_Z. cretica_ is a pretty, small foliaged tree, from 15 to 20 feet in +height. The ovate crenate leaves, which measure from an inch or even +less, to one inch and a half in length by about half the length in +breadth, are leathery, dark green above, grayish above. They are hairy +on both surfaces, the underside being most densely clothed, and the +twigs, too, are thickly covered with short grayish hairs. This species, +which is a native of Crete, is not at present in the Kew collection; its +name, however, if given in M. Lavallee's catalogue, "Enumeration des +Arbres et Arbris Cultives a Segrez" (Seine-et-Oise). + +[Illustration: OLD SPECIMEN OF ZELKOWA TREE IN SUMMER FOLIAGE, +CONCEALING FORM OF BRANCHING.] + +IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova cretica. Spach in Suit a Buff, ii, p. 121. +Ulmus Abelicea, Sibth & Sm. Prod. Fl., Graeca, i., p. 172. Planera +Abelicea Roem. & Schltz. Syst., vi. p. 304; Planch, in Ann. des Sc. Nat. +1848, p. 282. Abelicea cretica, Smith in Trans. Linn. Sov., ix., 126. + +I have seen no specimens of the Zelkova stipulacea of Franchet and +Savatier's "Enumeratio Plantarum Japonicarum," vol. ii., p. 489, and as +that seems to have been described from somewhat insufficient material, +and, moreover, does not appear to be in cultivation, I passed it over as +a doubtful plant. + +GEORGE NICHOLSON. + +Royal Gardens, Kew. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW ENEMY OF THE BEE. + + +Prof. A.J. Cook, the eminent apiarist, calls attention to a new pest +which has made its appearance in many apiaries. After referring to the +fact that poultry and all other domestic animals of ten suffer serious +injury from the attacks of parasitic mites, and that even such household +stores as sugar, flour, and cheese are not from their ravages, he tells +of the discovery of a parasitic pest among bees. He says: + +"During the last spring a lady bee-keeper of Connecticut discovered +these mites in her hives while investigating to learn the cause of their +rapid depletion. She had noticed that the colonies were greatly reduced +in number of bees, and upon close observation found that the diseased or +failing colonies were covered with the mites. So small are these pests +that a score of them can take possession of a single bee and not be +crowded for room either. The lady states that the bees roll and scratch +in their vain attempts to rid themselves of these annoying stick-tights, +and finally, worried out, fall to the bottom of the hive, or go forth +to die on the outside. Mites are not true insects, but are the most +degraded of spiders. The sub-class _Arachnida_ are at once recognized by +their eight legs. The order of mites (_Accorina_), which includes the +wood-tick, cattle-tick, etc., and mites, are quickly told from the +higher orders--true spiders and scorpions--by their rounded bodies, +which appear like mere sacks, with little appearance of segmentation, +and their small, obscure heads. The mites alone, of all the +_Arachinida_, pass through a marked metamorphosis. Thus the young mite +has only six legs, while the mature form has eight. The bee mite is +very small, not more than one-fiftieth of an inch long. The female is +slightly longer than the male, and somewhat transparent. The color is +black, though the legs and more transparent areas of the female appear +yellowish. All the legs are fine jointed, slightly hairy, and each +tipped with two hooks or claws." + +As to remedies, the Professor says that as what would kill the mites +would doubtless kill the bees, makes the question a difficult one. He +suggests, however, the frequent changing of the bees from one hive to +another, after which the emptied hives should be thoroughly scalded. He +thinks this course of treatment, persisted in, would effectually clean +them out. + + * * * * * + + + + +CRYSTALLIZATION OF HONEY. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American_: + +Seeing in your issue of October 13, 1883, an article on "Crystallization +in Extracted Honey," I beg leave to differ a little with the gentleman. +I have handled honey as an apiarist and dealer for ten years, and find +by actual experience that it has no tendency to crystallize in warm +weather; but on the contrary it will crystallize in cold weather, +and the colder the weather the harder the honey will get. I have had +colonies of bees starve when there was plenty of honey in the hives; it +was in extreme cold weather, there was not enough animal heat in the +bees to keep the honey from solidifying, hence the starvation of the +colonies. + +To-day I removed with a thin paddle sixty pounds of honey from a large +stone jar where it had remained over one year. Last winter it was so +solid from crystallization, it could not be cut with a knife; in fact, I +broke a large, heavy knife in attempting to remove a small quantity. + +As to honey becoming worthless from candying is a new idea to me, as I +have, whenever I wanted our crystallized honey in liquid form, treated +it to water bath, thereby bringing it to its natural state, in which +condition it would remain for an indefinite time, especially if +hermetically sealed. I never had any recrystallize after once having +been treated to the water bath; and the flavor of the honey was in no +way injured. I think the adding of glycerine to be entirely superfluous. + +W.R. MILLER. + +Polo, October 15. