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diff --git a/old/2005-10-cross10h.htm b/old/2005-10-cross10h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..134874f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2005-10-cross10h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7165 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<HEAD> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"><!-- Necessary to make Netscape 4 display the unicode characters --> +<STYLE TYPE="text/css"> +.smallcaps {font-variant: small-caps} +</STYLE> +<TITLE> +The Non-Christian Cross +</TITLE> +<!-- The following JavaScript is necessary to get around bugs in Internet Explorer. +Internet Explorer doesn't always display all the images embedded in the text. 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Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Non-Christian Cross + An Enquiry Into the Origin and History of the Symbol + Eventually Adopted as That of Our Religion + +Author: John Denham Parsons + +Release Date: October, 2005 [EBook #9071] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on September 2, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NON-CHRISTIAN CROSS *** + + + + + +</pre> + +<!-- Page 3 --> +<CENTER><H3>THE</H3></CENTER> +<CENTER><H1>NON-CHRISTIAN CROSS</H1></CENTER> +<CENTER><H3>AN ENQUIRY INTO THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF</H3></CENTER> +<CENTER><H3>THE SYMBOL EVENTUALLY ADOPTED AS</H3></CENTER> +<CENTER><H3>THAT OF OUR RELIGION</H3></CENTER> +<BR><BR> +<CENTER><H4>BY</H4></CENTER> +<CENTER><H3>JOHN DENHAM PARSONS</H3></CENTER> +<BR> + +<CENTER>1896</CENTER> + + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<!-- Page 5 --> +<CENTER> +<TABLE> +<TR> + <TD> +“O CRUX, SPLENDIDIOR CUNCTIS ASTRIS, MUNDO<BR> +CELEBRIS, HOMINIBUS MULTUM AMABILIS, SANCTIOR<BR> +UNIVERSIS.” + </TD> +</TR> +<TR> + <TD ALIGN=right> +[<I>BREVIARIUM ROMANUM,<BR> +Festival of the Invention of the Holy Cross.</I><BR> + </TD> +</TR> +</TABLE> +</CENTER> + +<!-- Page 6 --> +<BR><BR><BR> + +<!-- Page 7 --> +<CENTER>PREFACE.</CENTER> +<HR width=40 align=center> + +The history of the symbol of the cross +has had an attraction for the author +ever since, as an enquiring youth, he found +himself unable to obtain satisfactory answers +to four questions concerning the same which +presented themselves to his mind. + +<P>The first of those questions was why John +the Baptist, who was beheaded before Jesus +was executed, and so far as we are told never +had anything to do with a cross, is represented +in our religious pictures as holding a cross. + +<P>The second question was whether this curious +but perhaps in itself easily explained practice +<!-- Page 8 --> +had in its inception any connection with the +non-Mosaic initiatory rite of baptism; which +Jesus accepted as a matter of course at the +hands of his cousin John, and in which the +sign of the cross has for ages been the all-important +feature. And it was the wonder +whether there was or was not some association +between the facts that the New Testament +writers give no explanation whatever of the +origin of baptism as an initiatory rite, that +this non-Mosaic initiatory rite was in use +among Sun-God worshippers long before our +era, and that the Fathers admitted that the +followers of the Persian conception of the +Sun-God marked their initiates upon the forehead +like the followers of the Christ, which +finally induced the author to start a systematic +enquiry into the history of the cross +as a symbol. + +<P>The third question was why, despite the +fact that the instrument of execution to which +<!-- Page 9 --> +Jesus was affixed can have had but one shape, +almost any kind of cross is accepted as a +symbol of our faith. + +<P>The last of the four questions was why +many varieties of the cross of four equal arms, +which certainly was not a representation of +an instrument of execution, were accepted by +Christians as symbols of the Christ before any +cross which could possibly have been a representation +of an instrument of execution was +given a place among the symbols of Christianity; +while even nowadays one variety of +the cross of four equal arms is the favourite +symbol of the Greek Church, and both it and +the other varieties enter into the ornamentation +of our sacred properties and dispute the +supremacy with the cross which has one of +its arms longer than the other three. + +<P>Pursuing these matters for himself, the author +eventually found that even before our era the +cross was venerated by many as the symbol +<!-- Page 10 --> +of Life; though our works of reference seldom +mention this fact, and never do it justice. + +<P>He moreover discovered that no one has +ever written a complete history of the symbol, +showing the possibility that the <I>stauros</I> or +post to which Jesus was affixed was not +cross-shaped, and the certainty that, in any +case, what eventually became the symbol of +our faith owed some of its prestige as a +Christian symbol of Victory and Life to the +position it occupied in pre-Christian days. + +<P>The author has therefore, in the hope of +drawing attention to the subject, incorporated +the results of his researches in the present +essay. +<BR><BR> + 14, ST. DUNSTAN'S HILL,<BR> + LONDON, E.C.<BR> +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> +<!-- Page 11 --> +<CENTER> +<TABLE> +<TR><TH COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>C O N T E N T S .</TH></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center><HR width=40 align=center></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=right><FONT SIZE="-1">PAGE</FONT></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER I.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH1">WAS THE <I>STAUROS</I> OF JESUS CROSS-SHAPED?</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH1">13</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER II.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH2">THE EVIDENCE OF MINUCIUS FELIX</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH2">31</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER III.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH3">THE EVIDENCE OF THE OTHER FATHERS</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH3">41</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER IV.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH4">CURIOUS STATEMENTS OF IRENÆUS</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH4">52</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER V.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH5">ORIGIN OF THE PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH5">57</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER VI.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH6">ORIGIN OF THE CHRISTIAN CROSS</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH6">65</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER VII.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH7">THE ESTABLISHER OF THE CHURCH</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH7">82</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER VIII.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH8">CROSS AND CRESCENT</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH8">92</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER IX.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH9">THE CORONATION ORB</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH9">104</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER X.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH10">ROMAN COINS BEFORE CONSTANTINE</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH10">119</A></TD></TR> +<!-- Page 12 --> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XI.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH11">THE COINS OF CONSTANTINE</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH11">133</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XII.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH12">ROMAN COINS AFTER CONSTANTINE</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH12">142</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XIII.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH13">THE MONOGRAM OF CHRIST</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH13">147</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XIV.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH14">THE CROSS OF THE LOGOS</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH14">163</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XV.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH15">THE PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS IN EUROPE</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH15">169</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XVI.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH16">THE PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS IN ASIA</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH16">178</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XVII.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH17">THE PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS IN AFRICA</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH17">183</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XVIII.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH18">EVIDENCE OF TROY</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH18">187</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XIX.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH19">EVIDENCE OF CYPRUS</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH19">193</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XX.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH20">MISCELLANEOUS EVIDENCE</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH20">204</A></TD></TR> +<TR><TD COLSPAN=2 ALIGN=center>CHAPTER XI.</TD></TR> +<TR><TD ALIGN=left><A HREF="#CH21">SUMMARY</A></TD><TD ALIGN=right><A HREF="#CH21">214</A></TD></TR> +</TABLE> +</CENTER> +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 13 --> +<CENTER><H1>THE NON-CHRISTIAN CROSS.</H1></CENTER> +<HR width=70 align=center> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH1">CHAPTER I.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>WAS THE <I>STAUROS</I> OF JESUS CROSS-SHAPED?</H4></CENTER> +<P>In the thousand and one works supplied for +our information upon matters connected +with the history of our race, we are told that +Alexander the Great, Titus, and various Greek, +Roman, and Oriental rulers of ancient days, +"crucified" this or that person; or that they +"crucified" so many at once, or during their +reign. And the instrument of execution is +called a "cross." + +<P>The natural result is that we imagine that all +the people said to have been "crucified" were +executed by being nailed or otherwise affixed +to a cross-shaped instrument set in the ground, +like that to be seen in our fanciful illustrations +of the execution of Jesus. + +<!-- Page 14 --> +This was, however, by no means necessarily +the case. + +<P>For instance, the death spoken of, death by +the <I>stauros</I>, included transfixion by a pointed +stauros or stake, as well as affixion to an unpointed +stauros or stake; and the latter punishment +was not always that referred to. + +<P>It is also probable that in most of the many +cases where we have no clue as to which kind +of stauros was used, the cause of the condemned +one's death was transfixion by a pointed stauros. + +<P>Moreover, even if we could prove that this +very common mode of capital punishment was +in no case that referred to by the historians who +lived in bygone ages, and that death was in +each instance caused by affixion to, instead of +transfixion by, a stauros, we should still have to +prove that each stauros had a cross-bar before +we could correctly describe the death caused by +it as death by crucifixion. + +<P>It is also, upon the face of it, somewhat unlikely +that the ancients would in every instance +in which they despatched a man by affixing +him to a post set in the ground, have gone out +of their way to provide the artistic but quite +unnecessary cross-bar of our imaginations. + +<!-- Page 15 --> +<P>As it is, in any case, well known that the +Romans very often despatched those condemned +to death by affixing them to a stake or post +which had no cross-bar, the question arises as +to what proof we have that a cross-bar was +used in the case of Jesus. + +<P>Nor is the question an unimportant one. For, +as we shall see in the chapters to come, there +was a pre-Christian cross, which was, like ours, +a symbol of Life. And it must be obvious to +all that if the cross was a symbol of Life before +our era, it is possible that it was originally +fixed upon as a symbol of the Christ because +it was a symbol of Life; the assumption that +it became a symbol of Life because it was a +symbol of the Christ, being in that case neither +more nor less than a very natural instance of +putting the cart before the horse. + +<P>Now the Greek word which in Latin versions +of the New Testament is translated as <I>crux</I>, and +in English versions is rendered as <I>cross, i.e.</I>, the +word <I>stauros</I>, seems to have, at the beginning +of our era, no more meant a cross than the +English word stick means a crutch. + +<P>It is true that a stick may be in the shape +of a crutch, and that the stauros to which Jesus +<!-- Page 16 --> +was affixed may have been in the shape of a +cross. But just as the former is not necessarily +a crutch, so the latter was not necessarily a cross. + +<P>What the ancients used to signify when they +used the word <I>stauros</I>, can easily be seen by +referring to either the Iliad or the Odyssey.<A NAME="S1" HREF="#R1"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>1</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>It will there be found to clearly signify an +ordinary pole or stake without any cross-bar. +And it is as thus signifying a single piece of +wood that the word in question is used +throughout the old Greek classics.<A NAME="S2" HREF="#R2"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>2</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>The stauros used as an instrument of execution +was (1) a small pointed pole or stake used +for thrusting through the body, so as to pin +the latter to the earth, or otherwise render +death inevitable; (2) a similar pole or stake +fixed in the ground point upwards, upon which +the condemned one was forced down till incapable +of escaping; (3) a much longer and +stouter pole or stake fixed point upwards, upon +which the victim, with his hands tied behind +him, was lodged in such a way that the point +should enter his breast and the weight of the +<!-- Page 17 --> +body cause every movement to hasten the end; +and (4) a stout unpointed pole or stake set +upright in the earth, from which the victim was +suspended by a rope round his wrists, which +were first tied behind him so that the position +might become an agonising one; or to which +the doomed one was bound, or, as in the case +of Jesus, nailed. + +<P>That this last named kind of stauros, which +was admittedly that to which Jesus was affixed, +had in every case a cross-bar attached, is untrue; +that it had in most cases, is unlikely; that it +had in the case of Jesus, is unproven. + +<P>Even as late as the Middle Ages, the word +stauros seems to have primarily signified a +straight piece of wood without a cross-bar. +For the famous Greek lexicographer, Suidas, +expressly states, "Stauroi; ortha xula perpégota," +and both Eustathius and Hesychius affirm +that it meant a <I>straight</I> stake or pole. + +<P>The side light thrown upon the question by +Lucian is also worth noting. This writer, referring +to Jesus, alludes to "That sophist of +theirs who was fastened to a <I>skolops;</I>" which +word signified a single piece of wood, and not +two pieces joined together. + +<!-- Page 18 --> +<P>Only a passing notice need be given to the +fact that in some of the Epistles of the New +Testament, which seem to have been written +before the Gospels, though, like the other +Epistles, misleadingly placed after the Gospels, +Jesus is said to have been <I>hanged</I> upon a <I>tree</I>.<A NAME="S3" HREF="#R3"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>3</SUP></FONT></A> +For in the first place the Greek word translated +"hanged" did not necessarily refer to hanging +by the neck, and simply meant suspended in +some way or other. And in the second place +the word translated "tree," though that always +used in referring to what is translated as the +"<I>Tree of Life</I>," signified not only "tree" but +also "wood." + +<P>It should be noted, however, that these five +references of the Bible to the execution of Jesus +as having been carried out by his suspension +upon either a tree or a piece of timber set in +the ground, in no wise convey the impression +that two pieces of wood nailed together in the +form of a cross is what is referred to. + +<P>Moreover, there is not, even in the Greek +text of the Gospels, a single intimation in +the Bible to the effect that the instrument +<!-- Page 19 --> +actually used in the case of Jesus was cross-shaped. + +<P>Had there been any such intimation in the +twenty-seven Greek works referring to Jesus, +which our Church selected out of a very large +number and called the "New Testament," the +Greek letter <I>chi</I>, which was cross-shaped, would +in the ordinary course have been referred to; +and some such term as <I>Katà chiasmon</I>, "like a +chi," made use of. + +<P>It should also be borne in mind that though +the Christians of the first three centuries certainly +made use of a transient sign of the +cross in the non-Mosaic initiatory rite of baptism +and at other times, it is, as will be shown in the +next two chapters, admitted that they did not +use or venerate it as a representation of the +instrument of execution upon which Jesus died. + +<P>Moreover, if in reply to the foregoing it +should be argued that as it is well known that +cross-shaped figures of wood, and other lasting +representations of the sign or figure of the cross, +were not venerated by Christians until after the +fateful day when Constantine set out at the +head of the soldiers of Gaul in his famous march +against Rome; and that the Christian crosses +<!-- Page 20 --> +of the remainder of the fourth century were +representations of the instrument of execution +upon which Jesus died; a dozen other objections +present themselves if we are honest enough +to face the fact that we have to show that they +were so from the first. For the Gauls, and +therefore the soldiers of Gaul, venerated as +symbols of the Sun-God and Giver of Life and +Victory the cross of four equal arms, +<IMG SRC="plus.gif" ALT="Plus"> , +or +<IMG SRC="x.gif" ALT="X"> , +and the solar wheel, +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="solarwheel2.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 2"> ; +while +the so-called cross which Constantine and his +troops are said to have seen above the midday +sun was admittedly the monogram of Christ, +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> , +which was admittedly an adaptation +of the solar wheel, as will be shown +further on; and it was as tokens of the conquest +of Rome by his Gaulish troops, that Constantine, +as their leader, erected one of these symbols +in the centre of the Eternal City, and +afterwards placed upon his coins the crosses +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> , +<IMG SRC="solarwheel2.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 2"> , +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> , +<IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> , +<IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> , +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> , +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> , +the cross of four equal arms +<IMG SRC="x.gif" ALT="X"> , +and several +variations of that other cross of four equal arms, +the right-angled +<IMG SRC="plus.gif" ALT="Plus"> . +And it was not till long +after these crosses were accepted as Christian, +<!-- Page 21 --> +and Constantine was dead and buried, that the +cross with one of its arms longer than the other +three (or two), which alone could be a representation +of an instrument of execution, was +made use of by Christians. + +<P>Another point to be remembered is that when +Constantine, apparently conceiving ours, as the +only non-national religion with ramifications +throughout his world-wide dominions, to be the +only one that could weld together the many +nations which acknowledged his sway, established +Christianity as the State Religion of the +Roman Empire, the Church to which we belong +would naturally have had to accept as its own +the symbols which Constantine had caused to +be those of the State in question. And it should +be added that the cross of later days with one +of its arms longer than the others, if not also +the assumption that the stauros to which Jesus +was affixed had a cross-bar, may have been +merely the outcome of a wish to associate with +the story of Jesus these Gaulish symbols of +victory which had become symbols of the +Roman State, and therefore of its State +Church. + +<P>Anyway, the first kind of cross venerated by +<!-- Page 22 --> +Christians was not a representation of an +instrument of execution; and the fact that we +hold sacred many different kinds of crosses, +although even if we could prove that the stauros +to which Jesus was affixed had a cross-bar but +one kind could be a representation of that +instrument of execution, has to be accounted +for. + +<P>Our only plausible explanation of the fact +that we hold sacred almost any species of cross +is that, as we do not know what kind of cross +Jesus died upon, opinions have always differed +as to which was the real cross. + +<P>This difference of opinion among Christians +as to the shape of the instrument upon which +Jesus was executed, has certainly existed for +many centuries. But as an explanation of the +many different kinds of crosses accepted by us +as symbols of the Christ, it only lands us in a +greater difficulty. For if we did not know +what kind of cross Jesus died upon when we +accepted the cross as our symbol, the chances +obviously are that we accepted the cross as our +symbol for some other reason than that we +assert. + +<P>As a matter of fact our position regarding +<!-- Page 23 --> +the whole matter is illogical and unsatisfactory, +and we ought to alter it by honestly facing the +facts that we cannot satisfactorily prove that our +symbol was adopted as a representation of the +instrument of execution to which Jesus was +affixed, and that we do not even know for +certain that the instrument in question was +cross-shaped. + +<P>It need only be added that there is not a +single sentence in any of the numerous writings +forming the New Testament, which, in the +original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to +the effect that the stauros used in the case of +Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; +much less to the effect that it consisted, not +of one piece of timber, but of two pieces +nailed together in the form of a cross. + +<P>Taking the whole of the foregoing facts into +consideration, it will be seen that it is not a +little misleading upon the part of our teachers +to translate the word stauros as "cross" when +rendering the Greek documents of the Church +into our native tongue, and to support that +action by putting "cross" in our lexicons as +the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining +that that was at any rate not the +<!-- Page 24 --> +primary meaning of the word in the days of +the Apostles, did not become its primary signification +till long afterwards, and became so +then, if at all, only because, despite the absence +of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason +or other assumed that the particular stauros +upon which Jesus was executed had that +particular shape. + +<P>But—the reader may object—how about the +Greek word which in our Bibles is translated +as "crucify" or "crucified?" Does not that +mean "fix to a cross" or "fixed to a cross?" +And what is this but the strongest possible +corroboration of our assertion as Christians +that Jesus was executed upon a cross-shaped +instrument? + +<P>The answer is that no less than four different +Greek words are translated in our Bibles as +meaning "crucify" or "crucified," and that not +one of the four meant "crucify" or "crucified." + +<P>The four words in question are the words +<I>prospēgnumi, anastauroo, sustauroō,</I> and <I>stauroō</I>. + +<P>The word prospēgnumi, though translated in +our Bibles as "crucify" or "crucified," meant to +"fix" to or upon, and meant that only. It +had no special reference to the affixing of +<!-- Page 25 --> +condemned persons either to a stake, pale, or +post, or to a tree, or to a cross; and had no +more reference to a cross than the English +word "fix" has. + +<P>The word <I>anastauroo</I> was never used by the +old Greek writers as meaning other than to +impale upon or with a single piece of timber.<A NAME="S4" HREF="#R4"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>4</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>The word <I>sustauroō</I> does not occur in pre-Christian +writings, and only five times in the +Bible against the forty-four times of the word +next to be dealt with. Being obviously derived +in part from the word stauros, which primarily +signified a stake or pale which was a single +piece of wood and had no cross-bar, <I>sustauroō</I> +evidently meant affixion to such a stake or +pale. Anyhow there is nothing whatever either +in the derivation of the word, or in the context +in either of the five instances in which it occurs, +to show that what is referred to is affixion +to something that was cross-shaped. + +<P>The word <I>stauroō</I> occurs, as has been said, +forty-four times; and of the four words in +question by far the most frequently. The +meaning of this word is therefore of special +<!-- Page 26 --> +importance. It is consequently most significant +to find, as we do upon due investigation, that +wherever it occurs in the pre-Christian classics +it is used as meaning to impalisade, or stake, +or affix to a pale or stake; and has reference, +not to crosses, but to single pieces of +wood.<A NAME="S5" HREF="#R5"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>5</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>It therefore seems tolerably clear (1) that +the sacred writings forming the New Testament, +to the statements of which—as translated for +us—we bow down in reverence, do not tell us +that Jesus was affixed to a cross-shaped instrument +of execution; (2) that the balance of +evidence is against the truth of our statements +to the effect that the instrument in question was +cross-shaped, and our sacred symbol originally +a representation of the same; and (3) that we +Christians have in bygone days acted, and, alas! +still act, anything but ingenuously in regard to +the symbol of the cross. + +<P>This is not all, however. For if the unfortunate +fact that we have in our zeal almost +manufactured evidence in favour of the theory +that <I>our</I> cross or crosses had its or their origin +<!-- Page 27 --> +in the shape of the instrument of execution to +which Jesus was affixed proves anything at all, +it proves the need for a work which, like the +present one, sets in array the evidence available +regarding both the pre-Christian cross and the +adoption in later times of a similar symbol as +that of the catholic faith. + +<P>Nor should it be forgotten that the triumph +of Christianity was due to the fact that it <I>was</I> +a "catholic" faith, and not, like the other faiths +followed by the subjects of Rome, and like what +Jesus seems to have intended the results of His +mission to have been inasmuch as He solemnly +declared that he was sent to the lost sheep of +the House of Israel and to them alone, the +monopoly of a single nation or race. + +<P>For if Paul, taking his and other visions of +Jesus as the long-needed proofs of a future +life, had not disregarded the very plain intimations +of Jesus to the effect that His mission +was to the descendants of Jacob or Israel, and +to them alone; if Paul had not withstood +Christ's representative, Peter, to the face, and, +with unsurpassed zeal, carried out his grand +project of proclaiming a non-national and universal +religion founded upon appearances of +<!-- Page 28 --> +the spirit-form of Jesus, what we call Christianity +would not have come into existence. + +<P>The fact that but for Paul there would have +been no catholic faith with followers in every +land ruled by Constantine when sole emperor, +for that astute monarch to establish as the +State Religion of his loosely knit empire, +because, on account of its catholicity, that best +fitted to hold power as the official faith of a +government with world-wide dominions, is +worthy of a lasting place in our memory. + +<P>Nor is the noteworthy fact last mentioned +unconnected with the symbol of the cross. For, +as will be shown, it is clear that it was because +Constantine caused the figure of the cross to +become a recognized symbol of his catholic +empire, that it became recognized as a symbol +of the catholic faith. + +<P>Not till after Constantine and his Gaulish +warriors planted what Eusebius the Bishop of +Cæsarea and other Christians of the century in +question describe as a cross, within the walls +of the Eternal City as the symbol of their +victory, did Christians ever set on high a cross-shaped +trophy of any description. + +<P>Moreover, but for the fact that, as it happened, +<!-- Page 29 --> +the triumph of Constantine resulted in that of +the Christian Church, we should probably have +deemed the cross, if to our minds a representation +of the instrument of execution to which +Jesus was affixed, as anything but the symbol +of Victory we now deem it. + +<P>This is evident from the fact that the so-called +cross of Jesus admittedly fulfilled the purpose +for which it was erected at the request of +those who sought the death of Jesus. And +even according to our Gospels the darkness of +defeat o'ershadowed the scene at Calvary. + +<P>To put the matter plainly, the victory of Jesus +was not a victory over the cross; for He did not +come down from the cross. Nor was it a victory +over His enemies; for what they sought was +to get rid of a man whom they deemed an agitator, +and their wish was gratified, inasmuch as, +thanks to the cross, He troubled them no more. + +<P>In other words the victory which we ascribe +to Jesus did not occur during the gloom which +hung like a pall over his native land at the +time of His execution, but upon the then +approaching Sun-day of the Vernal Equinox, +at the coming of the glory of the dawn. + +<P>For the victory in question, from whatever +<!-- Page 30 --> +point of view we may look at it, was not the avoidance +of defeat, but its retrieval. And its story +is an illustration of the old-world promise, hoary +with antiquity and founded upon the coming, +ushered in every year by the Pass-over or cross-over +of the equator by the sun at the Vernal +Equinox, of the bounteous harvests of summer +after the dearth of devastating winter; bidding us +ever hope, not indeed for the avoidance of death +and therefore of defeat, but for such victory as +may happen to lay in survival or resurrection. + +<P>It is therefore clear that even if we <I>could</I> +prove that the instrument of execution to +which Jesus was affixed was cross-shaped, it +would not necessarily follow that it was as +the representation of the cause of His death +which we now deem it, that the figure of the +cross became our symbol of Life and Victory. + +<P>In any case honesty demands that we should +no longer translate as "cross" a word which +at the time our Gospels were written did not +necessarily signify something cross-shaped. And +it is equally incumbent upon us, from a moral +point of view, that we should cease to render +as "crucify" or "crucified" words which never +bore any such meaning. + +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH2">CHAPTER II.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE EVIDENCE OF MINUCIUS FELIX.</H4></CENTER> +<P>The Fathers who wrote in Latin, used the +word <I>crux</I> as a translation of the Greek +word <I>stauros</I>. It is therefore noteworthy that +even this Latin word "crux," from which we +derive our words "cross" and "crucify," did not +in ancient days necessarily mean something +cross-shaped, and seems to have had quite +another signification as its original meaning. + +<P>A reference, for instance, to the writings of +Livy, will show that in his time the word crux, +whatever else it may have meant, signified a +single piece of wood or timber; he using it +in that sense.<A NAME="S6" HREF="#R6"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>6</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>This however is a curious rather than an +important point, for even the assumption that +the word <I>crux</I> always and invariably meant +<!-- Page 32 --> +something cross-shaped, would not affect the +demonstration already made that the word +<I>stauros</I> did not. + +<P>As our Scriptures were written in Greek and +were written in the first century A.C., the vital +question is what the word stauros then meant, +when used, as in the New Testament, without +any qualifying expression or hint that other +than an ordinary stauros was signified. What +the Fathers chose to consider the meaning of +that word to be, or chose to give as its Latin +translation, would, even if they had written the +same century, in no wise affect that issue. And, +as a matter of fact, even the earliest of the +Fathers whose undisputed works have come +down to us, did not write till the middle of the +second century. + +<P>Granting, however, as all must, that most if +not all of the earlier of the Fathers, and certainly +all the later ones, rightly or wrongly +interpreted the word stauros as meaning something +cross-shaped, let us, remembering that +this does not dispose of the question whether +they rightly or wrongly so interpreted it, in this +and the next two chapters pass in review the +references to the cross made by the Fathers +<!