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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 385,
+May 19, 1883, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 385, May 19, 1883
+
+Author: Various
+
+Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8950]
+Release Date: September, 2005
+First Posted: August 29, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 385 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 385
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, MAY 19, 1883
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XV., No. 385.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    NATURAL HISTORY.--Fishes of Cuban Waters.
+
+      Panax Victoriæ.--1 Illustration.
+
+      A Note on Sap. By Prof. ATTFIELD.
+
+      The Crow.--Illustration.
+
+      The Praying Mantis and its Allies.--Illustration.
+
+      May Flies.--2 illustrations.
+
+II.   TECHNOLOGY.--A Quick Way to Ascertain the Focus
+      of a Lens.--1 diagram.
+
+      The History of the Pianoforte. By A.J.
+      HIPKINS.--Different parts of a pianoforte and
+      their uses.--Inventor of the instrument and his
+      "action."--First German piano-maker.--Square
+      pianos.--Pianos of Broadwood, Backers, Stodart,
+      and Erard.--Introduction of metal tubes, plates,
+      bars, and frames.--Improvements of Meyer, the
+      Steinways, Chickerings, and others.--Upright
+      pianos.--Several figures.
+
+III.  MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Poisonous Properties of
+      Nitrate of Silver and a Recent Case of Poisoning
+      with the Same. By H. A. MOTT, Jr.
+
+      Tubercle Bacilli in Sputa.
+
+      Malaria. By Dr. JAMES H. SALISBURY.--VIII. Local
+      observations.--Effect of the sun on ague
+      plants.--Investigations into the cause of
+      ague.--Notes on marsh miasm.--Analysis of malari a
+      plant.--Numerous figures.
+
+IV.   ENGINEERING.--Torpedo Boats.--Full page illustration.
+
+      Pictet's High Speed Boat.--Several figures and
+      diagrams.
+
+      Initial Stability Indicator for Ships.--4 figures.
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, AND HEAT.--Scrivanow's Chloride of
+      Silver Pile.--2 figures.
+
+      On the Luminosity of Flame.
+
+VI.   CHEMISTRY.--New Bleaching Process, with Regeneration of
+      the Baths Used. By M. BONNEVILLE.
+
+      Detection of Magenta, Archil, and Cudbear in Wine.
+
+VII.  ARCHITECTURE.--The Pantheon at Rome.
+
+VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Raphael Celebration at
+      Rome.--3 Illustrations.
+
+      Great International Fisheries Exhibition.--1 figure.
+
+      Puppet Shows among the Greeks.--3 illustrations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE RAPHAEL CELEBRATION AT ROME.
+
+
+The most famous of Italian painters, Raffaele Sanzio, whom the world
+commonly calls Raphael, was born at Urbino, in Umbria, part of the Papal
+States, four hundred years ago. The anniversary was celebrated, on March
+28, 1883, both in that town and in Rome, where he lived and worked, and
+where he died in 1520, with processions, orations, poetical recitations,
+performances of music, exhibitions of pictures, statues, and busts,
+visits to the tomb of the great artist in the Pantheon, and with
+banquets and other festivities. The King and Queen of Italy were present
+at the Capitol of Rome (the Palace of the City Municipality) where one
+part of these proceedings took place.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF RAPHAEL AS FOUND IN HIS TOMB IN THE PANTHEON,
+IN 1833.]
+
+At ten o'clock in the morning a procession set forth from the Capitol to
+the Pantheon, to render homage at the tomb of Raphael. It was arranged
+in the following order: Two Fedeli, or municipal ushers, in picturesque
+costumes of the sixteenth century, headed the procession, carrying two
+laurel wreaths fastened with ribbons representing the colors of Rome,
+red and dark yellow; a company of Vigili, the Roman firemen; the
+municipal band; the standard of Rome, carried by an officer of the
+Vigili; and the banners of the fourteen quarters of the city. Then came
+the Minister of Public Instruction and the Minister of Public Works; the
+Syndic of Rome, Duke Leopoldo Torlonia; and the Prefect of Rome, the
+Marquis Gravina. The members of the communal giunta, the provincial
+deputation, and the communal and provincial council followed the
+principal authorities. Next in order came the presidents of Italian and
+foreign academies and art institutions, the president of the academy of
+the Licei, the representatives of all the foreign academies, the members
+of the academy of St. Luke, the general direction of antiquities, the
+members of the Permanent Commission of Fine Arts, the members of the
+Communal Archæological Commission, the guardians of the Pantheon, the
+members of the International Artistic Club, presided over by Prince
+Odescalchi; the members of the art schools, the pupils of the San
+Michele and Termini schools with their bands, the pupils of the
+elementary and female art schools. The procession was rendered more
+interesting by the presence of many Italian and foreign artists. Having
+arrived at the Pantheon, the chief personages took their place in front
+of Raphael's tomb. Every visitor to Rome knows this tomb, which is
+situated behind the third chapel on the left of the visitor entering the
+Pantheon. The altar was endowed by Raphael, and behind it is a picture
+of the Virgin and Child, known as the Madonna del Sasso, which was
+executed at his request and was produced by Lorenzo Lotto, a friend and
+pupil of the great painter. Above the inscription usually hang a few
+small pictures, which were presented by very poor artists who thought
+themselves cured by prayers at the shrine. This is confirmed by a crutch
+hanging up close to the pilaster. The bones of Raphael are laid in this
+tomb since 1520, with an epitaph recording the esteem in which he was
+held by Popes Julius II. and Leo X.; but they have not always been
+allowed to lie undisturbed. On Sept. 14, 1833, the tomb was opened to
+inspect the mouldering skeleton, of which drawings were made, and are
+reproduced in two of our illustrations. The proceedings at the tomb in
+the recent anniversary visit were brief and simple; a number of laurel
+or floral wreaths were suspended there, one sent by the president and
+members of the Royal Academy of London; and the Syndic of Rome unveiled
+a bronze bust of Raphael, which had been placed in a niche at the side.
+
+[Illustration: THE ANCIENT ROMAN TEMPLE NOW KNOWN AS THE PANTHEON, AT
+ROME.]
+
+This ceremony at the Pantheon was concluded by all visitors writing
+their names on two albums which had been placed near Victor Emmanuel's
+tomb and Raphael's tomb. The commemoration in the hall of the Horatii
+and Curiatii in the Capitol was a great success, their Majesties, the
+Ministers, the members of the diplomatic body, and a distinguished
+assembly being present. Signor Quirino Leoni read an admirable discourse
+on Raphael and his times.
+
+The ancient city of Urbino, Raphael's birthplace, has fallen into
+decay, but has remembered its historic renown upon this occasion.
+The representatives of the Government and municipal authorities, and
+delegates of the leading Italian cities went in procession to visit the
+house where Raphael was born. Commemoration speeches were pronounced
+in the great hall of the ducal palace by Signor Minghetti and Senator
+Massarani. The commemoration ended with a cantata composed by Signor
+Rossi. The Via Raffaelle was illuminated in the evening, and a gala
+spectacle was given at the Sanzio Theater. Next day the exhibition of
+designs for a monument to Raphael was inaugurated at Urbino, and at
+night a great torchlight procession took place.--_Illustrated London
+News_.
+
+[Illustration: RAPHAEL'S TOMB IN THE PANTHEON, AT ROME.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PANTHEON AT ROME.
+
+
+The edifice known as the Pantheon, in Rome, is one of the best preserved
+specimens of Roman architecture. It was erected in the year 26 B.C.,
+and is therefore now about one thousand nine hundred years old. It was
+consecrated as a Christian church in the year 608. Its rotunda is 143
+ft. in diameter and also 143 ft. high. Its portico is remarkable for the
+elegance and number of its Corinthian columns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Señor Felipe Poey, a famous ichthyologist of Cuba, has recently brought
+out an exhaustive work upon the fishes of Cuban waters, in which he
+describes and depicts no fewer than 782 distinct varieties, although he
+admits some doubts about 105 kinds, concerning which he has yet to get
+more exact information. There can be no question, however, he claims,
+about the 677 species remaining, more than half of which he first
+described in previous works upon this subject, which has been the study
+of his life.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GREAT INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION.
+
+
+Her Majesty the Queen has appointed the 12th of May for the opening
+of the International Fisheries Exhibition, which an influential and
+energetic committee, under the active presidency of the Prince of Wales,
+had developed to a magnitude undreamt of by those concerned in its early
+beginnings.
+
+The idea of an _international_ Fisheries Exhibition arose out of the
+success of the show of British fishery held at Norwich a short time ago;
+and the president and executive of the latter formed the nucleus of the
+far more powerful body by whom the present enterprise has been brought
+about.
+
+The plan of the buildings embraces the whole of the twenty-two acres of
+the Horticultural Gardens; the upper half, left in its usual state of
+cultivation, will form a pleasant lounge and resting place for visitors
+in the intervals of their study of the collections. This element of
+garden accommodation was one of the most attractive features at the
+Paris Exhibition of 1878.
+
+As the plan of the buildings is straggling and extended, and widely
+separates the classes, the most convenient mode of seeing the show will
+probably be found by going through the surrounding buildings first, and
+then taking the annexes as they occur.
+
+[Illustration: THE INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION, LONDON.
+
+BLOCK PLAN.--A, Switzerland; B, Isle of Man; C, Bahamas and W.I.
+Islands; D, Hawaii; E, Poland; F, Portugal; G, Austria; H, Germany; I,
+France; J, Italy; K, Greece; L, China; M, India and Ceylon; N, Straits
+Settlements; O, Japan; P, Tasmania; Q, New South Wales.--Scale 200 feet
+to the inch.]
+
+On entering the main doors in the Exhibition Road, we pass through the
+Vestibule to the Council Room of the Royal Horticultural Society,
+which has been decorated for the reception of marine paintings, river
+subjects, and fish pictures of all sorts, by modern artists.
+
+Leaving the Fine Arts behind, the principal building of the Exhibition
+is before us--that devoted to the deep sea fisheries of Great Britain.
+It is a handsome wooden structure, 750 feet in length, 50 feet wide, and
+30 feet at its greatest height. The model of this, as well as of the
+other temporary wooden buildings, is the same as that of the annexes of
+the great Exhibition of 1862.
+
+On our left are the Dining Rooms with the kitchens in the rear. The
+third room, set apart for cheap fish dinners (one of the features of the
+Exhibition), is to be decorated at the expense of the Baroness Burdett
+Coutts, and its walls are to be hung with pictures lent by the
+Fishmongers' Company, who have also furnished the requisite chairs and
+tables, and have made arrangements for a daily supply of cheap fish,
+while almost everything necessary to its maintenance (forks, spoons,
+table-linen, etc.) will be lent by various firms.
+
+The apsidal building attached is to be devoted to lectures on the
+cooking of fish.
+
+Having crossed the British Section, and turning to the right and passing
+by another entrance, we come upon what will be to all one of the most
+interesting features of the Exhibition, and to the scientific student
+of ichthyology a collection of paramount importance. We allude to the
+Western Arcade, in which are placed the Aquaria, which have in their
+construction given rise to more thoughtful care and deliberation than
+any other part of the works. On the right, in the bays, are the twenty
+large asphalt tanks, about 12 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep.
+These are the largest dimensions that the space at command will allow,
+but it is feared by some that it will be found somewhat confined for
+fast going fish. Along the wall on the left are ranged twenty smaller or
+table tanks of slate, which vary somewhat in size; the ten largest are
+about 5 feet 8 inches long, 2 feet 9 inches wide, and 1 foot 9 inches
+deep.
+
+In this Western Arcade will be found all the new inventions in fish
+culture--models of hatching, breeding, and rearing establishments,
+apparatus for the transporting of fish, ova, models and drawings of
+fish-passes and ladders, and representations of the development and
+growth of fish. The chief exhibitors are specialists, and are already
+well known to our readers. Sir James Gibson Maitland has taken an active
+part in the arrangement of this branch, and is himself one of the
+principal contributors.
+
+In the north of the Arcade, where it curves toward the Conservatory,
+will be shown an enormous collection of examples of stuffed fish,
+contributed by many prominent angling societies. In front of these on
+the counter will be ranged microscopic preparations of parasites,
+etc., and a stand from the Norwich Exhibition of a fauna of fish and
+fish-eating birds.
+
+Passing behind the Conservatory and down the Eastern Arcade--in which
+will be arranged algæ, sponges, mollusca, star-fish, worms used for
+bait, insects which destroy spawn or which serve as food for fish,
+etc.--on turning to the left, we find ourselves in the fish market,
+which will probably vie with the aquaria on the other side in attracting
+popular attention. This model Billingsgate is to be divided into two
+parts, the one for the sale of fresh, the other of dried and cured fish.
+
+Next in order come the two long iron sheds appropriated respectively to
+life-boats and machinery in motion. Then past the Royal pavilion (the
+idea of which was doubtless taken from its prototype at the Paris
+Exhibition) to the southern end of the central block, which is shared
+by the Netherlands and Newfoundland; just to the north of the former
+Belgium has a place.
+
+While the Committee of the Netherlands was one of the earliest formed,
+Belgium only came in at the eleventh hour; she will, however, owing
+to the zealous activity of Mr. Lenders, the consul in London, send
+an important contribution worthy of her interest in the North Sea
+fisheries. We ought also to mention that Newfoundland is among those
+colonies which have shown great energy, and she may be expected to send
+a large collection.
+
+Passing northward we come to Sweden and Norway, with Chili between them.
+These two countries were, like the Netherlands, early in preparing to
+participate in the Exhibition. Each has had its own committee, which has
+been working hard since early in 1882.
+
+Parallel to the Scandinavian section is that devoted to Canada and the
+United States, and each will occupy an equal space--ten thousand square
+feet.
+
+In the northern Transept will be placed the inland fisheries of the
+United Kingdom. At each end of the building is aptly inclosed a basin
+formerly standing in the gardens: and over the eastern one will be
+erected the dais from which the Queen will formally declare the
+Exhibition open.
+
+Shooting out at right angles are the Spanish annex, and the building
+shared by India and Ceylon. China and Japan and New South Wales; while
+corresponding to those at the western end are the Russian annex, and a
+shed allotted to several countries and colonies. The Isle of Man, the
+Bahamas, Switzerland, Germany, Hawaii, Italy, and Greece--all find their
+space under its roof.
+
+After all the buildings were planned, the Governments of Russia and
+Spain declared their intention of participating; and accordingly for
+each of these countries a commodious iron building has been specially
+erected.
+
+The Spanish collection will be of peculiar interest; it has been
+gathered together by a Government vessel ordered round the coast for the
+purpose, and taking up contributions at all the seaports as it passed.
+
+Of the countries whose Governments for inscrutable reasons of state show
+disfavor and lack of sympathy, Germany is prominent; although by the
+active initiative of the London Committee some important contributions
+have been secured from private individuals; among them, we are happy to
+say, is Mr. Max von dem Borne, who will send his celebrated incubators,
+which the English Committee have arranged to exhibit in operation at
+their own expense.