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN EXTENSIVE SHEEP RANGE. + + +The little schooner Santa Rosa arrived in port from Santa Barbara a few +days ago. She comes up to this city twice a year to secure provisions, +clothing, lumber, etc., for use on Santa Rosa Island, being owned by the +great sheep raiser A.P. Moore, who owns the island and the 80,000 sheep +that exist upon it. The island is about 30 miles south of Santa Barbara, +and is 24 miles in length and 16 in breadth, and contains about 74,000 +acres of land, which are admirably adapted to sheep raising. Last June, +Moore clipped 1,014 sacks of wool from these sheep, each sack containing +an average of 410 pounds of wool, making a total of 415,740 pounds, +which he sold at 27 cents a pound, bringing him in $112,349.80, or a +clear profit of over $80,000. This is said to be a low yield, so it is +evident that sheep raising there, when taking into consideration that +shearing takes place twice a year, and that a profit is made off the +sale of mutton, etc., is very profitable. The island is divided into +four quarters by fences running clear across at right angles, and the +sheep do not have to be herded like those ranging about the foothills. + +Four men are employed regularly the year round to keep the ranch in +order, and to look after the sheep, and during the shearing time fifty +or more shearers are employed. These men secure forty or fifty days' +work, and the average number of sheep sheared in a day is about ninety, +for which five cents a clip is paid, thus $4.50 a day being made by each +man, or something over $200 for the season, or over $400 for ninety days +out of the year. Although the shearing of ninety sheep in a day is the +average, a great many will go as high as 110, and one man has been known +to shear 125. + +Of course, every man tries to shear as many as he can, and, owing to +haste, frequently the animals are severely cut by the sharp shears. If +the wound is serious, the sheep immediately has its throat cut and is +turned into mutton and disposed of to the butchers, and the shearer, if +in the habit of frequently inflicting such wounds, is discharged. In the +shearing of these 80,000 sheep, a hundred or more are injured to such an +extent as to necessitate their being killed, but the wool and meat are +of course turned into profit. + +Although no herding is necessary, about 200 or more trained goats are +kept on the island continually, which to all intents and purposes take +the place of the shepherd dogs so necessary in mountainous districts +where sheep are raised. Whenever the animals are removed from one +quarter to another, the man in charge takes out with him several of the +goats, exclaims in Spanish, "Cheva" (meaning sheep). The goat, through +its training, understands what is wanted, and immediately runs to the +band, and the sheep accept it as their leader, following wherever it +goes. The goat, in turn, follows the man to whatever point he wishes to +take the band. + +To prevent the sheep from contracting disease, it is necessary to give +them a washing twice a year. Moore, having so many on hand, found it +necessary to invent some way to accomplish this whereby not so much +expense would be incurred and time wasted. After experimenting for some +time, he had a ditch dug 8 feet in depth, a little over 1 foot in width, +and 100 feet long. In this he put 600 gallons of water, 200 pounds of +sulphur, 100 pounds of lime, and 6 pounds of soda, all of which is +heated to 138 deg. The goats lead the sheep into a corral or trap at one +end, and the animals are compelled to swim through to the further end, +thus securing a bath and taking their medicine at one and the same time. + +The owner of the island and sheep, A.P. Moore, a few years ago purchased +the property from the widow of his deceased brother Henry, for $600,000. +Owing to ill health, he has rented it to his brother Lawrence for +$140,000 a year, and soon starts for Boston, where he will settle down +for the rest of his life. He still retains an interest in the Santa Cruz +Island ranch, which is about 25 miles southeast of Santa Barbara. This +island contains about 64,000 acres, and on it are 25,000 sheep. On +Catalina Island, 60 miles east of Santa Barbara, are 15,000 sheep, and +on Clementa Island, 80 miles east of that city, are 10,000 sheep. Forty +miles west of the same city is San Miguel, on which are 2,000 sheep. +Each one of these ranches has a sailing vessel to carry freight, etc., +to and fro between the islands and the mainland, and they are kept busy +the greater part of the time.