-- Page 33 --> +who lived before Constantine's march upon +Rome at the head of his Gaulish army. + +<P>Commencing, on account of its importance, +with the evidence of Minucius Felix, we find +that this Father wrote +<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"We assuredly see the sign of a cross naturally, in +the ship when it is carried along with swelling sails, +when it glides forward with expanded oars; and when +the military yoke is lifted up it is the sign of a cross; +and when a man adores God with a pure mind, with +arms outstretched. Thus the sign of the cross either +is sustained by a natural reason or your own religion +is formed with respect to it."<A NAME="S7" HREF="#R7"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>7</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Various other pronouncements to a similar +effect are to be found in the writings of other +Christian Fathers, and such passages are often +quoted as conclusive evidence of the Christian +origin of what is now our symbol. In reality, +however, it is somewhat doubtful if we can +fairly claim them as such; for the question +arises whether, if the writers in their hearts +believed their cross to be a representation of the +instrument of execution to which Jesus was +affixed, they would have omitted, as they did +in every instance, to mention that as the right +<!-- Page 34 --> +and proper and all-sufficient reason for venerating +the figure of the cross. + +<P>Moreover it is quite clear that while, as will +be shown hereafter, the symbol of the cross +had for ages been a Pagan symbol of Life, it +can, as already stated, scarcely be said to have +become a Christian <I>symbol</I> before the days of +Constantine. No cross-shaped symbol of wood +or of any other material had any part in the +Christianity of the second and third centuries; +and the only cross which had any part in the +Christianity of those days was the immaterial +one traced upon the forehead in the non-Mosaic +and originally Pagan initiatory rite of Baptism, +and at other times also according to some of +the Fathers, apparently as a charm against the +machinations of evil spirits. + +<P>This "sign" or "signal" rather than "symbol" +of the cross, referred to as theirs by the +Christian writers of the second and third centuries, +is said to have had a place before our +era in the rites of those who worshipped Mithras, +if not also of those who worshipped certain +other conceptions of the Sun-God; and it +should be noted that the Fathers insist upon +it that a similar mark is what the prophet +<!-- Page 35 --> +Ezekiel referred to as that to be placed upon +the foreheads of certain men as a sign of life +and salvation; the original Hebrew reading +"Set a <I>tau</I> upon the foreheads of the men" +(<I>Ezek</I>. ix. 4), and the tau having been in the +days of the prophet in question—as we know +from relics of the past—the figure of a cross. +Nor should it be forgotten that Tertullian +admits that those admitted into the rites of the +Sun-God Mithras were so marked, trying to +explain this away by stating that this was done +in imitation of the then despised Christians!<A NAME="S8" HREF="#R8"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>8</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>That it was this immaterial sign or signal, +rather than any material symbol of the cross, +which Minucius Felix considered Christian, is +demonstrated by the fact that the passage +already quoted is accompanied by the remark +that +<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Crosses, moreover, we Christians neither venerate +nor wish for. You indeed who consecrate gods of wood +venerate wooden crosses, perhaps as parts of your gods. +For your very standards, as well as your banners, and +flags of your camps, what are they but crosses gilded +and adorned? Your victorious trophies not only imitate +the appearance of a simple cross, but also that of a +man affixed to it."<A NAME="S9" HREF="#R9"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>9</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<!-- Page 36 --> +<P>This remarkable denunciation of the Cross +as a Pagan symbol by a Christian Father who +lived as late as the third century after Christ, +is worthy of special attention; and can scarcely +be said to bear out the orthodox account of the +origin of the cross as a Christian symbol. It +is at any rate clear that the cross was not our +recognised symbol at that date; and that it is +more likely to have been gradually adopted by +us from Sun-God worshippers, than by the +worshippers of Mithras and other pre-Christian +conceptions of the Sun-God from us. + +<P>As our era was six or seven centuries old +before the crucifix was introduced, and the +earliest pictorial representation of the execution +of Jesus still existing or referred to in any work +as having existed was of even later date, much +stress has been laid by us upon what we allege +to be a caricature of the crucifixion of Jesus and +of much earlier date. The drawing in question +was discovered in 1856 to be scrawled upon a +wall of the Gelotian House under the Palatine +at Rome; and as no Christian representations +of the alleged execution upon a cross-shaped +instrument of even a reasonably early date +exist, it would of course be greatly to our +<!-- Page 37 --> +interest to be able to quote this alleged caricature, +which is said to be as old as the third +and perhaps even as old as the second century, +as independent evidence of the truth of our +story. But can we fairly do so? + +<P>The drawing in question is a very roughly +executed representation of a figure with human +arms, legs, and feet; but with an animal's head. +The arms are extended, and two lines, which +are said to represent a cross but appear in +front of the figure instead of behind it, traverse +the arms and trunk. In the foreground is a +man looking at this grotesque figure; and an +accompanying inscription is to the effect that +"Alexamenos adores his God." + +<P>Tertullian relates that a certain Jew "carried +about in public a caricature of us with this +label, <I>An ass of a priest</I>. This figure had an +ass's ears, and was dressed in a toga with a +book; having a hoof on one of his feet."<A NAME="S10" HREF="#R10"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>10</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>It is upon the strength of this passage and +the two lines traversing the figure, that we, +ignoring the fact that the figure is standing, claim +this much-quoted <I>graffito</I> as conclusive evidence +<!-- Page 38 --> +of the historical accuracy of our story. But it may +be pointed out that even if this was a caricature +of the execution of Jesus made at the date +mentioned, a caricature, made certainly not less +than two hundred years after the event, is not +altogether trustworthy evidence as to the details. + +<P>And, was it a caricature of the execution of +Jesus? It would appear not. + +<P>To commence with, the two lines or scratches—for +they are little more—which we call a +cross, need not necessarily have formed a part +of the original <I>graffito;</I> and, even if they did, +of themselves prove nothing. There is no +reference to a cross in the inscription, nor is +there anything to show that an execution of +any kind is what is illustrated. Moreover, the +hoof upon one foot, mentioned by Tertullian, is +not to be seen; a remark which also applies to +the toga and the book he mentions. And even +what Tertullian referred to was not a caricature +of the execution of Jesus. + +<P>It should also be noted that the head of the +figure in this famous graffito, is more like that +of a jackal than that of an ass; and appears to +have been a representation of the Egyptian god +Anubis, who is so often to be seen upon relics +<!-- Page 39 --> +of the past as a figure with a jackal's head, with +human arms extended, and with human legs +and feet, as in this drawing. + +<P>Upon all points, therefore, our claim concerning +the graffito is an ill-founded one; and it +cannot be considered evidence regarding either +cross or crucifixion. + +<P>There thus being no opposing evidence of +any weight, it is quite clear from the fact that +as late as the third century after Christ we find a +Christian Father who venerated the sign or figure +of the cross denouncing it as a symbol, that no +material representations of that sign or figure +were recognised as Christian till an even later +date. And such a conclusion is borne out by +the striking fact that when Clement of Alexandria +at the beginning of the third century made +out a list of the symbols which Christians were +permitted to use, he mentioned the Fish and the +Dove but said nothing regarding the Cross.<A NAME="S11" HREF="#R11"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>11</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>As to the sign or figure of the cross referred +to by the Fathers of the second and third centuries, +even so high an authority as the Dean of +Canterbury admits, as we shall see in the next +<!-- Page 40 --> +chapter, that it was not "mainly" as reminding +them of the death of Jesus that the Christians +of the second and third centuries venerated it. +If, therefore, not in the main, and, it would +follow, not originally as a representation of the +instrument of execution upon which Jesus died, +what more likely than that the early Christians +venerated the sign and figure of the cross as the +age-old and widely accepted symbol of Life and +of the Sun-God we know it to have been? + +<P>Anyway Minucius Felix may be said to stand +alone in denouncing the symbol of the cross +as non-Christian. And as even he expresses +veneration for the figure of the cross, and +must have approved of the sign of the cross in +the initiatory rite of baptism, that denunciation +evidently applied only to material representations +of the cross. + +<P>Moreover the denunciation in question was +clearly due to the fear that such objects might +degenerate amongst Christians, as they afterwards +did, into little better than idols. And if +the sign or figure of the cross did not mainly +remind the early Christians of the death of Jesus, +it must have mainly reminded them of something else. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 41 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH3">CHAPTER III.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE EVIDENCE OF THE OTHER FATHERS.</H4></CENTER> +<P>The works which have come down to us +from the Fathers who lived before the +days of Constantine make up over ten thousand +pages of closely printed matter; and the first +point which strikes those who examine that +mass of literature with a view to seeing what +the Christians of the first three centuries +thought and wrote concerning the execution +of Jesus and the symbol of the cross, is that +the execution of Jesus was hardly so much as +mentioned by them, and no such thing as a +representation of the instrument of execution +once referred to. + +<P>Another fact worthy of special note is that, +whether the Fathers wrote in Greek and used +the word <I>stauros</I>, or wrote in Latin and translated +that word as <I>crux</I>, they often seem to +<!-- Page 42 --> +have had in their mind's eye a tree; a tree +which moreover was closely connected in +meaning with the forbidden tree of the Garden +of Eden, an allegorical figure of undoubtedly +phallic signification which had its counterpart +in the Tree of the Hesperides, from which the +Sun-God Hercules after killing the Serpent was +fabled to have picked the Golden Apples of +Love, one of which became the symbol of +Venus, the Goddess of Love. Nor was this +the only such counterpart, for almost every race +seems in days of old to have had an allegorical +Tree of Knowledge or Life whose fruit was +Love; the ancients perceiving that it was love +which produced life, and that but for the sexual +passion and its indulgence mankind would cease +to be. + +<P>Starting upon an examination of the early +Christian writings in question, we read in the +<I>Gospel of Nicodemus</I> that when the Chief +Priests interviewed certain men whom Jesus +had raised from the dead, those men made upon +their faces "the sign of the stauros."<A NAME="S12" HREF="#R12"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>12</SUP></FONT></A> +The sign of the cross is presumably meant; and +<!-- Page 43 --> +all that need be said is that if the men whom +Jesus raised from the dead were acquainted +with the sign of the cross, it would appear +that it must have been as a pre-Christian +sign. + +<P>Further on in the same Gospel, Satan is +represented as being told that "All that thou +hast gained through the Tree of Knowledge, +all hast thou lost through the Tree of the +Stauros."<A NAME="S13" HREF="#R13"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>13</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Elsewhere we read that "The King of Glory +stretched out his right hand, and took hold of +our forefather Adam, and raised him: then, +turning also to the rest, he said, <!-- original missing opening quote here -->'Come with me +as many as have died through the Tree which +he touched, for behold I again raise you all up +through the Tree of the Stauros.'"<A NAME="S14" HREF="#R14"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>14</SUP></FONT></A> +Some see +in this peculiar pronouncement a reference to the +doctrine of re-incarnation. + +In the <I>Acts and Martyrdom of the Holy +Apostle Andrew</I> we are told that those who +executed Andrew "lifted him up on the stauros," +but "did not sever his joints, having received +this order from the pro-consul, for he wished him +<!-- Page 44 --> +to be in distress while hanging, and in the nighttime +as he was suspended to be eaten by dogs." +There is nothing to show that the stauros used +was other than an ordinary stauros. + +<P>In the <I>Epistle of Barnabas</I> are various references +to the stauros; mixed up with various +passages from the Hebrew Scriptures, quoted—without +any justification—as referring to the +initiatory rite of baptism; a rite, be it noted, +that was admittedly of Gentile rather than +Israelitish origin, and not unconnected with the +Sun-God worship of the Persians and other +Orientals of non-Hebrew race. + +<P>The references in question commence with the +enquiry, "Let us further ask whether the Lord +took any care to foreshadow the Water and the +Stauros?" + +<P>Afterwards we have a quotation of <I>Psalm</I> i. 3-6—which +likens the good man to a tree planted +by the side of a river and yielding his fruit in +due season—and the pronouncement, "Mark how +he has described at once both the Water and the +Stauros. For these words imply, Blessed are +they who, placing their trust in the Stauros, have +gone down into the Water." + +<P>This further reference to the non-Mosaic +<!-- Page 45 --> +initiatory rite of baptism is followed by a +quotation of <I>Ezekiel</I> xlvii. 12, which speaks of +a river by whose side grow trees those who cat +the fruit of which grow for ever. + +<P>Further on is a declaration that when Moses +stretched out his hands (in a direction not specified) +that victory might rest with the forces he +commanded, he stretched them out in the figure +of a stauros, as a prophecy that Jesus "would be +the author of life." + +<P>A reference is then made to the Brazen Serpent, +and to the pole upon which it was placed; +and it is stated that this lifeless imitation of a +serpent was a type of Jesus. + +<P>In the <I>Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians</I> we +read that the stauros of the Christ is indeed a +stumbling block to those who do not believe. +The evidence of Irenæus, as that of one who +was through his acquaintance with the aged Polycarp +almost in touch as it were with the apostles, +will on account of his importance as a witness +be specially dealt with in the next chapter. + +<P>Justin Martyr, arguing that the figure of the +cross is impressed upon the whole of nature, +asks men to<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Consider all things in the world, whether without +<!-- Page 46 --> +this form they could be administered or have any certainty. +For the sea is not traversed except that trophy +which is called a sail abide safe in the ship; and the +earth is not ploughed without it: diggers and mechanics +do not their work except with tools which have this +shape. And the human form differs from that of the +irrational animals in nothing else than in its being erect +and having the hands extended and having on the face +extending from the forehead what is called the nose, +through which there is respiration for the living creature; +and this shows no other form than that of the cross. +And so it was said by the prophet <I>The breath before our +face is the Lord Christ</I>. And the power of this form +is shown by your own symbols on what are called +standards and trophies; with which all your processions +are made, using these as insignia of your power +and government."<A NAME="S15" HREF="#R15"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>15</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Elsewhere Justin Martyr declares that the +Christ<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Was symbolised both by the Tree of Life which was +said to have been planted in Paradise, and by those +events which should happen to all the just. Moses was +sent with a <I>rod</I> to effect the redemption of the people; +and with this in his hands at the head of the people he +divided the sea. By this he saw the water gushing out +of the rock; and when he cast a <I>tree</I> into the waters of +Marah, which were bitter, he made them sweet. Jacob +by putting <I>rods</I> into the water troughs caused the sheep +<!-- Page 47 --> +of his uncle to conceive . . . . Aaron's <I>rod</I> which +blossomed declared him to be the High Priest. Isaiah +prophesied that a rod would come forth from the root +of Jesse, and this was the Christ."<A NAME="S16" HREF="#R16"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>16</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Further on in the same work, Justin Martyr, +alluding to the statement in the Israelitish Law +"Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree," +states that<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"It was not without design that the prophet Moses +when Hur and Aaron upheld his hands, remained in this +form until evening. For indeed the Lord remained upon +the tree almost until evening."<A NAME="S17" HREF="#R17"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>17</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Tertullian writes concerning the Christ "With +the last enemy Death did he fight, and through +the trophy of the cross he triumphed"<A NAME="S18" HREF="#R18"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>18</SUP></FONT></A>; +and elsewhere tells us that "Cursed is every one +who hangeth on a tree" was a prediction of his +death.<A NAME="S19" HREF="#R19"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>19</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>There is also in existence a long essay by +Tertullian which starts by discussing the efficacy +of "the sign" as an antidote. The sign +of the cross as traced upon the forehead in +the non-Mosaic initiatory rite of baptism seems +<!-- Page 48 --> +to be what is referred to; and no representation +of an instrument of execution, or cross-shaped +symbol of wood or any material, is +once mentioned.<A NAME="S20" HREF="#R20"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>20</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>In another of Tertullian's works we come +across the passage "In all the actions of daily +life we trace upon the forehead the sign."<A NAME="S21" HREF="#R21"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>21</SUP></FONT></A> + +His famous reference to the Sun-God Mithras +reads as follows:—<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"The devil in the mystic rites of his idols competes +even with the essential portions of the sacraments of +God. He, like God, baptizes some, that is, his own +believing and faithful followers, and promises the putting +away of sins by baptism; and if I remember rightly +Mithras there signs his soldiers upon their foreheads, +celebrates the oblation of bread, introduces a representation +of the resurrection, and places the crown beyond +the sword."<A NAME="S22" HREF="#R22"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>22</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Elsewhere Tertullian writes:—<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"If any of you think we render superstitious adoration +to the cross, in that adoration he is sharer with us . . +You worship <I>victories</I>, for in your trophies the cross is the +heart of the trophy. The camp religion of the Romans +is all through a worship of the standards . . . I praise +your zeal: you would not worship crosses unclothed and +unadorned."<A NAME="S23" HREF="#R23"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>23</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<!-- Page 49 --> +<P>In another of Tertullian's works we read:—<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"As for him who affirms that we are the priesthood +of a cross, we shall claim him as a co-religionist . . . +Every piece of timber which is fixed in the ground in an +erect position is part of a cross, and indeed the greater +part of its mass. But an entire cross is attributed to +us . . . . The truth however is that <I>your</I> religion +is <I>all</I> cross . . . You are ashamed, I suppose, to +worship unadorned and simple crosses."<A NAME="S24" HREF="#R24"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>24</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>In the <I>Instructions of Commodianus</I> we read +"The first law was in the tree, and so, too, +was the second."<A NAME="S25" HREF="#R25"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>25</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Cyprian contends that "By the sign of the +cross, also, Amalek was conquered by Moses."<A NAME="S26" HREF="#R26"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>26</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Elsewhere Cyprian tells us that "In this sign +of the cross is salvation for all people who are +marked on their foreheads"; quoting as proof +of this, from the Apocalypse, "They had his +name and the name of his Father written on +their foreheads," and "Blessed are they that +do his commandments that they may have +power over the Tree of Life."<A NAME="S27" HREF="#R27"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>27</SUP></FONT></A> + +Methodius tells us that "He overcame, as has +<!-- Page 50 --> +been said, the powers that enslaved us by the +figure of the cross; and shadowed forth man, +who had been oppressed by corruption as by +a tyrant power, to be free with unfettered hands. +For the cross, if you wish to define it, is the +confirmation of victory."<A NAME="S28" HREF="#R28"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>28</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Passing on to Origen, we find in one of his +works the noteworthy passage:—<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"It is possible to avoid it if we do what the Apostle +saith 'Mortify your members which are upon earth,' and +if we always carry about in our bodies the death of +Christ. For it is certain that where the death of Christ +is carried about, sin cannot reign. For the power of +the <I>stauros</I> of Christ is so great that if it be set before a +man's eyes and kept faithfully in his mind so that he look +with steadfast eyes of the mind upon that same death +of Christ, no concupiscence, no sensuality, no natural +passion, and no envious desire, is able to overcome +him."<A NAME="S29" HREF="#R29"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>29</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Whether however this reference to the +"<I>stauros</I> of Christ" is or is not a reference to +the figure of the cross, is doubtful. + +<P>Such is the evidence regarding the cross, +whether considered as immaterial sign or material +symbol, obtainable from the writings of the +<!-- Page 51 --> +Christians who lived between the days of the +Apostles and those of Constantine; other of +course than the <I>Octavius</I> of Minucius Felix, +which was dealt with in the last chapter, and +the writings of Irenæus, which will be dealt +with in the next. + +<P>Among the noteworthy features of the evidence +in question prominently stands out the +smallness of its volume. + +<P>This is but a negative point, however; and +what should be carefully borne in mind is +that the evidence as a whole leads to the conclusion +that the Christians of the second and +third centuries made use of the sign and venerated +the figure of the cross without, as Dean +Farrar admits, it "only or even mainly," reminding +them of the death of Jesus; and therefore +otherwise than as a representation of the instrument +of execution upon which Jesus died.<A NAME="S30" HREF="#R30"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>30</SUP></FONT></A> +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 52 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH4">CHAPTER IV.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>CURIOUS STATEMENTS OF IRENÆUS.</H4></CENTER> +<P>The special importance of the evidence of +Irenæus, is due to the fact that of all the +Fathers whose undisputed works have come +down to us he is the only one who can be +considered to have been anything like in touch +with the Apostles. As an acquaintance of the +aged Polycarp, who is said to have been in his +youth a pupil of the aged Evangelist and +Apostle St. John and to have met yet other +Apostles, Irenæus had opportunities for ascertaining +facts concerning the life and death of +Jesus which the other Fathers upon whose +works we rely did not possess. + +<P>What, then, does this important witness have +to say, which bears upon the points at issue? +As a matter of fact, very little. + +<!-- Page 53 --> +<P>There are, however, two passages in the +works of Irenæus which it would not be right +to altogether ignore. + +<P>In the first of these passages Irenæus mentions +that some Christians believed that Simon +of Cyrene was executed instead of Jesus, owing +to the power of Jesus to metamorphose himself +and others having been exercised with that +object in view.<A NAME="S31" HREF="#R31"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>31</SUP></FONT></A> +This power is referred to +more than once in our Gospels, for instance +in the account of the so-called "Transfiguration" +upon the Mount; the Greek word rendered in +our Bibles as "transfigured" being the word +which in translations of the older Greek classics +is rendered "metamorphosed." + +<P>Even if we pass by this belief of certain of +the early Christians that Jesus was never +executed, a question here arises which should +at least be stated, and that is the question how, +if Jesus was metamorphosed upon the Mount, +as the Gospels tell us, he can be said to have +died as a man at Calvary? For if upon the +Mount of Transfiguration, or at any other time +previous to the scene at Calvary, Jesus was +<!-- Page 54 --> +metamorphosed, the form which was the result +of the process of re-metamorphosis necessary +to make him recognisable again cannot be said +to have been born of the Virgin Mary, and +can have been human only in appearance. + +<P>The other passage in the writings of Irenæus +which deserves our notice, is neither more nor +less than an emphatic declaration, by Irenæus +himself, that Jesus was not executed when a +little over thirty years of age, but lived to be +an old man. Explain it away how we will, the +fact remains; and it certainly ought not to be +ignored. + +<P>At first sight this statement of Irenæus would +decidedly seem to support the theory advanced +by some, that, as the Roman Procurator Pontius +Pilate admittedly did not want to carry out the +extreme penalty in the case of Jesus, though he +reluctantly consented to do so in order to pacify +the Jews and allowed Jesus to be fixed to a +stauros and suspended in public view, he took +care to manage things so that Jesus should only +appear to die. The idea of course is that if +Pilate wished to preserve the life of Jesus he +could easily have had him taken down while in +a drugged condition, have had the farce of burial +<!-- Page 55 --> +carried out at the earliest possible moment, and +then have had him resuscitated and removed to +some region where he could dwell in safety. + +<P>What Irenæus says concerning Jesus is that<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"He passed through every age, becoming an infant for +infants. . . . So likewise he was an old man for old +men, that he might be a perfect Master for all, not merely +as regards the setting forth of the truth but also as +regards age, sanctifying at the same time the aged also +and becoming an example to them likewise. Then, at +last, he came on to death itself. . . . From the +fortieth and fiftieth year a man begins to decline towards +old age, which our Lord possessed while he still fulfilled +the office of a Teacher; even as the Gospel and all the +elders testify, those who were conversant in Asia with +John the disciple of the Lord affirming that John conveyed +to them that information. And he remained +among them up to the times of Trajan. Some of them +moreover saw not only John but the other apostles also, +and heard the very same account from them, and bear +testimony as to the statement. Whom, then, should we +rather believe? Whether such men as these, or Ptolemæus, +who never saw the apostles and who never even +in his dreams attained to the slightest trace of an +apostle?"<A NAME="S32" HREF="#R32"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>32</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>The reader must decide for himself or herself +whether Irenæus believed that Jesus was +never executed; or that he was executed but +<!-- Page 56 --> +survived; or that he was born when we suppose, +but executed thirty years or so later than we +suppose; or that, though executed when we +suppose, he was then an old man, and was born, +not at the commencement or middle or end of +the year A.C. 1, or B.C. 4, or whenever the +orthodox date is, but thirty years or more before +what we call our era began. Anyhow he mentions +neither cross nor execution, and here seems +to assume that Jesus died a natural death. And +in any case the fact remains that, however mistaken +he may have been, Irenæus stated that +Jesus lived to be an old man; and stated so +emphatically. + +<P>Even granting that Irenæus must have been +mistaken, his evidence none the less affects one +of the most important points debated in this +work. For it is clear that if even he knew so +little about the execution of Jesus, the details +of that execution cannot have been particularly +well known; and the affirmation that the stauros +to which Jesus was affixed had a transverse bar +attached may have had no foundation in fact, +and may have arisen from a wish to connect +Jesus with that well-known and widely-venerated +Symbol of Life, the pre-Christian cross. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 57 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH5">CHAPTER V.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>ORIGIN OF THIS PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Having in the foregoing chapters demonstrated +that it is possible, if not indeed +probable, that the instrument of execution to +which Jesus was affixed was otherwise than +cross-shaped; and having also shown that it +was not mainly, if indeed even partially, that the +early Christians signified that instrument by the +sign of the cross; it is now desirable that, as +a preliminary to an enquiry into the circumstances +under which the cross became the +symbol of Christianity, we should enquire into +the origin of the <I>pre</I>-Christian cross. + +<P>That there was a pre-Christian cross, and that +it was, like ours, a Symbol of Life, is generally +admitted. + +<P>The authorities upon such subjects, however, +unfortunately differ as to the reason why the +<!-- Page 58 --> +Cross came to be selected by the ancients as +the Symbol of Life. And not one of their +suggestions seems to go to the root of the +matter. + +<P>Let us therefore in thought go back tens of +thousands of years, and conceive the genus +Homo as a race gradually awakening to reason +but as yet unfettered by inherited traditions and +creeds. Let us imagine Man ere he began to +make gods in his own image. Let us remember +that what would strike him as the greatest of +all marvels would of necessity be Life itself, +and that far and away the next greatest marvel +must have been the glorious Sun; the obvious +source of earth life, and Lord of the Hosts +of Heaven. + +<P>Let us bear in mind, too, that though the +Nature Worship of our remote ancestors had +other striking features, the facts mentioned +would lead to the predominance of the phallic +idea, and to its association with Sun-God worship. +And as Life, the greatest marvel of all, must +have had a symbol allotted to it at a very early +date, let us ask ourselves what the untutored +mind of Man would be most likely to select as +its symbol. + +<!