+
+Although the Italian Government, like that of Germany, holds aloof,
+individuals, especially Dr. Dohrn, of the Naples Zoological Station,
+will send contributions of great scientific value.
+
+In the Chinese and Japanese annex, on the east, will be seen a large
+collection of specimens (including the gigantic crabs), which have been
+collected, to great extent, at the suggestion of Dr. Günther, of the
+British Museum.
+
+It is at the same time fortunate and unfortunate that a similar
+Fisheries Exhibition is now being held at Yokohama, as many specimens
+which have been collected specially for their own use would otherwise be
+wanting; and on the other hand, many are held back for their own show.
+
+China, of all foreign countries, was the first to send her goods, which
+arrived at the building on the 30th of March, accompanied by native
+workmen who are preparing to erect over a basin contiguous to their
+annex models of the summer house and bridge with which the willow
+pattern plate has made us familiar; while on the basin will float models
+of Chinese junks.
+
+Of British colonies, New South Wales will contribute a very interesting
+collection placed under the care of the Curator of the Sydney Museum;
+and from the Indian Empire will come a large gathering of specimens in
+spirits under the superintendence of Dr. Francis Day.
+
+Of great scientific interest are the exhibits, to be placed in two
+neighboring sheds, of the Native Guano Company and the Millowners'
+Association. The former will show all the patents used for the
+purification of the rivers from sewage, and the latter will display in
+action their method of rendering innocuous the chemical pollutions which
+factories pour into the river.
+
+In the large piece of water in the northern part of the gardens, which
+has been deepened on purpose, apparatus in connection with diving will
+be seen; and hard by, in a shed, Messrs. Siebe, Gorman & Co. will show
+a selection of beautiful minute shells dredged from the bottom of the
+Mediterranean.
+
+In the open basins in the gardens will be seen beavers, seals,
+sea-lions, waders, and other aquatic birds.
+
+From this preliminary walk round enough has, we think, been seen to show
+that the Great International Fisheries Exhibition will prove of interest
+alike to the ordinary visitor, to those anxious for the well-being
+of fishermen, to fishermen themselves of every degree, and to the
+scientific student of ichthyology in all its branches.--_Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PUPPET SHOWS AMONG THE GREEKS.
+
+
+The ancients, especially the Greeks, were very fond of theatrical
+representations; but, as Mr. Magnin has remarked in his _Origines du
+Théâtre Moderne_, public representations were very expensive, and for
+that very reason very rare. Moreover, those who were not in a condition
+of freedom were excluded from them; and, finally, all cities could not
+have a large theater, and provide for the expenses that it carried with
+it. It became necessary, then, for every day needs, for all conditions
+and for all places, that there should be comedians of an inferior order,
+charged with the duty of offering continuously and inexpensively the
+emotions of the drama to all classes of inhabitants.
+
+Formerly, as to-day, there were seen wandering from village to village
+menageries, puppet shows, fortune tellers, jugglers, and performers of
+tricks of all kinds. These prestidigitators even obtained at times such
+celebrity that history has preserved their names for us--at least of two
+of them, Euclides and Theodosius, to whom statues were erected by their
+contemporaries. One of these was put up at Athens in the Theater of
+Bacchus, alongside of that of the great writer of tragedy, Æschylus, and
+the other at the Theater of the Istiaians, holding in the hand a small
+ball. The grammarian Athenæus, who reports these facts in his "Banquet
+of the Sages," profits by the occasion to deplore the taste of the
+Athenians, who preferred the inventions of mechanics to the culture of
+mind and histrions to philosophers. He adds with vexation that Diophites
+of Locris passed down to posterity simply because he came one day to
+Thebes wearing around his body bladders filled with wine and milk,
+and so arranged that he could spurt at will one of these liquids in
+apparently drawing it from his mouth. What would Athenæus say if he knew
+that it was through him alone that the name of this histrion had come
+down to us?
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THE MARVELOUS STATUE OF CYBELE.]
+
+Philo, of Byzantium, and Heron, of Alexandria, to whom we always have
+to have recourse when we desire accurate information as to the mechanic
+arts of antiquity, both composed treatises on puppet shows. That of
+Philo is lost, but Heron's treatise has been preserved to us, and has
+recently been translated in part by Mr. Victor Prou.
+
+According to the Greek engineer, there were several kinds of puppet
+shows. The oldest and simplest consisted of a small stationary case,
+isolated on every side, in which the stage was closed by doors that
+opened automatically several times to exhibit the different tableaux.
+The programme of the representation was generally as follows: The first
+tableau showed a head, painted on the back of the stage, which moved
+its eyes, and lowered and raised them alternately. The door having been
+closed, and then opened again, there was seen, instead of the head, a
+group of persons. Finally, the stage opened a third time to show a new
+group, and this finished the representation. There were, then, only
+three movements to be made, that of the doors, that of the eyes, and
+that of the change of background.
+
+As such representations were often given on the stages of large
+theaters, a method was devised later on of causing the case to start
+from the scenes behind which it was bidden from the spectators, and of
+moving automatically to the front of the stage, where it exhibited in
+succession the different tableaux; after which it returned automatically
+behind the scenes. Here is one of the scenes indicated by Heron,
+entitled the "Triumph of Bacchus":
+
+The movable case shows, at its upper part, a platform from which arises
+a cylindrical temple, the roof of which, supported by six columns, is
+conical and surmounted by a figure of Victory with spread wings and
+holding a crown in her right hand. In the center of the temple Bacchus
+is seen standing, holding a thyrsus in his left hand, and a cup in his
+right. At his feet lies a panther. In front of and behind the god, on
+the platform of the stage, are two altars provided with combustible
+material. Very near the columns, but external to them, there are
+bacchantes placed in any posture that may be desired. All being thus
+prepared, says Heron, the automatic apparatus is set in motion. The
+theater then moves of itself to the spot selected, and there stops. Then
+the altar in front of Jupiter becomes lighted, and, at the same time,
+milk and water spurt from his thyrsus, while his cup pours wine over the
+panther. The four faces of the base become encircled with crowns, and,
+to the noise of drums and cymbals, the bacchantes dance round about the
+temple. Soon, the noise having ceased, Victory on the top of the temple,
+and Bacchus within it, face about. The altar that was behind the god
+is now in front of him, and becomes lighted in its turn. Then occurs
+another outflow from the thyrsus and cup, and another round of the
+bacchantes to the sound of drums and cymbals. The dance being finished,
+the theater returns to its former station. Thus ends the apotheosis.
+
+I shall try to briefly indicate the processes which permitted of these
+different operations being performed, and which offer a much more
+general interest than one might at first sight be led to believe; for
+almost all of them had been employed in former times for producing the
+illusions to which ancient religions owed their power.
+
+The automatic movement of the case was obtained by means of
+counterpoises and two cords wound about horizontal bobbins in such a way
+as to produce by their winding up a forward motion in a vertical plane,
+and subsequently a backward movement to the starting place. Supposing
+the motive cords properly wound around vertical bobbins, instead of a
+horizontal one, and we have the half revolution of Bacchus and Victory,
+as well as the complete revolution of the bacchantes.
+
+The successive lighting of the two altars, the flow of milk and wine,
+and the noise of drums and cymbals were likewise obtained by the aid of
+cords moved by counterpoises, and the lengths of which were graduated
+in such a way as to open and close orifices, at the proper moment, by
+acting through traction on sliding valves which kept them closed.
+
+Small pieces of combustible material were piled up beforehand on the two
+altars, the bodies of which were of metal, and in the interior of which
+were hidden small lamps that were separated from the combustible by a
+metal plate which was drawn aside at the proper moment by a small
+chain. The flame, on traversing the orifice, thus communicated with the
+combustible.
+
+The milk and wine which flowed out at two different times through the
+thyrsus and cup of Bacchus came from a double reservoir hidden under the
+roof of the temple, over the orifices. The latter communicated, each of
+them, with one of the halves of the reservoir through two tubes inserted
+in the columns of the small edifice. These tubes were prolonged under
+the floor of the stage, and extended upward to the hands of Bacchus. A
+key, maneuvered by cords, alternately opened and closed the orifices
+which gave passage to the two liquids.
+
+As for the noise of the drums and cymbals, that resulted from the
+falling of granules of lead, contained in an invisible box provided with
+an automatic sliding-valve, upon an inclined tambourine, whence they
+rebounded against little cymbals in the interior of the base of the car.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MARVELOUS ALTAR (According to Heron).]
+
+Finally, the crowns and garlands that suddenly made their appearance on
+the four faces of the base of the stage were hidden there in advance
+between the two walls surrounding the base. The space thus made for the
+crowns was closed beneath, along each face, by a horizontal trap moving
+on hinges that connected it with the inner wall of the base, but which
+was held temporarily stationary by means of a catch. The crowns were
+attached to the top of their compartment by cords that would have
+allowed them to fall to the level of the pedestal, had they not been
+supported by the traps.
+
+At the desired moment, the catch, which was controlled by a special
+cord, ceased to hold the trap, and the latter, falling vertically, gave
+passage to the festoons and crowns that small leaden weights then drew
+along with all the quickness necessary.
+
+Two points here are specially worthy of attracting our attention, and
+these are the flow of wine or milk from the statue of Bacchus, and
+the spontaneous lighting of the altar. These, in fact, were the two
+illusions that were most admired in ancient times, and there were
+several processes of performing them. Father Kircher possessed in his
+museum an apparatus which he describes in _Oedipus Egyptiacus_ (t. ii.,
+p. 333), and which probably came from some ancient Egyptian temple.
+(Fig. 1.)
+
+It consisted of a hollow hemispherical dome, supported by four columns,
+and placed over the statue of the goddess of many breasts. To two of
+these columns were adapted movable brackets, at whose extremities there
+were fixed lamps. The hemisphere was hermetically closed underneath by a
+metal plate. The small altar which supported the statue, and which was
+filled with milk, communicated with the interior of the statue by a tube
+reaching nearly to the bottom. The altar likewise communicated with
+the hollow dome by a tube having a double bend. At the moment of the
+sacrifice the two lamps were lighted and the brackets turned so that the
+flames should come in contact with and heat the bottom of the dome. The
+air contained in the latter, being dilated, issued through the tube, X
+M, pressed on the milk contained in the altar, and caused it to rise
+through the straight tube into the interior of the statue as high as
+the breasts. A series of small conduits, into which the principal tube
+divided, carried the liquid to the breasts, whence it spurted out, to
+the great admiration of the spectators, who cried out at the miracle.
+The sacrifice being ended, the lamps were put out, and the milk ceased
+to flow.
+
+Heron, of Alexandria, describes in his _Pneumatics_ several analogous
+apparatus. Here is one of them. (We translate the Greek text literally.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--MARVELOUS ALTAR (According to Heron).]
+
+"To construct an altar in such a way that, when a fire is lighted
+thereon, the statues at the side of it shall make libations. (Fig. 2.)
+
+"Let there be a pedestal. A B [Gamma] [Delta], on which are placed
+statues, and an altar, E Z H, closed on every side. The pedestal should
+also be hermetically closed, but is communicated with the altar through
+a central tube. It is traversed likewise by the tube, e [Lambda] (in
+the interior of the statue to the right), not far from the bottom which
+terminates in a cup held by the statue, e. Water is poured into the
+pedestal through a hole, M, which is afterward corked up.
+
+"If, then, a fire be lighted on the altar, the internal air will be
+dilated and will enter the pedestal and drive out the water contained in
+it. But the latter, having no other exit than the tube, e [Lambda], will
+rise into the cup, and so the statue will make a libation. This will
+last as long as the fire does. On extinguishing the fire the libation
+ceases, and occurs anew as often as the fire is relighted.
+
+"It is necessary that the tube through which the heat is to introduce
+itself shall be wider in the middle; and it is necessary, in fact, that
+the heat, or rather that the draught that it produces, shall accumulate
+in an inflation in order to have more effect."
+
+According to Father Kircher (_l. c._), an author whom he calls Bitho
+reports that there was at Sais a temple of Minerva in which there was an
+altar on which, when a fire was lighted, Dyonysos and Artemis (Bacchus
+and Diana) poured milk and wine, while a dragon hissed.
+
+It is easy to conceive of the modification to be introduced into the
+apparatus above described by Heron, in order to cause the outflow of
+milk from one side and of wine from the other.
+
+After having indicated it, Father Kircher adds: "It is thus that Bacchus
+and Diana appeared to pour, one of them wine, and the other milk, and
+that the dragon seemed to applaud their action by hisses. As the people
+who were present at the spectacle did not see what was going on within,
+it is not astonishing that they believed it due to divine intervention.
+We know, in fact, that Osiris or Bacchus was considered as the
+discoverer of the vine and of milk; that Iris was the genius of the
+waters of the Nile; and that the Serpent, or good genius, was the first
+cause of all these things. Since, moreover, sacrifices had to be made to
+the gods in order to obtain benefits, the flow of milk, wine, or water,
+as well as the hissing of the serpent, when the sacrificial flame was
+lighted, appeared to demonstrate clearly the existence of the gods."
+
+In another analogous apparatus of Heron's, it is steam that performs the
+role that we have just seen played by dilated air. But the ancients do
+not appear to have perceived the essential difference, as regards motive
+power, that exists between these two agents; indeed, their preferences
+were wholly for air, although the effects produced were not very great.
+We might cite several small machines of this sort, but we shall confine
+ourselves to one example that has some relation to our subject. This
+also is borrowed from Heron's _Pneumatics_. (Fig. 3.)
+
+"Fire being lighted on an altar, figures will appear to execute a round
+dance. The altars should be transparent, and of glass or horn. From the
+fire-place there starts a tube which runs to the base of the altar,
+where it revolves on a pivot, while its upper part revolves in a tube
+fixed to the fire-place. To the tube there should be adjusted other
+tubes (horizontal) in communication with it, which cross each other
+at right angles, and which are bent in opposite directions at their
+extremities. There is likewise fixed to it a disk upon which are
+attached figures which form a round. When the fire of the altar is
+lighted, the air, becoming heated, will pass into the tube; but being
+driven from the latter, it will pass through the small bent tubes and
+... cause the tube as well as the figures to revolve."
+
+Father Kircher, who had at his disposal either many documents that we
+are not acquainted with, or else a very lively imagination, alleges
+(_Oedip. Æg._, t. ii., p. 338) that King Menes took much delight in
+seeing such figures revolve.
+
+Nor are the examples of holy fire-places that kindled spontaneously
+wanting in antiquity.
+
+Pliny (_Hist. Nat_., ii., 7) and Horace (_Serm., Sat. v._) tell us that
+this phenomenon occurred in the temple of Gnatia, and Solin (Ch. V.)
+says that it was observed likewise on an altar near Agrigentum.
+Athenæus (_Deipn_. i., 15) says that the celebrated prestidigitator,
+Cratisthenes, of Phlius, pupil of another celebrated prestidigitator
+named Xenophon, knew the art of preparing a fire which lighted
+spontaneously.