--_San Francisco Call_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DISINFECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. + + +At the Parkes Museum of Hygiene, London, Dr. Robert J. Lee recently +delivered a lecture on the above subject, illustrated by experiments. + +The author remarked that he could not better open up his theme than +by explaining what was meant by disinfection. He would do so by an +illustration from Greek literature. When Achilles had slain Hector, +the body still lay on the plain of Troy for twelve days after; the +god Hermes found it there and went and told of it--"This, the twelfth +evening since he rested, untouched by worms, untainted by the air." +The Greek word for taint in this sense was _sepsis_, which meant +putrefaction, and from this we had the term "antiseptic," or that which +was opposed to or prevented putrefaction. The lecturer continued: + +I have here in a test tube some water in which a small piece of meat was +placed a few days ago. The test tube has been in rather a warm room, and +the meat has begun to decompose. What has here taken place is the first +step in this inquiry. This has been the question at which scientific +men have been working, and from the study of which has come a valuable +addition to surgical knowledge associated with the name of Professor +Lister, and known as antiseptic. What happens to this meat, and what is +going on in the water which surrounds it? How long will it be before all +the smell of putrefaction has gone and the water is clear again? For +it does in time become clear, and instead of the meat we find a fine +powdery substance at the bottom of the test tube. It may take weeks +before this process is completed, depending on the rate at which it +goes on. Now, if we take a drop of this water and examine it with the +microscope, we find that it contains vast numbers of very small living +creatures or "organisms." They belong to the lowest forms of life, and +are of very simple shape, either very delicate narrow threads or rods or +globular bodies. The former are called bacteria, or staff-like bodies; +the latter, micrococci. They live upon the meat, and only disappear when +the meat is consumed. Then, as they die and fall to the bottom of the +test tube, the water clears again. + +Supposing now, when the meat is first put into water, the water is made +to boil, and while boiling a piece of cotton wool is put into the +mouth of the tube. The tube may be kept in the same room, at the same +temperature as the unboiled one, but no signs of decomposition will be +found, however long we keep it. The cotton wool prevents it; for we may +boil the water with the meat in it, but it would not be long before +bacteria and micrococci are present if the wool is not put in the mouth +of the test tube. The conclusion you would naturally draw from this +simple but very important experiment is that the wool must have some +effect upon the air, for we know well that if we keep the air out we +can preserve meat from decomposing. That is the principle upon which +preserved meats and fruits are prepared. We should at once conclude that +the bacteria and micrococci must exist in the air, perhaps not in the +state in which we find them in the water, but that their germs or eggs +are floating in the atmosphere. How full the air may be of these germs +was first shown by Professor Tyndall, when he sent a ray of electric +light through a dark chamber, and as if by a magician's wand revealed +the multitudinous atomic beings which people the air. It is a beautiful +thing to contemplate how one branch of scientific knowledge may assist +another; and we would hardly have imagined that the beam of the electric +light could thus have been brought in to illumine the path of the +surgeon, for it is on the exclusion of these bacteria that it is found +the success of some great operation may depend. It is thus easy to +understand how great an importance is to be attached to the purity of +air in which we live. This is the practical use of the researches to +which the art of surgery is so much indebted; and not surgery alone, +but all mankind in greater or less degree. Professor Tyndall has gone +further than this, and has shown us that on the tops of lofty mountains +the air is so pure, so free from organisms, that decomposition is +impossible. + +Now, supposing we make another experiment with the test tube, and +instead of boiling we add to its contents a few drops of carbolic acid; +we find that decomposition is prevented almost as effectually as by the +use of the cotton wool. There are many other substances which act like +carbolic acid, and they are known by the common name of antiseptics or +antiseptic agents. They all act in the same way; and in such cases as +the dressing of wounds it is more easy to use this method of excluding +bacteria than by the exclusion of the air or by the use of cotton wool. +We have here another object for inquiry--viz., the particular property +of these different antiseptics, the property which they possess of +preventing decomposition. This knowledge is _very_ ancient indeed. We +have the best evidence in the skill of the Egyptians in embalming the +dead. These substances are obtained from wood or coal, which once was +wood. Those woods which do not contain some antiseptic substance, such +as a gum or a resin, will rot and decay. I am not sure that we can +give a satisfactory reason for this, but it is certain that all these +substances act as antiseptics by destroying the living organisms which +are the cause of putrefaction. Some are fragrant oils, as, for example, +clove, santal, and thyme; others are fragrant gums, such as gum bezoin +and myrrh. A large class are the various kinds of turpentine obtained +from pine