-- Page 59 --> +<P>To this question there is, so far as the author +can see, but one reasonable answer:—the figure +of the cross. + +<P>And the author conceives this to be the real +solution of the difficulty for this reason:—because +the figure of the cross is the simplest possible +representation of that union of two bodies or +two sexes or two powers or two principles, which +alone produces life. + +<P>For the ancients cannot fail to have perceived +that all life more immediately proceeds from the +<I>union</I> of <I>two</I> principles; and the first, readiest, +simplest, and most natural symbol of Life, was +consequently one straight line superimposed +upon another at such an angle that both could +be seen; in other words, a cross of some description +or other. + +<P>It is evidently probable that this was the real +reason why the figure of the cross originally +came to be adopted as the Symbol of Life. But, +of course, whatever the original reason, as time +rolled on other reasons for the veneration of the +cross were pointed out; nothing being more +natural than that primitive Man should, or more +certain than that he did, find pleasure in connecting +with other objects of his regard than +<!-- Page 60 --> +Life itself, that which as the Symbol of Life was +pre-eminently a symbol of good omen. + +<P>The most notable instance of this is the way +in which, or rather the different ways in which, +the figure of the cross was connected with the +Sun-God. + +<P>A good example of the last named fact, is the +declaration of the philosophers of ancient Greece +that the figure of the cross was the figure of the +"Second God" or "Universal Soul," the <I>Ratio</I> as +well as the <I>Oratio</I> of the All-Father, which they +called the <I>Logos</I> of God; a term badly translated +in our versions of the Gospel of St. John as +the <I>Word</I> of God, as if it signified the <I>Oratio</I> only. + +<P>It was this Logos or "Second God" whom +Philo, who was born before the commencement +of our era, described as the "Intellectual Sun," +and even as God's "First Begotten" and "Beloved" +offspring, and the "Light of the World"; +terms afterwards made use of by the writers of +our Gospels in describing the Christ. And, as +will be shown in a chapter upon the subject, the +reason the philosophers, among whom was Plato, +gave for declaring the cross to be the figure of +the Logos, was that the Sun creates this figure +by crossing the Equator. + +<!-- Page 61 --> +<P>An even better illustration can be seen in the +fact that in days of old almost every civilised +race held feasts at the time of the Vernal +Equinox, in honour of the Passover or <I>Cross</I>-over +of the Sun. + +<P>The fact that the ancients were thus at special +pains to connect the symbol of Life with the +Sun-God, and also, as we know, spoke of him +as the "Giver of Life" and the only "Saviour," +was doubtless due to their perceiving, not only +that life is the result of the union of the two +principles distinguished by the titles male and +female, but also that the salvation of life is due +to the action of the sun in preserving the body +from cold and in producing and ripening for +its use the fruits of the earth. + +<P>As the Giver of Life, the Sun-God was of +course considered to be bi-sexual. But when +the two great lights of heaven, the Sun and +the Moon, were associated with each other, as +was often and naturally the ease, the Sun was +considered to be more especially a personification +of the Male Principle, and the waxing and +waning moon, as represented by the Crescent, a +personification of the Female Principle. Hence +the worship of the God associated with the +<!-- Page 62 --> +radiate sun, as of that of the Goddess associated +with the crescent moon and called the Sun-God's +mother or bride, was phallic in character; and +their connection is repeatedly symbolised upon +the relics which have come down to us from +antiquity by the sign of the crescent containing +within its horns either a disc or what we should +consider a star-like object, which latter was +almost as favourite a mode with the ancients +of representing the sun as it is with us of +representing a star or planet, as will be shown +further on. + +<P>Returning, however, to the symbol of the +cross, as the first and simplest representation +of that union of the Male and Female Principles +which alone produces what we mortals call life, +it is extremely curious that the selection of the +figure of the cross in comparatively modern +times as the simplest and most natural symbol +both of addition and of multiplication, should +have led no one to perceive that, being for these +very reasons also the simplest and most natural +symbol of Life, a probable solution of the +mystery surrounding the origin of the pre-Christian +cross as a symbol of Life, as it were +stared them in the face. +<!-- Page 63 --> +As to the contention of not a few authorities, +apparently founded upon the mistaken assumption +that the <I>Svastika</I> was the earliest form of +cross to acquire importance as a symbol, that +the pre-Christian cross was originally a representation +of the wheel-like motion of the sun or a +reference to the wheel of the Sun-God's chariot; +it need only be remarked that evidence exists to +show that the cross was a symbol of Life from +a period so early, that it is doubtful if the Sun-God +had then been likened to a charioteer, and +not certain that either chariots or wheels had +been invented. It is true that the Solar Wheel +became a recognized symbol of the Sun-God, +and that additional veneration was paid to it +because the figure of the symbol of Life was +more or less discoverable in the spokes allotted +to the Solar Wheel; but it is putting the cart +before the horse to suppose that the cross +became the symbol of Life because its form was +so discoverable. + +<P>It only remains to be added that there +undoubtedly was a connection, however slight, +between the pre-Christian Cross as the Symbol +of Life, the Solar Wheel as a symbol of the +Sun-God, and the Cross as the symbol of the +<!-- Page 64 --> +Christ. And whatever the date at which the +cross was first adopted as a Christian symbol, +or whatever the reason for that adoption, there +is no doubt that, as will be shown further on, +our religion was considerably influenced by the +facts that the Gaulish soldiers whose victories +enabled Constantine to become Sole Emperor +venerated the Solar Wheel, +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="solarwheel2.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 2"> , +and that +their leader, who was anxious to obtain the +support of the Christians, allowed a loop to be +added to the top of the vertical spoke so that +the Christians might be able to interpret the +victorious symbol as +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> , +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> ; +<I>i.e.</I>, <SPAN LANG="gr">ΧΡ</SPAN> or <SPAN LANG="gr">ΧΡΙ</SPAN>, the first two or three letters of +the Greek word <SPAN LANG="gr">ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ</SPAN>, <I>Christos</I>, Christ. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 65 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH6">CHAPTER VI.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>ORIGIN OF THE CHRISTIAN CROSS.</H4></CENTER> +<P>As has already been to some extent pointed +out, it is evident that our beloved Christendom +more or less owes its existence to the fact +that Constantine the Great when only ruler of +Gaul, himself a Sun-God worshipper at the head +of an army of Sun-God worshippers, seeing how +greatly the small but enthusiastic bodies of +Christians everywhere to be met with could aid +him in his designs upon the attainment of +supreme power, bid for their support. For to +this politic move, its success, and Constantine's +perception that only a non-national religion +whose followers sought to convert the whole +world and make their faith a catholic one, could +really weld together different races of men, we +owe the fact that when he became Sole Emperor +<!-- Page 66 --> +he made Christianity the State Religion of the +world-wide Roman Empire. + +<P>This act and its far-reaching effects, are not +all we owe to Constantine, however. It should +be remembered that even our creed was to some +extent decided by him. For it was this Sun-God +worshipper—who, though he advised others +to enter what he wished should become a catholic +and all-embracing religion, refused to do so +himself till he was dying—who called together +our bishops, and, presiding over them in council +at Nicæa, demanded that they should determine +the controversy in the ranks of the Christians as +to whether the Christ was or was not God, by +subscribing to a declaration of his Deity. It is +even recorded that he forced the unwilling ones +to sign under penalty off deprivation and banishment. + +<P>From these and other incidents in his career it +would appear that, either from policy or conviction, +Constantine acted as if he thought the +Sun-God and the Christ were one and the same +deity. + +<P>The probability of this is more or less apparent +from what we are told concerning the part he +played in connection with what, thanks, as we +<!-- Page 67 --> +are about to see, to him, became our recognised +symbol. + +<P>Our knowledge of the part played by Constantine +in connection with the symbol of the +cross, except so far as we can gather it from a +study of ancient coins and other relics, unfortunately +comes to us solely through Christian +sources. And the first that famous bishop and +ecclesiastical historian Eusebius of Cæsarea, to +whom we owe so large a proportion of our real +or supposed knowledge of the early days of +Christianity, tells us about Constantine and the +cross, is that in the year A.C. 312—a quarter of +a century before his admission into the Christian +Church—Constantine and the Gaulish soldiers he +was leading saw at noon <I>over the Sun</I> a cross of +Light in the heavens, bearing upon it or having +attached to it the inscription <SPAN LANG="gr">ΕΝ ΤΟΥΤΩ ΝΙΝΑ</SPAN>, +<I>By this conquer</I>. + +<P>The words of the Bishop, who is reporting +what he states the Emperor in question to have +told him personally, are:—<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"He said that at mid-day when the sun was beginning +to decline he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross +of light in the heavens, above the Sun, bearing the +inscription <SPAN LANG="gr">ΕΝ ΤΟΥΤΩ ΝΙΝΑ</SPAN>; he himself, and his +<!-- Page 68 --> +whole army also, being struck with amazement at this +sight."<A NAME="S33" HREF="#R33"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>33</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Though this marvellous cross, declared by +Christian writers of that century to have been +the so-called Monogram of Christ +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> , +appeared to an army of Sun-God +worshippers, Constantine himself—as can be +seen from his coins—remaining one for many +years afterwards if not till his death, it is put +before us as a Christian cross. + +<P>It is also noteworthy that no material representation +of a cross of any description was ever +held aloft by adherents of the Christian Church, +until after Constantine is said to have had this +more or less solar cross so represented as the +standard of his Gaulish army. + +<P>Mention should therefore be made of the fact +that, upon the coins he struck, the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> +is perhaps the one which occurs the most +frequently upon representations of the famous +<I>Labarum</I> or Military Standard of Constantine; +but that the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> , +the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +without the circle, and the +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +and +<IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> , +are +also to be seen. + +<!-- Page 69 --> +<P>Now the Gauls led by Constantine specially +venerated the Solar Wheel. This had sometimes +six and sometimes four spokes, +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="solarwheel2.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 2"> , +and the warriors of their native land had long +been in the habit of wearing a representation of +the same upon their helmets. It is therefore +not improbable that even before the date of the +alleged vision when marching upon Rome, some +such symbol formed the standard of Constantine's +army. + +<P>Anyhow, that the worthy Bishop Eusebius +was, like other enthusiasts, liable to be at times +carried by his enthusiasm beyond the limits of +veracity, or else was the victim of imperial mendacity, +is evident. For Eusebius tells us in the +<I>Life of Constantine</I> he wrote after the death of +his patron, that the night after this miraculous +"cross" and motto were seen in the sky above +the Sun, the Christ appeared to Constantine, +and, showing the Gaulish general the same sign +that had been seen in the sky, directed him to +have a similar symbol made, under which his +army—an army, be it remembered, of Sun-God +worshippers—should march conquering and to +conquer!<A NAME="S34" HREF="#R34"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>34</SUP></FONT></A> + +<!-- Page 70 --> +<P>All that is really likely to have happened is +that Constantine, wishing to encourage his troops, +bade them rally round a standard on which was +represented the sacred Solar Wheel venerated +by the Gauls; and that as with this as a rallying +point Constantine and his Gauls became masters +of Rome, the symbol we are discussing became a +Roman—and therefore, later on, upon the establishment +of our faith as the State Religion of +the Roman Empire, also a <I>Christian</I>—symbol. +And a loop seems to have been sooner or later +added to the top of the vertical spoke of the +Gaulish symbol, so that Christians could accept +it as a Monogram of Christ; as has already +been hinted, and as will be demonstrated further +on. + +<P>A noteworthy point is that we have two +accounts of Constantine's alleged vision of the +Christ, and that they do not quite agree. +The Bishop of Cæsarea's account is, that the +night after the Emperor—then only ruler of +Gaul—and all his soldiers saw the "cross" and +motto above the meridian sun, the Christ appeared +to Constantine<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"With the same sign which he had seen in the +<!-- Page 71 --> +heavens, and commanded him to make a likeness of that +sign which he had seen in the heavens, and to use it as +a safeguard in all engagements with his enemies."<A NAME="S35" HREF="#R35"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>35</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>But the author of <I>De Mortibus Persecutorem</I>, +a work said to have been written during the reign +of Constantine, and attributed to Lactantius, +refers to the alleged vision as follows:—<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Constantine was admonished in his sleep to mark the +celestial sign of God on the shields, and thus engage in +battle. He did as he was commanded, and marked the +name of the Christ on the shields by the letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN> drawn +across them with the top circumflexed. Armed with this +sign his troops—"<A NAME="S36" HREF="#R36"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>36</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> +<BR><BR> +and the differences between these two accounts +are greater than would at first sight appear. + +<P>Let us however return to the story of the +Bishop of Cæsarea, who tells us that the morning +after the Christ appeared to Constantine, the +Emperor told this second marvel to his friends, +and, sending for the workers in gold and precious +stones who are assumed to have accompanied +the Gaulish army, directed them to overlay with +gold a long spear<BR><BR> + +<!-- Page 72 --> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"On the top of the whole of which was fixed a wreath +of gold and precious stones, and within this the symbol +of the Saviour's name, two letters indicating the name of +the Christ by means of its initial characters, the letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> +being intersected with the letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN> in its centre."<A NAME="S37" HREF="#R37"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>37</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Several questions naturally arise at this point +of our enquiry, and it is not easy—nay, it is +impossible—for us Christians to honestly dispose +of all of them and yet retain our cherished +opinions upon this matter. Only one such question +need be stated, and it is this: Is it likely +that the Infinite Ruler of the universe, either at +mid-day or at mid-night, went out of his way +to induce a Sun-God worshipper who would not +enter the Christian Church till a quarter of a +century later and ere then was to become a +murderer of innocent persons like the boy-Cæsar +Licinius, to adopt a symbol which he +warranted would enable Constantine to lead on +the Gauls to victory? + +<P>Pursuing the narrative of Eusebius we find +that he, alluding to the symbol which he describes +as a monogram but calls a cross, states that, +setting this "victorious trophy and salutary +symbol" in front of his soldiers, Constantine +<!-- Page 73 --> +continued his march against Maxentius; and, +with his forces thus "divinely aided," overthrew +the Emperor just outside the Imperial City, +entered Rome in triumph, and thanked God +that He had enabled him to defeat and slay its +ruler and assume the purple in that ruler's +stead.<A NAME="S38" HREF="#R38"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>38</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Eusebius then tells us that Constantine, who +did not dispose of all his rivals and become sole +emperor till some twelve years later, as victor in +the fight with Maxentius and master of Rome +though not as yet of the whole empire, at once +<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"By loud proclamation and monumental inscriptions +made known to all men the salutary symbol, setting +up this great trophy of victory over his enemies, and +expressly causing it to be engraven in indelible characters +that the salutary symbol was the safeguard of the +Roman Government and entire people. Accordingly he +immediately ordered a lofty spear in the figure of a cross +to be placed beneath the hand of a statue representing +himself in the most frequented part of Rome, and the +following inscription engraven on it in the Latin tongue:—'By +virtue of this salutary sign which is the true test of +valour, I have preserved and liberated your city from the +yoke of tyranny, and I have also set at liberty the Roman +Senate and People, and have restored to them their +ancient distinction and splendour.'"<A NAME="S39" HREF="#R39"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>39</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<!-- Page 74 --> +<P>Now, as we have already seen, what Eusebius +referred to as the "cross" observed above the +mid-day sun (and accompanied by a miraculous +inscription in, presumably, to agree with the +monogram, the Greek language; which was, +well, "Greek" to the Gaulish soldiers) was the +so-called Monogram of Christ <IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> or <IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> or +<IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> or <IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> . That, too, was what Eusebius tells +us the Christ afterwards told the Gaulish leader +Constantine to model his military standard after. +That, therefore, was the "salutary symbol" and +"trophy of victory" referred to in the above +passage from the same authority. + +<P>It is therefore clear that this "lofty spear in +the figure of a cross" which Eusebius tells us +was placed under the hand of the statue of +Constantine in the central place of honour in +Rome, was referred to by Eusebius as a "cross" +because it was shaped like or in some way connected +with some form or other of the so-called +Monogram of Christ. And such a conclusion is +borne out by the fact that spears with cross-bars +had been in use among both Gauls and Romans +for centuries, whereas this one is referred to as +something out of the common. + +<P>It should also be noted that it was as a +<!-- Page 75 --> +victorious military standard, and not as either +a monogram of the Christ or a representation of +the <I>stauros</I> upon which Jesus was executed, that +Constantine caused this <IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> or <IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> , or <IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> +or <IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> , or <IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> or <IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> (all which variations occur +upon the coins of Constantine and his successors), +to become a symbol of the Roman Empire. + +<P>Further on in his history of the Emperor, +Eusebius tells us that whenever Constantine saw +his troops hard pressed, he gave orders that the +"salutary trophy" should be moved in that +direction, and that victory always resulted. + +<P>The Bishop of Cæsarea then goes on to relate +that Constantine selected fifty men of his bodyguard, +the most distinguished for piety, valour, +and strength, whose sole duty it was to defend +this famous standard; and that, of the elect +fifty, those who fled were always slain, and those +who stood their ground were always miraculously +preserved.<A NAME="S40" HREF="#R40"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>40</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>One would imagine from all this that there +was only one labarum. Many different kinds +are, however, represented upon the coins of +<!-- Page 76 --> +Constantine; as also almost every variety of +ordinary cross, except, perhaps, such as might +conceivably have been a representation of an +instrument of execution, like that which has +since come into vogue among us. + +<P>Eusebius also tells us that Constantine caused +to be erected in front of his palace a lofty tablet, +on which was painted a representation of himself +with the "salutary sign" over his head and +a dragon or serpent under his feet.<A NAME="S41" HREF="#R41"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>41</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>He also informs us that inside the palace and +in the principal apartment, on a vast tablet in +the ceiling, Constantine caused "the symbol of +our Saviour's passion to be fixed, composed of +a variety of precious stones inwrought with +gold."<A NAME="S42" HREF="#R42"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>42</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Which of all the "salutary" signs that appear +upon the coins of Constantine these particular +crosses were, we do not know; but it is, at any +rate, obviously unlikely that a worshipper of +Apollo who refused to enter the Christian +Church till he was dying, and on his coins +always attributed his victories to the Sun-God, +elevated either as a representation of an instrument +of execution. + +<!-- Page 77 --> +<P>As to the alleged finding at Jerusalem, by +Helena the mother of Constantine, of three +stakes with transverse bars attached, all of which +were ancient instruments of execution and one +of which was shown by the occurrence of a +miracle to have been a cross to which Jesus was +affixed three centuries before, it is clear that +this is a fairy tale. The story cannot be traced +further back than to St. Cyril of Jerusalem +about A.C. 350; and Eusebius, who gives an +account of Helena's visit to Jerusalem, does +not mention any such occurrence as that in +question; a sure sign that it was an invention +of later date. + +<P>The Christian Church, however, in a weak +moment vouched for the truth of this ridiculous +story; and while what was suffered to remain +in Jerusalem of the true cross became the +treasure of that city and a trophy captured +by its foes but afterwards secured from them +and once more placed in its holiest shrine, what +was broken up into relics for the faithful throughout +Christendom multiplied into a thousand +fragments; one of which forms the centre of +the Vatican Cross, and such few others of which +as survive would not if examined, 'tis said, even +<!-- Page 78 --> +prove to be all of the same kind of wood, or +even limited to the two kinds for the presence +of which a supposed cross-bar of another kind +of timber might be held accountable. + +<P>The same Christian Bishop to whom this +fairy tale can be traced, in a letter to one of +the Emperors that succeeded Constantine declared +that on the seventh of May A.C. 351 he +and all the inhabitants of Jerusalem saw a +brilliant cross in the heavens, stretching from +Mount Golgotha to the Mount of Olives, and +<I>shining like the Sun for several hours</I>.<A NAME="S43" HREF="#R43"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>43</SUP></FONT></A> +And this marvellous vision is vouched for by St. +Jerome, Socrates, Matins, and the Alexandrine +Chronicle, as well as by St. Cyril; and is still +kept in memory by the Greek Church, a solemn +festival being held upon anniversaries of the +day in question. But which particular "salutary +sign" thus shone in the sky like the Sun for +hours, is uncertain. + +<P>These painfully obvious inventions cannot but +incline broad-minded Christians to the belief +that our Church went to great lengths in order +to induce people to believe that the cross was +<!-- Page 79 --> +essentially a <I>Christian</I> symbol; which tends to +show that there was a danger of their thinking +otherwise. + +<P>It is also clear from the evidence already +quoted concerning the adoption by Christians in +the fourth century of a symbol they denounced +in the third, that whether Jesus was executed +upon a cross-shaped instrument or not, that was +not the chief reason why the phallic symbol of +Life became recognised as the symbol of the +Christ. + +<P>The striking fact that though, as will be +shown, the cross of four equal arms (a cross +which, as we have seen, preceded the Latin cross +as a Christian symbol, and one form of which +is still the favourite symbol of the Greek Church; +while even in the other two great divisions of +Christendom its numerous variations, wheel-like +and otherwise, as a whole dispute the supremacy +with the Latin cross) occurs many times upon +the coins of Constantine, yet it was the so-called +Monogram of Christ or adapted solar wheel of +the Gauls which the Christians of the fourth +century were most careful to claim as a Christian +symbol, should also be noted. For though the +cross of four equal arms was also put by +<!-- Page 80 --> +Constantine upon his coins as a solar symbol, yet +that, being then, as for ages previously, a symbol +of the Sun-God of world-wide acceptation, and +one which as we shall see had already appeared +as such upon Roman coins, it was not so much +a Gaulish symbol as the other; and it was +evidently because that other was the symbol +followed by the triumphant leader of the Gauls +and his victorious army, that the Christians +wished to specially identify it with the Christ. + +<P>In any case, whether the so-called Monogram +of Christ was more or less forced upon Christianity +when Constantine made our faith the +State Religion of his empire, or whether it was +adopted by Christians of their own volition, it +was a politic move (than which few possible +moves could have done more to secure the +triumph of our faith) to accept as the symbol of +the Christian Church what was at one and the +same time the symbol of Constantine, of the +Roman State, and of the universally adored +Sun-God. + +<P>That the more generally accepted symbol +of the Sun-God, the cross of four equal arms, +should in time supplant the more local one, was +of course only to be expected; as was the +<!-- Page 81 --> +adoption of a cross with one arm longer than +the others, as being the only kind which could +possibly be connected with the story of Jesus +as the Christ incarnate. + +<P>As to the possible objection that what has +been dealt with in this chapter has been rather +the origin of the Christian custom of manufacturing +and venerating material representations +of the sign or figure of the cross than the origin +of the Christian cross itself, the answer is obvious. +And the answer is that the first cross which can +<I>justly</I> be called "Christian," was the one which +was the first to be considered, to use Dean +Farrar's expressions, "mainly," if not "only," a +representation of an instrument of execution; +which cross was undoubtedly not a transient +sign or gesture but a material representation of +the cross with one arm longer than the others +and was introduced after such representations +of the cross of four equal arms and of the +so-called Monogram of Christ had come into +vogue among Christians as a consequence of the +influence of Constantine. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 82 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH7">CHAPTER VII.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE ESTABLISHER OF THE CHURCH.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Having already shown not a little cause +for believing that the adoption of the +cross as our symbol is due to the fact that we +Christians helped to secure the triumph of the +ambitious ruler of the Gauls, and after receiving +numberless smaller favours from Constantine +during the years he was ruler of Rome but +not as yet sole emperor eventually obtained +from him the establishment of Christianity as +the State Religion of the Roman Empire, +adapting the victorious trophy of the Gauls and +the various crosses venerated by them and other +Sun-God worshippers to our faith as best we +could, it is desirable that we should pause to +trace the career of the man we hail as the first +Christian Emperor. + +<!-- Page 83 --> +<P>To do this properly we must commence by +referring to Constantine's father, Constantius +Chlorus; and to the favour shown to Constantius +Chlorus by his patron the Emperor Diocletian. + +<P>Finding the supreme rule of the almost worldwide +Roman Empire too much for one man +in ill-health to undertake successfully, Diocletian +in the year A.C. 286 made Maximian co-emperor. +And in A.C. 292 Diocletian followed this up by +conferring the inferior position and title of +Cæsar upon Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. + +<P>In A.C. 305 Diocletian relinquished power +altogether, forcing Maximian to abdicate with +him; Galerius and Constantius Chlorus thus +obtaining the coveted title of Augustus, and +sharing the supreme power. + +<P>Galerius now ranked first, however; for it was +to the ruler of Illyricum and not to that of Gaul +that Diocletian gave the power of appointing +Cæsars to govern Italy and the East. + +<P>Constantius Chlorus died in Britain A.C. 306, +the year after Diocletian abdicated; and +Galerius, who had married a daughter of +Diocletian, naturally thought that under the +circumstances he ought to become sole emperor. + +<P>The legions of Gaul, however, proclaimed +<!-- Page 84 --> +the son of Constantius Chlorus as Augustus +in his stead; and as Constantine thus became +ruler of Gaul and a power to be reckoned +with, Galerius thought it best to give way so +far as to grant Constantine the inferior title +of Cæsar. + +<P>Soon afterwards Galerius conferred the title +of Augustus upon Severus; and a little while +after that the Eternal City was lost to Galerius +through the revolt of his son-in-law Maxentius, +the son of Maximian. + +<P>The Senate of Rome then asked Maximian +to re-assume the purple, and he and Maxentius +shared the power between them, both taking +the title of Augustus. + +<P>Upon this Severus at the request of Galerius +marched upon Rome. He was, however, defeated +and slain. + +<P>After being more or less expelled by his son +Maxentius, Maximian in the year A.C. 308 +marched to Gaul and married his daughter +Fausta to Constantine; at the same time +conferring upon him the title of Augustus. +About this time Galerius made his friend +Licinius an Augustus in the place of Severus; +whereupon Maximin, the Governor of Syria and +<!-- Page 85 --> +Egypt, demanded and was granted that title +also. + +<P>There were thus in the year A.C. 308 some +half-a-dozen Roman Emperors instead of one; +there being Constantine and Maximian in the +west, Maxentius at Rome, and Galerius, Licinius, +and Maximin elsewhere; not to mention Diocletian, +who was content to remain in retirement. + +<P>This decided break-up of the Roman Empire +was Constantine's opportunity; and he was +favourably placed, for he had a warlike and +faithful people under him. + +<P>Moreover by reversing so far as lay in his +power as ruler of Gaul the traditional policy +of Rome towards Christianity, and setting +himself forward as a champion of a non-national +religion which had been persecuted +because it was non-national, Constantine was +secure of the enthusiastic backing of all the +Christians to be found in the dominions of +his various rivals. + +<P>In A.C. 310 Constantine either executed his +father-in-law the Emperor Maximian, or caused +him to commit suicide; and the first of his +five rivals was disposed of. + +<P>In A.C. 311 the Emperor Galerius died from +<!