+
+Pausanias tells us that in a city of Lydia, whose inhabitants, having
+fallen under the yoke of the Persians, had embraced the religion of the
+Magi, "there exists an altar upon which there are ashes which, in color,
+resemble no other. The priest puts wood on the altar, and invokes I
+know not what god by harangues taken from a book written in a barbarous
+tongue unknown to the Greeks, when the wood soon lights of itself
+without fire, and the flame from it is very clear."
+
+The secret, or rather one of the secrets of the Magi, has been revealed
+to us by one of the Fathers of the Church (Saint Hippolytus, it is
+thought), who has left, in a work entitled _Philosophumena_, which
+is designed to refute the doctrines of the pagans, a chapter on the
+illusions of their priests. According to him, the altars on which this
+miracle took place contained, instead of ashes, calcined lime and a
+large quantity of incense reduced to powder; and this would explain the
+unusual color of the ashes observed by Pausanias. The process, moreover,
+is excellent; for it is only necessary to throw a little water on the
+lime, with certain precautions, to develop a heat capable of setting on
+fire incense or any other material that is more readily combustible,
+such as sulphur and phosphorus. The same author points out still another
+means, and this consists in hiding firebrands in small bells that were
+afterward covered with shavings, the latter having previously been
+covered with a composition made of naphtha and bitumen (Greek fire).
+As may be seen, a very small movement sufficed to bring about
+combustion.--_A. De Rochas, in La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TORPEDO BOATS.
+
+
+There are several kinds of torpedoes. The one which is most used in the
+French navy is called the "carried" torpedo (_torpille portée_), thus
+named because the torpedo boat literally _carries_ it right under the
+sides of the enemy's ship. It consists of a cartridge of about 20
+kilogrammes of gun cotton, placed at the extremity of an iron rod, 12
+meters in length, projecting in a downward direction from the fore part
+of the boat. The charge is fired by an electric spark by means of an
+apparatus placed in the lookout compartment. Our engraving represents an
+attack on an ironclad by means of one of these torpedoes. Under cover of
+darkness, the torpedo boat has been enabled to approach without being
+disabled by the projectiles from the revolving guns of the man-of-war,
+and has stopped suddenly and ignited the torpedo as soon as the latter
+came in contact with the enemy's hull.
+
+The water spout produced by the explosion sometimes completely covers
+the torpedo boat, and the latter would be sunk by it were not
+all apertures closed so as to make her a true buoy. What appears
+extraordinary is that the explosion does not prove as dangerous to the
+assailant as to the adversary. To understand this it must be remembered
+that, although the material with which the cartridges are filled is of
+an extreme _shattering_ nature, and makes a breach in the most resistant
+armor plate, when in _contact_ with it, yet, at a distance of a few
+meters, no other effect is felt from it than the disturbance caused by
+the water. This is why a space of 12 meters, represented by the length
+of the torpedo spar, is sufficient to protect the torpedo boat. The
+attack of an ironclad, however, under the conditions that we have just
+described, is, nevertheless, a perilous operation, and one that requires
+men of coolness, courage, and great experience.
+
+[Illustration: ATTACK BY A TORPEDO BOAT UPON AN IRON CLAD SHIP OF WAR.]
+
+There is another system which is likewise in use in the French navy, and
+that is the Whitehead torpedo. This consists of a metallic cylinder,
+tapering at each end, and containing not only a charge of gun cotton,
+but a compressed air engine which actuates two helices. It is, in fact,
+a small submarine vessel, which moves of itself in the direction toward
+which it has been launched, and at a depth that has been regulated
+beforehand by a special apparatus which is a secret with the inventor.
+The torpedo is placed in a tube situated in the fore part of the torpedo
+boat, and whence it is driven out by means of compressed air. Once
+fired, it makes its way under the surface to the spot where the shock of
+its point is to bring about an explosion, and the torpedo boat is thus
+enabled to operate at a distance and avoid the dangers of an immediate
+contact with the enemy. Unfortunately this advantage is offset by grave
+drawbacks; for, in the first place, each of the Whitehead torpedoes
+costs about ten thousand francs, without counting the expense of
+obtaining the right to use the patent, and, in the second place, its
+action is very uncertain, since currents very readily change its
+direction. However this may be, the inventor has realized a considerable
+sum by the sale of his secret to the different maritime powers, most of
+whom have adopted his system.
+
+All our ports are provided with flotillas and torpedo boats, and with
+schools in which the officers and men charged with this service are
+trained by frequent exercises. It was near L'Orient, at Port Louis, that
+we were permitted to be witnesses of these maneuvers, and where we saw
+the torpedo boats that were lying in ambush behind Rohellan Isle glide
+between the rocks, all of which appeared familiar to them, and start out
+seaward at the first signal. It was here, too, that we were witnesses
+of the sham attack against a pleasure yacht, shown in one of our
+engravings. A torpedo boat, driven at full speed, stopped at one meter
+from the said yacht with a precision that denoted an oft-repeated study.
+
+[Illustration: MODE OF FIRING TORPEDOES.]
+
+Before we close, we must mention some very recent experiments that have
+been made with a torpedo analogous to Whitehead's, that is to say, one
+that runs alone by means of helices actuated by compressed air, but
+having the great advantage that it can be steered at a distance from the
+very place whence it has been launched. This extraordinary result is
+obtained by the use of a rudder actuated by an electric current which is
+transmitted by a small metallic cable wound up in the interior of the
+torpedo, and paying out behind as the torpedo moves forward on its
+mission. The operator, stationed at the starting point, is obliged to
+follow the torpedo's course with his eyes in order to direct it during
+its submarine voyage. For this reason the torpedo carries a vertical
+mast, that projects above the surface, and at the top of which is placed
+a lantern, whose light is thrown astern but is invisible from the front,
+that is, from the direction of the enemy. A trial of this ingenious
+invention was made a few weeks ago on the Bosphorus, with complete
+success, as it appears. From the shore where the torpedo was put into
+the water, the weapon was steered with sufficient accuracy to cause it
+to pass, at a distance of two kilometers, between two vessels placed in
+observation at a distance apart of ten meters. After this, it was made
+to turn about so as to come back to its starting point. What makes this
+result the more remarkable is that the waters of the Bosphorus are
+disturbed by powerful currents that run in different directions,
+according to the place.--_L'Illustration_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PICTET'S HIGH SPEED BOAT.
+
+
+It is now nearly a year ago since we announced to our readers the
+researches that had been undertaken by the learned physicist, Raoul
+Pictet, in order to demonstrate theoretically and practically the forms
+that are required for a fast-sailing vessel, and since we pointed out
+how great an interest is connected with the question, while at the same
+time promising to revert to the subject at some opportune moment. We
+shall now keep our promise by making known a work that Mr. Pictet has
+just published in the _Archives Physiques et Naturelles_, of Geneva,
+in which he gives the first results of his labors, and which we shall
+analyze rapidly, neglecting in doing so the somewhat dry mathematical
+part of the article.
+
+For a given tonnage and identical tractive stresses, the greater or less
+sharpness of the fore and aft part of the keel allows boats to attain
+different speeds, the sharper lines corresponding to the highest speeds,
+but, in practice, considerably diminishing the weight of freight capable
+of being carried by the boat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. PICTET'S HIGH SPEED BOAT.
+
+A. Lateral View. B. Plan. C. Section of the boiler room. D. Section of
+the cabin.]
+
+Mr. Pictet proposed the problem to himself in a different manner, and as
+follows:
+
+Determine by analysis, and verify experimentally, what form of keel will
+allow of the quickest and most economical carriage of a given weight of
+merchandise on water.
+
+We know that for a given transverse or midship section, the tractive
+stress necessary for the progression of the ship is proportional to the
+_square_ of the velocity; and the motive power, as a consequence, to the
+_cube_ of such velocity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Diagram of tractive stresses at different
+speeds.]
+
+The _friction_ of water against the polished surfaces of the vessel's
+sides has not as yet been directly measured, but some indirect
+experiments permit us to consider the resistances due thereto as small.
+The entire power expended for the progress of the vessel is, then,
+utilized solely in displacing certain masses of water and in giving them
+a certain amount of acceleration. The masses of water set in motion
+depend upon the surface submerged, and their acceleration depends upon
+the speed of the vessel. Mr. Pictet has studied a form of vessel in
+which the greatest part possible of the masses of water set in motion
+shall be given a vertical acceleration, and the smallest part possible
+a horizontal one; and this is the reason why: All those masses of water
+which shall receive a vertical acceleration from the keel will tend to
+move downward and produce a vertical reaction in an upward direction
+applied to the very surface that gives rise to the motion. Such reaction
+will have the effect of changing the level of the floating body; of
+lifting it while relieving it of a weight exactly equal to the value
+of the vertical thrust; and of diminishing the midship section, and,
+consequently, the motive power.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Diagram of variations in tractive stresses and
+tonnage taken as a function of the speed.]
+
+All those masses of water which receive a horizontal acceleration from
+the keel run counter, on the contrary, to the propulsive stress, and it
+becomes of interest, therefore, to bring them to a minimum. The vertical
+stress is limited by the weight of the boat, and, theoretically, with an
+infinite degree of speed, the boat would graze the water without being
+able to enter it.
+
+The annexed diagram (Fig. 1) shows the form that calculation has led Mr.
+Pictet to. The sides of the boat are two planes parallel with its axis,
+and perfectly vertical. The keel (properly so called) is formed by
+the joining of the two vertical planes. The surface thus formed is a
+parabola whose apex is in front, the maximum ordinate behind, and the
+concavity directed toward the bottom of the water. The stern is a
+vertical plane intersecting at right angles the two lateral faces and
+the parabolic curve, which thus terminates in a sharp edge. The prow of
+the boat is connected with the apex of the parabola by a curve whose
+concavity is directed upward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Diagram of the variations in the power as a
+function of the speed.]
+
+When we trace the curve of the tractive stresses in a boat thus
+constructed, by putting the speeds in abscisses and the tractive
+stresses in ordinates, we obtain a curve (Fig. 2) which shows that the
+same tractive stress applied to a boat may give it three different
+speeds, M, M', and M'', only two of which, M and M'', are stable.
+
+Experimental verifications of this study have been partially realized
+(thanks to the financial aid of a number of persons who are interested
+in the question) through the construction of a boat (Fig. 1) by the
+Geneva Society for the Construction of Physical Instruments. The vessel
+is 20.25 m. in length at the water line, has an everywhere equal width
+of 3.9 m., and a length of 16 m. from the stern to the apex of the
+parabola of the keel. The bottom of the boat is nearly absolutely flat.
+The keel, which is 30 centimeters in width, contains the shaft of the
+screw. The boiler, which is designed for running at twelve atmospheres,
+furnishes steam to a two cylinder engine, which may be run at will,
+either the two cylinders separately, or as a _compound_ engine. The
+bronze screw is 1.3 m. in diameter, and has a pitch of 2.5 m. The vessel
+has two rudders, one in front for slight speeds, and the other at the
+stern. At rest, the total displacement is 52,300 kilogrammes.
+This weight far exceeds what was first expected, by reason of the
+superthickness given the iron plates of the vertical sides, of the
+supplementary cross bracing, and of the superposition of the netting
+necessary to resist the flexion of the whole. On another hand,
+the tractive stress of the screw, which should reach about 4,000
+kilogrammes, has never been able to exceed 1,800, because of the
+numerous imperfections in the engine. It became necessary, therefore,
+to steady the vessel by having her towed by the _Winkelried_, which was
+chartered for such a purpose, to the General Navigation Company. It
+became possible to thus carry on observations on speeds up to 27
+kilometers per hour.
+
+Fig. 3 shows how the tractive stress varies with each speed in a
+theoretic case (dotted curve) in which the stress is proportional to the
+square of the speed, in Madame Rothschild's boat, the _Gitana_ (curve
+E), and in the Pictet high speed vessel (curve B).
+
+The _Gitana_ was tried with speeds varying between 0 and 4 kilometers.
+The corresponding tractive stresses have been reduced to the same
+transverse section as in the Pictet model in order to render the
+observations comparable. At slight speeds, and up to 19.5 kilometers per
+hour, the _Gitana_, which is the sharper, runs easier and requires a
+slighter tractive stress. At such a speed there is an equality; but,
+beyond this, the Pictet boat presents the greater advantages, and, at a
+speed of 27 kilometers, requires a stress about half less than does the
+_Gitana_. Such results explain themselves when we reflect that at these
+great speeds the _Gitana_ sinks to such a degree that the afterside
+planks are at the level of the water, while the Pictet model rises
+simultaneously fore and aft, thus considerably diminishing the submerged
+section.
+
+With low or moderate speeds there is a perceptible equality between the
+theoretic curve and the curve of the fast boat; but, starting from 16
+kilometers, the stress diminishes. The greater does the speed become,
+the more considerable is the diminution in stress; and, starting from a
+certain speed, the rise of the boat is such as to diminish its absolute
+tractive stress--a fact of prime importance established by theory and
+confirmed by experiment.
+
+The curves in Fig. 4 show the power in horses necessary to effect
+progression at different speeds. The curve, A, has reference to an
+ordinary boat that preserves its water lines constant, and the curve,
+B, to a swift boat of the same tonnage. Up to 16 kilometers, the swift
+vessel presents no advantage; but beyond that speed, the advantage
+becomes marked, and, at a speed of 27 kilometers, the power to be
+expended is no more than half that which corresponds to the same speed
+for an ordinary boat.
+
+The water escapes in a thin and even sheet as soon as the tractive
+stress exceeds 2,000 kilogrammes; and the intensity and size of
+the eddies from the boat sensibly diminish in measure as the speed
+increases.
+
+The interesting experiments made by Mr. Pictet seem, then to clearly
+establish the fact that the forms deduced by calculation are favorable
+to high speeds, and will permit of realizing, in the future, important
+saving in the power expended, and, consequently, in the fuel (much less
+of which will need to be carried), in order to perform a given passage
+within a given length of time. Thus is explained the great interest that
+attaches to Mr. Pictet's labors, and the desire that we have to soon be
+able to make known the results obtained with such great speeds, not when
+the boat is towed, but when its propulsion is effected through its
+own helix actuated by its own engine, which, up to the present,
+unfortunately, has through its defects been powerless to furnish the
+necessary amount of power for the purpose.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INITIAL STABILITY INDICATOR FOR SHIPS.
+
+
+For a vessel with a given displacement, the metacenter and center of
+gravity being known, it is easy to lay off in the form of a diagram
+its stability or power of righting for any given angle of heel. Such a
+diagram is shown in Fig. 3, in which the abscissæ are the angles of the
+heel, and the ordinates the various lengths of the levers, at the end
+of which the whole weight of the vessel is acting to right itself.