trees. We obtain carbolic acid from the coal tar largely +produced in the manufacture of gas. Both wood tar, well known under the +name of creosote, and coal tar are powerful antiseptics. It is easy to +understand by what means meat and fish are preserved from decomposition +when they have been kept in the smoke of a wood fire. The smoke contains +creosote in the form of vapor, and the same effect is produced on the +meat or fish by the smoke as if they had been dipped in a solution of +tar--with this difference, that they are dried by the smoke, whereas +moisture favors decomposition very greatly. + +I can show why a fire from which there is much smoke is better than one +which burns with a clear flame, by a simple experiment. Here is a piece +of gum benzoin, the substance from which Friar's balsam is made. This +will burn, if we light it, just as tar burns, and without much smoke or +smell. If, instead of burning it, we put some on a spoon and heat it +gently, much more smoke is produced, and a fragrant scent is given off. +In the same way we can burn spirit of lavender or eau de Cologne, but we +get no scent from them in this way, for the burning destroys the scent. +This is a very important fact in the disinfection of the air. The less +the flame and the larger the quantity of smoke, the greater the effect +produced, so far as disinfection is concerned. As air is a vapor, we +must use our disinfectants in the form of vapor, so that the one may mix +with the other, just as when we are dealing with fluids we must use a +fluid disinfectant. + +The question that presents itself is this: Can we so diffuse the vapor +of an antiseptic like carbolic acid through the air as to destroy the +germs which are floating in it, and thus purify it, making it like air +which has been filtered through wool, or like that on the top of a lofty +mountain? If the smoke of a wood fire seems to act as an antiseptic, +and putrefaction is prevented, it seems reasonable to conclude that air +could be purified and made antiseptic by some proper and convenient +arrangement. Let us endeavor to test this by a few experiments. + +Here is a large tube 6 inches across and 2 feet long, fixed just above a +small tin vessel in which we can boil water and keep it boiling as long +as we please. If we fill the vessel with carbolic acid and water and +boil it very gently, the steam which rises will ascend and fill the tube +with a vapor which is strong or weak in carbolic acid, according as we +put more or less acid in the water. That is to say, we have practically +a chimney containing an antiseptic vapor, very much the same thing as +the smoke of a wood fire. We must be able to keep the water boiling, for +the experiment may have to be continued during several days, and during +this time must be neither stronger nor weaker in carbolic acid, neither +warmer nor colder than a certain temperature. This chimney must be +always at the same heat, and the fire must therefore be kept constantly +burning. This is easily accomplished by means of a jet of gas, and +by refilling the vessel every 24 hours with the same proportions of +carbolic acid and water. + +The question arises, how strong must this vapor be in carbolic acid to +act as an antiseptic? It is found that 1 part acid to 50 of water is +quite sufficient to prevent putrefaction. If we keep this just below +boiling point there will be a gentle and constant rising of steam into +the cylinder, and we can examine this vapor to see if it is antiseptic. +We will take two test tubes half filled with water and put a small piece +of beef into each of them and boil each for half a minute. One test +tube we will hang up inside the cylinder, so that it is surrounded by +carbolic acid vapor. The other we stand up in the air. If the latter is +hung in a warm room, decomposition will soon take place in it; will the +same thing happen to the other cylinder? For convenience sake we had +best put six tubes inside the cylinder, so that we can take one out +every day for a week and examine the contents on the field of a +microscope. It will be necessary to be very particular as to the +temperature to which the tubes are exposed, and the rates of evaporation +beneath the cylinder. I may mention that on some of the hottest days of +last summer I made some experiments, when the temperature both of +the laboratory and inside the cylinder was 75 deg.F. I used test tubes +containing boiled potatoes instead of meat, and found that the tube in +the air, after 48 hours, abounded not simply with bacteria and other +small bodies present in decomposition, but with the large and varied +forms of protozoa, while the tube inside the cylinder contained no signs +of decomposition whatever. When the room was cold the experiments were +not so satisfactory, because in the former case there was very little if +any current of air in the cylinder. This leads us to the question, why +should we not make the solution of carbolic acid and water, and heat it, +letting the steam escape by a small hole, so as to produce a jet? It is +a singular fact that for all practical purposes such a steam jet will +contain the same proportion of acid to water as did the original +solution. The solution can of course be made stronger or