-- Page 86 --> +disease, and Constantine's most formidable competitor, +and one who undoubtedly had a better +claim than himself to the position of sole +emperor, thus opportunely made way for the +ruler of Gaul. + +<P>In A.C. 312 Constantine marched at the head +of the Gauls against the Emperor Maxentius, +defeated him near the Milvian Bridge outside +Rome, and entered the Eternal City in triumph. +Maxentius is said to have been drowned in the +Tiber; and the Senate decreed that Constantine +should rank as the first of the three remaining +Augusti. + +<P>In A.C. 313 the Emperor Maximin fought +the Emperor Licinius; but his forces were +defeated, and he soon afterwards died. + +<P>Some ten years or so later Constantine went +to war with his only remaining rival, Licinius, +defeated him, and became sole emperor, A.C. 324. + +<P>That despite his great qualities as a ruler +the character of Constantine was not perfect, +can be easily seen from the fact that, not +content with executing the Emperor Licinius +after accepting his submission, he murdered the +young Licinius; a boy certainly not over twelve +years of age, and according to some authorities +<!-- Page 87 --> +two or three years younger than that. He +also put his own son Crispus to death, and +other relations as well. + +<P>We are told that Constantine was so tortured +by the memory of these and other crimes that +he applied to the priests of the Gods of Rome +for absolution, but that they bravely said that +there was no absolution for such sins, whereupon +this worshipper of the Sun-God turned to his +friends the Christians and they gave him what +he desired.<A NAME="S44" HREF="#R44"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>44</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>This statement seems somewhat improbable, +however, as one would imagine that the Pagan +priests, when called upon by one who was +Pontifex Maximus and therefore their spiritual +superior as well as the supreme emperor, would +not have scrupled to invent some purifying rite—if +they had none such—warranted to blot out +the stain of every crime and thoroughly appease +offended heaven. + +<P>However this may have been, these terrible +crimes of Constantine, all committed many years +after his alleged conversion to our faith, show +how badly advised we are to so needlessly go +<!-- Page 88 --> +out of our way to claim as a Christian one who +refused to enter the Christian Church till he was +dying and possibly no longer master of himself. + +<P>It is said that this refusal of his to be baptised +till he was weak and dying and surrounded by +Church officials who would perhaps have spread +the report that he had been baptised even if they +had not then at last been able to induce him to +take the decisive step, was due, not to want of +belief, but to excess of belief; Constantine's idea +being that the longer he put off the rite in +question, the more crimes would it wash out. +Or, in other words, that delay would enable him +to sin with impunity a little longer. + +<P>This may possibly have been the case, but it +should at the same time be borne in mind that +whether Constantine called him Apollo or Christ, +it seems probable that it was the Sun-God to +whom he referred. For everything tends to +show that this astute emperor, who so naturally +wished to establish and mould a religion which +all his subjects of whatever race or nationality +might be reasonably expected to become in time +willing to accept, acted during his reign as +supreme ruler of the Roman World, if not from +first to last, as if the Christ were but another +<!-- Page 89 --> +conception of the Sun-God he was brought up +to worship as Apollo and all countries venerated +under some name or other. + +<P>This point is not only demonstrated by the +fact that upon his coins Constantine repeatedly +declared that the Sun-God was his invincible +guide and protector and the giver even of the +victory foreshadowed by the alleged vision of +the cross or Monogram of Christ above the +meridian sun, but is also clearly shown by +certain incidents connected with the founding +towards the end of his life of the new metropolis +which in less than a century equalled Rome in +all save antiquity. + +<P>New Rome, or, as we now call it, Constantinople, +the city of Constantine, was built on the +site of, and often called by the name of, Byzantium. +It was not designed till A.C. 324, and was +not dedicated till A.C. 330, or, as some think, an +even later date: Constantine dying in the year +A.C. 337. + +<P>We are told that Constantinople was dedicated +to the Virgin Mother of God.<A NAME="S45" HREF="#R45"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>45</SUP></FONT></A> +This should +remind us of the fact that long before our era, +<!-- Page 90 --> +and right down to the time when Constantine +selected Byzantium as the site of a new capital, +that place was considered dedicated to the Virgin +Queen of Heaven. + +<P>Now in the central place of honour in his new +metropolis, one would naturally expect Constantine +to erect something or other to the +honour of the God to whom he attributed his +victories. + +<P>Whose, then, was the statue Constantine +towards the end of his life, and about twenty +years after his alleged conversion to our faith, +erected in the centre of the Forum of New +Rome? + +<P>It was a statue of the Sun-God Apollo; or, as +some explain it, a statue of himself adorned with +the attributes of the Sun-God. + +<P>In fact, taking the career of Constantine as a +whole, there is nothing inconsistent with the +supposition that he was a Christian only in so +far as, out of policy or conviction, he acted as +if he considered the Christ to be one of many +conceptions of the Sun-God. For although, as +has been mentioned and will be shown in a later +chapter, Constantine, upon the many varieties +of coins he issued, repeatedly acclaimed the +<!-- Page 91 --> +Sun-God as his companion and the author of his +triumphs, he never once, except in so far as he +may have considered the God we Christians +worship to be the Sun-God, so attributed his +victories to the Christ. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + + +<!-- Page 92 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH8">CHAPTER VIII.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>CROSS AND CRESCENT.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Before passing in review the evidence +regarding the symbol of the cross derivable +from Roman coins and other relics of +antiquity, a few introductory remarks are necessary +regarding the too often forgotten fact that +the ancients naturally looked upon the Giver +of Life as bi-sexual; no life being known to +them which was not a result of the conjunction +of the Male and Female Principles. + +<P>The necessarily bi-sexual character of the +creator of both the Male and Female Principles, +was, it should be remembered, borne in mind +by the thinkers of old all the while they accommodatingly +spoke of the Sun-God or Giver of +Life as being a personification of the Male +Principle and gave him a Bride or Virgin Mother +to represent the Female Principle. + +<!-- Page 93 --> +<P>Moreover, just as the disc of the Sun, or the +star-like form which the ancients often used to +signify the radiate or impregnating Sun, naturally +came to be recognised as the symbol of the +Male Principle, so the Crescent, as signifying +the increasing Moon and the lesser of the two +great lights of heaven, in like manner came to +be adopted as the natural symbol of the Female +Principle. + +<P>In this connection it will not be amiss to +draw attention to the symbol of the conquerors +of the city founded by Constantine. For though +misleadingly called "the Crescent," that symbol +is, as the reader cannot very well fail to be aware, +not a mere crescent; but one which has within +its horns what we consider to be a star-like form +and therefore call a star. And though it is possible +that it was not knowingly adopted as such +by the Moslems, this dual symbol was a combination +of the ancient symbols of the Male +and Female Principles. + +<P>An erroneous account of the origin of this symbol +as a Moslem symbol is given in all our works +of reference which deal with the matter, as if their +compilers copied one from another without +troubling to consider the evidence for themselves. + +<!-- Page 94 --> +<P>The incorrect but widely accepted explanation +in question, is to the effect that the so-called +<I>star</I> and crescent had its origin as a Moslem +symbol in the capture of Byzantium or Constantinople +by the Turks in A.C. 1453; our works +of reference stating that it was then adopted by +Mahomet II., as the symbol of the famous city +he had taken from the Christians. + +<P>But was the "star and crescent" the symbol +of the City of Constantine? It would appear +not. + +<P>Ancient Byzantium was, as stated in a previous +chapter, considered, long before our era and +right up to the days of Constantine, as dedicated +to the Virgin Queen of Heaven; whose symbol +was a crescent. And when Constantine rebuilt +and renamed Byzantium, he dedicated New +Rome—or, as we now call it, Constantinople—to +the Virgin Mother of God and Queen of +Heaven; whose symbol, as can be seen upon +reference to both ancient and modern representations +of the Virgin Mary, is also a crescent. It +would therefore appear that the symbol of the +city is more likely to have been a simple +crescent than the so-called <I>star</I> and crescent. +Such a conclusion is entirely borne out by +<!-- Page 95 --> +the evidence. For though the so-called star and +crescent can be seen upon three or four coins +struck at Byzantium before such a place as New +Rome was thought of, this proves little if anything; +inasmuch as the symbol in question was +a very common one in days of old, and occurs +frequently upon coins struck elsewhere. + +<P>Moreover the question is what the symbol +of Constantinople was at the time it was captured +by the Turks. And an inspection of the +coins issued by the Christian rulers of that city +during the thousand years and more it was in +their hands, will reveal to the enquirer that +though the crescent with a <I>cross</I> within its horns +appears occasionally upon the coins of the +Emperors of the East, and in one or two +instances we see a cross of four equal arms with +each extremity piercing a crescent, it is doubtful +if a single example of the so-called "<I>star</I> and +crescent" symbol can be found upon them. + +<P>We learn from other sources also that the +symbol of the imperial Christian Metropolis +captured by the Turks nearly five hundred years +ago and ever since retained by them, was a +simple crescent. And there is no doubt whatever +that the dual symbol of the Moslems was +<!-- Page 96 --> +adopted by them, not when they brought about +the downfall of Constantinople as a Christian +city, but centuries before, as a result of the conquest +of Persia. + +<P>It was in the year A.C. 641 that the battle of +Nehavend, ever after called by the Moslems the +<I>Victory of Victories</I>, laid at the feet of the +followers of the Prophet the kingdom of Iran +or Persia, and brought to an end the Sassanian +Monarchy. + +<P>Now the coins of the Sassanian kings then +and for the previous two centuries bore upon +them, with scarcely an exception, the so-called +"<I>star</I> and crescent"; and it was as the symbol +of this Zoroastrian dynasty and of the fair +land of Iran, that the Moslems adopted it as +their own. +What the star-like object (star-like, that is, in +<I>our</I> opinion) represented upon the coins of Iran +or Persia when placed within the horns of a +crescent, was, of course, the Sun. The supposition +of certain writers that the dual symbol +represented the two crescent-presenting orbs, +Venus and the Moon, is entirely mistaken. +For though the conjunction of the two crescent-shaped +and feminine lights of heaven, was of +<!-- Page 97 --> +old, like the combination of the symbol of the +Sun—as representing the Male Principle—with +that ever feminine symbol the Crescent, held to +signify Increase and Life, we are dealing with +what was admittedly a Mithraic symbol. And +not only was the star-like object in question +the symbol of the Sun-God Mithras, but it was, +as any student of the coins of the Sassanian +dynasty can see, substituted for the disc. + +<P>Upon the Sassanian coins the so-called star, +in reality a representation neither of a star +nor of a planet but of the radiate Sun, seems +to have been first substituted for the round +disc as a representation of the Sun, by Perozes, +about A.C. 457; the disc in the horns of a +crescent being the symbol on the coins of his +father Isdigerd II. and other predecessors. But +the dual symbol miscalled the "star and crescent" +was one even then of great antiquity, as will be +shown in a later chapter dealing with Phœnician +relics discovered in Cyprus and elsewhere. + +<P>The primary signification of the dual symbol +in question, often accompanied on the Sassanian +coins by a prayer that the monarch might +"increase," or flourish generally, was undoubtedly +<I>Life</I>. And it is clear that the conjunction of +<!-- Page 98 --> +the Crescent as the symbol of the Female Principle +of Life with the star-like figure which +represented the radiate, life-giving, or impregnating +Sun, must have not only signified Life, +but also the necessarily bi-sexual Giver of Life. + +<P>We are thus brought to the conclusion that +the Cross and the so-called Crescent are more +or less allied in signification. + +<P>Nor is this noteworthy fact to be wondered +at. For only words and forms divide the faiths +of Mankind, and at heart the one object of our +desires is Life. Even those who piously lay +down their lives for others here, do so in the +hope of being rewarded with longer life and +more blissful life hereafter. + +<P>Another point which is too often overlooked, +is that if the followers of the so-called Crescent +have, as would appear to be the case, forgotten +the meaning of their symbol and the fact that +it alludes to the bi-sexual nature of the Creator, +we followers of the Cross may all unconsciously +be in a very similar position regarding our +symbol. And as the Cross as the recognised +symbol of the Christ is not of older date than +the conquest of Rome by the Gauls, and more +or less resulted therefrom, it is clear that the +<!-- Page 99 --> +same remark applies if we consider the Moslems +to have adopted their symbol as that of the land +they conquered from the Sassanian kings, rather +than as one with the primal and natural interpretation +of which they were content. + +<P>Anyway the cross as well as the "star and +crescent" is more or less a bi-sexual symbol, as +will be clear to those who understand how the +cross came to be recognised ages before our era +as the natural symbol of Life. And a good +illustration of the fact in question still exists in +the Caroccio crucifix of Milan; in which relic +we see, under the usual inscription, an androgynous +Christ upon a cross, with a man's head +but half the body of female form, and with, +instead of a cloth or fig-leaf, the phallic <I>crux +ansata</I>, or Egyptian cross or symbol of Life, +placed sideways, and as if the oval represented +the female organ of reproduction, and the <I>tau</I> +or incomplete cross that of the other sex. + +<P>Like the Red Cross of to-day, the Carocco +bi-sexual crucifix, once so common in Italy, was +a symbol of Life and Salvation in two senses; +it not only being considered so in itself, but +being also used on the battlefield as a rallying +point for wounded soldiers, signalling to them +<!-- Page 100 --> +that bandages, drugs, and surgical aid, could be +obtained where it towered aloft. + +<P>These references to the fact that in days of +old many very naturally came to the conclusion +that the Creator and Giver of Life and only +Saviour must be bi-sexual, should remind us +Christians that our assertion that the Infinite +Spirit is "Our Father" is not from all points of +view an improvement upon the ideas of the +ancients. For they also, and rightly, conceived +what we wrongly ignore, <I>viz.,</I> that the Infinite +Author of all existence must also be "Our +Mother." + +<P>In this respect Protestants have if possible +gone even further astray than members of the +Greek and Roman Churches. For in the +veneration paid by the latter to Mary of +Nazareth as the Bride of God, the Mother +of God, the Star of the Sea, and the Queen +of Heaven, can be seen a survival, however +toned down or distorted, of the old idea that +the Deity must necessarily be of both sexes. + +<P>Even the plainly evident fact that, while in +pre-Christian days the symbol of the cross represented +the two sexual powers in conjunction, +it has in Christian times come to be considered +<!-- Page 101 --> +the symbol of Life as being the symbol of the +<SPAN CLASS=smallcaps>Son</SPAN> of God, should, moreover, lead us to note +that our religion scarcely does justice to the part +played in the economy of Nature by the fair +sex. This is doubtless due to the fact that the +moulding of our creed and the interpretation of +things hard to be understood has for the most +part been in the hands of the sex which, as the +author belongs to it, may by way of contrast be +called unfair. + +<P>What, for instance, can be more unfair than +the assumption that God, if incarnated as one of +the genus Homo, must have been born a male? +Yet that assumption is at the very basis of +modern Christianity. + +<P>Moreover, even granting that the Deity was +specially incarnated in Jesus the Nazarene and +therefore as a male, why should we, as if supposing +that a passing form could stamp its sex +upon an Infinite Spirit, speak of "God the Son" +yet never of "God the Daughter?" + +<P>The fact is that the natural disabilities and +disadvantages of the childbearing sex have from +the first resulted in the power of the male sex +to rule the roast, and one result of the predominance +thus ensured to the male sex by the +<!-- Page 102 --> +laws of Nature has of course been a similar +predominance for the opinion that the Creator +is of the male sex. + +<P>Some enthusiastic champion of her sex, +alluding to the fact that the opposing sex now +has a monopoly of the priesthood, may even go +so far as to ask with a special meaning, Has +not Man from the beginning made God in his +own image? + +<P>The male sex did not always have a monopoly +of the priesthood, however; and in few if any +instances did the priests of old go so far as to +teach that the Creator, whom out of compliment +to the Deity—or themselves—they naturally +spoke of as belonging to the stronger sex, was +a male and <I>only</I> a male. Nor did they even +assume such a thing. Though the different gods +and goddesses were spoken of as belonging to +this or that sex, more than one were regarded as +in reality androgynous; and the fact that the +Creator and Giver of Life must of necessity be +so was very generally recognised. + +<P>As a matter of fact it is by no means certain +that the Creator is not represented as being +androgynous even in our Bible. For in the +account of the Creation which the Jews brought +<!-- Page 103 --> +with them from Babylon, the Creator is represented +as saying "Let <I>us</I> make man in <I>our</I> +image"; and a race which like the Jews solemnly +declared that there was but one God, could only, +it would seem, have accepted such a declaration +as a divine revelation if they conceived the God +supposed to be speaking to be androgynous, and +addressing the other part of himself. This +would account for the emphasis laid upon the +statement that man was created "male <I>and</I> +female," like, or in the image of, the Creator. + +<P>In any case it is clear that if God be not +female as well as male, Man was <I>not</I> created in +the likeness of God. + +<P>The theory of the ancients that Man himself +was created an androgynous being, capable, like +the Creator, of creating life in himself, but was +afterwards divided into halves, one of which is ever +seeking to find the other, need only be mentioned. + +<P>Suffice it to add that it can scarcely be said +to have been altogether progress in the right +direction, which has led us mortals to call the +Author of all Life "Our Father," to the utter +obscuration of the equally important fact that +the Deity in whom we live and move and have +our being must also be "Our Mother." +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 104 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH9">CHAPTER IX.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE CORONATION ORB.</H4></CENTER> +<P>The fact that though we Christians fail to +do the matter justice, the ancients upon +the contrary recognised that the Creator and the +Giver of Life cannot be rightly spoken of as +belonging to one sex and one alone, is not the +only fact which those who examine relics of +antiquity, such as the coins of the Roman +Empire, with a view to ascertaining what +evidence is derivable from them that bears upon +the history of the symbol of the cross, should +ever bear in mind. Another point to be kept in +view is the evolution of the Christian symbol +now known as the Coronation Orb. + +<P>This compound symbol, which plays so prominent +a part in the regalia of a Christian +Monarch, also crowns the topmost height of +many a Christian Temple including both St. +<!-- Page 105 --> +Peter's at Rome and St. Paul's at London. +And it is noteworthy that it bears a certain +resemblance to the representation of the Apex, +once worn by the Salian priests and afterwards +by the Pontifex Maximus and the Flamens +generally, which appears upon ancient coins of +the <I>Fabia</I> gens; the office of <I>Flamen Quirinalis</I> +having been hereditary in the Fabia family. + +<P>Upon other coins also, what is said to be +meant for the pontifical apex occurs as a round +ball surmounted by something very like a cross, +in the hand of a female figure representing +Rome; exactly as the so-called Coronation Orb +is to be seen upon coins of later date in the hand +of this or that Christian Emperor. + +<P>The evidence as a whole, however, favours the +supposition that the Coronation Orb, instead of +having been derived from the Apex of the Pagan +priests and thus signifying the claim to priesthood +or headship of the church so often made by +monarchs, is a development of the round object, +frequently unsurmounted by anything, so continually +to be met with upon ancient coins of +Rome in the hand of this or that God, Goddess, +or Ruler. + +<P>This being the case, it is a matter of very +<!-- Page 106 --> +considerable importance that we should be quite +sure what the round object in question used to +signify, and should base our assurance upon +the results of personal investigation rather than +upon the assumption that the popular explanation +is necessarily the correct one. + +<P>Though the round object in question was, as +stated, in days of old often used as a symbol by +itself, it was sometimes, and, as time rolled on, +more and more frequently, surmounted by a +small female figure with wings; which figure +was a representation of Victory. This figure +was, after the establishment of Christianity as +the State Religion of the Roman Empire, +gradually, and only gradually, supplanted by +the figure of the cross. + +<P>Although several writers of note assume that +the initiative in this direction was taken by +Constantine himself, the first step seems to have +been taken upon the death of Constantine, when +a coin or medal was issued on which the +deceased monarch is called a God and is represented +as holding a round object surmounted +by the so-called Monogram of Christ; a symbol +continually referred to by Eusebius and other +writers of the fourth century as a cross. + +<!-- Page 107 --> +<P>Later on an instance occurs of the Monogram +surmounting a round object held by a female +figure representing Rome. This is upon a coin +issued by Nepotianus, a nephew of Constantine. + +<P>Passing on to the reign of Valentinianus II., +we find that that Emperor issued a coin upon +which a round object surmounted by a cross is +to be seen in the hand of Victory herself. This +would appear to have been the first instance in +which what we should call a cross, supplanted +the representation of Victory as a small female +figure with wings, as a symbol surmounting the +round object which we are considering. + +<P>A similar coin was issued by Theodosius I., +surnamed the Great; the last of the Emperors +of Rome whose rule extended throughout the +whole of the Roman world. + +<P>The instances named are, it will be understood, +the exceptions to the general rule during +a considerable period. And upon many of the +coins of the Emperors mentioned, as well as +upon those of the intervening Emperors, the +round object held by those rulers is surmounted +by either a Victory or a Phœnix; usually by +the former, but in several instances by the latter. + +<P>The first ruler who caused <I>himself</I> to be +<!-- Page 108 --> +represented as holding a round object surmounted +by an ordinary cross, was Theodosius II., +Emperor of the East. + +<P>The fact that for a long time the Victory, +the Phœnix, and the Cross, were made use of +as symbols which might be substituted one for +another, is worthy of special note. For the facts +that the round object held by Theodosius II. +is as often surmounted by a Victory as by a +Cross, and that a Victory instead of a Cross +was often used by succeeding Christian Emperors, +tend to show that the Victory, the +Phœnix, and the Cross were allied in signification, +and equally connected with the round +object the nature and meaning of which we are +about to enquire into. + +<P>The reader may possibly object that no case +has been made out for such enquiry, inasmuch +as not only did the cross in course of time +entirely supplant the Victory, but the round +object from first to last, and whether unsurmounted +by anything or surmounted by a +Victory or a Phœnix or a Cross, signified the +world upon which we dwell, the round world, +and nothing but the world. + +<P>Such is, of course, the popular assumption; +<!-- Page 109 --> +based upon what we are taught in school books +and in standard works of reference. But, as a +matter of fact, in many cases the round object +admittedly signified an apple; the Golden Apple +of the Hesperides: a well known phallic symbol. +Whenever a round object unsurmounted by anything +is to be seen in the hand of either the +Sun-God Hercules or Venus the Goddess of +Love, it admittedly may have been, for it +admittedly often was, a representation, not of +the world, but of the Golden Apple. And not +only does it so occur upon a very large number +of coins, but in some instances we see the +Victory surmounting it; recalling to our minds +the fact that victory, as signifying the triumph +of Life over Death, had a phallic as well as a +martial meaning, and is achieved every time that +a man is born into the world as a result of the +tasting of the fruit of the Tree of Life or of +the knowledge of good and evil. + +<P>Moreover, though the fact is now for some +reason or other ignored, the so-called Coronation +Orb of Christian Monarchs was itself +once known as the Golden Apple. It is so +referred to in important Latin documents of +the Middle Ages; for instance in the famous +<!-- Page 110 --> +Bull of Charles IV. regarding the Imperial +elections, wherein we read of the right of the +Counts Palatine of the Rhine to carry the +symbol in question at the coronation of their +Emperor. And to this very day the so-called +Coronation Orb is known throughout Germany +and Austria as <I>Reichsapfel</I>, the Imperial Apple. + +<P>It is therefore by no means certain that the +round portion of the Coronation Orb which +thus caused the name of "the Golden Apple" +to be given to this compound Christian symbol, +is not, like the cross above it, to some extent +a phallic symbol. + +<P>Every one should know the classic story of +the Golden Apple; how the tree which bore +the Golden Apples grew up in the Garden of +the Hesperides in honour of the wedding of +Hera, a goddess who more or less personified +the female sex; how the Golden Apples are +variously said to have been dedicated to the +Sun (Hellos), to the Sun-God (Dionysos), and +to the Goddess of Love (Aphrodite); how the +Sun-God Hercules as one of the twelve labours +which represented the months, slew the Serpent +which guarded the tree, and plucked the fruit; +and how the Goddess Eris, who alone of all +<!-- Page 111 --> +the deities was not invited to the nuptials of +Peleus and Thetis, revenged herself by throwing +among the guests a Golden Apple inscribed +"To the fairest," and Paris awarded it to the +Goddess of Love, Aphrodite or Venus. + +<P>The story of the Garden of the Hesperides is +at heart one with that of the Garden of Eden; +for it is obvious that the same phallic meaning +underlies each, and that they are but different +versions of the same allegory. + +<P>It may here be called to mind that it has +this century been discovered from the cuneiform +inscriptions of Western Asia, that Eden was the +name given by Babylonians in days of old to +the plain outside Babylon, whereupon, according +to the legends of that city, the creation of living +beings took place. Also that much evidence +has accrued which, impartially weighed in the +balance, leads clearly to the conclusion that the +all-important commencement of Genesis, which +forms as it were the very basis of both the +Jewish and the Christian Scriptures, was borrowed +by the Jews from Babylon. And that it +was in reality a <I>Babylonian</I> tradition or series of +traditions of far older date than any writing of +purely Jewish origin, has not only been amply +<!-- Page 112 --> +proved by recent discoveries, but might indeed +have been guessed from its reference to the +Tower of Babel or Babylon. + +<P>Nor is this all, for among the age-old relics +discovered in Western Asia is a pictorial representation +of the allegorical Temptation and Fall. + +<P>Upon this noteworthy piece of evidence the +Tree of Knowledge or Life, with which the +figure of the cross was identified by the early +Christians; the Serpent, which in all countries +and every age has been more or less identified +with the sexual powers; the Man; the Woman; +and the Apple; are all represented. And it +is important to note that, according to the +cuneiform inscription upon another time-worn +relic in the British Museum, the Babylonians of +old, at a time when the descendants of Jacob or +Israel were without scriptures of their own, had +a tradition to the effect that the fate of our first +parents—who, thanks to a wicked Serpent of +Darkness, tasted of the forbidden fruit which +grew in the "Garden of the Gods"—was placed +in the hands of "their Redeemer." + +<P>It should also be pointed out that this voice +from the dim and distant past distinctly states +that the Redeemer in question was—the Sun-God. + +<!-- Page 113 --> +<P>In ancient days the so-called forbidden fruit +or apple seems to have borne somewhat the +same symbolic meaning that the egg did. But +while the apple not only represented Life, but +also, and primarily, that union between two +sexes or principles which produces life, the +egg more or less lacked the latter meaning, +and, on the other hand, signified Existence in +a wider sense than the apple did. + +<P>The <I>Cosmos</I> itself was an egg according to +the conceptions of many of the ancients; and +few ideas were more widely spread, or can be +traced further back, than the one that the whole +visible creation emerged from the original Chaos +or Darkness in the shape of an egg. + +<P>The egg also, and above all, signified the +Sun-God, as the acknowledged Giver of Life +and Saviour of Life. Hence the prominent +part which it played in the various religious +mysteries of the ancients, and also the fact that +the Egyptians represented the Sun-God Ra as +giving forth such utterances as "I am the +Creative Soul of the celestial abyss. None sees +my nest, and none can break my egg." The +egg referred to, was of course the Sun itself. + +<P>Even our Christian custom of exchanging +<!-- Page 114 --> +eggs at Easter is more or less derived from +Sun-God worship, being a survival from customs +practised long before our era at that particular +period of the year, the time of the Vernal +Equinox or Pass-over of the Sun, when the +Orient Light crosses the Equator to rise once +more in the Northern Hemisphere. + +<P>Nor are these the only facts connecting the +egg with Sun-God worship, for the Sun-God +Apollo was of old represented as born from the +egg of Leda, and the Sun-God Osiris was also +said to have been born from an egg. + +<P>Moreover the Chinese believe that the first +man was born from an egg, the Orphic hymns +speak of the "First-Begotten One" as "egg-born," +and the Greeks fabled that their Sun-God +Dionysos sprang from the cosmic egg. + +<P>As to the origin of the Coronation Orb, it is +noteworthy that no finer or more natural symbol +of Power could have been fixed upon than a +representation of that ball of fire which was so +frequently spoken of in bygone ages as "the +Orb," and from which all earthly life and power +may be said to proceed. + +<P>However the available evidence certainly seems +to show that the round object we are considering +<!