+The curve may be constructed in the following manner: Having found by
+calculation the position of the transverse metacenter, M, for a given
+displacement--Figs. 1 and 2--the metacentric height, G M, is then
+determined either by calculations, or more correctly by experiment, by
+varying the position of weights of known magnitude, or by the stability
+indicator itself. Suppose, now, the vessel to be listed over to various
+angles of heel--say 20 deg., 40 deg., 60 deg., and 80 deg.--the water
+lines will then be A C, D E, F K, and H J respectively, and the centers
+of buoyancy, which must be found by calculation, will be B1, B2, B3, and
+B4. If lines are drawn from these points at right angles to the water
+levels at the respective heels, the righting power of the vessel in each
+position is found by taking the perpendicular distances between these
+lines and the center of gravity, G. This method of construction is shown
+to an enlarged scale in Fig. 2, where G is the center of gravity, B1
+Z1, B2 Z2, B3 Z3, and B4 Z4 the lines from centers of buoyancy to water
+levels; and G N, G O, and G P the distances showing the righting power
+at the angles of 20 deg., 40 deg., and 60 deg. respectively, and which
+to any convenient scale are set off as the ordinates in the stability
+curve shown in Fig 3.
+
+[Illustration: STABILITY INDICATOR FOR SHIPS. Fig. 1.]
+
+Having obtained the curve, A, in this manner for a given metacentric
+height, we will suppose that on the next voyage, with the same
+displacement, it is found that, owing to some difference in stowage,
+the center of gravity is 6 in. higher than before. The ordinates of the
+curve will then be G¹ N¹ and G¹ O¹--Fig.2--and the stability curve will
+be as at C--Fig. 3--showing that at about 47 deg. all righting power
+ceases. Similarly, if the center of gravity is lowered 6 in. on the
+same displacement, the curve, B, will be found, and in this manner
+comparative diagrams can be constructed giving at a glance the stability
+of a vessel for any given draught of water and metacentric height.
+
+[Illustration: STABILITY INDICATOR FOR SHIPS. Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: STABILITY INDICATOR FOR SHIPS. Fig. 3.]
+
+The object of Mr. Alexander Taylor's indicator is to measure and show
+by simple inspection the metacentric height under every condition of
+loading, and therefore to make known the stability of the vessel. It
+consists of a small reservoir, A, Fig. 4, placed at one side of the
+ship, in the cabin, or other convenient locality, communicating by a
+tube with the glass gauge, B, secured at the opposite side, the whole
+being half filled with glycerine, which is the fluid recommended by Mr.
+Wm. Denny, though water or any other liquid will answer the purpose.
+At one side of the gauge is the circular scale, C, capable of being
+revolved round its vertical axis, as well as adjusted up and down, so
+as to bring the zero pointer exactly to the top of the fluid when the
+vessel is without list. Round the top of the scale, at D, are engraved
+four different draughts, and under these are the metacentric heights.
+Test tanks of known capacity are placed at each side of the vessel, but
+in no way connected with the reservoir or gauge. The metacentric height
+is found as follows: The ship being freed from bilge water, the roller
+scale is turned round to bring to the front the mark corresponding with
+the mean draught of the vessel at the time, and the zero pointer is
+placed opposite the surface of the liquid in the gauge. One of the test
+tanks being filled with a known weight of water, the vessel is caused
+to list, and in consequence the liquid in the tube takes a new position
+corresponding with the degree of heel, the disturbance being greater
+according as the vessel has been more or less overbalanced. The scale
+having previously been properly graduated, the metacentric height for
+the draught and state of loading can be at once read off in inches,
+while as a check the water can be transferred from the one test tank to
+the other, and the metacentric height read off as before, but on the
+opposite side of the zero pointer. At the same time the angle of heel is
+shown on a second graduated scale, E. Having obtained the metacentric
+height, reference to a diagram will at once show the whole range of
+stability; and this being ascertained at each loading, the stowage of
+the cargo can be so adjusted as to avoid excessive stiffness in the one
+hand and dangerous tenderness on the other. It will thus be seen that
+Mr. Taylor's invention promises to be of great practical value both in
+the hands of the ship-builder and ship-owner, who have now an instrument
+placed before them, by the proper use of which all danger from
+unskillful loading can be entirely avoided.--_The Engineer_.
+
+[Illustration: STABILITY INDICATOR FOR SHIPS. Fig. 4.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SCRIVANOW'S CHLORIDE OF SILVER PILE.
+
+
+Considerable attention has been attracted lately at Paris among those
+who are interested in electrical novelties to a chloride of silver
+pile invented by Mr. Scrivanow. The experiments to which it has been
+submitted are, in some respects, sufficiently extraordinary to cause us
+to make them known to our readers, along with the inventor's description
+of the apparatus.
+
+Mr. Scrivanow's intention appears to be to apply this pile to the
+lighting of apartments, and even to the running of small motors, and,
+for the purpose of actuating sewing machines, he has already constructed
+a small model whose external dimensions are 160 x 100 x 90 millimeters.
+
+"My invention," says the inventor, "is intended as an electric pile
+capable of regeneration. The annexed Fig. 1 shows a vertical arrangement
+of the apparatus, and Fig. 2 a horizontal one. In the latter, two
+elements are represented superposed.
+
+"My pile consists of a prism of retort carbon (a) covered on every side
+with pure chloride of silver (b). The carbon thus prepared is immersed
+in a solution of hydrate of potassium (KHO) or of hydrate of sodium
+(NaHO), marking 1.30 to 1.45 by the Baumé areometer, the solvent being
+water.
+
+"In the vicinity of the carbon is arranged the plate to be attacked--a
+plate of zinc (c) of good quality. The surface of the electrodes, and
+their distance apart, depends upon the effects that it is desired to
+obtain, and is determined in accordance with the well known principles
+of electro-kinetics.
+
+"The chemical reactions that take place in this couple are multiple.
+In contact with a sufficiently concentrated solution of hydrate of
+potassium or sodium, the chloride of silver, especially if it has been
+recently prepared, passes partially into the state of brown or black
+oxide, so that the carbon becomes covered, after remaining sufficiently
+long in the exciting liquid, with a mixture of chloride and oxide of
+silver. When the circuit is closed, the chloride becomes reduced to a
+spongy metallic state and adheres to the surface of the carbon. At the
+same time the zinc passes, in the alkaline solution, into a state of
+chloride and of soluble combination of zinc oxide and of alkali.
+
+"To avoid all loss of silver I cover the carbon with asbestos paper, or
+with cloth of the same material, d. My piles are arranged in ebonite
+vessels, A, which are flat, as in Fig. 1, or round, as in Fig. 2.
+
+"In Fig 1 there is seen, at e, gutta-percha separating the zinc from the
+carbon at the base.
+
+"Under such conditions, we obtain a powerful couple that possesses an
+electro-motive power of 1.5 to 1.8 volts, according to the concentration
+of the exciting liquid. The internal resistance is extremely feeble. I
+have obtained with piles arranged like those shown in the figures nearly
+0.06 ohm, the measurements having been taken from a newly charged pile.
+
+"When the element is used up, and, notably, when all the chloride of
+silver is reduced, it is only necessary to plunge the carbon with its
+asbestos covering (after washing it in water) into a chloridizing bath,
+in order to bring back the metallic silver that invests the carbon to a
+state of chloride, and thus restore the pile to its primitive energy.
+After this the carbon is washed and put back into the exciting liquid.
+
+"These reductions of the chloride of silver during the operation of the
+pile can be reproduced _ad infinitum_, since they are accompanied by no
+loss of metal. The alkaline liquid is sufficient in quantity for two
+successive charges of the couple.
+
+"The chloridizing bath consists of 100 parts of acetic acid, 5 to 6
+parts, by weight, of hydrochloric acid, and about 30 parts of water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SCRIVANOW'S CHLORIDE OF SILVER PILE.]
+
+"Other acids may be employed equally as well. A bath composed of
+chlorochromate of potassium and nitric or sulphuric acid makes an
+excellent regenerator.
+
+"To sum up, I claim as the distinctive characters of my pile:
+
+"1. The use of the potassic or sodic alkaline liquid conjointly with
+chloride of silver, and the oxide of the same, that forms through the
+immersion of the carbon in a chloridizing bath.
+
+"2. The use of retort or other carbon covered with the salt of silver
+above specified.
+
+"3. The arrangement and construction of my pile as I have described."
+
+In the experiments recently tried with Mr. Scrivanow's pile, a large
+sized battery was made use of, whose dimensions were 300 x 145 x 125
+millimeters, and whose weight was from 5 to 6 kilogrammes. The results
+were: intensity, 1 ampere; electro-motive power, 25 volts, corresponding
+to an energy of 25 volt-amperes, or about 2.5 kilogrammeters per second.
+The pile was covered with a copper jacket whose upper parts supported
+two Swan lamps. Upon putting on the cover a contact was formed with the
+electrodes, and it was possible by means of a commutator key with three
+eccentrics to light or extinguish one of the lamps or both at once.
+A single element would have sufficed to keep one Swan lamp of feeble
+resistance lighted for 20 hours. Accepting the data given above and
+the 20 hours' uninterrupted duration of the pile's operation the power
+furnished by this large model is equal to 2.5 x 20 x 3,600 = 180,000
+kilogrammeters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SCRIVANOW'S CHLORIDE OF SILVER PILE.]
+
+In our opinion, Mr. Scrivanow's pile is not adapted for industrial use
+because of the expense of the silver and the frequent manipulations it
+requires, but it has the advantage, however, of possessing, along with
+its small size and little weight, a disposable energy of from 150,000
+to 200,000 kilogrammeters utilizable at the will of the consumer and
+securing to him a certain number of applications, either for lighting or
+the production of power. It appears to us to be specially destined to
+become a rival to the bichromate of potash pile for actuating electric
+motors applied to the directing of balloons.--_Revue Industrielle_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE LUMINOSITY OF FLAME.
+
+
+The light emitted from burning gases which burn with bright flame is
+known to be a secondary phenomenon. It is the solid, or even liquid,
+constituents separated out by the high temperature of combustion, and
+rendered incandescent, that emit the light rays. Gases, on the other
+hand, which produce no glowing solid or liquid particles during
+combustion burn throughout with a weakly luminous flame of bluish or
+other color, according to the kind of gas. Now, it is common to say,
+merely, in explanation of this luminosity, that the gas highly heated in
+combustion is self-incandescent. This explanation, however, has not been
+experimentally confirmed. Dr Werner Siemens was, therefore, led recently
+to investigate whether highly-heated pure gases really emit light.
+
+The temperature employed in such experiments should, to be decisive,
+be higher than those produced by luminous combustion. The author had
+recourse to the regenerative furnace used by his brother, Friedrich, in
+Dresden, in manufacture of hard glass. This stands in a separate room
+which at night can be made perfectly dark. The furnace has, in the
+middle of its longer sides, two opposite apertures, allowing free vision
+through. It can be easily heated to the melting temperature of steel,
+which is between 1,500° and 2,000° C. Before the furnace apertures were
+placed a series of smoke blackened screens with central openings, which
+enabled one to look through without receiving, on the eye, rays from the
+furnace walls. If, now, all air exchange was prevented in the furnace,
+and all light excluded from the room, it was found that not the least
+light came to the eye from the highly-heated air in the furnace. For
+success of the experiment, it was necessary to avoid any combustion in
+the furnace, and to wait until the furnace-air was as free from dust as
+possible. Any flame in the furnace (even when it did not reach into the
+line of sight), and the least quantity of dust in it, illuminated the
+field of vision.
+
+As a result of these experiments, Dr. Siemens considers that the view
+hitherto held, that highly-heated gases are self-luminous, is not
+correct. In the furnace were the products of the previous combustion
+and atmospheric air: consequently oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, and
+aqueous vapor. If even one of these gases was self-luminous, the field
+of vision must have been always illuminated. The weak light given by
+the flame of burning gases that separate out no solid nor liquid
+constituents cannot, therefore, be explained as a phenomenon of glow of
+the gaseous products.
+
+It appealed to the author probable, that heated gases did not, either,
+emit heat rays; and he set himself to test this idea, experimenting, in
+company with Herr Fröhlich, in Dresden. They first convinced themselves
+in this case that the light emission of pure heated gases sunk to zero,
+even when the field of vision was not always quite dark, and it was
+only possible to observe this a short time; but the repeatedly observed
+perfect darkness of the field of vision was demonstrative. On the other
+hand, experiments made with sensitive thermopiles, in order to settle
+the question of emission of heat-rays from highly-heated gases, failed.
+
+Afterward, however, Dr. Siemens was convinced, by a quite simple
+experiment of a different kind, that his supposition was erroneous. An
+ordinary lamp, with circular wick, and short glass cylinder, was wholly
+screened with a board, and a thermopile was so placed that its axis lay
+somewhat higher than the edge of the board. As the room-walls had pretty
+much a uniform temperature, the deflection of the galvanometer was but
+slight, when the tube-axis of the thermopile was directed anywhere
+outside of the hot-air current rising from the flame. When, however, the
+axis was directed to this current, a deflection occurred, which was as
+great as that from the luminous flame itself. That the heat radiation
+from hot gases is but very small in comparison with that from equally
+hot solid bodies, was shown by the large deflection produced when a
+piece of fine wire was held in the hot-air current. On the other hand,
+however, it was far too considerable to admit of being attributed to
+dust particles suspended in the air current.
+
+It must be conceded to be possible (the author says) that the light
+radiation of hot gases, as also the heat radiation, is only exceedingly
+weak, and therefore may escape observation. It is, therefore, much to
+be desired that the experiments should be repeated at still higher
+temperatures and with more exact instruments, in order to determine
+the limit of temperature at which heated gases undoubtedly become
+self-incandescent. The fact, however, that gases, at a temperature of
+more than 1,500° C, are not yet luminous, proves that the incandescence
+of the flame is not to be explained as a self-incandescence of the
+products of combustion. This is confirmed by the circumstance that, with
+rapid mixture of the burning gases, the flame becomes shorter because
+the combustion process goes on more quickly, and hotter because less
+cold air has access. Further, the flame also becomes shorter and hotter
+if the gases are strongly heated previous to combustion. As the rising
+products of combustion still retain for a time the temperature of the
+flame, the reverse must occur if the gases were self-luminous. The
+luminosity of the flame, however, ceases at a sharp line of demarkation,
+and evidently coincides with completion of the chemical action. The
+latter, itself, therefore, and not the heating of the combustion
+products, which is due to it, must be the cause of the luminosity. If
+we suppose that the gas-molecules are surrounded by an ether-envelope,
+then, in chemical combination of two or several such molecules, there
+must occur a changed position of the ether-envelopes. The motion of
+ether-particles thus caused may be represented by vibrations, which form
+the starting-point of light and heat-waves.
+
+In quite a similar manner we may also, according to Dr. Siemens,
+represent the light-phenomenon occurring when an electric current
+is sent through gases, which always takes place when the maximum of
+polarization belonging to them is exceeded. As the passage of the
+current through the gas seems to be always connected with chemical
+action, the phenomenon of glow may be explained in the same way as in
+flame, by oscillating transposition of the ether envelopes, by which the
+passage of electricity is effected. In that case the light of flame may
+be called electric light by the same light as the light of the ozone
+tube or the Geissler tube, which is mainly to be distinguished from the
+former in that it contains a dielectric of an extremely small maximum of
+polarization. This correspondence in the causes of luminosity of flame,
+and of gases traversed by electric currents, is supported by the
+similarity of the flame-phenomena in strength and color of light.