weaker till we +ascertain the exact proportion which will prevent decomposition. + +From this arises naturally the question, what quantity of vapor must be +produced in a room in order to kill the bacteria in its atmosphere? If +we know the size of the room, shall we be able tell? These questions +have not yet been answered, but the experiments which will settle them +will be soon made, I have no doubt, and I have indicated the lines upon +which they will be made. I have here a boiler of copper into which we +can put a mixture, and can get from it a small jet of steam for some +hours. A simple experiment will show that no bacteria will exist in that +vapor. If I take a test tube containing meat, and boil it while holding +the mouth of it in this vapor, after it has cooled we close the mouth +with cotton wool, and set it aside in a warm place; after some days we +shall find no trace of decomposition, but if the experiment is repeated +with water, decomposition will soon show itself. Of course, any strength +of carbolic acid can be used at will, and will afford a series of tests. + +There are other methods of disinfecting the atmosphere which we cannot +consider this evening, such as the very potent one of burning sulphur. + +In conclusion, the lecturer remarked that his lecture had been cast into +a suggestive form, so as to set his audience thinking over the causes +which make the air impure, and how these impurities are to be prevented +from becoming deleterious to health. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW METHOD OF STAINING BACILLUS TUBERCULOSIS. + +By T.J. BURRILL, M.D., Champaign, Ill. + + +Having had considerable experience in the use of the alcoholic solutions +of aniline dyes for staining bacteria, and having for some months used +solutions in glycerine instead, I have come to much prefer the latter. +Evaporation of the solvent is avoided, and in consequence a freedom +from vexatious precipitations is secured, and more uniform and reliable +results are obtained. There is, moreover, with the alcoholic mixtures a +tendency to "creep," or "run," by which one is liable to have stained +more than he wishes--fingers, instruments, table, etc. + +From these things the glycerine mixtures are practically free, and there +are no compensating drawbacks. For staining _Bacillus tuberculosis_ the +following is confidently commended as preferable to the materials and +methods heretofore in use. Take glycerine, 20 parts; fuchsin, 3 parts; +aniline oil, 2 parts; carbolic acid, 2 parts. + +The solution is readily and speedily effected, with no danger of +precipitation, and can be kept in stock without risk of deterioration. +When wanted for use, put about two drops into a watch glass (a small +pomatum pot is better) full of water and gently shake or stir. Just +here there is some danger of precipitating the coloring matter, but the +difficulty is easily avoided by gentle instead of vigorous stirring. +After the stain is once dissolved in the water no further trouble +occurs; if any evaporation takes place by being left too long, it is the +water that goes, not the main solvent. The color should now be a light, +translucent red, much too diffuse for writing ink. Put in the smeared +cover glass, after passing it a few times through a flame, and leave it, +at the ordinary temperature of a comfortable room, half an hour. If, +however, quicker results are desired, boil a little water in a test tube +and put in about double the above indicated amount of the glycerine +mixture, letting it run down the side of the tube, gently shake until +absorbed, and pour out the hot liquid into a convenient dish, and at +once put in the cover with sputum. Without further attention to the +temperature the stain will be effected within two minutes; but the +result is not quite so good, especially for permanent mounts, as by the +slower process. + +After staining put the cover into nitric (or hydrochloric) acid and +water, one part to four, until decolorized, say one minute; wash in +water and examine, or dry and mount in balsam. + +If it is desired to color the ground material, which is not necessary, +put on the decolorized and washed glass a drop of aniline blue in +glycerine; after one minute wash again in water and proceed as before. + +Almost any objective, from one-fourth inch up will show the bacilli if +sufficient attention is paid to the illumination.--_Med. Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CURE FOR HEMORRHOIDS. + + +"The carbolic acid treatment of hemorrhoids is now receiving +considerable attention. Hence the reprint from the _Pittsburgh Medical +Journal_, November, 1883, of an article on the subject by Dr. George B. +Fundenberg is both timely and interesting. After relating six cases, the +author says: "It would serve no useful purpose to increase this list of +cases. The large number I have on record all prove that this treatment +is safe and effectual. I believe that the great majority of cases can be +cured in this manner. Whoever doubts this should give the method a fair +trial, for it is only those who have done so, that are entitled to speak +upon the question." + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. 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