-- Page 115 --> +is more likely to have signified the cosmic egg +than the solar orb. + +<P>In any case the object in question cannot be +shown to have represented the world upon which +we dwell and that alone; and nothing is more +likely than that so famous a symbol should, like +the cross which now adorns it, have more or less +signified Life. + +<P>It should also be pointed out that this symbol +of Power may have signified, not so much that +the Ruler who used it laid claim to world-wide +dominion, as that he held in his hand power +over the lives of others; and, possibly, also +that he claimed to be, as the vicegerent of the +Sun-God and Giver of Life, the only legitimate +Saviour of his country. + +<P>The facts that the symbol was used in clays +of old by others than the Emperors whose sway +extended over the whole of the Roman Empire, +and is nowadays considered the rightful symbol +of every Christian Monarch however limited the +area over which his power is felt, should also be +borne in mind; though not of much value as +evidence, as even petty rulers have been known +to boast that they held the world in their grasp. + +<P>It should however be remembered that though +<!-- Page 116 --> +the ancients, struck by the dome-like appearance +of the sky and the circular movements of the +constellations, conceived the cosmos or universe +to be spherical, and in some instances even +constructed celestial globes upon which to record +the movements of Sun, Moon, Planets, and Stars, +it is doubtful if a single one of them considered +the world upon which we dwell to be spherical. +Also, that many a Christian Monarch has used +the Coronation Orb as a symbol of power, and +yet believed the earth to be otherwise than a +globe in shape. + +<P>In this connection it should be pointed out +that the round object which the ancients represented +Atlas as supporting upon his shoulders, +usually in the presence of Jupiter, was not as is +vulgarly supposed the earth, but the heavens; +Hesiod telling us that Atlas bore heaven with +his head and hands, Ovid that upon Atlas rested +heaven and all the stars, and other writers of +bygone ages that Atlas was a king who first +taught men that heaven had the shape of a +globe. + +<P>It is of course possible that the ancients may +have conceived the earth to be otherwise than +spherical, and yet, because the horizon which +<!-- Page 117 --> +appears to limit its extent seems to be circular, +or for some other reason, have considered a +round object to be a representation of it. + +<P>Even where, however, the ball-like symbol we +are considering may have represented something +other than the Golden Apple, the probability is +that it seldom if ever represented the earth. + +<P>For as, though the ancients may have conceived +and spoken of the world we live upon as +being "round" in the same sense as a circular +coin is round, they did not think of it as being a +globe, it is obvious that the ball-like symbol in +question is much less likely to have signified the—in +their belief—non-globular earth, than it is +to have been a representation of something +which they did consider to be globular. + +<P>Such is the nature of the evidence which tends +to show that we Christians may be mistaken in +supposing that our famous symbol the Coronation +Orb represents the round world upon which +we dwell, surmounted by the instrument of +execution upon which Jesus died. + +<P>Although, however, most points have now +been touched upon, including the important fact +that the so-called Coronation Orb of Christian +Monarchs used to be called, even by Christians, +<!-- Page 118 --> +the Golden Apple, the idea that it may have +been the <I>crux ansata</I>, or Egyptian symbol of +Life (an upright oval, perhaps signifying the +female principle, set upon the top of the <I>tau</I>, +or +<IMG SRC="t.gif" ALT="T"> +cross, and thus turning into a complete +cross what is really an incomplete one, and may +be supposed to have signified the male principle), +<I>reversed</I> (<I>e.g., Archæological Journal</I> xlii. 164), +should at least be mentioned. It ought, however +to be pointed out that the Orb is even more +like the ancient symbol of the planet sacred +to Venus, the Goddess of Love, reversed. + +<P>Even this point does not exhaust the subject +in hand; for the fact that in days of old we +used to represent the Christ as the Pagans represented +the Sun-God, <I>viz.,</I> as standing by the +Tree of Life and holding a round object meant +for the phallic apple, has not yet been dealt +with in any way. + +<P>It is however desirable that before discussing +the matter further we should ascertain the nature +of the evidence, regarding this and kindred +subjects, derivable from the coins of the Roman +Empire. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 119 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH10">CHAPTER X.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>ROMAN COINS BEFORE CONSTANTINE.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Bearing in mind the matters mentioned +in the two last chapters, let us now pass +in review the coins struck by the Romans, and +make a note of such features as may, directly +or indirectly, bear upon the history of the cross. + +<P>The first cross we meet with on the coins in +question, is upon one of Julius Cæsar; who was +appointed <I>Flamen Dialis</I> B.C. 87, <I>Pontiff</I> B.C. 74, +Military Tribune B.C. 73, Quæstor B.C. 68, <I>Pontifex +Maximus</I> B.C. 63, and Dictator B.C. 49. + +<P>The cross in question consists of the name +<I>C. Cossutius Maridianus</I> arranged as a cross of +four equal arms. And it should be noted that +it is admitted, even by such well-known authorities +as Mr. C. W. King, M.A., that the name +was so arranged out of compliment to the official +<!-- Page 120 --> +in question <I>because his name had reference to the +meridian sun</I>.<A NAME="S46" HREF="#R46"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>46</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Upon a coin struck by Cæsar's heir, the almost +equally famous Augustus (Consul B.C. 43, Emperor +B.C. 29—A.C. 14), about twenty years +before our era, we see a head of the Sun-God +Bacchus upon one side; and on the reverse a +man presenting a military standard, the banner +of which is ornamented with a St. Andrew's +cross. + +<P>Two other coins of the same reign and about +the same date, have upon them representations of +military standards bearing the same symbol. + +<P>Upon another coin struck by Augustus we +see a crescent with a star or radiate sun within +its horns, the ancient phallic symbol adopted by +the followers of the prophet Muhammad centuries +later. + +<P>A similar symbol occurs upon the coins of +Hadrian (A.C. 117—138). + +<P>Upon two coins of Antoninus Pius (A.C. 138—161) +we see the Sun-God Hercules plucking the +Golden Apple from a tree around which the +traditional serpent is coiled. + +<!-- Page 121 --> +<P>On another coin of the same reign the Sun-God +Hercules can be seen holding a round +object which admittedly represents the Golden +Apple; that symbol both of the Sun-God as +(1) the bi-sexual Giver of Life and (2) the personification +of the Male Principle, and of the +Goddess who represented (1) the Love of the +two sexes and (2) the Female Principle. + +<P>Upon another coin Jove holds a similar +looking object. + +<P>Many coins issued in the name of Annia +Galeria Faustina the wife of Antoninus Pius, +and by Marcus Aurelius (A.C. 161—180), and in +the name of his wife Annia Faustina, have upon +them representations of Venus the Goddess of +Love holding a round object which is admittedly +meant for the Golden Apple. The favourite +legends are <I>Venus Victrix</I>, <I>Venus Felix</I>, and +<I>Venus Genetrix</I>, and of phallic import; and in +one instance the Goddess of Love holds an +infant wrapped in swaddling clothes as well as +the phallic apple. + +<P>Other coins of Marcus Aurelius or his wife have +upon them representations of Eternity as a female +figure holding a round object. In some cases +the round object is surmounted by a Phœnix. + +<!-- Page 122 --> +<P>Upon a coin struck by Lucius Aurelius Verus +(A.C. 160—169) that ruler is to be seen holding a +round object surmounted by a Victory. + +<P>On the coins of Commodus (A.C. 180—192) +sometimes Jove and sometimes the Emperor +holds a small round object. A Victory in some +cases surmounts it. + +<P>Venus holding the Golden Apple—that is, a +round object which in such instances is admitted +to have represented the Golden Apple—is to +be seen upon many coins issued in the name +of Lucilla, the sister of Commodus. + +<P>Upon coins issued by Caius Pescennius Niger +a small round object surmounted by a Victory +is to be seen in the hand of Jove. +On a coin struck by Septimus Severus (A.C. +193—211) we see Rome represented as a female +figure with a shield at her side marked with a +cross. + +<P>Upon another coin we see the Goddess of +Love holding a round object admittedly meant +for the Golden Apple, while a child is stationed +at her feet. The legend is <I>Venus Genetrix.</I> +Among the coins issued in the name of Julia +Domna, the wife of the last named Emperor, +are nearly a dozen varieties upon which Venus +<!-- Page 123 --> +is represented as holding a round object. A +crescent occurs upon the reverse in some +instances. + +<P>Upon several coins of Caracalla (A.C. 211—217) +we see that Emperor holding a small +round object surmounted by a Victory; upon +others he is to be seen holding a Victory +only. + +<P>Various coins issued in the name of Fulvia +Plantilla the wife of Caracalla, show us the +Goddess of Love holding a round object. The +legends are <I>Venus Felix</I> and <I>Venus Victrix</I>. + +<P>In the reign of Elagabalus or Heliogabalus +(A.C. 218—222) a coin was struck on which we +see the Goddess Astarte, Ashtoreth, Ishtar, or +Venus, holding a cross. + +<P>Venus holding a round object is to be seen +upon many coins issued in the names of Soæmias +the mother of Elagabalus, his wife Julia +Aquilia Severa, Julia Mamma the mother of +Alexander Severus, and his wife Orbiana. + +<P>On a coin of the Emperor Decius (A.C. 249—251) +struck at Mæonia, we meet with the so-called +"Monogram of Christ" upon a Roman +coin in the form +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +for the first time. + +<P>Upon a coin of Trebonianus Gallus (A.C. 251—254) +<!-- Page 124 --> +Eternity is represented as a female holding +a small round object. + +<P>On another coin of this reign we see a Phœnix +instead of a Victory upon the round object held +by the Emperor. + +<P>Many of the coins of ancient Rome acclaim +the Sun-God as the Saviour, and upon a coin +issued by Gallienus (A.C. 254—268) we see the +Sun-God Apollo holding a cross. + +<P>Upon a coin issued by the younger Valerian +we see the Sun-God holding a small round object. + +<P>A coin struck by Tetricus (A.C. 267—264) has +upon its reverse a representation of the Sun-God +holding a round object, while in the field +near the Sun-God is a cross. + +<P>On a coin issued by Claudius II. we see the +Sun-God Hercules holding a round object +admittedly meant for the Golden Apple. + +<P>Upon a coin issued by Aurelianus we see +the Sun-God holding a round object surmounted +by a crescent. + +<P>On a coin issued by Vabalathus we see the +Sun-God Hercules holding a round object admittedly +representing the Golden Apple. + +<P>Upon a coin of Numerianus (A.C. 283—284) +we see the Goddess of Love holding a round +<!-- Page 125 --> +object surmounted by a Victory. Such instances +as this should be specially noted, as nothing +distinguishes the round objects so surmounted +from those held by Venus which admittedly +represent the Golden Apple, and the present +fashion of our symbol the Coronation Orb or +Imperial Apple is due to the fact that a century +later Theodosius II. Emperor of Constantinople +started the idea of substituting a cross for the +Victory. + +<P>Upon several coins of Carinus (A.C. 282—284) +we see the Sun-God holding a small +round object. + +<P>On other coins of this reign Eternity appears +as a female holding a small round object surmounted +by a Phœnix. + +<P>Upon the coins issued in the name of Magnia +Urbica, wife of Carinus, on which we see Venus +holding a small round object which admittedly +represented the Golden Apple, the Crescent +frequently accompanies the representations of +the Goddess of Love. + +<P>On coins issued by Diocletian (A.C. 284-305) +we see both Jove and the Sun-God holding a +small round object; like the Emperor himself. +A Victory in some cases surmounts it. + +<!-- Page 126 --> +<P>The Sun-God Hercules holding a round +object which admittedly signified the Golden +Apple is to be seen on other coins issued during +this reign. + +<P>Among the coins issued by Diocletian's co-Emperor +Maximian, is one bearing a representation +of the Sun-God Hercules in the +Garden of the Hesperides near the Tree +encircled by the Serpent he slew. The Sun-God +holds a round object representing a Golden +Apple plucked from the Tree in question. + +<P>On the reverse of another coin bearing the +names both of Jove the All-Father and Hercules +the Sun-God, we see the latter represented as +holding a round object, admittedly meant for +the Golden Apple. + +<P>In some cases where Hercules holds the +Golden Apple-for instance, upon a coin bearing +the legend <I>Herculi invicto Aug</I>.—the Golden +Apple is surmounted by a Victory. + +<P>A coin issued by Constantius Chlorus, the +ruler of Gaul and father of Constantine the +Great, represents the Sun-God Hercules in the +act of plucking a Golden Apple from the +famous Tree. + +<P>A coin issued in the joint names of Galerius +<!-- Page 127 --> +and Constantius Chlorus, bearing the legend +<I>Genio Populi Romani</I>, has in the field on the +reverse side a cross, which takes the place occupied +upon otherwise similar coins by a star-like +object not improbably representing the sun. + +<P>Such are the more striking features of the +evidence which can be obtained from the Roman +coins issued prior to the accession of Constantine +to the throne of Gaul. + +<P>The reader will have seen that the symbol +of the cross occurs several times upon the coins +in question, and in almost if not quite every +instance in connection with the Sun-God. + +<P>The fact that upon a coin of Julius Cæsar, +and therefore before our era, a cross admittedly +occurs as a symbol of the sun, will also have +been remarked. + +<P>It will also have been noticed in how very +large a number of cases the round symbol +which was a precursor of our Coronation Orb +admittedly signified the Golden Apple, and +therefore was of phallic import. + +<P>Another point which the reader cannot very +well fail to bear in mind, is that where the +Goddess of Love, as the representative of the +sex whose felicity lies in motherhood or the +<!-- Page 128 --> +victorious production of life, is seen carrying the +symbol in question, the surrounding legend is +Venus <I>Genetrix</I>, or <I>Victrix</I>, or <I>Felix</I>, or some +variation or other of the same; and that the said +legends are obviously phallic in signification. + +<P>If we also keep before us the fact that the +Golden Apple whether held by the Sun-God or +his complement the Goddess of Love, was at +times surmounted by the figure of Victory for +which Christian Emperors gradually and only +gradually substituted the figure of the cross, it +is curious to note that in early Christian representations +of the Christ he is often to be seen +with the Apple or forbidden fruit of the Tree of +Life or of the knowledge of good and evil. + +<P>When the Christ is in such cases depicted as a +youth, the phallic apple is usually to be seen +lying near him; but when the Christ is represented +as a man, it is placed in his hand. + +<P>For instance a good example of the Christ +holding the fruit of the Tree of Life is reproduced +for us in the well known work on the +likeness of Jesus by the late Thomas Heaphy.<A NAME="S47" HREF="#R47"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>47</SUP></FONT></A> +Here we see, in a picture which occurs upon a +<!-- Page 129 --> +glass ornament found in the Catacombs of Rome +in the tomb of a Christian named Eutychia, an +illustration of the Christ standing by the side of +the Tree of Life. The rays of the Sun surround +the head of the Christ, and in his hand is the +phallic Apple. + +<P>It will have been remarked that the round +object to be seen upon innumerable Roman coins +in the hand of this or that ruler or deity, and +popularly supposed to have always represented +the round world upon which we dwell although +it is at the same time believed that the world +was not then considered to be round, frequently +occurs in the hand of a female figure representing +Eternity. It is self-evident that a representation +of the world we live on is less likely to have +been so placed than a symbol of Life. + +<P>A still more striking fact, which cannot fail to +have been noticed by the reader of the evidence +from the coins of ancient Rome quoted in the +earlier part of this chapter, is that in several +instances a Phœnix and not a Victory surmounts +the so-called orb. For the story of the Phœnix +was derived from the Egyptian City of the +Sun.<A NAME="S48" HREF="#R48"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>48</SUP></FONT></A> +And the fabulous bird in question was, +<!-- Page 130 --> +according to Tacitus as well as Herodotus, +specially connected with the temple of the +Sun-God at Heliopolis. + +<P>Upon this point it may be added that the +famous story of the Phœnix seems to have been +known to the writer of <I>Job</I>; the Septuagint +version of <I>Job</I> xxix. 18, being "I shall die in my +nest and shall multiply my days as the Phœnix" +according to some of the best authorities. + +<P>The various ages allotted to this allegorical +bird had reference to the calendar; as indeed +we learn from Pliny, who tells us that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"The revolution of the Great Year in which the +seasons and stars return to their former places, agrees +with the life of this bird."<A NAME="S49" HREF="#R49"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>49</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>This is borne out by the periods spoken of as +the lifetime of the Phœnix; as among them are +one of 600 years, the Great Year referred to by +Josephus and others, and one of 1,461 years, +which was the Sothic period of the Egyptians. + +<P>It is also clear that, like the Victory and the +Golden Apple it surmounted, the Phœnix and +its wonderful egg were not only connected with +the Sun-God, but also had a phallic signification. + +<!-- Page 131 --> +<P>The problem as to whether bird or egg first +existed scarcely applies to the fabulous Phœnix +and its equally fabulous egg, and need not be +discussed here. Suffice it to say that the round +object from which that Christian symbol the +Coronation Orb is descended, though it may at +times have more or less represented the world +upon which we dwell, seems to have primarily +signified, as associated with each other in idea, +both the Golden Apple of Love and the Phœnix-like +life principle enshrined in the Egg, both the +egg-like <I>Cosmos</I> or Universe and Eternity; but +in all, and through all, and above all, the basis +of all power whether finite or infinite, <I>viz.,</I> Life. + +<P>It is therefore not surprising to find that the +monarchs of ancient days claimed to rule by +divine right as vice-gerents of the Sun-God, to +whose favouring influence all earthly life is +traceable; and caused themselves to be represented, +upon Roman coins as receiving the +Golden Apple, and upon Egyptian monuments +as receiving the Cross, from the Sun-God, as +the symbol of their authority. + +<P>Yet another point to be borne in mind, is that +we Christians are expressly taught that God the +Father and God the Son are as nearly identical +<!-- Page 132 --> +as the ancients considered the Central Fire, +which they deemed the Parent of all things, +and the Warmth and Light issuing therefrom to +be; or the Sun's disc and the emanations therefrom; +the Christ being represented as saying +"I and My Father are one" and "He that hath +seen Me hath seen the Father." For though we +describe ours as a <I>co-equal</I> Trinity, no such +identity with either God the Father or God the +Son is affirmed of God the Holy Ghost, and it +is remarkable that in our ancient illustrations of +the Three Persons, both the First and the Second +are represented as holding the so-called globe +and Cross, while the Third, even where depicted +as of human shape like the other two, is not. + +<P>The fact is that the co-equality of the Holy +Spirit of a God who is Himself, as Jesus declared, +a Spirit, is an idea which did not find +much acceptance among Christians till a comparatively +late date and is the outcome of confused +thought. And the separate personality +of this Spirit of a Spirit being entirely a +Christian conception, and without a counterpart +in the theology of the ancients, few if any Pagan +symbols such as the so-called globe and the cross +would have been associated with it in any case. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 133 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH11">CHAPTER XI.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE COINS OF CONSTANTINE.</H4></CENTER> +<P>We are more or less in the habit of +assuming that just as Paul, the founder +of the catholic faith, was converted, not altogether +by reason but as it were by force and with the +rapidity of a flash of lightning, under the rays +of a meridian sun ("About <I>noon</I> suddenly there +shone from heaven a great light round about +me," <I>Acts</I> xxii. 6; "At <I>mid-day</I>," <I>Acts</I> xxvi. 13), +so Constantine, the establisher of that faith as +the State Religion of the empire in which Paul +was so proud of his rights as a citizen, was in +similarly rapid fashion converted by the appearance +of a miraculous "cross" of light and an +accompanying legend above a meridian sun +("At <I>mid-day</I>," Eusebius, <I>Vit. Const. I.</I>). + +<P>But, as has already been pointed out, this +alleged vision of Constantine is said to have +<!-- Page 134 --> +taken place during his march upon Rome in +the year A.C. 312; and during the remaining +twenty-five years of his life he acted rather as +if he were converting Christianity into what he +thought most likely to be accepted by his subjects +as a catholic religion, than as if he had been +converted to the teachings of Jesus the Nazarene. + +<P>The fact is that Constantine was favourable +to our religion out of policy rather than conviction; +and if after refusing so long he did +indeed, a quarter of a century after the alleged +vision, consent to be baptised when ill and +dying, policy doubtless swayed him even then. +Anyway, as has already been stated and will +now be seen, the evidence of his coins conclusively +shows that the God to whom Constantine +from first to last attributed his victories, +was—the Sun-God. + +<P>Upon one coin issued by Constantine we see +upon the reverse a nude figure crowned with +rays, with the right hand elevated toward the +east, and a round object in the left hand. In +the field is a cross widened at the extremities, +and the surrounding legend is a significant one, +<I>Soli Invicto Comiti</I>. This coin was struck years +after the alleged conversion of Constantine, and +<!-- Page 135 --> +the combined reference to the Sun-God and use +of the cross are worthy of special notice. + +<P>Upon two somewhat similar coins of Constantine +the cross is placed within a circular +wreath of bay or laurel. + +<P>On another coin with the same legend we +see the same nude figure crowned with rays, +representing the Sun-God and carrying a round +object; while in the field we see the Gaulish +symbol, sometimes called a cross, which by the +addition of a loop was, as we shall see later on, +turned into the so-called Monogram of Christ. + +<P>Upon a coin with the anything but Christian +legend <I>Marti Conservatori</I>, is a cross with four +equal arms. + +<P>On a somewhat similar coin with the same +legend, the helmet on the reverse is ornamented +with the so-called Monogram of Christ. + +<P>Upon another coin we see Mars leaning on a +shield adorned with the so-called Monogram +of Christ, the legend being <I>Marti Patri Conservator</I>. + +<P>On a coin issued in the name of his son +Crispus during the reign of Constantine, we see +two Victories holding a shield upon a pedestal +marked with a cross of four equal arms. + +<!-- Page 136 --> +<P>A similar cross appears upon a coin issued +during this reign in the name of another son +of Constantine. + +<P>Upon a coin bearing the inscription <I>Constantinus +Max. Aug.</I> we see upon the reverse a cross +of four equal arms. + +<P>On an otherwise similar coin a compound +<I>tau</I> cross of four equal arms, +<IMG SRC="taucross.gif" ALT="tau cross"> , +appears. + +<P>Upon a well-known engraving of a coin in +the <I>Annales Ecclesiastici</I> of Baronius, the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +form of the so-called Monogram of Christ +appears upon the helmet of Constantine. Some +authorities, however, state that this is copied +as the familiar +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +in error; what appeared +on the helmet being the Gaulish symbol +<IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> +with a dot representing a star near the top of +the vertical bar. Such a dot can be seen in a +similar place upon two or three coins bearing +the legend <I>Virtus Exercit</I>. + +<P>On another coin the legend <I>Gloria Exercitus</I> +surrounds two soldiers holding military +standards, between which is the symbol of the +cross. + +<P>On a somewhat similar coin the compound +tan cross, of which we have already noted an +example, occurs between the standards. + +<!-- Page 137 --> +<P>A cross of four equal arms appears upon a +coin bearing the legend <I>Pax Publica</I>. + +<P>A coin issued during the reign of Constantine +the Great in the name of his son Constantine, +has upon its reverse a cross of four equal arms, +the extremities of which are rounded. + +<P>On an otherwise similar coin the compound +tau cross appears. + +<P>Upon a coin bearing the inscription <I>Constantinus +Max. Aug.</I> a cross of four equal arms +occurs near a soldier armed with spear and +shield. + +<P>On the reverse of one coin we see two soldiers +holding military standards, and between the +standards the so-called Monogram of Christ +appears. + +<P>A coin of similar type was issued during the +reign of Constantine the Great in the name of +his son Constantine. + +<P>Upon a coin which on the obverse bears the +inscription <I>Constantinus Max. Aug.</I>, we see upon +the reverse Victory carrying a palm. In the +field is the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> . +The surrounding motto +is <I>Victoria constantini Aug.</I> + +<P>Several coins with the legend <I>Gloria Exercitus</I> +have upon the same side two soldiers with a +<!-- Page 138 --> +labarum or military standard between them, +upon the banner of which is the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> . + +<P>On a coin with the legend <I>Victoria Cæsar NN</I> +we see Victory carrying a palm. In the field is +the Gaulish symbol +<IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> . + +<P>The reverse of another coin has the legend +<I>Constantinus Aug.</I>, and represents Constantine +as holding a labarum or military standard +terminating in a round object. Upon the +banner is the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> . + +<P>On a coin bearing upon its obverse the +inscription <I>Constantinopolis</I>, we see upon the +other side a figure of Victory and a cross of +four equal arms. + +<P>On another coin bearing the same legend we +see upon the reverse Victory standing upon a +ship, and to the left the so-called monogram. + +<P>Upon another coin we see the same symbol +above the wolf and twins of the city of +Rome. + +<P>A rare coin bears upon the obverse the inscription +<I>Constantinus Max. Aug.</I>, and on the +reverse, surrounded by the legend <I>Spes Publica</I>, +a labarum or military standard the handle or +base of which transfixes a serpent. Upon the +banner three globules are embroidered, and the +<!-- Page 139 --> +symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +appears above the cross-bar from +which the banner hangs. + +<P>Upon one medal or coin of Constantine we +see the significant legend <I>Soli Invicto Aeterno +Aug.</I> inscribed around the quadriga of the Sun-God +Phœbus. + +<P>On another piece struck by Constantine the +Great, the Sun-God is given the title <I>Comes +Aug.;</I> Companion, Guardian, or Saviour, of the +Emperor. + +<P>Upon several coins we see the legend <I>Comiti +Aug. NN,</I> and, surrounded by the same, the +Sun-God holding a small round object. + +<P>On numerous other coins also, the Sun-God +is represented as holding a small round +object. + +<P>Other significant Sun-God legends to be met +upon the coins of this alleged Christian Emperor, +are <I>Comis Constantini Aug., Soli Invicto, Soli +Comiti Augg. NN, Soli Invicto Com. D.N.</I> +and the like. + +<P>Upon a coin bearing the legend <I>Soli Comiti +Aug. N.</I> we see the Sun-God presenting Constantine +with a small round object surmounted +by a Victory. + +<P>On a coin with the legend <I>Pax Augustorum</I>, +<!-- Page 140 --> +Constantine holds a standard ornamented with +a cross. + +<P>Upon another coin Constantine is to be seen +holding what is said to be a representation of +the Zodiac. + +<P>On a coin issued in his own name, as upon +others already mentioned as issued in the names +of his sons, we see two Victories supporting a +shield upon an altar ornamented with a cross. + +<P>Upon a somewhat similar coin the altar is +ornamented with the star-like object which in +days of old so often stood for the radiate sun. + +<P>A coin with the inscription <I>Divo Constantino</I>, +and on the reverse the legend <I>Aeterna Pietas</I> +and a representation of Constantine holding +a round object surmounted by the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> , +though usually included in the coins of +that Emperor was evidently struck after his +death and deification. + +<P>The same remark applies to a somewhat +similar coin, which has an additional symbol in +a plain cross in the field to the right of the +Emperor-God. + +<P>It should be noted that the question here +arises as to how far it is fair of us to claim +this cross and so-called Monogram of Christ as +<!-- Page 141 --> +Christian and at the same time denounce as +Pagan the deification of Constantine referred to +upon the same coins. + +<P>As to the coins of Constantine the Great as a +whole, it need only be remarked once more that +while upon many of the pieces struck by him +Constantine attributed his victories to the Sun-God, +not upon a single one of them did he +attribute them to the Christ; while it was ever +the Sun-God and never the Christ whom he +alluded to on his coins as his Companion, +Partner, Guardian, or Saviour. + +<P>This being so, how can we honestly claim +that the so-called Monogram of Christ, and +other forms of the cross, were ever placed upon +his coins by Constantine as symbols of the +Christ, yet never as symbols of the Sun-God? +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 142 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH12">CHAPTER XII.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>ROMAN COINS AFTER CONSTANTINE.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Passing on to the Christian successors of +Constantine the Great, we are at once +met with the significant fact that Constantine +the Second issued many different coins bearing +a representation of the Sun-God holding a +small round object; and, as the surrounding +legend, <I>Claritas Reipublicae</I>. + +<P>Another coin of this son of Constantine the +Great, and one which deserves special attention, +has upon its reverse a Cross and a Crescent in +juxtaposition, as if the cross signified the sun. + +<P>A very similar coin has the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +between the military standards. + +<P>Upon another coin we see on the reverse +both this Christian Emperor and the Sun-God; +the former holding a small round object, and +<!-- Page 143 --> +the latter crowning him. The surrounding +legend is <I>Soli Invicto Comiti</I>. + +<P>The reverse of another coin bears the same +Sun-God legend, and represents the Sun-God +as holding a small round object. + +<P>Upon another coin we see Constantine +holding a small round object surmounted by +a Victory. On the reverse is the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> . + +<P>Constans I., another son of Constantine the +Great, issued a coin on which he is represented +as holding in one hand a simply formed +labarum or military standard consisting of a +straight pole terminating at the top in a crossbar, +from which hangs a banner bearing the +symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> ; +while in the other hand he holds +a small round object surmounted by a <I>Phœnix</I>. + +<P>Constantius II., yet another son of Constantine +the Great, issued a coin on which is +the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +between the letters <SPAN LANG="gr">Α</SPAN> and <SPAN LANG="gr">Ω</SPAN> +(? <SPAN LANG="gr">ΑΡΧΩ</SPAN>); the legend being <I>Salus Aug +Nostri</I>. + +<P>On another coin is Constantius II. as the +Sun, upon one side; and upon the other the +symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +between the letters alpha and omega +once again. + +<P>Nepotianus, a nephew of Constantine the +<!