+
+[These researches were lately described by Dr. Werner Siemens to the
+Berlin Academy.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A QUICK WAY TO ASCERTAIN THE FOCUS OF A LENS.
+
+
+It is well known that if the size of an object be ascertained, the
+distance of a lens from that object, and the size of the image depicted
+in a camera by that lens, a very simple calculation will give the
+focus of the lens. In compound lenses the matter is complicated by the
+relative foci of its constituents and their distance apart; but these
+items, in an ordinary photographic objective, would so slightly affect
+the result that for all practical purposes they may be ignored.
+
+What we propose to do--what we have indeed done--is to make two of these
+terms constant in connection with a diagram, here given, so that a mere
+inspection may indicate, with its aid, the focus of a lens. All that is
+required in making use of it is to plant the camera perfectly upright,
+and place in front of it, at exactly fifteen feet from the center of the
+lens, a two foot rule, also perfectly upright and with its center
+the same height from the floor as the lens, and then, after focusing
+accurately with as large a diaphragm as will give sharpness, to note the
+size of the image and refer it to the diagram. The focus of the lens
+employed will be marked under the line corresponding to the size of the
+image of the rule on the ground glass.
+
+As our object is to minimize time and trouble to the utmost, we may make
+a suggestion or two as to carrying out the measuring. It will be obvious
+that any object exactly two feet in length, rightly placed, will answer
+quite as well as a "two-foot," which we selected as being about as
+common a standard of length and as likely to be handy for use as
+any. The pattern in a wall paper, a mark in a brick wall, a studio
+background, or a couple of drawing pins pressed into a door, so long as
+two feet exactly are indicated, will answer equally well.
+
+And, further, as to the actual mode of measuring the image on the
+ground glass (we may say that there is not the slightest need to take
+a negative), it will perhaps be found the readiest method to turn the
+glass the ground side outward, when two pencil marks may be made with
+complete accuracy to register the length of the image, which can then be
+compared with the diagram. Whatever plan is adopted, if the distance be
+measured exactly between lens and rule, the result will give the focus
+with exactitude sufficient for any practical purpose.--_Br. Jour. of
+Photo_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE PIANOFORTE.
+
+[Footnote: A paper recently read before the Society of Arts, London.]
+
+By A. J. HIPKINS.
+
+
+As this paper is composed from a technical point of view, some
+elucidation of facts, forming the basis of it, is desirable before we
+proceed to the chronological statement of the subject. These facts are
+the strings, and their strain or tension; the sound-board, which is the
+resonance factor; and the bridge, connecting it with the strings. The
+strings, sound-board, and bridge are indispensable, and common to
+all stringed instruments. The special fact appertaining to keyboard
+instruments is the mechanical action interposed between the player and
+the instrument itself. The strings, owing to the slender surface they
+present to the air, are, however powerfully excited, scarcely audible.
+To make them sufficiently audible, their pulsations have to be
+communicated to a wider elastic surface, the sound-board, which, by
+accumulated energy and broader contact with the air, re-enforces the
+strings' feeble sound. The properties of a string set in periodic
+vibration are the best known of the phenomena appertaining to acoustics.
+The molecules composing the string are disturbed in the string's
+vibrating length by the means used to excite the sound, and run off into
+sections, the comparative length and number of which depend partly upon
+the place in the string the excitement starts from; partly upon the
+force and the form of force that is employed; and partly upon the
+length, thickness, weight, strain, and elasticity of the string, with
+some small allowance for gravitation. The vibrating sections are of
+wave-like contour; the nodes or points of apparent rest being really
+knots of the greatest pressure from crossing streams of molecules. Where
+the pressure slackens, the sections rise into loops, the curves of which
+show the points of least pressure. Now, if the string be struck upon a
+loop, less energy is communicated to the string, and the carrying power
+of the sound proportionately fails. If the string be struck upon a node,
+greater energy ensues, and the carrying power proportionately gains.
+By this we recognize the importance of the place of contact, or
+striking-place of the hammer against the string; and the necessity, in
+order to obtain good fundamental tone, which shall carry, of the note
+being started from a node.
+
+If the hammer is hard, and impelled with force, the string breaks into
+shorter sections, and the discordant upper partials of the string, thus
+brought into prominence, make the tone harsh. If the hammer is soft, and
+the force employed is moderated, the harmonious partials of the longer
+sections strike the ear, and the tone is full and round. By the
+frequency of vibration, that is to say, the number of times a string
+runs through its complete changes one way and the other, say, for
+measurement, in a second of time, we determine the pitch, or relative
+acuteness of the tone as distinguished by the ear.
+
+We know, with less exactness, that the sound-board follows similar laws.
+The formation of nodes is helped by the barring of the sound-board,
+a ribbing crosswise to the grain of the wood, which promotes the
+elasticity, and has been called the "soul" of stringed musical
+instruments. The sound-board itself is made of most carefully chosen
+pine; in Europe of the _Abies excelsa_, the spruce fir, which, when well
+grown, and of light, even grain, is the best of all woods for resonance.
+The pulsations of the strings are communicated to the sound-board by the
+bridge, a thick rail of close-grained beech, curved so as to determine
+their vibrating lengths, and attached to the sound-board by dowels. The
+bridge is doubly pinned, so as to cut off the vibration at the edge
+of the bearing the strings exert upon the bridge. The shock of each
+separate pulsation, in its complex form, is received by the bridge,
+and communicated to such undamped strings as may, by their lengths, be
+sensitive to them; thus producing the Æolian tone commonly known as
+sympathetic, an eminently attractive charm in the tone of a pianoforte.
+
+We have here strings, bridge, and sound-board, or belly, as it is
+technically called, indispensable for the production of the tone, and
+indivisible in the general effect. The proportionate weight of
+stringing has to be met by a proportionate thickness and barring of the
+sound-board, and a proportionate thickness and elevation of the bridge.
+
+The tension of the strings is met by a framing, which has become more
+rigid as the drawing power of the strings has been gradually increased.
+In the present concert grands of Messrs. Broadwood, that drawing power
+may be stated as starting from 150 lb. for each single string in the
+treble, and gradually increasing to about 300 lb. for each of the single
+strings in the bass. I will reserve for the historical description of
+my subject some notice of the different kinds of framing that have been
+introduced. It will suffice, at this stage, to say that it was at first
+of wood, and became, by degrees, of wood and iron; in the present day
+the iron very much preponderating. It will be at once evident that the
+object of the framing is to keep the ends of the strings apart. The near
+ends are wound round the wrest-pins, which are inserted in the wooden
+bed, called the wrest-plank, the strength and efficiency of which are
+most important for the tone and durability of the instrument. It is
+composed of layers of wainscot oak and beech, the direction of the
+grain being alternately longitudinal and lateral. Some makers cover the
+wrest-plank with a plate of brass; in Broadwood's grands, it is a plate
+of iron, into which, as well as the wood, the wrest-pins are screwed.
+The tuner's business is to regulate the tension, by turning the
+wrest-pins, in which he is chiefly guided by the beats which become
+audible from differing numbers of vibrations. The wrest-plank is
+bridged, and has its bearing like the soundboard; but the wrest-plank
+has no vibrations to transfer, and should, as far as possible, offer
+perfect insensibility to them.
+
+I will close this introductory explanation with two remarks, made by the
+distinguished musician, mechanician, and inventor, Theobald Boehm, of
+Munich, whose inventions were not limited to the flute which bears his
+name, but include the initiation of an important change in the modern
+pianoforte, as made in America and Germany. Of priority of invention he
+says, in a letter to an English friend, "If it were desirable to analyze
+all the inventions which have been brought forward, we should find that
+in scarcely any instance were they the offspring of the brain of a
+single individual, but that all progress is gradual only; each worker
+follows in the track of his predecessor, and eventually, perhaps,
+advances a step beyond him." And concerning the relative value of
+inventions in musical instruments, it appears, from an essay of his
+which has been recently published, that he considers improvement in
+acoustical proportions the chief foundation of the higher or lower
+degree of perfection in all instruments, their mechanism being but of
+secondary value.
+
+I will now proceed to recount briefly the history of the pianoforte from
+the earliest mention of that name, continuing it to our contemporary
+instruments, as far as they can be said to have entered into the
+historical domain. It has been my privilege to assist in proving that
+Bartolommeo Cristofori was, in the first years of the 18th century,
+the real inventor of the pianoforte, but with a wide knowledge and
+experience of how long it has taken to make any invention in keyed
+instruments practicable and successful, I cannot believe that Cristofori
+was the first to attempt to contrive one. I should rather accept his
+good and complete instrument as the sum of his own lifelong studies and
+experiments, added to those of generations before him, which have left
+no record for us as yet discovered.
+
+The earliest mention of the name pianoforte (_piano e forte_), applied
+to a musical instrument, has been recently discovered by Count Valdrighi
+in documents preserved in the Estense Library, at Modena. It is dated
+A.D. 1598, and the reference is evidently to an instrument of the spinet
+or cembalo kind; but how the tone was produced there is no statement,
+no word to base an inference upon. The name has not been met with
+again between the Estense document and Scipione Maffei's well-known
+description, written in 1711, of Cristofori's "gravecembalo col piano e
+forte." My view of Cristofori's invention allows me to think that the
+Estense "piano e forte" may have been a hammer cembalo, a very imperfect
+one, of course. But I admit that the opposite view of forte and piano,
+contrived by registers of spinet-jacks, is equally tenable.
+
+Bartolommeo Cristofori was a Paduan harpsichord maker, who was invited
+by Prince Ferdinand dei Medici to Florence, to take charge of the large
+collection of musical instruments the Prince possessed. At Florence he
+produced the invention of the pianoforte, in which he was assisted and
+encouraged by this high-minded, richly-cultivated, and very musical
+prince. Scipione Maffei tells us that in 1709 Cristofori had completed
+four of the new instruments, three of them being of the usual
+harpsichord form, and one of another form, which he leaves undescribed.
+It is interesting to suppose that Handel may have tried one or more of
+these four instruments during the stay he made at Florence in 1708. But
+it is not likely that he was at all impressed with the potentialities of
+the invention any more than John Sebastian Bach was in after years when
+he tried the pianofortes of Silbermann.
+
+The sketch of Cristofori's action in Maffei's essay, from which I have
+had a working model accurately made, shows that in the first instruments
+the action was not complete, and it may not have been perfected when
+Prince Ferdinand died in 1713. But there are Cristofori grand pianos
+preserved at Florence, dated respectively 1720 and 1726, in which an
+improved construction of action is found, and of this I also exhibit
+a model. There is much difference between the two. In the second,
+Cristofori had obtained his escapement with an undivided key,
+reconciling his depth of touch, or keyfall, with that of the
+contemporary harpsichord, by driving the escapement lever through the
+key. He had contrived means for regulating the escapement distance, and
+had also invented the last essential of a good pianoforte action, the
+check. I will explain what is meant by escapement and check. When, by
+a key being put down, the hammer is impelled toward the strings, it is
+necessary for their sustained vibration that, after impact, the hammer
+should rebound or escape; or it would, as pianoforte makers say,
+"block," damping the strings at the moment they should sound.
+
+A dulcimer player gains his elastic blow by the free movement of the
+wrist. To gain a similarly elastic blow mechanically in his first
+action, Cristofori cut a notch in the butt of his hammer from which the
+escapement lever, "linguetta mobile" as he called it--"hopper," as we
+call it--being centered at the base, moved forward, when the key was put
+down, to the extent of its radius, and after the delivery of the blow
+returned to its resting place by the pressure of a spring. The first
+action gave the blow with more direct force than the second, which had
+the notch upon what is called the underhammer, but was defective in
+the absence of any means to regulate the distance of the "go-off," or
+"escapement" from the string. In the second action, a small check before
+the hopper is intended to regulate it, but does so imperfectly. The
+pianoforte had to wait for fifty years for satisfactory regulation of
+the escapement.
+
+In the first action, the hammer rests in a silken fork, dropping the
+whole distance of the rise of every blow. The check in the second
+action, the "paramartello," is next in importance to the escapement. It
+catches the back part of the hammer at different points of the radius,
+responding to the amount of force the player has used upon the key. So
+that in repeated blows, the rise of the hammer is modified, and the
+notch is nearer to the returning hopper in proportionate degree.
+
+I have given the first place in description to Cristofori's actions,
+instead of to the "cembalo" or instrument to which they were applied,
+because piano and forte, from touch, became possible through them, and
+what else was accomplished by Cristofori was due, primarily, to the
+dynamic idea. He strengthened his harpsichord sound-board against
+a thicker stringing, renouncing the cherished sound-holes. Yet the
+sound-box notion clung to him, for he made openings in his sound-board
+rail for air to escape. He ran a string-block round the case, entirely
+independent of the sound-board, and his wrest-plank, which also became
+a separate structure, removed from the sound-board by the gap for the
+hammers, was now a stout oaken plank which, to gain an upward bearing
+for the strings, he inverted, driving his wrest-pins through in the
+manner of a harp, and turning them in like fashion to the harp. He had
+two strings to a note, but it did not occur to him to space them into
+pairs of unisons. He retained the equidistant harpsichord scale, and
+had, at first, under-dampers, later over-dampers, which fell between the
+unisons thus equally separated. Cristofori died in 1731. He had pupils,
+one of whom made, in 1730, the, "Rafael d'Urbino," the favorite
+instrument of the great singer Farinelli. The story of inventive
+Italian pianoforte making ends thus early, but to Italy the invention
+indisputably belongs.
+
+The first to make pianofortes in Germany was the famous Freiberg
+organ-builder and clavichord maker, Gottfried Silbermann. He submitted
+two pianofortes to the judgment of John Sebastian Bach in 1726, which
+judgment was, however, unfavorable; the trebles being found too weak,
+and the touch too heavy. Silbermann, according to the account of Bach's
+pupil, Agricola, being much mortified, put them aside, resolving not to
+show them again unless he could improve them. We do not know what these
+instruments were, but it may be inferred that they were copies of
+Cristofori, or were made after the description of his invention by
+Maffei, which had already been translated from Italian into German,
+by Koenig, the court poet at Dresden, who was a personal friend of
+Silbermann. With the next anecdote, which narrates the purchase of all
+the pianofortes Silbermann had made, by Frederick the Great, we are upon
+surer ground. This well accredited occurrence took place in 1746. In
+the following year occurred Bach's celebrated visit to Potsdam, when he
+played upon one or more of these instruments. Burney saw and described
+one in 1772. I had this one, which was known to have remained in the new
+palace at Potsdam until the present time unaltered, examined, and, by a
+drawing of the action, found it was identical with Cristofori's. Not,
+however, being satisfied with one example, I resolved to go myself to
+Potsdam; and, being furnished with permission from H.R.H. the Crown
+Princess of Prussia, I was enabled in September, 1881, to set the
+question at rest of how many grand pianofortes by Gottfried Silbermann
+there were still in existence at Potsdam, and what they were like. At
+Berlin there are none, but at Potsdam, in the music-rooms of Frederick
+the Great, which are in the town palace, the new palace, and Sans
+Souci--left, it is understood, from the time of Frederick's death
+undisturbed--there are three of these Silbermann pianofortes. All three
+are with unimportant differences having nothing to do with structure,
+Cristofori instruments, wrest plank, sound-board, string-block, and
+action; the harpsichord scale of stringing being still retained. The
+work in them is undoubtedly good; the sound-boards have given in the
+trebles, as is usual with old instruments, from the strain; but I should
+say all three might be satisfactorily restored. Some other pianofortes
+seem to have been made in North Germany about this time, as our own
+poet Gray bought one in Hamburg in 1755, in the description of which we
+notice the desire to combine a hammer action with the harpsichord which
+so long exercised men's minds.