-- Page 144 --> +Great who took Rome in A.C. 350 but was +killed as an usurper the same year, issued a +coin on the reverse of which, surrounded by +the legend <I>Urbs Roma</I>, is a female figure +representing Rome and holding in her hand +a round object surmounted by the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> . + +<P>The symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +frequently occurs upon the +coins of Valeus (A.C. 364—378). And upon +one coin of this Emperor we see the letter +<SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> surmounting a cross; surrounded by the +legend <I>Gloria Romanorum</I>. + +<P>Upon a coin of Valentinianus II. we see +Victory holding a round object surmounted +by a cross, the legend being <I>Victoria Augustorum</I>. + +<P>On the coins of Theodosius I. (A.C. 378—395) +we find representations of the Emperor holding +a round object surmounted by a Phœnix, and +of the Emperor holding a round object surmounted +by a Victory; as also of Victory +holding a round object surmounted by a cross. + +<P>This Emperor Theodosius I., better known +as Theodosius the Great, after securing sole +control of the Roman Empire brought about +the final disruption of the world-wide dominions +of Rome by bequeathing them in two portions +<!-- Page 145 --> +to his sons Arcadius and Honorius; the elder, +Arcadius, becoming Emperor of Constantinople +and the East, while the younger, Honorius, +became Emperor of Rome and the West: A.C. 395. + +<P>Less than a century later, <I>viz.,</I> between the +years A.C. 475 and 480, the Western Empire +was finally extinguished by Odoacer; the +Eastern Empire surviving it nearly a thousand +years, lasting as the latter did from the partition +in A.C. 395 to the capture of Constantinople by +Mahomet II. in A.C. 1453. + +<P>It was, as stated in a previous chapter, upon +the coins of an Emperor of the East, <I>viz.,</I> +Theodosius II., that the first example occurs +of a representation of an Emperor holding a +round object surmounted by a cross; though, +as has been noted, instances of Victory carrying +an object so surmounted had previously occurred. +And it need only be added that the symbols +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> , +often the centre of a circle or +surrounded by a circular wreath of bay or laurel, +continually occur upon the coins of the Eastern +Empire, the symbol +<IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> +frequently, and the +undisguised solar wheel, +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +upon the coins of +Eudoxia, Theodosius II., Leo I., and others. + +<!-- Page 146 --> +<P>The evidence of the coins of the Roman +Empire given in this and the two preceding +chapters, coupled with the too-often forgotten +fact that the only form of cross which could +possibly be a representation of the instrument +of execution to which Jesus was affixed was +the very last form of cross to be adopted as +a Christian symbol, cannot, it will be seen, lead +the unprejudiced enquirer to any other conclusion +than that the cross became the symbol of +Christendom because the advent of Constantine +and his Gauls made it a prominent symbol of +the Roman Empire. And that the symbol in +question was not altogether unconnected with +Sun-God worship, should be equally clear to +the reader. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 147 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH13">CHAPTER XIII.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE MONOGRAM OF CHRIST.</H4></CENTER> +<P>The so-called "Monogram of Christ "—a +term which has at one time or another +been applied to each of the symbols +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> , +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> , +and +<IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> , +as but variations +of one and the same symbol—deserves a chapter +to itself. + +<P>Though not first placed upon the coins of the +Roman Empire by Constantine any more than +was the right-angled cross of four equal arms +or the so-called St. Andrew's cross, the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +was, like the +<IMG SRC="x.gif" ALT="X"> +cross and the many +varieties of right-angled crosses of four equal +arms, first brought into prominence as a Roman +symbol by the Emperor in question. + +<P>From the evidence at our disposal it would +appear that Decius was the first Roman ruler +<!-- Page 148 --> +to make use of this form of the so-called +Monogram of Christ. Anyhow, as has already +been remarked, this symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +occurs upon +a coin of the Emperor Decius struck at Mæonia +about A.C. 250; and therefore more than half +a century before the days of Constantine. And +it is noteworthy that it was as a Pagan symbol +that the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +thus first appeared upon the Roman +coinage. + +<P>The coin in question is a bronze one, and the +"Monogram of Christ" occurs in the centre of a +Greek inscription surrounding a representation +of the Sun-God Bacchus; and, apparently, as +an amalgamation or contraction of the two +Greek letters equivalent to our R and CH, <I>viz.:</I> +the Greek letters <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> and <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN>.<A NAME="S50" HREF="#R50"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>50</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Why these particular letters should have +been contracted, is, however, uncertain; and the +question arises as to whether the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +first arose +as a contraction of such Greek letters, or as an +amalgamation of the Roman letters <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> and <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN>, or +as the cross +<IMG SRC="x.gif" ALT="X"> +<I>plus</I> the Greek <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> (our R) as the +initial letter of the Greek name for Rome. + +<P>Moreover if it be decided that the symbol +<!-- Page 149 --> +first arose as a contraction of certain letters, +yet further questions arise; <I>viz.;</I> in what order +those letters were first read, and what word +they first represented. + +<P>Before going into such matters as these, however, +it is important that we should fully realise +how certain it is that the so-called Monogram +of Christ was originally a <I>Pagan</I> symbol. For +even if this be not considered demonstrated by +its occurrence upon a Roman coin long before, +according to our Church, the Christ caused Constantine +to use it as the military standard of +the Gauls, it is clearly shown by its occurrence +upon many relics of pre-Christian date. + +<P>The so-called "Monogram of Christ" can be +seen, for instance, upon a monument of Isis, the +Virgin Mother of the Sun-God, which dates +from the second century before our era.<A NAME="S51" HREF="#R51"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>51</SUP></FONT></A> +Also upon the coins of Ptolemaeus; on one of which +is a head of Zeus Ammon upon one side, and +an eagle bearing the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +in its claws upon the +other.<A NAME="S52" HREF="#R52"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>52</SUP></FONT></A> +The symbol in question also appears +upon Greek money struck long before the birth +of Jesus; for instance upon certain varieties of +<!-- Page 150 --> +the Attic tetradrachma. And the +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +occurs +upon many different coins of the first Herod, +struck thirty years or more B.C. + +<P>Whether the Pagan +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and the Pagan +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +originally had the same signification or not, is +uncertain. + +<P>Almost equally uncertain is the date at which +we Christians first adopted these Pagan symbols +as Christian symbols because they could be +interpreted as formed of the two first letters +of the Greek word <SPAN LANG="gr">ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ</SPAN>, <I>Christos</I>, Christ. + +<P>The probability is that Christians had at least +drawn attention to this possible interpretation of +the symbols in question before the days of +Constantine. But this scarcely renders less +noteworthy the fact, shown further on, that the +favourite symbol of the Gaulish warriors, the +solar wheel +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="solarwheel2.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 2"> , +was sooner or later +altered by their leader into +<IMG SRC="monogram1.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram2.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 2"> +to +please the Christians; while the symbols +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +were also made use of by Constantine. + +<P>Which form of solar wheel, monogram, or +cross, was that actually carried by the Gauls in +triumph within the walls of Rome and set up +by their leader in the heart of the Eternal City, +is not quite certain. But it is clear that as +<!-- Page 151 --> +both the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and the +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +appeared upon coins +struck before our era, Constantine cannot very +well have been ignorant of the fact that these +were originally Pagan symbols, when he favoured +the addition of a loop to the top of the vertical +bar of the Gaulish solar symbols +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +or +<IMG SRC="asterisk.gif" ALT="asterisk"> +and +<IMG SRC="solarwheel2.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 2"> +or +<IMG SRC="plus.gif" ALT="Plus"> +in order that what his Gaulish army +venerated as triumphal tokens might be accepted +as symbols of victory by his Christian supporters +also. + +<P>That this Gaulish monarch did so alter, and +for the reason named, the symbol or symbols +venerated by his troops, is admitted by, amongst +others, that well known writer the Reverend S. +Baring Gould, M.A. For, referring to the solar +wheel as a symbol of the Sun-God venerated +by the ancient Gauls, this author tells us that +Constantine<BR><BR> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Adopted and adapted the sign for his standards, and +the <I>Labarum</I> of Constantine became a common Christian +symbol. That there was policy in his conduct we can +hardly doubt; the symbol he set up gratified the +Christians in his army on one side and the Gauls on +the other. For the former it was a sign compounded of +the initial letters of Christ, to the latter it was the token +of the favour of the solar deity."<A NAME="S53" HREF="#R53"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>53</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<!-- Page 152 --> +<P>As the fact that both the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +were +in use as symbols before the commencement of +our era thoroughly disposes of our contention as +Christians that the so-called "Monogram of +Christ" had its origin in the formation of a +monogram out of the two first letters of the +Greek word <SPAN LANG="gr">ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ</SPAN> (<I>Christos</I>, Christ), it is +clear that these symbols must have had some +other origin. + +<P>Assuming that the symbols +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +had +the same origin, and the same signification, and +that if the +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +was a combination of two letters +the Greek or Latin T (instead of X) was not +one of them; or rather, as these would be very +considerable assumptions, more or less confining +our attention to the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +as the more likely of +the two to have arisen as a combination of the +Greek letters P and X; let us in passing briefly +enquire into the origin of the so-called Monogram +of Christ as a Pagan symbol. + +<P>If we seek for that origin as a combination of +the first two letters of some other Greek word +than Christos, <I>Christ</I>, and for the moment +assume the letters <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> and <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN> to have occurred +in the same order as in that word, we see at +once that the monogram may have been derived +<!-- Page 153 --> +either from the word Chrestos, <I>Good</I>, or the +word Chronos, <I>Time</I>, or the word Chrusos, +<I>Gold</I>. + +<P>There is, by the way, another curious connection +between the three Greek words in +question. For the name of the famous god +Kronos or Cronos was often spelt <SPAN LANG="gr">ΧΡΟΝΟΣ</SPAN> +<I>i.e.</I>, Chronos.<A NAME="S54" HREF="#R54"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>54</SUP></FONT></A> +And this god Chronos—the +father of Zeus; and more or less a personification +of Time, the Old Father from whom we +are all descended—was identical with Saturn, +while the Saturnian Age was, as in Virgil's +fourth eclogue, ever that spoken of as the +Golden age when the ancients were referring +to what they pictured as the good old times. + +<P>It will not do, however, to assume that if the +symbol we are considering first arose as a combination +of the Greek letters <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> and <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN>, they were +of necessity taken from, and representative of, a +word in which they occur in the same order as +in <I>Christos</I>. And the fact that in the +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> , +if +not also in the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> , +the <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> is the leading feature, +gives emphasis to the point in question. + +<P>If we suppose that the so-called monogram +<!-- Page 154 --> +arose as a combination of the Greek letters in +question occurring in the order <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ Χ</SPAN>, the student +of such matters can scarcely fail to note that +the letters in question occur in that order as the +centre both of the word <SPAN LANG="gr">ΑΡΧΗ</SPAN>, the <I>Head, Chief,</I> +or <I>First;</I> and also as the centre of the kindred +word <SPAN LANG="gr">ΑΡΧΩ</SPAN>, <I>to be first</I>, the only remaining +letters of which, and therefore the first and the +last of this word as of the old Greek alphabet, +are, as will be seen, Alpha and Omega, the +letters so continually placed on either side of +the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +in Christian times. + +<P>In this connection it should be pointed out +that according to some of the best authorities +the first +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +which occurs upon any Roman +coin, coming as it does after the letter <I>alpha</I> in +a Greek inscription, should be taken with that +letter as forming the <SPAN LANG="gr">ΡΧ</SPAN> of <SPAN LANG="gr">ΑΡΧ</SPAN>, the latter +being an abbreviation of some form or other +of the title <I>Archon</I>. This title was that given +to the dignitary who was at one and the same +time the chief magistrate of the state and its +chief priest, and it may be worth remark that +as Bacchus was the deity worshipped in Lydia, +the Archon in question would therefore have +been the chief priest of the Sun-God. + +<!-- Page 155 --> +<P>Several writers have, in their zeal for our +religion, outrun their discretion, and gone so far +as to assume that the existence of the so-called +monogram of Christ upon this coin of the +Emperor Decius is due to some Christian having +been employed in turning out the coin in question, +and having in <I>his</I> zeal surreptitiously introduced +a symbol of his faith. But though gravely +supported by more than one great authority, +this is obviously an absurd position to take up. +And in any case the facts remain that it was +in this instance placed over a representation of +the Sun-God, and had for centuries been in use +as a Pagan symbol. + +<P>Passing on, however, we have next to note +that, as before hinted, even if the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +arose as a combination of two letters, though +we know that symbol to have been often used +as a contraction of the Greek letters <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> and <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN> +(our R and CH), there is no proof that it arose +as a combination of two Greek letters; and the +symbol may have arisen as a combination of +the Roman letters P and X. + +<P>It should therefore be pointed out that in the +inscriptions which have come down to us from +the Gaulish Christians of the sixth, seventh, and +<!-- Page 156 --> +eighth centuries after Christ, the symbols +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> +are continually used as contractions of +the Latin word PAX, <I>Peace</I>. For though the +fact that the Monogram was often so interpreted +by Christians centuries A.C. can by no means +be considered evidence that it was thus that +it first arose as a Pagan symbol centuries B.C., +such a possibility should be kept before us. + +<P>But did the so-called Monogram of Christ +first come into being as a combination of two +letters; Greek, Roman, or otherwise? + +<P>Even this is not certain, for this pre-Christian +symbol may originally have been a cross, as a +symbol of Life and of the Sun-God, <I>plus</I> the +Greek letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN> as the initial character of the +word "Rome" in what may be called the court +language of the time. + +<P>Such an explanation would more or less +account for the variations +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +and +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> ; +these +being obviously the natural ways of adding the +letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Ρ</SPAN>, signifying Rome, to the crosses +<IMG SRC="x.gif" ALT="X"> +and +<IMG SRC="plus.gif" ALT="Plus"> +respectively. + +<P>All the foregoing references to the origin of +the so-called monogram as a Pagan symbol of +pre-Christian date, are but speculations however. +Its origin cannot be ascertained for certain. + +<!-- Page 157 --> +<P>The revival of this pre-Christian symbol, +and the prominence given to it upon the coins +of the Roman Empire, <I>are</I>, however, traceable. +And, as has been shown, they are traceable to +Constantine; who induced the Christians to +accept as the Monogram of the Christ, and +therefore as a Christian as well as a Gaulish +symbol of victory, the Solar Wheel venerated +by the Gaulish conquerors of Rome. + +<P>Nowadays the so-called Monogram of Christ +is almost always reproduced for us as +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +or +<IMG SRC="monogram4.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 4"> ; +but the fact that Constantine sometimes +so used it should not blind us to the facts that +it was at first usually the centre of a circle, like +the spokes of a wheel; and that the undisguised +solar wheel +<IMG SRC="solarwheel1.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 1"> +appears upon not a few of the +coins issued by the Christian successors of Constantine, +while since his reign the solar wheel +<IMG SRC="solarwheel2.gif" ALT="Solar Wheel 2"> +and many an artistic variation of the same +have been Christian symbols, and when in our +ornamentation of ecclesiastical properties we +omit the circle we as often as not make the +cross itself wheel-like by rounding the extremities +and widening them till they nearly +meet. + +<P>Moreover it should not be forgotten that it +<!-- Page 158 --> +was evidently one form or other of the solar +wheel of the Gauls, <I>plus</I> the politic loop to +one of its spokes, which Constantine and his +Gaulish warriors are said to have seen above +the meridian sun, with the divinely written +legend <SPAN LANG="gr">ΕΝ ΤΟΥΤΩ ΝΙΚΑ</SPAN>, <I>By this conquer</I>, +attached. For though that miraculous symbol +is referred to as a "cross," the Monogram itself +was so referred to; and Eusebius, after telling +us that the Christ appeared to Constantine and +commanded him to make a military standard +for the Sun-God worshipping Gauls, "With the +same sign which he had seen in the heavens," +expressly describes this as composed of "Two +letters indicating the name of the Christ, the +letter P being intersected with X at the centre." +And on this particular Labarum of Constantine, +as on the majority of the Labara represented +upon his coins, the +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +was the centre of a +circle or circular wreath, like the spokes of a +wheel.<A NAME="S55" HREF="#R55"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>55</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>In any case the fact that the symbol +<IMG SRC="monogram3.gif" ALT="Monogram of Christ 3"> +was +a Pagan one centuries before the Christ is said +to have made it a Christian one for the Sun-God +<!-- Page 159 --> +worshipping Gauls to follow on to victory, +coupled with the facts that they are said to +have seen it above the mid-day sun, and that +it was admittedly a politic adaptation of the +Solar Wheel, show us how much Eusebius and +other Christian chroniclers both invented and +suppressed, and also how largely the influence +of Sun-God worship permeated and moulded +our religion. + +<P>In this connection it may be noted, as a +curious fact rather than as evidence, that according +to some authorities the so-called Monograms +of Christ were in earlier ages Monograms +of the Sun-God Osiris.<A NAME="S56" HREF="#R56"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>56</SUP></FONT></A> +Also that both +Socrates and Sozomen tell us that when the +temple of the Sun-God Serapis at Alexandria +was pulled down, the symbol of the Christ +was discovered upon its foundations and the +Christians made many converts in consequence +a somewhat significant statement. + +<P>Moreover we are told that upon every <I>Dies +Solis</I>, or in other words upon that day of the +week which throughout the Roman Empire was +held sacred to the Sun-God and throughout +<!-- Page 160 --> +Christendom is called Sun-day, Constantine +made his troops, assembled under what was +admittedly a solar symbol, recite at a given time, +which was probably dawn or mid-day, a prayer +commencing "We acknowledge thee to be God +alone, and own that our victories are due to +thy favour."<A NAME="S57" HREF="#R57"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>57</SUP></FONT></A> +Who could this God have been +but the Sun-God, seeing that it was to the +Sun-God that Constantine upon his coins ever +attributed his victories? And what is more +likely than that, wishing to take a friendly view +of the deity worshipped by their supporters the +Christians, it was as conceiving the Christ to be +but the latest addition to the many conceptions +of the Sun-God, that Constantine altered the +solar symbols of his troops into the so-called +Monograms of Christ, and that his troops +accepted the alterations? + +<P>And, passing from the symbol to the deity +represented, let us remember that it is recorded +that various Christian paintings of ancient times +bore upon them the dedicatory words <I>DEO +SOLI</I>. For this remarkable legend means both +"To God alone" and "To the Sun-God," both +<!-- Page 161 --> +"To the Sole God" and "To the God Sol;" +and forcibly reminds us, not only of the +prayer which Constantine caused his troops to +repeat, but also of that fine address to the +"universally adored" Sun-God commencing<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="1"> +"Latium calls thee Sol because in honour thou<BR> + art Solitary,<BR> +After the Father."<A NAME="S58" HREF="#R58"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>58</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Now, as will be shown further on, a cross of +some description or other was in every land +accepted as the symbol of the universally +adored Sun-God. And while not a single +one of the many books forming the New +Testament states that Jesus was executed upon +a cross-shaped instrument, and the <I>first</I> crosses +Christians used as signs or symbols bore every +form but that which a cross-shaped instrument +of execution would have borne, the Christians +of the fourth century, as we have seen, went +out of their way to claim even the so-called +Monogram of Christ as a cross; Eusebius so +carefully speaking of it as such even where he +relates that Constantine and his soldiers saw +<!-- Page 162 --> +it above the meridian sun, that one might not +unreasonably imagine him to be claiming it as +Christian because it was more or less cruciform +and therefore more or less like the world-wide +symbol of the Sun-God. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + + +<!-- Page 163 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH14">CHAPTER XIV.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE CROSS OF THE LOGOS.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Having made clear the part played by +Constantine in the prominence given in +his lifetime to the cross as a symbol of the +Roman Empire and therefore of what he made +its State Religion, and having also shown that +while the Christian chroniclers of those days are +silent concerning the various forms of crosses +placed by Constantine upon his coins they went +out of their way to allude to the so-called +Monogram of Christ as a cross, to claim it as +such, and even to associate it with the sun, +let us now turn our attention again to the +pre-Christian cross. + +<P>So great was the veneration in which that +phallic and solar symbol the cross was held in +the ages which preceded the birth and death of +Jesus, that the philosophers of those days even +<!-- Page 164 --> +went so far as to declare that the cross was the +figure of the Life or Soul of the Universe. + +<P>Though it is a matter of very considerable +importance, we Christians for some reason or +other ignore the fact that long before our era +commenced philosophers thus conceived the +figure of the cross to be the symbol of the +<I>Logos</I> of God. + +<P>Now although, following the Gospel of St. +John, we have made it a main article of our +belief that the Logos, really the Thought <I>plus</I> +Speech, of God, became about the year B.C. 4 +specially incarnate in the person of Jesus the +Nazarene, we ought not to forget that, being +the one Power by which all that ever came +into existence was created and all that exists +is sustained, the Logos in any case ever was, +is, and will be, incarnate in every sentient being. + +<P>As the Logos of God (or, as the Authorised +Version of the Bible into English most inadequately +renders it in the first chapter of St. +John's Gospel, the <I>Word</I> of God) was by the +philosophers called the "Intellectual Sun" and +the "Light of the World",<A NAME="S59" HREF="#R59"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>59</SUP></FONT></A> +being, as a personification of the <I>Thought</I> and <I>Speech</I> of the +<!-- Page 165 --> +All-Father, a personification of Wisdom and +Reason (which, in an even more real sense than +the emanations of the physical sun, form the +"Light of the World," or, as the original text +of the New Testament puts it, the "Light +of the <I>Cosmos</I>"), the fact that pre-Christian +philosophers affirmed that the cross was the +symbol of the said "Light of the Cosmos," is +obviously one which every writer concerning +the cross as a Christian symbol ought in common +honesty to deal with. + +<P>That pre-Christian philosophers did so affirm, +can be seen by turning to the <I>Timæus</I> of +Plato, where, referring to the begetting of the +Universal Soul (whom Philo, another pre-Christian +philosopher, speaks of as the "Second +God"; and as God's "Beloved Son," "Image," +"Ambassador," "Mediator," and "First-Begotten"), +Plato says<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Such was the whole plan of the Eternal God about +the God that was to be:—and in the centre he put the +soul which he diffused throughout the body:—and he +made the Universe a circle moving in a circle. Having +these purposes in view he created the world a blessed +God:—he made the soul on this wise—joined—at the +centre like the letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN>."<A NAME="S60" HREF="#R60"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>60</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<!-- Page 166 --> +<P>Concerning this pronouncement of the great +Teacher he so revered, Proclus wrote as follows<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Two circles will be formed, of which one is interior +but the other is exterior. One of these is called the circle +of the Same and one the circle of the Different, or of the +Fixed and of the Variable, or rather of the Equinoctial +Circle and of the Zodiac. The circle of the Different +revolves about the Zodiac, but the circle of the Same about +the Equinoctial. Hence we conceive that the right lines +are not to be applied to each other at right angles but +like the letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN>, as Plato says, so as to cause the angles +to be equal only at the summit but those on each side +and the successive angles to be unequal. For the Equinoctial +Circle does not cut the Zodiac at right angles. +Such therefore in short is the mathematical discussion of +the figure of the (Universal) Soul."<A NAME="S61" HREF="#R61"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>61</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Even the Fathers of the Christian Church +admitted that their ideas of the Son of God +and of the cross being his symbol, were more +or less derived from pre-Christian philosophers. +For we find Justin Martyr remarking that +Plato declared that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"The Power next to the Supreme God was figured in +the shape of the letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN> upon the universe."<A NAME="S62" HREF="#R62"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>62</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<BR><BR>And in another place this famous Father states +that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Whereas Plato, philosophising about the Son of God, +<!-- Page 167 --> +says God expressed him upon the universe in the shape +of the letter <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ</SPAN>, he evidently took the hint from Moses, +who took brass and made the sign of the cross and +placed it by the holy tabernacle, and declared that if +people would look upon that cross and believe they would +be saved."<A NAME="S63" HREF="#R63"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>63</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>The value of all this evidence is so obvious +that its mere parade is almost sufficient. + +<P>It should however be pointed out that this +cross +<IMG SRC="x.gif" ALT="X"> , +being avowedly adopted by the +pre-Christian philosophers as the symbol of +the "Logos" or "First-begotten" of God in +preference to the +<IMG SRC="plus.gif" ALT="Plus"> +because the zodiac or +pathway of the Sun does not "cross" the +equator at right angles, was clearly a solar +symbol. And it may be added that though +Justin Martyr is careful to claim this particular +solar cross as a symbol of the Christ, no one +claims that Jesus was executed upon an instrument +so shaped; while the story that St. +Andrew was affixed to an instrument of execution +so shaped, is admittedly a worthless +legend. + +<P>This claim of Justin Martyr that the solar +cross of the philosophers was a pre-Christian +<!-- Page 168 --> +symbol of the Christ, is, when considered in +connection with the fact that nearly all the +Fathers allude to the figure of the cross, <I>any</I> +kind of cross, as a life-giving symbol from time +immemorial, significant of much. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 169 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH15">CHAPTER XV.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS IN EUROPE.</H4></CENTER> +<P>That the symbol of the cross was widely +venerated in Europe long before our era, +is well known to archæologists. +Of Britain in those days we know next to +nothing, history being almost silent upon the +subject and relics conspicuous by their absence. +The cross is however a conspicuous feature upon +certain funeral urns which are said to date back +to the period in question. And it is noteworthy +that both it and the solar wheel occur upon +several of the earliest British coins; which +whether issued as some say before, or as others +aver after, the advent of Julius Cæsar, were +admittedly of pre-Christian date. +Evidences of the veneration of the cross in +France before our era are so numerous and +<!-- Page 170 --> +easily ascertainable, that it will only be necessary +to refer the reader to the <I>Collection Roujou</I>, the +pages of the <I>Revue de Numismatique</I>, and the +writings of Messieurs De la Saussaye, Lenormant, +De Saulcy, E. Lambert, and other +French authorities. + +<P>If, continuing our journey eastwards, we pass +over the border into the northern provinces of +Italy, we find equally striking evidence of +the pre-Christian veneration of the symbol in +question. + +<P>Let us take for example the evidence furnished +by the remarkable discoveries made in the +pre-Christian cemetery unearthed at Gola-Secca. +For upon a very large proportion of the +articles discovered in the ancient tombs of the +cemetery in question, a cross of some kind is +the prominent feature. + +<P>Particulars of these articles can be found +recorded in the literary and scientific journals +of France. And the conclusion arrived at by +the authorities upon such matters cannot be +better put than in the revised edition in book +form of an article in the <I>Revue Archéologque</I> +by Monsieur G. de Mortillet. + +<P>After referring to the relics of so much of +<!-- Page 171 --> +ancient Gaul as is comprised in modern France, +a subject he takes leave of in the words—<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"But the pre-Christian cult of the cross was not +confined to Savoy and the environs of Lyons. A glance +at the coins of ancient Gaul is sufficient to show that it +existed in nearly every part"— +</FONT> + +<BR><BR>M. de Mortillet, crossing the frontier and dealing +with the said tombs of Gola-Secca near Milan +in Italy, sums up as follows<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"One sees that there can be no doubt whatever concerning +the use of the cross as a religious sign for a very +long time before Christianity. The cult of the cross was +well spread over Gaul before its conquest and already +existed in Emilia in the Bronze Age, more than a thousand +years before Jesus Christ." +</FONT> + +<P>Let us pass on to yet another country, Switzerland. +Here also we find unexceptional evidence +of the general recognition of the cross before +our era as a symbol which should above all +others be venerated. + +<P>The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland may be +said to have been brought to light by the extraordinary +drought experienced in the years A.C. +1853-4; for though piles and ancient remains +were found upon the shores of various lakes +<!-- Page 172 --> +before that date, no great heed was paid to them +till the drought in question lowered the waters +of the lake of Zurich and of other lakes to an +unprecedented extent, and certain discoveries +due thereto led to the matter being thoroughly +investigated by antiquarians. + +<P>The result was that many relics of the Lake +Dwellers were found. And, placed upon those +relics by this forgotten race of hoary antiquity +as the sign they venerated, was the symbol of +the cross. + +<P>These relics, preserved for us by the sediment +carried into the lakes by various rivers, cannot +be less than 3,000 years old, are not improbably +4,000 years old, and may quite possibly be 5,000 +years old; some authorities—Monsieur Morlot +for instance—estimating their age at from 6,000 +to 7,000 years. Suffice it to record the fact that +these relics are admittedly pre-Christian. + +<P>Upon the articles in question, as on those +discovered in the pre-Christian tombs of Gola-Secca, +the cross is stamped as a symbol of life, +of good omen, and of salvation. Even dies for +stamping articles with the cross have been discovered +among the remains of the Lake Dwellers. +And the crosses are of three kinds; (1) the +<!-- Page 173 --> +right-angled cross of four equal arms, of which +so many variations, some enclosed in circles and +some with the extremities widened and rounded, +are used as Christian symbols; (2) the other +cross of four equal arms, known as the St. +Andrew's cross or <I>Chi</I> cross; and (3) the Fylfot +or Svastika cross. + +<P>The last named cross is a peculiar one of quite +unmistakeable design; and there are two varieties, +<IMG SRC="svastika1.gif" ALT="Svastika1"> , +and +<IMG SRC="svastika2.gif" ALT="Svastika2"> , +of which one is obviously an +impression or reverse view of the other. + +<P>The names <I>Fylfot</I> and <I>Svastika</I> are very +generally applied to both these symbols. The +term <I>Svastika</I>, an Indian one, is however applied +by the inhabitants of Hindostan to one only; +they calling the other <I>Sauvastika</I>. And it is +curious to note that the meanings attached to +these names, though, like the symbols allied in +nature, are, also like them, the reverse or negative +or complement of each other. + +<P>For instance we are told by Sir G. Birdwood +that the right handed Svastika signifies the Male +Principle, the Sun on its daily journey from East +to West, Light and Life; and that the left-handed +Svastika signifies the Female Principle, +the Sun in Hades or the Underworld on its +<!-- Page 174 --> +journey from West to East, Darkness and +Death.<A NAME="S64" HREF="#R64"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>64</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>This more or less official pronouncement may +be taken as a fairly accurate one, although it is +obvious that the annual as well as the diurnal +movement of the Sun should have been referred +to; the half year between the Vernal Equinox +and Autumnal Equinox representing Light and +Life, and that between the Autumnal Equinox +and Vernal Equinox Darkness and Death, just +as clearly as do the half days between sunrise and +sunset, sunset and sunrise. But it is to be feared +that even those who remember how often Death +and Darkness are referred to as periods of Gestation, +will have some difficulty in seeing how +a sign or symbol of the Female Power of +Generation can have signified Death. + +<P>The fact of course is that the symbol in +question represented both Life and Death, and +represented the latter only in a minor sense and +owing to the fact that the Female Principle of +Life was regarded as the necessary reverse, +negative, or complement of the Male Principle; +<!-- Page 175 --> +which latter, having of the two the better claim +to be considered the starter of life, was the one +more particularly identified with Life and therefore +with the vernal Sun-God. + +<P>It would also appear that the two symbols in +question to some extent signified Fire and +Water; Fire being of course the Male Principle, +Day, Summer, Light, and Life; and Water the +Female Principle. This still further illustrates +the point dealt with above; for though Water is +the negative of Fire, yet Fire cannot produce +Life without the aid of Water. + +<P>Returning however to our consideration of +the cross as a symbol of Life of pre-Christian +date and origin, and having already dealt with +the lands now known as Britain, France, Italy, +and Switzerland, let us now consider the evidence +of Greece. + +<P>At Mycenæ and elsewhere Dr. Schliemann +discovered, among other relics of a bygone age, +not only articles marked with the Svastika cross +and the cross of four equal arms, but even seals +and dies giving impressions of such crosses; +thus demonstrating how large and prominent a +part the symbol of the cross played in pre-Christian +times among those in whose classic +<!-- Page 176 --> +tongue the earliest known copies of the Christian +Scriptures were written centuries later. + +<P>It is also remarkable that Dr. Schliemann +found golden crosses in the previously unopened +tombs he discovered and explored at Mycenæ; +as many as five such crosses having in some +instances been placed with a single body by +those who sealed up the vaults in question +thousands of years ago and many centuries +before the commencement of our era. + +<P>As few if any unrifled tombs of so ancient a +date have been discovered in Greece and first +explored by a trustworthy investigator, and as, +moreover, it would only have been with the +bodies of important personages that crosses of +so valuable a material as gold would have been +buried, these discoveries, coupled with the self-evident +fact that crosses of more perishable +material may have been buried with the bodies +of less distinguished people, and by this time, +like both the bodies and the tombs which +enclosed them, have gone to dust, are most +remarkable. And they entirely corroborate the +testimony borne by the coins of ancient Gaul, +the contents of the tombs of Gola-Secca, and +the remains of the Lake Dwellers of Switzerland, +<!-- Page 177 --> +to the veneration paid long before our era by +the inhabitants of Europe to the cross as the +recognised symbol of Life. Nor as the symbol +only of the life which ends in the grave, but also +of the glorious hope that as the Sun, from whom +we derive that life, whether considered from a +daily or yearly point of view sinks but to rise +again, even so we who owe our brief lives to the +Sun-God, may, like the Giver of Life and only +Saviour, rise from one life to another. + +<P>For whether the ancients were or were not unphilosophic +enough to believe in the resurrection +of bodies whose constituent atoms are continually +changing and in time form part of other bodies, +it is absurd to assume that they did not at times +like ourselves conceive and dwell upon a hoped-for, +if unexpected and improbable, Life-to-come. + +<P>Moreover it is with us, as it was with them, a +<I>hope;</I> and it is disingenuous to label as Christian +what was pre-Christian, and to claim as ours +what has been common to the reasoning minds +of suffering men and women of all eras. + +<P>It is equally disingenuous on the part of us +Christians to keep in the background the noteworthy +fact that even in pre-Christian ages the +symbol of that hope was—the cross. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 178 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH16">CHAPTER XVI.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS IN ASIA.</H4></CENTER> +<P>If, leaving Europe, we pass on into Asia, +we find that not only have the two varieties +of Svastika crosses for thousands of years played +a prominent part as a religious symbol in +Hindostan, Thibet, and China, but that other +kinds of crosses also were in bygone ages +venerated by their inhabitants. + +<P>For instance our Eastern Empire is strewn +with the remains of ancient temples built, like +those of Christendom in later days, in the shape +of a cross; and we are told that the oldest of +its rock-hewn caves were planned after the same +figure. It is also well-known that isolated stone +crosses of pre-historic date are to be seen in +various parts of India. + +<P>The evidence of Hindostan is however outweighed +by that obtainable from the antiquities +of Western Asia, concerning some of which +Sir A. H. Layard wrote:<BR><BR> + +<!-- Page 179 --> +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"The crux ansata, the tau or sign of life, is found +in the sculptures of Khorsabad, on the ivories of +Nimroud—which as I have shown are of the same +age—carried too by an Assyrian King."<A NAME="S65" HREF="#R65"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>65</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>We have also to note the equally significant +facts that the recognised symbol of the Phœnician +Goddess of Love—Astarte, Ashtoreth, or Ishtar, +the Bride of the Sun-God—was a cross; that +a cross was also associated with the Phœnician +Baal or Sun-God; and that the circle and cross, +now the symbol of the planet held sacred to +the Goddess of Love, frequently occurs upon +the ancient coins of Western Asia and was +not improbably more or less akin in signification +to the crux ansata of Egypt. The fact that +upon very ancient remains still existing the +Baal is represented as crowned with a wheel-like +nimbus of rays should also be mentioned. + +<P>The cross more especially connected with the +Phœnician "Bride of the Sun-God" in ancient +days, was, as can easily be seen upon reference +to ancient coins, where it occurs in the hand +of the goddess in question, a long handled cross +such as is frequently to be seen in our pictorial +representations of John the Baptist. + +<!-- Page 180 --> +<P>As John the Baptist was an Asiatic and to +some extent a pre-Christian Asiatic, we can +here, without wandering very far from the +matter in hand, pause to consider the question +why we Christians represent John the Baptist, +who had nothing to do with a cross, as holding +a cross; if it be not that while Jesus was +supposed to represent the Sun in its annual +ascension, John was supposed to represent +the Sun in its annual declension? What +other rational explanation have we of the +facts, (1) that John is represented as saying +that he baptised with water but that Jesus +would baptise with <I>fire</I> (where the rains +of winter and the heat of summer may be +referred to); and (2) that the Christian Church +in framing its calendar fixed upon what we +call Midsummer day as the birthday of John +the Baptist, and upon the clay which bears +the same relation to the other solstice as the +birthday of Christ, as if wishing to illustrate +that other remarkable pronouncement of John, +thus placed at the point where the days begin +to shorten, concerning Jesus, thus placed where +the days begin to lengthen, "He must increase +but I must decrease"? + +<!-- Page 181 --> +<P>The probability that to its original signification +of Life, that of Salvation was added to +the cross as a recognition of the fact that the +salvation of Earth-Life in general and of +Mankind in particular is due to the fact that +at the Vernal Equinox the Sun-God "crosses" +to save, summer and the fruits of the earth +and therefore salvation and increase being due +to the fact that the Sun then crosses the +Equator, is supported by evidence from all +quarters. And if we refuse to admit that +Christianity is permeated with the ideas of +Sun-God worship, we not only have no rational +explanation to offer of the prophecies put by +the Evangelists in the mouth of John the +Baptist to the effect that Jesus would baptise +with <I>fire</I> and would <I>increase</I>, but also none to +offer of many another prominent feature of +our religion; such as, for instance, the fact +that while pretending to reverence all the Ten +Commandments we deliberately make a point +of breaking one of them in order to keep as +a day of rest not the seventh day but the +first, the day which from time immemorial was +held sacred throughout the Roman Empire as +<I>Dies Solis</I>, the Day of the Sun. For to aver +<!-- Page 182 --> +as we do that Jesus was not made the subject +of a Sun-God allegory, but purposely rose from +the underworld on the Day of the Sun, at the +time of the Vernal Equinox, in order to annul +a commandment previously laid down by God +and substitute a new one in silence, is only +to make ourselves ridiculous. + +<P>Returning however to the matter more +particularly in hand, it should be pointed out +that the crux ansata mentioned by Layard is +not the only kind of cross to be found upon +the relics of ancient Babylonia and Assyria. +For the cross of four equal arms and the solar +wheel are also to be met with. + +<P>Moreover, as all visitors to our museums +should be aware, the monarchs are represented +as wearing in the place of honour round their +neck and on their breast, a Maltese cross. And +this cross, worn by the kings centuries before +our era as the symbol which should above all +others be venerated, or as best signifying their +power over the lives of their subjects and their +position as vice-gerents of the Sun-God, is +admitted by all the best authorities to have +been the sign and symbol of the Sun-God.<A NAME="S66" HREF="#R66"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>66</SUP></FONT></A> +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 183 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH17">CHAPTER XVII.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>THE PRE-CHRISTIAN CROSS IN AFRICA.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Passing on to Africa and a consideration +of the <I>crux ansata</I> or so-called 'Key of +the Nile,' we find that this variety of cross +had much the same significance attached to +it by the ancients as had the more widely +accepted varieties. + +<P>As a matter of fact no one acquainted with +Egyptian antiquities who enquires into the +matter in thorough going fashion, can in the +end fail to be convinced that the Egyptian +cross was a phallic symbol having reference +to the sexual powers of generation and to +the Sun, and being therefore a symbol both +of Life and of the Giver of Life. + +<P>The connection between the crux ansata +and the Sun-God in the minds of the +<!-- Page 184 --> +inhabitants of the Land of the Nile in pre-Christian +days, is very clearly set forth by an +illustration of Khuenaten in the act of distributing +gifts to his courtiers which faces +page 40, volume I., of Sir J. Gardner +Wilkinson's "<I>Manners and Customs of the +Ancient Egyptians.</I>" For this monarch—also +known as Amenophis IV.—and his wife are +both represented as receiving the crux ansata +from the Sun-God, and the Sun is marked +with the crux ansata as its peculiar symbol. + +<P>Upon Plate IV. facing page 43 of the same +famous work, we see Seti I. surmounted by +the Sun; two crosses adorning the latter. +The crosses are, moreover, attached to two +serpents issuing from the sun; and these were +in ancient days phallic signs representing +the sexual powers. + +<P>On page 405 is a representation of the +Egyptian god Khem, or Amen-Ra Generator; +the Egyptian Priapus, or god of Generation. +The names of this phallic deity show his +connection with the Sun. + +<P>It is noteworthy that this particular conception +of the Sun-God is accompanied by +emblems of the sexual organs of reproduction, +<!-- Page 185 --> +and that he bears a St. Andrew's cross upon +his breast. + +<P>Upon page 24 of volume III. of the same +work is another representation of Khem, or +Amen-Ra Generator. In this case also he is +accompanied by phallic and solar emblems +and wears a St. Andrew's cross upon his +breast. + +<P>On page 26 Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson tells +us that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Khem was considered the generating influence of +the sun, whence perhaps the reason of his being +connected with Amen-Ra: and in one of the +hieroglyphic legends accompanying his name he is +styled the sun; that is the pro-creating power of the +only source of warmth, which assists in the continuation +of the various created species." +</FONT> + +<P>Upon Plate XXII., facing page 44 of volume +III., are three different instances of the crux +ansata being attached to the sun as the +symbol of the Sun-God. + +<P>Upon page 46 is another instance of the +crux ansata being attached to the solar +serpent issuing from the sun's disc. + +<P>On Plate XXIII., facing page 52, is another +illustration of the reception of the crux ansata +from the Sun-God. + +<!-- Page 186 --> +<P>Upon page 82 Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson +rightly observes that it is absurd to speak of +the crux ansata or Egyptian cross as the <I>Key +of the Nile</I>, inasmuch as this cross "is less +frequently seen in the hand of the God Nilus +than any deity of the Egyptian pantheon." + +<P>Upon the remarkable Plate XXXI., facing +page 136, we see inscriptions describing the +reigning Pharaoh as the "Vice-gerent of the +Giver of Eternal Life"; or, in other words, of +the Sun-God. Other expressions applied to +the Pharaoh are "Giver of Life and Strength +like the Sun"; "Who gives all Life, Stability, +and Health like the Sun"; and "Approved of +the Sun and Giver of Life like the Sun." + +<P>It is thus clear that ages before our era the +cross was venerated in Egypt as in other +lands as the symbol both of Life and of the +Giver of Life; and that the deity worshipped +as the Giver of Life, and ever associated +with that salutary symbol the cross, was the +Sun-God. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 187 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH18">CHAPTER XVIII.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>EVIDENCE OF TROY.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Dr. Schliemann has told us that in +his researches upon the site of Troy +he found that in pre-Christian if not indeed +pre-historic times the cross was, in that classic +locality as elsewhere, a phallic emblem and +the symbol of life; as well as a solar emblem +and the symbol of the holy fire with which +life was more or less identified. +For instance on page 337 of his <I>Ilios</I> +(1880 edition) Dr. Schliemann describes a +leaden idol discovered by him and of great +antiquity. He tells us that it was female in +character and had the vulva marked with the +triangle, a symbol of the Feminine Principle. +And he points out that within the triangle was +the Svastika cross. + +<!-- Page 188 --> +<P>On page 521 Dr. Schliemann describes an +ancient terra cotta vase, with the characteristics +of a woman upon it, and on the vulva a +St. Andrew's cross. + +Upon page 523 is a reference to another +vase of similar design. Here also a cross +appears to mark the vulva. + +<P>On page 353 Dr. Schliemann admits that +the Svastika cross drawn within the triangle +marking the vulva, shows that this cross was +a sign of generation in ancient and pre-historic +times. This remark should evidently have +been applied by him to the St. Andrew's cross +as well, for he shows that also to have been +used as a sign of the organ of generation, +as has been shown above. + +<P>We are here reminded of the fact, already +noted, that the Egyptians represented their +God of Generation, Khem, or Amen-Ra +Generator, as wearing a conspicuous St. +Andrew's cross. And as Khem was the +Egyptian Priapus it ought also to be pointed +out that it was in ancient times the practice +to erect wooden crosses to this conception of +the Sun-God. + +<P>An illustration of one example of the crosses +<!-- Page 189 --> +erected to Priapus can be seen in figure XI. of +plate XXIX. of that well-known work, <I>Antique +Gems and Rings</I>.<A NAME="S67" HREF="#R67"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>67</SUP></FONT></A> +And the phallic nature of such crosses cannot be denied. + +<P>Returning, however, to the discoveries of +Dr. Schliemann upon the site of Troy, we +find on page 350 of <I>Ilios</I> that both varieties +of the Svastika cross are extraordinarily common +upon the articles he discovered. + +<P>As an Indian symbol the Svastika cross +can only be traced back as far as the fourth +or fifth century B.C.; and its occurrence upon +these and other relics of earlier ages and other +lands, shows us that it is inaccurate and misleading +to speak of it as "Indian." + +<P>The origin of the Svastika cross, whether +the +<IMG SRC="svastika1.gif" ALT="Svastika1"> , +or the +<IMG SRC="svastika2.gif" ALT="Svastika2"> , +is unknown; but Dr. +Schliemann quotes with approval Professor Max +Müller's remarks to the effect that Mr. Thomas +our distinguished Oriental numismatist<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Has clearly proved that on some of the Andra +coins and likewise on some punched coins depicted on +Sir W. Elliot's plate ix. <I>Madras Jour. Lit. and Science</I>, +vol. III., the place of the more definite figure of the +<!-- Page 190 --> +sun is often taken by the Svastika, and that the Svastika +has been inserted within the rings or normal circles +representing the four suns of the Ujjain pattern on +coins. He has also called attention to the fact that +in the long list of the recognised devices of the twenty-four +Jaina Tirthankaras the sun is absent; but that +while the eighth Tirthankara has the sign of the half-moon +the seventh Tirthankara is marked with the +<I>Svastika, i.e.</I>, the sun. Here then, I think, we have very +clear indications that the Svastika, with the hands +pointing in the right direction, was originally a symbol +of the Sun, perhaps of the vernal sun as opposed to +the autumnal sun, the <I>Sauvastika</I>, and therefore a natural +symbol of light, life, health, and wealth. That in ancient +mythology the sun was frequently represented as a wheel +is well known. Grimm identifies the Old Norse <I>hjol</I> or +hvel, the A.-S. <I>hvehol</I>, English 'wheel,' with <SPAN LANG="gr">κύκλος</SPAN>, +Sk. Kakra, wheel; and derives jól, 'yule-tide,' the time +of the winter solstice, from hjol, 'the (solar) wheel.'" +</FONT> + +<P>Both the +<IMG SRC="svastika1.gif" ALT="Svastika1"> +and the +<IMG SRC="svastika2.gif" ALT="Svastika2"> +occur upon the +famous footprints of Buddha carved upon the +Amarâvati Tope, and Dr. Schliemann remarks +that we find the Svastika or Sauvastika cross<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"In Ezekiel ix. 4, 6, where—in the form of the old +Hebrew letter Tau—it is written as the sign of life on +the forehead, like the corresponding Indian symbol. +We find it twice on a large piece of ornamental leather +contained in the celebrated Corneto treasure preserved +in the Royal Museum at Berlin; also on ancient pottery +found at Konigsberg in the Neumark and preserved in +<!-- Page 191 --> +the Märkisches Museum in Berlin; and on a Bowl from +Yucatan in the Berlin Ethnological Museum. We also +see it on coins of Gaza, as well as on an Imperial coin +of Asido; also on the drums of the Lapland priests."<!-- Original ends in single quote instead of double quote --> +</FONT> + +<P>It is noteworthy that in the neighbourhood +of Troy, as in Cyprus and other places, a cross +of four equal arms, like our sign of addition, +in days of old shared with the Svastika crosses +the veneration of the people and was evidently +more or less akin to those crosses in signification. +Dr. Schliemann tells us that this cross of four +equal arms "occurs innumerable times on the +whorls of the three upper pre-historic cities +of Hissarlik," and that if, as Burnouf and others +suggest, the +<IMG SRC="svastika2.gif" ALT="Svastika2"> +and +<IMG SRC="svastika1.gif" ALT="Svastika1"> +represented primitive +fire machines, this other cross "might also claim +the honour of representing the two pieces of +wood for producing the holy fire by friction." + +<P>Elsewhere in the same work Dr. Schliemann +quotes with approval the opinion of Professor +Sayce that the Svastika cross, +<IMG SRC="svastika2.gif" ALT="Svastika2"> +or +<IMG SRC="svastika1.gif" ALT="Svastika1"> , +"was a symbol of generation." + +<P>As phallic worship and Sun-God worship +were admittedly always closely connected, it is +not surprising to find that Dr. Schliemann +also very highly commends a dissertation on +<!-- Page 192 --> +the +<IMG SRC="svastika2.gif" ALT="Svastika2"> +and +<IMG SRC="svastika1.gif" ALT="Svastika1"> +by Mr. Edward Thomas, +whose conclusion is that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"As far as I have been able to trace or connect the +various manifestations of this emblem, they one and all +resolve themselves into the primitive conception of solar +motion, which was intuitively associated with the rolling +or wheel-like projection of the sun through the upper +or visible arc of the heavens." +</FONT> + +<P>It may therefore be considered proven that +the inhabitants of classic Troy like those of +the Land of the Nile and other countries, +recognised a close affinity between the productive +forces and the sun, and were one in +accepting a cross of some description as the +natural symbol whether of Life or of the Giver +of Life. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 193 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH19">CHAPTER XIX.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>EVIDENCE OF CYPRUS.</H4></CENTER> +<P>Although now, owing to the march of +events, the island of Cyprus is out of +the way and seldom visited, it was once otherwise. +For in days of old it occupied a +favoured position between the countries then +foremost in the arts of civilisation. + +In those days Cyprus was a centre of +Phœnician enterprise. And, as we are told in +that fine work <I>'Kypros, the Bible, and Homer: +Oriental Civilisation, Art and Religion in ancient +times,'</I> "The oldest extant Phœnician inscriptions, +<I>themselves the earliest examples of letters +properly so called,</I> come from Cyprus." + +<P>As, moreover, when face to face with the relics +of the Phœnicians we are, as Dr. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter +also remarks, "In the very midst of +<!-- Page 194 --> +ancient Canaanitish civilisation as depicted in +the Old Testament," it will be seen that a study +of the antiquities of Cyprus should have a special +interest for us Christians. + +<P>Let us therefore see what the ancient remains +found in the island in question, and others +referred to in the work mentioned as illustrative +of the same, can tell us regarding phallic worship +in general and the pre-Christian cross in +particular. + +<P>One of the first points to be noted in the +illustrations supplied by Dr. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter +is in a cut of an ancient Cyprian coin on +Plate X.; upon which coin we see over a temple +gateway the phallic symbol since adopted by the +Moslems, and commonly spoken of as the '<I>star</I> +and crescent' although, as already shown, it +originality represented the radiate Sun or Male +Principle in conjunction with the Crescent moon +or Female Principle. + +<P>Upon Plate XIX. we see several examples of +the Svastika cross occurring upon an ancient +Cyprian vase. + +<P>On Plate XXV. we are shown a gold leaf +taken from an ancient grave, upon which the +Svastika cross occurs. + +<!-- Page 195 --> +<P>Figure 10 upon the same plate shows us a gold +leaf discovered at Amathus upon which we see +the Sun and Moon in conjunction, the Sun in +this instance being represented as a disc in the +horns of the crescent. + +<P>Upon Plate XXVI. we have representations +of stone pillars at Atheniaon, upon the capitals +of which are phallic emblems, including that of +the Sun as a disc within the horns of the +Crescent moon. + +<P>On Plate XXX. we have in figure 7 a cut of an +important cylinder now stored in the Berlin +Museum, upon which are represented both the +Sacred Tree and the Ashera. The winged Sun-disc +appears over the former and the Crescent +moon over the latter. + +<P>Figure 11 upon the same plate shows us a +Masseba representing the Male Principle, surmounted +by the star-like form which represented +the radiate Sun; and an Ashera, representing +the Female Principle, surmounted by the +Crescent moon. + +<P>Just as in modern Christianity we make a +distinction without alleging much difference +between the Father and the Son, even so in +ancient times a distinction of a similarly vague +<!-- Page 196 --> +kind was made between the All-Father <I>Fire</I> +and His Image and First-begotten Son <I>Light</I>. +The disc of the Sun seems to have represented +the former and the Sun-star or radiate Sun the +latter where both were represented in one illustration, +as for instance in figure 12 on the plate +last mentioned. + +<P>The illustration in question is an important +one. On the left is an Ashera under a Crescent +moon; in the centre is a Masseba under the +Sun-star or radiate Sun; and on the right is an +altar under a sun disc. + +<P>The phallic meaning of all this is evident; +and a kind of Trinity is presented to us, <I>viz.</I> +(1) The Female Principle and perhaps the +primeval Darkness, needing impregnation or +illumination ere the same can cause aught to be; +(2) the Male Principle and Light, the First-born +Son of Fire; and (3) Fire itself, the one origin +of all things and Father of Spirits, made manifest +unto mortals by His First-born Son, and +best symbolled, as is Light, by the Solar +Orb. + +<P>On Plate XXXI. we have in figure 4 a representation +of the goddess Ishtar, the bride of the +Sun-God. Over her we see the phallic symbol +<!-- Page 197 --> +of the radiate Sun and Crescent moon in +conjunction. + +<P>On Plate XXXII. we see in figure 23 the Svastika +cross under a tree, in a representation of +a scarab from Ialysos. This cross coupled with +the presence of two bulls, one on either side of +the tree, seem to show that the Male Principle is +referred to. + +<P>On Plate XL. we have a cut of a votive arm, +holding in its hand that phallic symbol the +apple, and obtained from the sanctuary of Apollo +at Voni. + +<P>On Plate LVIII. in representations of the stone +capitals of two votive pillars from the shrine of +Aphrodite at Idalion, we see various phallic +emblems; including the familiar Sun disc and +Crescent moon in conjunction. + +<P>The same remark applies to Plate LIX., where +two more such pillars are illustrated. + +<P>Upon Plate LXIX. are given no less than 134 +illustrations of ancient religious symbols, and the +phallic character of nearly if not quite all is +plainly apparent. + +<P>In twelve of these the presence of the Sun or +the Crescent Moon as the case may be, points +out that in the former event the Male Principle +<!-- Page 198 --> +of Life, and in the latter the Female Principle +of Life, is referred to. In six other cases the +presence of the Sun and Crescent moon in juxtaposition +shows that both those Principles are +referred to. And in four other examples the +presence of the Sun and Crescent moon in conjunction +shows that the union of those Principles +is referred to. + +<P>Besides the numerous Masseboth and Asheroth, +respectively representing the Male and +Female Principles, we see numerous examples +of the triangle which represented the female +<I>vulva</I> and of the diamond shaped symbol +which represented the female <I>pudendum</I>. + +<P>Among the remaining symbols is the cross +of four equal arms. + +<P>Upon Plate LXXV. is an illustration of a vase +painting in red figures from a Stamnos from +Vulci Panofka. The representation is one of +the Sun-God Dionysos upon a cross. + +<P>The said cross, which like various Christian +crosses of the Dark and Middle Ages has +projecting branches and foliage, seems to have +been more or less connected with the Tree +worship of ancient times. + +<P>On Plate LXXVI. we are given thirteen +<!-- Page 198 --> +examples of Sacred Trees discovered in the groves +of Astarte-Aphrodite and Tanit-Artemis-Cybele, +being clay copies of the Sacred Trees erected +at the entrances to the temples. As Dr. +Ohnefalsch-Richter states, these evidently phallic +symbols undoubtedly played a part in the +worship of the Sun-God Tammuz-Adonis and +his bride Astarte-Aphrodite. + +<P>Upon Plate LXXVII. we have a cut of an +important Phœnician seal, where we see (1) a +man kneeling in adoration to a Divine Trinity +connected with the winged disc of the sun, +and (2) a priest worshipping three symbols. +The three sacred symbols in question are (1) +the Ashera or symbol of the Female Life +Principle; (2) the Masseba or symbol of the +Male Life Principle; and (3) a combination +of the Ashera and Masseba symbols representing +the two Life Principles in conjunction. + +<P>On Plate LXXIX. we have in figure 14 a +representation both of the Sacred Tree and of +the combined Ashera and Masseba. Over the +latter we naturally see the radiate Sun and +Crescent moon in conjunction. + +<P>In figure 16 on the same plate are representations +of an Ashera and a Masseba, +<!