+
+The Seven Years' War put an end to pianoforte making on the lines
+Silbermann had adopted in Saxony. A fresh start had to be made a few
+years later, and it took place contemporaneously in South Germany and
+England. The results have been so important that the grand pianofortes
+of the Augsburg Stein and the London Backers may be regarded,
+practically, as reinventions of the instrument. The decade 1770-80 marks
+the emancipation of the pianoforte from the harpsichord, of which before
+it had only been deemed a variety. Compositions appear written expressly
+for it, and a man of genius, Muzio Clementi, who subsequently became the
+head of the pianoforte business now conducted by Messrs. Collard, came
+forward to indicate the special character of the instrument, and found
+an independent technique for it.
+
+A few years before, the familiar domestic square piano had been
+invented. I do not think clavichords could have been altered to square
+pianos, as they were wanting in sufficient depth of case; but that the
+suggestion was from the clavichord is certain, the same kind of case and
+key-board being used. German authorities attribute the invention to an
+organ builder, Friederici of Gera, and give the date about 1758 or 1760.
+I have advertised in public papers, and have had personal inquiry made
+for one of Friederici's "Fort Biens," as he is said to have called his
+instrument. I have only succeeded in learning this much--that Friederici
+is considered to have been of later date than has been asserted in the
+text-books. Until more conclusive information can be obtained, I must
+be permitted to regard a London maker, but a German by birth, Johannes
+Zumpe, as the inventor of the instrument. It is certain that he
+introduced that model of square piano which speedily became the fashion,
+and was chosen for general adoption everywhere. Zumpe began to make
+his instruments about 1765. His little square, at first of nearly five
+octaves, with the "old man's head" to raise the hammer, and "mopstick"
+damper, was in great vogue, with but little alteration, for forty years;
+and that in spite of the manifest improvements of John Broadwood's
+wrest-plank and John Geib's "grasshopper." After the beginning of this
+century, the square piano became much enlarged and improved by Collard
+and Broadwood, in London, and by Petzold, in Paris. It was overdone in
+the attempt to gain undue power for it, and, about twenty years ago,
+sank in the competition, with the later cottage pianoforte, which was
+always being improved.
+
+To return to the grand pianoforte. The origin of the Viennese grand is
+rightly accredited to Stein, the organ builder, of Augsburg. I will
+call it the German grand, for I find it was as early made in Berlin as
+Vienna. According to Mozart's correspondence, Stein had made some grand
+pianos in 1777, with a special escapement, which did not "block"
+like the pianos he had played upon before. When I wrote the article
+"Pianoforte" in Dr. Grove's "Dictionary," no Stein instrument was
+forthcoming, but the result of the inquiries I had instituted at that
+time ultimately brought one forward, which has been secured by the
+curator of the Brussels Museum, M. Victor Mahillon. This instrument,
+with Stein's action and two unison scale, is dated 1780. Mozart's grand
+piano, preserved at Salzburg, made by Walther, is a nearly contemporary
+copy of Stein, and so also are the grands by Huhn, of Berlin, which I
+took notes of at Berlin and Potsdam; the latest of these is dated 1790.
+
+An advance shown by these instruments of Stein and Stein's followers is
+in the spacing of the unisons; the Huhn grands having two strings to
+a note in the lower part of the scale, and three in the upper. The
+Cristofori Silbermann inverted wrest-plank has reverted to the usual
+form; the tuning pins and downward bearing being the same as in the
+harpsichord. There are no steel arches as yet between the wrest-plank
+and the belly-rail in these German instruments. As to Stein's
+escapement, his hopper was fixed behind the key; the axis of the hammer
+rising on a principle which I think is older than Stein, but have not
+been able to trace to its source, and the position of his hammer is
+reversed. Stein's light and facile movement with shallow key-fall,
+resembling Cristofori's in bearing little weight, was gratefully
+accepted by the German clavichord players, and, reacting, became one of
+the determining agents of the piano music and style of playing of the
+Vienna school. Thus arose a fluent execution of a rich figuration and
+brilliant passage playing, with but little inclination to sonorousness
+of effect, lasting from the time of Mozart's immediate followers to that
+of Henri Herz; a period of half a century. Knee-pedals, as we translate
+"geuouillères," were probably in vogue before Stein, and were levers
+pressed with the knees, to raise the dampers, and leave the pianoforte
+undamped, a register approved of by Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach, who
+regarded the undamped pianoforte as the more agreeable for improvising..
+He appears, however, to have known but little of the capabilities of
+the instrument, which seemed to him coarse and inexpressive beside his
+favorite clavichord. Stein appears to have made use of the "una corda"
+shift. Probably by knee-pedals, subsequently by foot-pedals, the
+following effects were added to the Stein pianos.
+
+The harpsichord "harp"-stop, which muted one string of each note by
+a piece of leather, became, by the interposition of a piece of cloth
+between the hammer and the strings, the piano, harp, or _celeste_. The
+more complete sourdine, which muted all the strings by contact of a long
+strip of leather, acted as the staccato, pizzicato, or pianissimo. The
+Germans further displayed that ingenuity in fancy stops Mersenne had
+attributed to them in harpsichords more than a hundred and fifty years
+before, by a bassoon pedal, a card which by a rotatory half-cylinder
+just impinging upon the strings produced a reedy twang; also by pedals
+for triangle, cymbals, bells, and tambourine, the last drumming on the
+sound-board itself.
+
+Several of these contrivances may be seen in a six-pedal grand
+pianoforte belonging to Her Majesty the Queen, at Windsor Castle,
+bearing the name as maker of Stein's daughter, Nannette, who was a
+friend of Beethoven. The diagram represents the wooden framing of such
+an instrument.
+
+We gather from Burney's contributions to "Rees's Cyclopaedia," that
+after the arrival of John Christian Bach in London, A.D. 1759, a few
+grand pianofortes were attempted, by the second-rate harpsichord makers,
+but with no particular success. If the workshop tradition can be relied
+upon that several of Silbermann's workmen had come to London about that
+time, the so-called "twelve apostles," more than likely owing to the
+Seven Years' War, we should have here men acquainted with the Cristofori
+model, which Silbermann had taken up, and the early grand pianos
+referred to by Burney would be on that model. I should say the "new
+instrument" of Messrs. Broadwood's play-bill of 1767 was such a grand
+piano; but there is small chance of ever finding one now, and if an
+instrument were found, it would hardly retain the original action, as
+Messrs. Broadwood's books of the last century show the practice of
+refinishing instruments which had been made with the "old movement."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Burney distinguishes Americus Backers by special mention. He is said
+to have been a Dutchman. Between 1772 and 1776, Backers produced the
+well-known English action, which has remained the most durable and one
+of the best up to the present day. It refers in direct leverage to
+Cristofori's first action. It is opposite to Stein's contemporary
+invention, which has the hopper fixed. In the English action, as in the
+Florentine, the hopper rises with the key. To the direct leverage of
+Cristofori's first action, Backers combined the check of the second, and
+then added an important invention of his own, a regulating screw and
+button for the escapement. Backers died in 1776. It is unfortunate we
+can refer to no pianoforte made by him. I should regard it as treasure
+trove if one were forthcoming in the same way that brought to light the
+authentic one of Stein's. As, however, Backers' intimate friends, and
+his assistants in carrying out the invention, were John Broadwood and
+Robert Stodart, we have, in their early instruments, the principle and
+all the leading features of the Backers grand. The increased weight
+of stringing was met by steel arches placed at intervals between the
+wrest-plank and the belly-rail, but the belly-rail was still free from
+the thrust of the wooden bracing, the direction of which was confined to
+the sides of the case, as it had been in the harpsichord.
+
+Stodart appears to have preceded Broadwood in taking up the manufacture
+of the grand piano by four or five years. In 1777 he patented an
+alternate pianoforte and harpsichord, the drawing of which patent shows
+the Backers action. The pedals he employed were to shift the harpsichord
+register and to bring on the octave stop. The present pedals were
+introduced in English and grand pianos by 1785, and are attributed to
+John Broadwood, who appears to have given his attention at once to the
+improvement of Backers' instrument. Hitherto the grand piano had been
+made with an undivided belly-bridge, the same as the harpsichord had
+been; the bass strings in three unisons, to the lowest note, being of
+brass. Theory would require that the notes of different octaves should
+be multiples of each other and that the tension should be the same for
+each string. The lowest bass strings, which at that time were the note
+F, would thus require a vibrating length of about twelve feet. As only
+half this length could be afforded, the difference had to be made up in
+the weight of the strings and their tension, which led, in these early
+grands, to many inequalities. The three octaves toward the treble could,
+with care, be adjusted, the lengths being practically the ideal lengths.
+It was in the bass octaves (pianos were then of five octaves) the
+inequalities were more conspicuous. To make a more perfect scale and
+equalize the tension was the merit and achievement of John Broadwood,
+who joined to his own practical knowledge and sound intuitions the aid
+of professed men of science. The result was the divided bridge, the bass
+strings being carried over the shorter division, and the most beautiful
+grand pianoforte in its lines and curves that has ever been made was
+then manufactured. In 1791 he carried his scale up to C, five and a
+half octaves; in 1794 down to C, six octaves, always with care for the
+artistic, form. The pedals were attached to the front legs of the stand
+on which the instrument rested. The right foot-pedal acted first as
+the piano register, shifting the impact of each hammer to two unisons
+instead of three; a wooden stop in the right hand key-block permitted
+the action to be shifted yet further to the right, and reducing the blow
+to one string only, produced the pianissimo register or _una corda_ of
+indescribable attractiveness of sound. The cause of this was in the
+reflected vibration through the bridge to the untouched strings. The
+present school of pianoforte playing rejects this effect altogether, but
+Beethoven valued it, and indicated its use in some of his great works.
+Steibert called the _una corda_ the _celeste_, which is more appropriate
+to it than Adam's application of this name to the harp-stop, by which
+the latter has gone ever since.
+
+Up to quite the end of the last century the dampers were continued to
+the highest note in the treble. They were like harpsichord dampers
+raised by wooden jacks, with a rail or stretcher to regulate their rise,
+which served also as a back touch to the keys. I have not discovered the
+exact year when, or by whom, the treble dampers were first omitted,
+thus leaving that part of the scale undamped. This bold act gave the
+instrument many sympathetic strings free to vibrate from the bridge when
+the rest of the instrument was played, each string, according to its
+length, being an aliquot division of a lower string. This gave the
+instrument a certain brightness or life throughout, an advantage which
+has secured its universal adoption. The expedients of an untouched
+octave string and of utilizing those lengths of wire that lie beyond the
+bridges have been brought into notice of late years, but the latter was
+early in the century essayed by W. F. Collard.
+
+From difficulties of tuning, owing to friction and other causes, the
+real gain of these expedients is small, and when we compare them with
+the natural resources we have always at command in the normal scale
+of the instrument, is not worth the cost. The inventor of the damper
+register opened a floodgate to such aliquot re-enforcement as can be got
+in no other way. Each lower note struck of the undamped instrument,
+by excitement from the sound-board carried through the bridge, sets
+vibrating higher strings, which, by measurement, are primes to its
+partials; and each higher string struck calls out equivalent partials
+in the lower strings. Even partials above the primes will excite
+their equivalents up to the twelfth and double octave. What a glow of
+tone-color there is in all this harmonic re-enforcement, and who would
+now say that the pedals should never be used? By their proper use,
+the student's ear is educated to a refined sense of distinction of
+consonance and dissonance, and the intention and beauty of Chopin's
+pedal work becomes revealed.
+
+The next decade, 1790-1800, brings us to French grand pianoforte-making,
+which was then taken up by Sebastian Erard. This ingenious mechanic and
+inventor traveled the long and dreary road along which nearly all who
+have tried to improve the pianoforte have had to journey. He appears, at
+first, to have adopted the existing model of the English instrument in
+resonance, tension, and action, and to have subsequently turned his
+attention to the action, most likely with the idea of combining the
+English power of gradation with the German lightness of touch. Erard
+claimed, in the specification to a patent for an action, dated 1808,
+"the power of giving repeated strokes, without missing or failure, by
+very small angular motions of the key itself."
+
+Once fairly started, the notion of repetition became the dominant idea
+with pianoforte-makers, and to this day, although less insisted upon,
+engrosses time and attention that might be more usefully directed. Some
+great players, from their point of view of touch, have been downright
+opposed to repetition actions. I will name Kalkbrenner, Chopin, and, in
+our own day, Dr. Hans von Bülow. Yet the Erard's repetition, in the form
+of Hertz's reduction, is at present in greater favor in America and
+Germany, and is more extensively used, than at any previous period.
+
+The good qualities of Erard's action, completed in 1821, the germ of
+which will be found in the later Cristofori, are not, however, due to
+repetition capability, but to other causes, chiefly, I will say, to
+counterpoise. The radical defect of repetition is that the repeated
+note can never have the tone-value of the first; it depends upon the
+mechanical contrivance, rather than the finder of the player, which is
+directly indispensable to the production of satisfactory tone. When the
+sensibility of the player's touch is lost in the mechanical action, the
+corresponding sensibility of the tone suffers; the resonance is not,
+somehow or other, sympathetically excited.
+
+Erard rediscovered an upward bearing, which had been accomplished by
+Cristofori a hundred years before, in 1808. A down-bearing bridge to the
+wrest-plank, with hammers striking upward, are clearly not in relation;
+the tendency of the hammer must be, if there is much force used, to
+lift the string from its bearing, to the detriment of the tone. Erard
+reversed the direction of the bearing of the front bridge, substituting
+for a long, pinned, wooden bridge, as many little brass bridges as there
+were notes. The strings passing through holes bored through the little
+bridges, called agraffes, or studs, turned upward toward the wrest-pin.
+By this the string was forced against its rest instead of off it. It
+is obvious that the merit of this invention would in time make its use
+general. A variety of it was the long brass bridge, specially used
+in the treble on account of the pleasant musical-box like tone its
+vibration encouraged. Of late years another upward bearing has found
+favor in America and on the Continent, the Capo d'Astro bar of M. Bord,
+which exerts a pressure upon the strings at the bearing point.
+
+About the year 1820, great changes and improvements were made in the
+grand pianoforte both externally and in the instrument. The harpsichord
+boxed up front gave way to the cylinder front, invented by Henry Pape,
+a clever German pianoforte-maker who bad settled in Paris. Who put the
+pedals upon the familiar lyre I have not been able to learn. It would
+be in the Empire time, when a classical taste was predominant. But the
+greatest change was from a wooden resisting structure to one in which
+iron should play an important part. The invention belongs to this
+country, and is due to a tuner named William Allen, a young Scotchman,
+who was in Stodart's employ. With the assistance of the foreman, Thom,
+the invention was completed, and a patent was taken out, dated the 15th
+of January, 1820, in which Thom was a partner. The patent was, however,
+at once secured by the Stodarts, their employers. The object of the
+patent was a combination of metal tubes with metal plates, the metallic
+tubes extending from the plates which were attached to the string-block
+to the wrest-plank. The metal plates now held the hitch-pins, to which
+the farther ends of the strings were fixed, and the force of the tension
+was, in a great measure, thrown upon the tubes. The tubes were a
+mistake; they were of iron over the steel strings, and brass over the
+brass and spun strings, the idea being that of the compensation of
+tuning when affected by atmospheric change, also a mistake. However,
+the tubes were guaranteed by stout wooden bars crossing them at right
+angles. At once a great advance was made in the possibility of using
+heavier strings, and the great merit of the invention was everywhere
+recognized.
+
+James Broadwood was one of the first to see the importance of the
+invention, if it were transformed into a stable principle. He had tried
+iron tension bars in past years, but without success. It was now due to
+his firm to introduce a fixed stringed plate, instead of plates intended
+to shift, and in a few years to combine this plate with four solid
+tension bars, for which combination he, in 1827, took out a patent,
+claiming as the motive for the patent the string-plate; the manner of
+fixing the hitch-pins upon it, the fourth tension bar, which crossed the
+instrument about the middle of the scale, and the fastening of that bar
+to the wooden brace below, now abutting against the belly-rail, the
+attachment being effected by a bolt passing through a hole cut in the
+sound-board.
+
+This construction of grand pianoforte soon became generally adopted in
+England and France. Messrs. Erard, who appear to have had their own
+adaptation of tension bars, introduced the harmonic bar in 1838. This,
+a short bar of gun metal, was placed upon the wrest-plank immediately
+above the bearings of the treble, and consolidated the plank by screws
+tapped into it of alternate pressure and drawing power. In the original
+invention a third screw pressed upon the bridge. By this bar a very
+light, ringing treble tone was gained. This was followed by a long
+harmonic bar extending above the whole length of the wrest-plank, which
+it defends from any tendency to rise, by downward pressure obtained by
+screws. During 1840-50, as many as five and even six tension bars were
+used in grand pianofortes, to meet the ever increasing strain of
+thicker stringing. The bars were strutted against a metal edging to the
+wrest-plank, while the ends were prolonged forward until they abutted
+against its solid mass on the key-board side of the tuning-pins. The
+space required for fixing them cramped the scale, while the strings were
+divided into separate batches between them. It was also difficult to
+so adjust each bar that it should bear its proportionate share of the
+tension; an obvious cause of inequality.
+
+Toward the end of this period a new direction was taken by Mr. Henry
+Fowler Broadwood, by the introduction of an iron-framed pianoforte, in
+which the bars should be reduced in number, and with the bars the steel
+arches, as they were still called, although they were no longer arches
+but struts.
+
+In a grand pianoforte, made in 1847, Mr. Broadwood succeeded in
+producing an instrument of the largest size, practically depending upon
+iron alone. Two tension bars sufficed, neither of them breaking into the
+scale: the first, nearly straight, being almost parallel with the lowest
+bass string; the second, presenting the new feature of a diagonal bar
+crossed from the bass corner to the string-plate, with its thrust at an
+angle to the strings.
+
+There were reasons which induced Mr. Broadwood to somewhat modify and
+improve this framing, but with the retention of its leading feature, the
+diagonal bar, which was found to be of supreme importance in bearing the
+tension where it is most concentrated. From 1852, his concert grands
+have had, in all, one bass bar, one diagonal bar, a middle bar with
+arch beneath, and the treble cheek bar. The middle bar is the only one
+directly crossing the scale, and breaking it. It is strengthened by
+feathered ribs, and is fastened by screws to the wooden brace below. The
+three bars and diagonal bar, which is also feathered, abut firmly on the
+string plate, which is fastened down to the wooden framing by screws.
+Since 1862, the wooden wrest-plank has been covered with a plate of
+iron, the iron screw-pin plate bent at a right angle in front. The
+wrest-pins are screwed into this plate, and again in the wood below.
+The agraffes, which take the upward bearings of the strings, are firmly
+screwed into this plate. The long harmonic bar of gun metal lies
+immediately above the agraffes, and crossing the wrest-plank in its
+entire width, serves to keep it, at the bearing line, in position. This
+construction is the farthest advance of the English pianoforte.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--WILLIAM ALLEN.]
+
+Almost simultaneously with it has arisen a new development in America,
+which, beginning with Conrad Meyer, about 1833, has been advanced by the
+Chickerings and Steinways to the well known American and German grand
+pianoforte of the present day. It was perfected in America about in
+1859, and has been taken up since by the Germans almost universally, and
+with very little alteration. Two distinct principles have been developed
+and combined--the iron framing in a single casting, and the cross or
+overstringing. I will deal with the last first, because it originated in
+England and was the invention of Theobald Boehm, the famous improver of
+the flute. In Grove's "Dictionary," I have given an approximate date to
+his overstringing as 1835, but reference to Boehm's correspondence with
+Mr. Walter Broadwood shows me that 1831 was really the time, and
+that Boehm employed Gerock and Wolf, of 79 Cornhill, London, musical
+instrument makers, to carry out his experiment. Gerock being opposed
+to an oblique direction of the strings and hammers, Boehm found a more
+willing coadjutor in Wolf. As far as I can learn, a piccolo, a cabinet,
+and a square piano were thus made overstrung. Boehm's argument was that
+a diagonal was longer within a square than a vertical, which, as he
+said, every schoolboy knew. The first overstrung grand pianos seen in
+London were made by Lichtenthal, of St. Petersburg; not so much for tone
+as for symmetry of the case; two instruments so made were among the
+curiosities of the Great Exhibition of 1851. Some years before this,
+Henry Pape had made experiments in cross stringing, with the intention
+to economize space. His ideas were adopted and continued by the London
+maker, Tomkisson, who acquired Pape's rights for this country. The iron
+framing in a single casting is a distinctly American invention, but
+proceeding, like the overstringing, from a German by birth. The iron
+casting for a square piano of the American Alpheus Babcock, may have
+suggested Meyer's invention; it was, however, Conrad Meyer, who,
+in Philadelphia, and in 1833, first made a real iron frame square
+pianoforte. The gradual improvement upon Meyer's invention, during the
+next quarter of a century, are first due to the Chickerings and then
+the Steinways. The former overstrung an iron frame square, the latter
+overstrung an iron frame grand, the culmination of this special make
+since of general American and German adoption. It will be seen that, in
+the American make, the number of tension bars has not been reduced, but
+a diagonal support has, to a certain extent, been accepted and adopted.
+The sound-board bridges are much further apart than obtains with the
+English grand, or with the Anglo-French Erard. The advocates of the
+American principle point out the advantages of a more open scale, and
+more equal pressure on the sound-board. They likewise claim, as a gain,
+a greater tension. I have no quite accurate information as to what
+the sum of the tension may be of an American grand piano. One of
+Broadwood's, twenty years ago, had a strain of sixteen and one-half
+tons; the strain has somewhat increased since then. The remarkable
+improvement in wiredrawing which has been made in Birmingham, Vienna,
+and Nuremberg, of late years, has rendered these high tensions of far
+easier attainment than they would have been earlier in the century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--BROADWOOD.]
+
+For me the great drawback to one unbroken casting is in the vibratory
+ring inseparable from any metal system that has no resting places to
+break the uniform reverberation proceeding from metal. We have already
+seen how readily the strings take up vibrations which are only pure
+when, as secondary vibrations, they arise by reversion from the
+sound-board. If vibration arises from imperfectly elastic wood, we hear
+a dull wooden thud; if it comes from metal, partials of the strings are
+re-enforced that should be left undeveloped, which give a false ring to
+the tone, and an after ring that blurs _legato_ playing, and nullifies
+the _staccato_. I do not pose as the obstinate advocate of parallel
+stringing, although I believe that, so far, it is the most logical and
+the best; the best, because the left hand division of the instrument is
+free from a preponderance of dissonant high partials, and we hear the
+light and shade, as well as the cantabile of that part, better than by
+any overstrung scale that I have yet met with. I will not, I say, offer
+a final judgment, because there may come a possible improvement of the
+overstrung or double diagonal scale, if that scale is persisted in, and
+inventive power is brought to bear upon it, as valuable as that which
+has carried the idea thus far.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--BROADWOOD.]
+
+I have not had time to refer other than incidentally to the square
+pianoforte, which has become obsolete. I must, however, give a separate
+historical sketch of the upright pianoforte, which has risen into
+great favor and importance, and in its development--I may say its
+invention--belongs to this present 19th century. The form has always
+recommended the upright on the score of convenience, but it was long
+before it occurred to any one to make an upright key board instrument
+reasonably. Upright harpsichords were made nearly four hundred years
+ago. A very interesting 17th century one was sold lately in the
+great Hamilton sale--sold, I grieve to say, to be demolished for its
+paintings. But all vertical harpsichords were horizontal ones, put on
+end on a frame; and the book-case upright grand pianos, which, from the
+eighties, were made right into the present century, were horizontal
+grands similarly elevated. The real inventor of the upright piano, in
+its modern and useful form, was that remarkable Englishman, John Isaac
+Hawkins, the inventor of ever-pointed pencils; a civil engineer, poet,
+preacher, and phrenologist. While living at Border Town, New Jersey, U.
+S. A., Hawkins invented the cottage piano--portable grand, he called
+it--and his father, Isaac Hawkins, to whom, in Grove's "Dictionary,"
+I have attributed the invention, took out, in the year 1800[1], the
+English patent for it. I can fortunately show you one of these original
+pianinos, which belongs to Messrs. Broadwood. It is a wreck, but you
+will discern that the strings descend nearly to the floor, while the
+key-board, a folding one, is raised to a convenient height between the
+floor and the upper extremities of the strings. Hawkins had an iron
+frame and tension rods, within which the belly was entirely suspended;
+a system of tuning by mechanical screws; an upper metal bridge; equal
+length of string throughout; metal supports to the action, in which a
+later help to the repetition was anticipated--the whole instrument being
+independent of the case. Hawkins tried also a lately revived notion of
+coiled strings in the bass, doing away with tension. Lastly, he sought
+for a _sostinente_, which has been tried for from generation to
+generation, always to fail, but which, even if it does succeed, will
+produce another kind of instrument, not a pianoforte, which owes so much
+of its charm to its unsatiating, evanescent tone.
+
+[Transcribers note 1: 3rd digit illegible, best guess from context.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--MEYER.]
+
+Once introduced into Hawkins' native country, England, the rise of the
+upright piano became rapid. In 1807, at latest, the now obsolete high
+cabinet piano was fairly launched. In 1811, Wornum produced a diagonal.
+In 1813, a vertical cottage piano. Previously, essays had been made to
+place a square piano upright on its side, for which Southwell, an Irish
+maker, took out a patent in 1798; and I can fortunately show you one of
+these instruments, kindly lent for this paper by Mr. Walter Gilbey. I
+have also been favored with photographs by Mr. Simpson, of Dundee, of a
+precisely similar upright square. I show his drawing of the action--the
+Southwell sticker action. W. F. Collard patented another similar
+experiment in 1811. At first the sticker action with a leather hinge
+to the hammer-butt was the favorite, and lasted long in England. The
+French, however, were quick to recognize the greater merit of Wornum's
+principle of the crank action, which, and strangely enough through
+France, has become very generally adopted in England, as well as Germany
+and elsewhere. I regret I am unable to show a model of the original
+crank action, but Mr. Wornum has favored me with an early engraving of
+his father's invention. It was originally intended for the high cabinet
+piano, and a patent was taken out for it in 1826. But many difficulties
+arose, and it was not until 1829 that the first cabinet was so finished.
+Wornum then applied it in the same year to the small upright--the
+piccolo, as he called it--the principle of which was, through Pleyel and
+Pape, adopted for the piano manufacture in Paris. Within the last few
+years we have seen the general introduction of Bord's little pianino,
+called in England, ungrammatically enough, pianette, in the action of
+which that maker cleverly introduced the spiral spring. And, also, of
+those large German overstrung and double overstrung upright pianos,
+which, originally derived from America, have so far met with favor and
+sale in this country as to induce some English makers, at least in the
+principle, to copy them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--STEINWAY.]
+
+I will conclude this historical sketch by remarking, and as a remarkable
+historical fact, that the English firms which in the last century
+introduced the pianoforte, to whose honorable exertions we owe a debt of
+gratitude, with the exception of Stodart, still exist, and are in the
+front rank of the world's competition. I will name Broadwood (whose flag
+I serve under), Collard (in the last years of the last century known
+as Longman and Clementi), Erard (the London branch), Kirkman, and, I
+believe, Wornum. On the Continent there is the Paris Erard house; and,
+at Vienna, Streicher, a firm which descends directly from Stein of
+Augsburg, the inventor of the German pianoforte, the favorite of Mozart,
+and of Beethoven in his virtuoso period, for he used Stein's grands at
+Bonn. Distinguished names have risen in the present century, some of
+whom have been referred to. To those already mentioned, I should like
+to add the names of Hopkinson and Brinsmead in England; Bechstein and
+Bluthner in Germany; all well-known makers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE POISONOUS PROPERTIES OF NITRATE OF SILVER, AND A RECENT CASE OF
+POISONING WITH THE SAME.
+
+[Footnote: Read before the Medico Legal Society, April 5, 1883.]
+
+By HENRY A. MOTT, JR., Ph.D., etc.
+
+
+Of the various salts of silver, the nitrate, both crystallized and in
+sticks (lunar caustic, _Lapis infernalis_), is the only one interesting
+to the toxicologist.
+
+This salt is an article of commerce, and is used technically and
+medicinally.
+
+Its extensive employment for marking linen, in the preparation of
+various hair dyes (Eau de Perse, d'Egypte, de Chiene, d'Afrique), in the
+photographer's laboratory, etc., affords ample opportunity to use the
+same for poisoning purposes.
+
+Nitrate of silver possesses an acrid metallic taste and acts as a
+violent poison.