-- Page 200 --> +respectively surmounted by a Crescent moon +and a radiate Sun. + +<P>A similar remark applies to figure 17. A +sacrificing priest can be seen in this and the +last named instances. + +<P>On Plate LXXX. we have in figure 1 a representation +of a holy pillar, the volute capital of +which has on it a Crescent moon within the +horns of which is a disc plainly marked with a +cross. This is taken from an ancient cylinder +of Hittite origin. + +<P>On the same plate we see in figure 7 a Sun +column from Tyre, upon which we see the +Crescent and disc in conjunction as in the +last case, but without the cross. + +<P>On Plate CXVIII. we have in figure 8 a cut +of a fine vase from Melos ornamented with +a Svastika cross. + +Upon Plate CXXXIII. we have, in figures I to 4, +representations of a sacred Bœotian chest or +ark. On the front are seven Svastika crosses +(some of each variety) and one ordinary cross +like our sign of addition. On the lid we see two +serpents surrounded by eight Svastika crosses +(some of each variety) and eight crosses formed +of tau crosses, +<IMG SRC="taucross.gif" ALT="tau cross"> ; +besides two other crosses. + +<!-- Page 201 --> +<P>On the back are eight Svastika crosses (some +of each variety) and eight other crosses. + +<P>In figure 6 we have a cut of a chest from +Athiaenon upon which two Svastika crosses +will be noticed. + +<P>In figure 8 of the same plate is an illustration +of one side of another sacred chest or ark +from Athiaenon, on which two Svastika crosses +of the other variety can be seen. + +<P>Upon Plate CLV. we have in figure 9 a cut +of an important Cyprian Græco-Phœnician +Amphora discovered in an ancient grave at +Kition and now stored in the British Museum. +The object represented upon it is a Sacred +Tree marked at the bottom with a St. +Andrew's cross and surrounded with Svastika +crosses. + +<P>On Plate CLXXIII. we see in group 19 +various objects discovered in ancient graves; +one bearing several ordinary crosses and also +several Svastika crosses, one bearing a Svastika +cross of the other variety, and a third bearing +Svastika crosses of both kinds. + +<P>Upon Plate CXCII. are cuts of various Cyprian +coins, the phallic symbol of the circle and +cross occurring upon Nos. 1, 9, and 10. + +<!-- Page 202 --> +<P>Leaving the Book of Plates and turning to +the illustrations given with the Text of the +valuable work we are considering, we discover +upon page 62 a cut showing the impression +of a chalcedony cylinder from the collection +of the Due de Luynes, where the Sun is +represented by a Cross of four equal arms. + +<P>Upon page 85 we have in figure 117 an +illustration of an inscribed cylinder, now +belonging to the Bibliothèque Nationale of +France, in which, as Dr. Ohnefalsch-Richter +remarks, the priest or king represented is raising +his arm<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"In adoration in the direction of the Cross suspended +in the air before him, a holy object we often meet on +Assyrian and Babylonian monuments." +</FONT> + +<P>This cross, like that last named, is more like +a Greek cross than a Maltese cross. + +<P>On page 148 we have in figure 150 an illustration +of a coloured image of Aphrodite or Astarte +discovered in an early Græco-Phœnician tomb +at Kurion. This representation of the Goddess +of Love and Bride of the Sun-God is marked +with several Svastika crosses, and is yet +further evidence of the phallic and solar +character of that symbol. + +<!-- Page 203 --> +<P>Such is the evidence of the phallic worship +and Sun-God worship of the Phœnicians and +their neighbours, of the close relationship +between such phallic worship and Sun-God +worship, and of the part played in connection +with the same by the pre-Christian cross, +borne by a work of research so free from +bias against the views of the Christian Church +that it has prefixed to it a letter of warm +commendation from that veteran statesman +and theologian, the author of the ultra-orthodox +"<I>Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture.</I>" +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 204 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH20">CHAPTER XX.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>MISCELLANEOUS EVIDENCE.</H4></CENTER> +<P>The most noteworthy features of the available +evidence illustrative of the real origin +and history of the symbol of the cross have +now been placed before the reader, but a number +of more or less miscellaneous facts directly or +indirectly throwing additional light upon the +subject have still to be drawn attention to. + +<P>For instance, no mention has yet been made +of the <I>Hermæ</I> of bygone ages. And although +their origin may have had no connection with +the symbol in question, it is noteworthy that +some at least of the early Christians discovered +in the more or less cruciform outline of the +Hermæ a reason or excuse for paying them +homage, while very similar figures are to be +seen illustrated upon Christian antiquities, such +<!-- Page 205 --> +as the mosaic of which the great cross of the +Lateran forms the principal feature. + +<P>The Hermæ venerated by the ancient Greeks +were pillars, usually of stone and quadrangular, +surmounted in most instances with a head of +either Hermes or Dionysos; and with a peculiar +transverse rail just below the head, much used +for hanging garlands upon, which made the +whole look more or less like a cross. + +<P>These pillars were erected in front of temples, +tombs, and houses; but more especially as sign +posts at cross roads; and whether the head at +the top was that of Hermes the Messenger of +the Gods, or, as was very often the case, that +of Dionysos the Sun-God, a phallus was always +a prominent feature. + +<P>Moreover these phallic and often solar erections +called Hermæ, undoubtedly more or less +cross-shaped owing to the transverse rail, were +worshipped as conducive to fecundity. + +<P>It is also worthy of notice that the cross is +well known to have been venerated in America +before even the Norsemen who preceded +Columbus set foot upon that afterwards rediscovered +continent. + +<P>For instance a cross surrounded by a circle +<!-- Page 206 --> +was in use among the ancient Mexicans as a +solar sign, another cross was a solar symbol +of the natives of Peru from time immemorial, +and we are also told by the authorities that a +cross of four equal arms with a disc or circle +at the centre was the age-old Moqui symbol +of the Sun.<A NAME="S68" HREF="#R68"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>68</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>Other noteworthy points are that the cross +occurs upon Runic monuments in Europe long +before Christianity was introduced into the +regions containing them; that ancient altars to +the Sun-God Mithras bearing the sacred symbol +of the cross have been discovered even in England; +and that the Laplanders of old when +sacrificing marked their idols with the symbol +of the cross, using the life blood of their victims +for that purpose.<A NAME="S69" HREF="#R69"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>69</SUP></FONT></A> + +<P>It should also be pointed out that on a coin +of Thasos bearing representations of a phallic +character connected with the worship of the +Thracian Bacchus, a Svastika cross is a prominent +symbol; that upon ancient vases the +<!-- Page 207 --> +headgear of Bacchus is sometimes ornamented +with the cross of four equal arms; that upon +a Greek vase at Lentini, Sicily, an ancient +representation of the Sun-God Hercules is +accompanied by no less than three different +kinds of crosses as symbols; and that upon an +archaic Greek vase in the British Museum, the +Svastika cross, the St. Andrew's cross, and the +other and right angled cross of four equal arms, +appear under the rays of the Sun. Nor should +it be forgotten that though the Svastika cross +has almost died out as a Christian symbol and +was perhaps never thoroughly acclimatised as +such, it often appeared upon Christian ecclesiastical +properties of the Middle Ages, and, either +as a Pagan or Christian symbol, continually +occurs in the catacombs of Rome. + +<P>We are told that circular wafers or cakes +were used in the mysteries of the Sun-God +Bacchus, and, being marked with a cross, +resembled the disc-like wafers of the Christian +Mass. Whether this was so or not, it is noteworthy +that a cross is said to appear upon the +representation of a circular wafer used in the +mysteries of Mithras which occurs upon an +ancient fresco at Rome. + +<!-- Page 208 --> +<P>In this connection it may be mentioned, as a +series of curious coincidences, that in the Zoroastrian +religion long before our era the Sun-God +Mithras bore much the same relation to +the All-Father that the Christ does in ours, +and is referred to in the Zend Avesta as the +<I>Incarnate Word;</I> that Mithras is said, like +the Christ, to have been born in a cave; that +the Fathers admitted that the new-born Sun +had been worshipped in the cave at Bethlehem +to which the story of the birth of Jesus referred; +and that in framing its calendar our Church +fixed upon the recognised birthday of Mithras, +the <I>Natalis Invicti</I> of the Roman Brumalia, as +the birthday of the Christ. + +<P>It is also noteworthy that the Christ is thus +said to have been born as well as to have risen +again the third <I>or fourth</I> ("<I>After</I> three days," +<I>Matt</I>, xxvii. 63; <I>after</I> "Three days and three +nights," Matt, xii. 40) day. For the birthday of +Mithras and afterwards of the Christ, known to +us as Christmas day, seems to have been fixed +upon as the third or fourth day after the winter +solstice, and as that upon which the sun's resurrection +from the south was first discernible after +its apparent cessation of movement or death. + +<!-- Page 209 --> +<P>In this connection it should be added that +Lucian records the fact that the Sun-God +referred to by the Fathers as worshipped at +Bethlehem was lamented as dead once a year +and always acclaimed as alive again the third +day; that in several places in the Zend Avesta +we meet with passages which show that the +Mithras worshippers of old believed that at the +death of a man his spirit sits at the head of +the corpse for three days and three nights, and +then, at dawn, rises free from all earthly attachments; +and that we say that the execution +of Jesus took place at the time of the Passover +or Vernal Equinox, while instead of the +prophesied "three days and three nights in the +heart of the earth" (<I>Matt</I>. xii. 40) the period +between the death and burial on Good Friday +evening and the resurrection before dawn on +Easter Sunday is just about that during which +the Sun's disc is at the Vernal Equinox transfixed +by the Equator, <I>viz.,</I> 32 2/3 hours. + +<P>The question why the Cock so often, like the +Cross, surmounts the steeples wherewith we +adorn our Christian churches, is brought before +us by the fact that it was in ancient days a +well-known symbol both of the generative +<!-- Page 210 --> +powers and of the Sun-God; often appearing +as such upon the top of a sacred pillar in +Assyrian and Babylonian representations of +priests in the act of sacrificing or worshipping. +It was probably as the "herald of the dawn" +that this bird became a symbol of the Sun-God, +and it would seem that we place its +effigy aloft with the same idea in view. + +<P>Another point to be noted is that in the +Kunthistorisches Museum at Vienna is an +ancient vase upon which is a representation of +the Sun-God Apollo bearing upon his breast +as his one ornament and symbol a Svastika +cross. + +<P>We are reminded of the facts that we +Christians were once in the habit of alluding +to the cross as the Tree of Life, and that +the ancients dressed up the trunks of trees +and worshipped them as symbols of life and +growth, by an Attic vase of the fifth century +B.C. Upon this is a red coloured painting of +a tree so dressed, on which is to be seen +near the top a head of the Sun-God Dionysos, +and surrounding the trunk a shirt or garment +covered with crosses. + +<P>As to the evidence obtained from the ruins +<!-- Page 211 --> +of Herculaneum and Pompeii, it is said that +much which is of a phallic character has +been, from quite worthy motives, kept in the +background. An important fact has however +been mentioned by Mr. C. W. King, M.A., +in his well known work on the <I>Gnostics and, +their Remains</I>, and this at least can be commented +upon. He tells us that the Cross and +the Phallus were found placed in juxtaposition +upon the walls as meaning one and the same +thing, and he goes on to add that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"This cross seems to be the Egyptian Tau, that +ancient symbol of the generative power and therefore +transferred into the Bacchic mysteries." +</FONT> + +<P>The foregoing are the last of the evidences +throwing light upon the origin and history of +the symbol adopted by our religion as its +own, which the author thinks it necessary to +bring forward in support of his contention. +And however much of the evidence sought +out by the author and in this work marshalled +by him into something like order may seem +by itself to be untrustworthy or worthless, no +reader can reasonably deny that it has been +proved that the cross was a well known +<!-- Page 212 --> +symbol of Life long before our era, and that +as a whole the evidence tends to show that +it became such as a phallic symbol, and +therefore as a symbol of the Sun-God. + +<P>And what is the moral of the real, as +distinguished from the imaginary, history of +the symbol of the cross but this: that from +the beginning nought has caused the beliefs +of men to assume an appearance of radical +difference, save the difference in the name +or dress with which this or that set of men +have clothed similar ideas? + +<P>For, as has already been hinted, Humanity +has ever had but one God and but one +Religion. And as from one point of view +Life is but another term for the Real Presence, +and Death but another term for the withdrawal +of Deity, it may be said that that +God is Life, and that Religion the desire +for Life, more Life, and fuller Life. Moreover, +as has been said before, this universal +worship of Life is discernible even in the +willingness of some to sacrifice what remains +to them of mortal life in the hope of thus +being enabled to lay hold of a life immortal +which is not for all. + +<!-- Page 213 --> +<P>The worship of Life is natural, and must +of necessity continue. Let us however render +it nobler by recognising its catholicity; and +by contemptuously refusing to either seek or +accept a life of bliss hereafter which any of +our brothers and sisters are, either in our +imagination or in reality, to be debarred +from sharing. +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> + +<!-- Page 214 --> +<CENTER><H2><A NAME="CH21">CHAPTER XXI.</A></H2></CENTER> +<CENTER><H4>SUMMARY.</H4></CENTER> +<P>At the commencement of this work it was +shown that, as the Greek text of the +writings forming the New Testament testifies, +not one of the Apostles or Evangelists ever +stated that Jesus was executed upon a cross-shaped +instrument of execution. The circumstances +under which the figure of the cross +became the symbol of our religion, were then +made clear. And, having since demonstrated +the existence in pre-Christian ages of a widespread +veneration of the figure of the cross +as the symbol of Life and of the Sun-God, +which may have given rise to the desire +to associate Jesus therewith, little remains +for the author to do save draw the notice +of the reader to the admissions of other +<!-- Page 215 --> +writers concerning the rise of the cross as the +symbol of Christianity; for the sake of brevity +more or less confining his attention to two +well known works upon the history of religious +art. + +<P>It should first however be pointed out that +though we Christians affirm that crucifixion +was a form of capital punishment made use +of in days of old, and abolished the fourth +century after Christ by Constantine because +Jesus was so executed, we cannot exactly +prove that the <I>staurosis</I> thus abolished was +crucifixion, or even that it included crucifixion. +For various as are the different forms of 'death +by the stauros' of which descriptions have come +down to us from pre-Christian ages and the +first three centuries of our era, no relic of +that date bears a representation of an instrument +of execution such as we cause to +appear in our sacred pictures, and even if, +regardless of the more exact meaning of the +word stauros, we suppose the term staurosis +to have included every form of carrying out +the extreme penalty by means of affixion or +suspension, we meet with no description of +such an instrument of execution as we picture. +<!-- Page 216 --> +Therefore even if we were to exclude from +the staurosis abolished by Constantine all forms +of transfixion by a stauros, we could not, upon +the evidence before us, fairly say that what +that astute Emperor abolished was what is +usually understood by the term crucifixion. + +<P>It will not be necessary to quote again +the admission of the Reverend S. Baring-Gould, +M.A., to the effect that the so-called +Cross of Constantine or monogram of Christ +was but the symbol of the Sun-God of the +Gauls with a loop added by their crafty leader +to please the Christians, but it may be pointed +out that this fact is also admitted in <I>Chambers's +Encyclopædia;</I> where we read that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"The so-called cross of Constantine was not really +a cross but a circle containing the <SPAN LANG="gr">Χ Ρ Ι</SPAN>, the first +three letters of the name of Christ in Greek; and was +merely an adaptation of a symbol of a Gaulish solar +deity." +</FONT> + +<P>And it may be added that the fact that the +Monogram of Christ and the ordinary cross +so frequently used as symbols by Constantine +upon his coins and elsewhere, and thus made +symbols of the Roman Empire in the first +half of the fourth century, were at first Pagan +<!-- Page 217 --> +rather than Christian symbols, also seems to +be borne out by Dean Burgon in his <I>Letters +from Rome</I>, where he states<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"I question whether a cross occurs on any Christian +monument of the first four centuries."<A NAME="S70" HREF="#R70"><FONT SIZE="-1"><SUP>70</SUP></FONT></A> +</FONT> + +<P>Passing on however to the representative +works on Christian Art already referred to, +we first come to Mrs. Jameson's famous <I>History +of Our Lord as exemplified in works of art</I>. + +<P>Upon page 315 of Volume II. the gifted +authoress, after confessing that the cross was +venerated by the heathen as a symbol of Life +before the period of Christianity and referring +to St. Chrysostom, who flourished half a century +after Constantine, admits that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"It must be owned that ancient objects of Art, as +far as hitherto known, afford no corroboration of the use +of the cross in the simple transverse form familiar to +us at any period preceding or even closely succeeding +the words of St. Chrysostom." +</FONT> + +<P>That is to say, although Constantine introduced +the Monogram of Christ and the cross of four +equal arms before St. Chrysostom was born, +and, making them symbols of the Roman +<!-- Page 218 --> +Empire, would, whether a Sun-God worshipper +or a Christian, in any case have imposed them +upon what he established as his State Religion, +it was not till after these solar symbols of the +Gauls were accepted as Christian that such a +cross as could possibly have been a representation +of an instrument of execution was +introduced. + +<P>As to the crucifix, we are told that though +this is said by some to be referred to in the +works of St. Gregory of Nyssa—a Bishop of +Tours who lived in the sixth century, and +also in the injunctions of the often quoted +council of Greek bishops A.C. 692 called the +"Quini-sextum" or "in Trullo," the evidence +is<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Insufficient to convince most modern archæologists +that a crucifix in any sense now accepted was meant." +</FONT> + +<P>In other words, not only is it clear that the +cross as a representation of the instrument of +execution upon which Jesus died was not +introduced till after the days of Constantine, +but it is also evident that the crucifix, the +earliest known representation of that execution, +was not introduced till centuries later. + +<!-- Page 219 --> +<P>Other noteworthy admissions are made in +the work above quoted from, but we must pass +on to the Dean of Canterbury's comparatively +recent work upon the same subject. + +<P>Dean Farrar states upon page 11 of his +<I>Life of Christ as represented in Art</I> that +"Of all early Christian symbols the <I>Fish</I> was the +most frequent and the favourite." + +<P>The Fish; and not the Cross. + +<P>Moreover the Dean significantly adds upon +the next page, that the Fish<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Continued to be a common symbol down to the +days of Constantine." +</FONT> + +<P>And the significance lies in the fact that the +introduction by Constantine of the solar +symbols venerated by the Gauls, may account +for the displacement of the symbol of the +Fish from favour. + +<P>Upon page 19 Dr. Farrar goes on to say +that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Two symbols continued for ages to be especially +common, of which I have not yet spoken. They were +not generally adopted, even if they appeared at all, +until after the Peace of the Church at the beginning +of the fourth century. I mean the cross and the +monogram of Christ." +</FONT> + +<!-- Page 220 --> +<BR><BR>Here again, it will be seen, the Dean admits +that the cross, as the symbol of our religion, +came in with Constantine. + +<P>Directly after the passage last quoted Dean +Farrar very misleadingly remarks: "It must +be remembered that the cross was in itself an +object of utter horror even to the Pagans." +For the exact reverse is the truth, inasmuch +as in almost every land a cross of some +description had been for ages venerated as +a symbol of Life. + +<P>The fact of course is that the Dean here +and elsewhere, like other Christian writers, does +not take the trouble to distinguish between +the symbol of the cross and the death caused +by execution upon a stauros; which instrument, +by the way, was, as has been shown, not +necessarily in the shape of a cross, and appears +to have been in most cases a stake without a +transverse rail. What the Pagans held in utter +horror was the awful death caused by transfixion +by or affixion to a stauros, whatever +its shape; the symbol of the cross was, upon +the contrary, an object of veneration among +them from time immemorial. + +<P>On page 23 Dr. Farrar, alluding to the use +<!-- Page 221 --> +of the transient sign of the cross by the +Christians of early days, makes the admission<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"That it did <I>not</I> remind them of the Crucifixion +only or even mainly is proved alike by their literature +and other relics." +</FONT> + +<BR><BR>Exactly so: for the non-material sign traced +by them (and by us) upon the forehead in +the <I>non-Mosaic</I> initiatory rite of baptism and +perhaps also upon the breast or in the air at +other times, seems to have been the survival +of a Pagan and pre-Christian custom. + +<P>Upon page 24 Dean Farrar admits that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"The cross was only introduced among the Christian +symbols tentatively and timidly. It may be doubted +whether it once occurs till after the vision of Constantine +in 312 and his accession to the Empire of the East +and West in 324." +</FONT> + +<P>Further on upon the same page the Dean +of Canterbury, passing without notice from +symbols to instruments of execution and making +no distinction whatever, states that<BR><BR> + +<FONT SIZE="-1"> +"Crosses were of two kinds. The <I>Crux Simplex</I>, 'of +one single piece without transom,' was a mere stake, +used sometimes to impale, sometimes to hang the victim +by the hands." +</FONT> + +<BR><BR>Exactly so. + +<!-- Page 222 --> +<P>But, to bring this work to a conclusion with +what is the crux of the whole matter, is it +not disingenuous in the extreme upon the +part of those of us Christians who know better, +to hide the fact that it may have been upon +some such cross as the Dean here refers to, +that is, upon no cross at all, that Jesus was +executed? Is it not dishonest of us to place +before the masses Bibles and Lexicons wherein +we ever carefully translate as "cross" a word +which at the time the ancient classics and our +sacred writings were penned did not necessarily, +if indeed ever, signify something cross-shaped? +Is it not gross disloyalty to Truth to insist, +as we do in our versions of the Christian +Scriptures, upon translating as "crucify" or +"crucified" four different words, not one of +which referred to anything necessarily in the +shape of a cross? + +<P>Another point which should be mentioned, +though such matters cannot be discussed here, +is that the questions whether Jesus did not +prophesy that the final Day of judgment +would come before those whom he addressed +should die, and did not solemnly declare that +his mission was to the descendants of Jacob +<!-- Page 223 --> +or Israel and to them alone, undoubtedly +affect our story. + +<P>As to the Gospel of the Cross, have not we +Christians by, in our imaginations, limiting its +saving effects to the few who are able to +believe in it, all the centuries that we have +re-echoed the cry "the Kingdom of Heaven +is at hand" <I>forced</I> upon the same the unutterably +selfish meaning that the kingdom at hand +for the many who simply cannot believe is +that of Hell? Was <I>that</I> what Jesus meant, +and all that the so-called cross effected? + +<P>Moreover, whether the message of Jesus +which we proclaim and variously interpret was +or was not a gospel—that is, "glad tidings "—to +all men, and from an unselfish point of view, +what possible good purpose can be served by +insisting upon supplementing the simple story +of his stressful life, his magnificent love for +the afflicted and suffering, his equally magnificent +hatred of qualities not altogether dissimilar +from that which enables some of us +to claim to be not only admirers but also +genuine followers of a Communist who declared +that those who would follow him must first +sell all their possessions and give the proceeds +<!-- Page 224 --> +to the poor;—what good purpose can be served +by supplementing this, and the account of the +final conflict of Jesus with the officials of his +native land and his subsequent execution upon +a stauros or stake not stated to have had a +cross-bar attached, by the adoption and culture +of a partisan and misleading fiction regarding +the origin and history of the symbol of the +cross? +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> +THE END. + +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> +<BR> +<HR> +FOOTNOTES +<BR><A NAME="R1" HREF="#S1">[1]</A> +<I>e.g.</I>, <I>Iliad</I>, xxiv. 453; <I>Odyssey</I>, xiv. 11 + +<BR><A NAME="R2" HREF="#S2">[2]</A> +<I>e.g.</I>, Thuc. iv. 90; Xen. <I>An.</I> v. 2, 21. + +<BR><A NAME="R3" HREF="#S3">[3]</A> +<I>Gal.</I> iii. 13; I <I>Pet.</I> ii. 24; <I>Acts</I> v. 30; <I>Acts</I> x. 39; <I>Acts</I> xiii. 29. + +<BR><A NAME="R4" HREF="#S4">[4]</A> +<I>e.g.</I>, Hdt. iii. 125. + +<BR><A NAME="R5" HREF="#S5">[5]</A> +<I>e.g.</I>, Thuc. vii. 25. + +<BR><A NAME="R6" HREF="#S6">[6]</A> +Livy, xxviii. 29. + +<BR><A NAME="R7" HREF="#S7">[7]</A> +Minucius Felix, <I>Oct.</I> xxix. + +<BR><A NAME="R8" HREF="#S8">[8]</A> +<I>De Praescrip</I>. xl. + +<BR><A NAME="R9" HREF="#S9">[9]</A> +<I>Oct</I>. xxix. + +<BR><A NAME="R10" HREF="#S10">[10]</A> +<I>Ad Nationes</I>, xiv. + +<BR><A NAME="R11" HREF="#S11">[11]</A> +Pœd iii. II, 59. + +<BR><A NAME="R12" HREF="#S12">[12]</A> +<I>Nicodemus</I> i. + +<BR><A NAME="R13" HREF="#S13">[13]</A> +<I>Nicodemus</I> vii. + +<BR><A NAME="R14" HREF="#S14">[14]</A> +<I>Nicodemus</I> viii. + +<BR><A NAME="R15" HREF="#S15">[15]</A> +<I>Apol</I>, i. 55. + +<BR><A NAME="R16" HREF="#S16">[16]</A> +<I>Dial. cum Trypho</I>, lxxxvi. + +<BR><A NAME="R17" HREF="#S17">[17]</A> +<I>Dial. cum Trypho</I>, xcvii. + +<BR><A NAME="R18" HREF="#S18">[18]</A> +<I>Against Marcion</I>, iv. 20. + +<BR><A NAME="R19" HREF="#S19">[19]</A> +<I>Against Marcion</I>, iii. 18. + +<BR><A NAME="R20" HREF="#S20">[20]</A> +<I>Scorpiace</I>, i. + +<BR><A NAME="R21" HREF="#S21">[21]</A> +<I>De Corolla</I>, iii. + +<BR><A NAME="R22" HREF="#S22">[22]</A> +<I>De Prœscrip</I>, xl. + +<BR><A NAME="R23" HREF="#S23">[23]</A> +<I>Apologiticus</I>, xvi. + +<BR><A NAME="R24" HREF="#S24">[24]</A> +<I>Ad Nationes</I>, xii. + +<BR><A NAME="R25" HREF="#S25">[25]</A> +xxxvi. +<BR><A NAME="R26" HREF="#S26">[26]</A> +<I>Testimonies against the Jews</I>, ii. 21. + +<BR><A NAME="R27" HREF="#S27">[27]</A> +<I>Testimonies against the Jews</I>, ii. 22. + +<BR><A NAME="R28" HREF="#S28">[28]</A> +<I>Apud Gretserum</I>, ii. + +<BR><A NAME="R29" HREF="#S29">[29]</A> +<I>Epist. ad Romanos</I>, Lib. vi. + +<BR><A NAME="R30" HREF="#S30">[30]</A> +<I>Christ in Art</I>, p. 23. + +<BR><A NAME="R31" HREF="#S31">[31]</A> +<I>Against Heresies</I>, i. xxiv. + +<BR><A NAME="R32" HREF="#S32">[32]</A> +<I>Against Heresies</I>, II., xxii. 4-5. + +<BR><A NAME="R33" HREF="#S33">[33]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. I.</I> + +<BR><A NAME="R34" HREF="#S34">[34]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. I.,</I> 28, 29, 30. + +<BR><A NAME="R35" HREF="#S35">[35]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. I.,</I> 29. + +<BR><A NAME="R36" HREF="#S36">[36]</A> +<I>De Mart. Pers</I>., c. 44. + +<BR><A NAME="R37" HREF="#S37">[37]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. I</I>., 31. + +<BR><A NAME="R38" HREF="#S38">[38]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. I</I>., 37. + +<BR><A NAME="R39" HREF="#S39">[39]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. I</I>., 40. + +<BR><A NAME="R40" HREF="#S40">[40]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. II</I>. 7-9. + +<BR><A NAME="R41" HREF="#S41">[41]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. III</I>. 3. + +<BR><A NAME="R42" HREF="#S42">[42]</A> +<I>Vit. Const. III</I>. 49. + +<BR><A NAME="R43" HREF="#S43">[43]</A> +<I>Opera S. Cyrilli</I> curâ Ant. Touttée 351 Menaeum Graecum +ad diem 7 Maii. + +<BR><A NAME="R44" HREF="#S44">[44]</A> +zosimus ii. + +<BR><A NAME="R45" HREF="#S45">[45]</A> +Both Zonaras and Cedrenus bear testimony to this effect. + +<BR><A NAME="R46" HREF="#S46">[46]</A> +<I>Early Christian Numismatics.</I> + +<BR><A NAME="R47" HREF="#S47">[47]</A> +<I>The Likeness of Christ</I>, p. 20. + +<BR><A NAME="R48" HREF="#S48">[48]</A> +Herodotus II., 73. + +<BR><A NAME="R49" HREF="#S49">[49]</A> +Pliny, x., 2. + +<!-- 2 Tacitus, <I>Annal</I>. Vi., 28. Editorial note: There is no reference in the text to this footnote #2 at the bottom of page 130 --> + +<BR><A NAME="R50" HREF="#S50">[50]</A> +An engraving of the coin can be seen in Duruy's <I>Histoire +des Romains</I>, Torn. vii. + +<BR><A NAME="R51" HREF="#S51">[51]</A> +Böckh, C.I.G. n. 4713 b. + +<BR><A NAME="R52" HREF="#S52">[52]</A> +Berlin Collection 428. + +<BR><A NAME="R53" HREF="#S53">[53]</A> +<I>Strange Survivals</I>, 286. + +<BR><A NAME="R54" HREF="#S54">[54]</A> +<I>e.g.</I>, Arist. <I>Mundi</I>. + +<BR><A NAME="R55" HREF="#S55">[55]</A> +Bar. <I>Ann</I>. A.C. 312. + +<BR><A NAME="R56" HREF="#S56">[56]</A> +Basnage, iii., 23. + +<BR><A NAME="R57" HREF="#S57">[57]</A> +Eusebius, <I>Vit. Const.</I> iv. + +<BR><A NAME="R58" HREF="#S58">[58]</A> +Martianus Capella. + +<BR><A NAME="R59" HREF="#S59">[59]</A> +<I>e.g.</I> Philo, <I>De Somniis</I>, i. + +<BR><A NAME="R60" HREF="#S60">[60]</A> +<I>Timæus</I>, 34-36. + +<BR><A NAME="R61" HREF="#S61">[61]</A> +<I>Theol. Plat.</I> + +<BR><A NAME="R62" HREF="#S62">[62]</A> +<I>Apol.</I> + +<BR><A NAME="R63" HREF="#S63">[63]</A> +<I>Apol.</I> + +<BR><A NAME="R64" HREF="#S64">[64]</A> +<I>Report on the Old Records of the India Office</I>, London, +1891, x., xi. + +<BR><A NAME="R65" HREF="#S65">[65]</A> +<I>Nineveh</I>, ii. 213. + +<BR><A NAME="R66" HREF="#S66">[66]</A> +<I>e.g.</I>, C. W. King, M.A. <I>Early Christian Numismatics;</I> +Professor Rawlinson; &c., &c. + +<BR><A NAME="R67" HREF="#S67">[67]</A> +C. W. King, M.A. + +<BR><A NAME="R68" HREF="#S68">[68]</A> +<I>First Annual Report U. S. Bureau of Ethnology.</I> + +<BR><A NAME="R69" HREF="#S69">[69]</A> +Ol. Varelli, <I>Scandage Runic;</I> Ans. Rudbeckins, <I>Atlant.: +e.g.</I> an altar discovered ac Rudchester, Northumberland: Sheffer, +<I>Lapponic</I>. + +<BR><A NAME="R70" HREF="#S70">[70]</A> +<I>Letters from Rome</I>, 1862, p. 210. + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Non-Christian Cross, by John Denham Parsons + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NON-CHRISTIAN CROSS *** + +This file should be named cross10h.htm or cross10h.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, cross11h.htm +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, cross10ah.htm + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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