+
+When injected into a vein of an animal, even in small quantities, the
+symptoms produced are dyspnoea,[1] choking, spasms of the limbs and then
+of the trunk, signs of vertigo, consisting of inability to stand erect
+or walk steadily, and, finally retching and vomiting, and death by
+asphyxia. These symptoms, which have usually been attributed to the
+coagulating action of the salt upon the blood, have been shown not to
+depend upon that change, which, indeed, does not occur, but upon a
+direct paralyzing operation upon the cerebro-spinal centers and upon
+the heart; but the latter action is subordinate and secondary, and the
+former is fatal through asphyxia.
+
+[Footnote 1: Nat. Dispensatory. Alf. Stille & John M. Maisch, Phila.,
+1879, p. 232.]
+
+One-third of a grain injected into the jugular vein killed a dog in four
+and one-half hours, with violent tetanic spasms.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: Medical Jurisprudence. Thomas S. Traill, 1857, p 117.]
+
+Devergie states that acute poisoning with nitrate of silver,
+administered in the shape of pills, is more frequent than one would
+suppose. Yet Dr. Powell[1] states that it should always be given in
+pills, as the system bears a dose three times as large as when given in
+solution. The usual dose is from one-quarter of a grain to one grain
+three times a day when administered as a medicine. In cases of epilepsy
+Dr. Powell recommends one grain at first, to be gradually increased
+to six. Clocquet[2] has given as much as fifteen grains in a day, and
+Ricord has given sixteen grains of argentum chloratum ammoniacale.
+
+[Footnote 1: U.S. Dispensatory, 18th ed., p. 1049. Wood & Bache.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Handbuch der Giftlehre, von A. W. M. Von Hasselt. 1862, p.
+316.]
+
+Cases of poisoning have resulted from sticks of lunar caustic getting
+into the stomach in the process of touching the throat (Boerhave)[1];
+in one case, according to Albers, a stick of lunar caustic got into the
+trachea.
+
+[Footnote 1: Virchow's Archiv, Bd. xvii., s. 135. 1859.]
+
+Von Hasselt therefore urges the utmost caution in using lunar caustic;
+the sticks and holder should always be carefully examined before use.
+An apprentice[1] to an apothecary attempted to commit suicide by taking
+nearly one ounce of a solution of nitrate of silver without fatal
+result. It must be remarked, however, that the strength of the solution
+was not stated.
+
+[Footnote 1: Handbuch der Giftlehre, von A. W. M. Von Hasselt. Zweiter
+Theil, 1862. p. 316.]
+
+In 1861, a woman, fifty-one years old, died in three days from the
+effects of taking a six-ounce mixture containing fifty grains of nitrate
+of silver given in divided doses.[1] She vomited a brownish yellow fluid
+before death. The stomach and intestines were found inflamed. It is
+stated that silver was found in the substance of the stomach and liver.
+
+[Footnote 1: Treatise on Poison. Taylor, 1875, p. 475.]
+
+It is evident that the poisonous dose, when taken internally, is not so
+very small, but still it would not be safe to administer much over the
+amounts prescribed by Ricord, for in the case of the dog mentioned one
+third of a grain injected into the jugular vein produced death in four
+and one-half hours.
+
+The circumstance that more can be taken internally is explained by the
+rapid decomposition to which this silver salt is liable in the body by
+the proteine substance and chlorine combinations in the stomach, the
+hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice, and salt from food.
+
+The first reaction produced by taking nitrate of silver internally is a
+combination of this salt with the proteinaceous tissues with which it
+comes in contact, as also a precipitation of chloride of silver.
+
+According to Mitscherlich, the combination with the proteine or
+albuminous substance is not a permanent one, but suffers a decomposition
+by various acids, as dilute acetic and lactic acid.
+
+The absorption of the silver into the system is slow, as the albuminoid
+and chlorine combinations formed in the intestinal canal cannot be
+immediately dissolved again.
+
+In the tissues the absorbed silver salt is decomposed by the tissues,
+and the oxide and metallic silver separate.
+
+Partly for this reason and partly on account of the formation of the
+solid albuminates, etc., the elimination of the silver from the body
+takes place very slowly. Some of the silver, however, passed out in the
+fæces, and, according to Lauderer, Orfila, and Panizza, some can be
+detected in the urine.
+
+Bogolowsky[1] has also shown that in rabbits poisoned with preparations
+of silver, the (often albuminous) urine and the contents of the (very
+full) gall bladder contained silver.
+
+[Footnote 1: Arch. f. Path. Anatomie, xlvi., p. 409. Gaz. Med de Paris,
+1868, No. 39. Also Journ. de l'Anatomie et de la Physiologie, 1873, p.
+398.]
+
+Mayencon and Bergeret have also shown that in men and rabbits the silver
+salt administered is quickly distributed in the body, and is but slowly
+excreted by the urine and fæces.
+
+Chronic poisoning shows itself in a peculiar coloring of the skin
+(Argyria Fuchs), especially in the face, beginning first on the
+sclerotic. The skin does not always take the same color; it becomes in
+most cases grayish blue, slaty sometimes, though, a greenish brown or
+olive color.
+
+Von Hasselt thinks that probably chloride of silver is deposited in
+the rete malpighii, which is blackened by the action of light, or that
+sulphide of silver is formed by direct union of the silver with the
+sulphur of the epidermis. That the action of light is not absolutely
+necessary, Patterson states, follows from the often simultaneous
+appearance of this coloring upon the mucous membrane, especially that of
+the mouth and upon the gums; and Dr. Frommann Hermann[1] and others have
+shown that a similar coloring is also found in the internal parts.
+
+[Footnote 1: Leh der Experiment. Tox. Dr. Hermann, Berlin, 1874, p.
+211.]
+
+Versmann found 14.1 grms. of dried liver to contain 0.009 grm. chloride
+of silver, or 0.047 per cent. of metallic silver. In the kidneys he
+found 0.007 grm. chloride of silver, or 0.061 per cent. of metallic
+silver; this was in a case of chronic poisoning, the percentage will be
+seen to be very small. Orfila Jun. found silver in the liver five months
+after the poisoning.
+
+Lionville[1] found a deposit of silver in the kidneys, suprarenal gland,
+and plexus choroideus of a woman who had gone through a cure with lunar
+caustic five years before death.
+
+[Footnote 1: Gaz. Med., 1868. No. 39.]
+
+Sydney Jones[1] states that in the case of an old epileptic who had been
+accustomed to take nitrate of silver as a remedy, the choroid plexuses
+were remarkably dark, and from their surface could be scraped a brownish
+black, soot-like material, and a similar substance was found lying quite
+free in the cavity of the fourth ventricle, apparently detached from the
+choroid plexus.
+
+[Footnote 1: Trans. Path. Soc., xi. vol.]
+
+Attempts at poisoning for suicidal purposes with nitrate of silver
+are in most cases prevented from the fact that this salt has such a
+disagreeable metallic taste as to be repulsive; cases therefore of
+poisoning are only liable to occur by accident or by the willful
+administration of the poison by another person.
+
+Such a case occurred quite recently, to a very valuable mare belonging
+to August Belmont.
+
+I received on Dec. 6, 1882, a sealed box from Dr. Wm. J. Provost,
+containing the stomach, heart, kidney, portion of liver, spleen, and
+portion of rectum of this mare for analysis.
+
+Dr. Provost reported to me that the animal died quite suddenly, and that
+there was complete paralysis of the hind quarters, including rectum and
+bladder.
+
+The total weight of the stomach and contents was 18 lb., the stomach
+itself weighing 3 lb. and 8 oz.
+
+Portions were taken from each organ, weighed, and put in alcohol for
+analysis.
+
+The contents of the stomach were thoroughly mixed together and measured,
+and a weighed portion preserved for analysis.
+
+The stomach, when cut open, was perfectly white on its inner surface,
+and presented a highly corroded appearance.
+
+The contents of the stomach were first submitted to qualitative
+analysis, and the presence of a considerable quantity of nitrate of
+silver was detected.
+
+The other organs were next examined, and the presence of silver was
+readily detected, with the exception of the heart!
+
+The liver had a very dark brown color. A quantitative analysis of the
+contents of the stomach gave 59.8 grains of nitrate of silver. In the
+liver 30.5 grains of silver, calculated as nitrate, were found (average
+weight, 11 lb.). From the analysis made there was reason to believe that
+at least one-half an ounce of nitrate of silver was given to the animal.
+Some naturally passed out in the fæces and urine.
+
+I was able to prepare several globules of metallic silver, as also all
+the well known chemical combinations, such as sulphide, chloride, oxide,
+iodide, bromide, bichromate of silver, etc.
+
+From the result of my investigation I was led to the conclusion that the
+animal came to death by the willful administering of nitrate of silver,
+probably mixed with the food.
+
+The paralysis of the hind quarters, mentioned by Dr. Provost, accords
+perfectly with the action of this poison, as it acts on the nerve
+centers, especially the cerebro-spinal centers, and produces spasms of
+the limbs, then of the trunk, and finally paralysis.
+
+I might also state in this connection that, only two weeks previous
+to my receiving news of the poisoning of the mare, I examined for
+Mr. Belmont the contents of the stomach of a colt which died very
+mysteriously, and found large quantities of corrosive sublimate to be
+present.
+
+Calomel is often given as a medicine, but not so with corrosive
+sublimate, which is usually employed in the arts as a poison.
+
+It is to be regretted that up to the present moment, even with the best
+detectives, the perpetrator of this outrage has been at large. Surely
+the very limit of the law should be exercised against any man who would
+willfully poison an innocent animal for revenge upon an individual.
+Cases have been reported in England where one groom would poison the
+colts under the care of another groom, so that the owner would discharge
+their keeper and promote the other groom to his place.
+
+A few good examples, in cases where punishment was liberally meted out,
+would probably check such unfeeling outrages.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TUBERCLE BACILLI IN SPUTA.
+
+
+Prof. Baumgarten has just published in the _Ctbl. f. d. Med. Wiss_., 25,
+1882, the following easy method to detect in the expectorated matter of
+phthisical persons the pathogenic tubercle bacilli:
+
+Phthisical sputa are dried and made moist with very much diluted potash
+lye (1 to 2 drops of a 33 per cent. potash lye in a watch glass of
+distilled water). The tubercle bacilli are then easily recognized with a
+magnifying power of 400 to 500. By light pressure upon the cover glass
+the bacilli are easily pressed out of the masses of detritus and
+secretion. To prevent, however, the possibility of mistaking the
+tubercle bacilli for other septic bacteria, or vice versa, the following
+procedure is necessary: After the examination just mentioned, the cover
+glass is lifted up and the little fluid sticking to its under side
+allowed to dry, which is done within one or two minutes. Now the cover
+glass is drawn two or three times rapidly through a gas flame; one
+drop of a diluted (but not too light) common watery aniline solution
+(splendid for this purpose is the watery extract of a common aniline ink
+paper) is placed upon the glass. When now brought under the microscope,
+all the septic bacteria appear colored intensely blue, while the
+tubercle bacilli are absolutely colorless, and can be seen as clearly as
+in the pure potash lye. We may add, however, that Klebs considers his
+own method preferable.
+
+As the whole procedure does not take longer than ten minutes, it is to
+be recommended in general practice. The consequences of Koch's important
+discovery become daily more apparent, and their application more
+practicable.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 384, page 6132.]
+
+
+
+
+MALARIA.
+
+By JAMES H. SALISBURY, A.M., M.D.
+
+PRIZE ESSAY OF THE ALBANY MEDICAL COLLEGE ALUMNI ASSOCIATION, FEB.,
+1882.
+
+VIII.
+
+
+Observations in Washington, D. C., September 5, 1879, 8:35 A.M., Boston
+time, near Congressional Cemetery.
+
+1. Seized with sneezing on my way to cemetery. Examined nasal excretions
+and found no Palmellæ.
+
+2. Pool near cemetery. Examined a spot one inch in diameter, raised
+in center, green, found Oedegonium abundant. Some desmids, Cosmarium
+binoculatum plenty. One or two red Gemiasmas, starch, Protuberans
+lamella, Pollen.
+
+3. Specimen soft magma of the pool margin. Oedogonium abundant, spores,
+yeast plants, dirt.
+
+4. Sand scraped. No organized forms but pollen, and mobile spores of
+some cryptogams.
+
+5. Dew on grass. One stellate compound plant hair, one Gemiasma verdans,
+two pollen.
+
+6. Grass flower dew. Some large white sporangia filled with spores.
+
+7. Grass blade dew, not anything of account. One pale Gemiasma, three
+blue Gemiasmas, Cosmarium, Closterium. Diatoms, pollen, found in
+greenish earth and wet with the dew. Remarks: Observations made at the
+pool with clinical microscope, one-quarter inch objective. Day cloudy,
+foggy, hot.
+
+8. Green earth in water way from pump near cemetery. Anabaina plentiful.
+Diatoms, Oscillatoriaceæ. Polycoccus species. Pollen, Cosmarium,
+Leptothrix, Gemiasma, old sporangia, spores many. Fungi belonging to
+fruit. Puccinia. Anguillula fluviatilis.
+
+9. Mr. Smith's blood. Spores, enlarged white corpuscles. Two sporangia?
+Gemiasma dark brown, black. Mr. Smith is superintendent Congressional
+Cemetery. Lived here for seven years. Been a great sufferer with ague.
+Says the doctors told him that they could do no more for him than he
+could for himself. So he used Ayer's ague cure with good effect for six
+months. Then he found the best effect from the use of the Holman liver
+ague pad in his own case and that of his children. From his account one
+would infer that, notwithstanding the excellence of the ague pad, when
+he is attacked, he uses blue mass, followed with purgatives, then 20
+grains of quinine. Also has used arsenic, but it did not agree with him.
+Also used Capsicum with good results. Had enlarged spleen; not so now.
+
+2d specimen of Mr. Smith's blood. Stelline, no Gemiasma. 3d specimen,
+do. One Gemiasma. 4th specimen. None. 5th specimen. Skin scraped showed
+no plants. 6th specimen. Urine; amyloid bodies; spores; no sporangia.
+
+United States Magazine store grounds. Observation 1. Margin of
+Eastern Branch River. Substance from decaying part of a water plant.
+Oscillatoriaceæ. Diatoms. Anguillula. Chytridium. Dirt. No Gemiasma.
+
+Observation 2. Moist soil. Near by, amid much rubbish, one or two
+so-called Gemiasmas; white, clear, peripheral margin.
+
+Observation 3. Green deposit on decaying wood. Oscillatoriaceæ.
+Protuberans lamella, Gemiasma alba. Much foreign matter.
+
+Mr. Russell, Mrs. R., Miss R., residents of Magazine Grounds presented
+no ague plants in their blood. Sergeant McGrath, Mrs. M., Miss M.,
+presented three or four sporangias in their blood. Dr. Hodgkins, some in
+urine. Dr. H.'s friend with chills, not positive as to ague. No plants
+found.
+
+Observations in East Greenwich, R.I., Aug. 16, 1877.
+
+1. At early morn I examined greenish earth, northwest of the town along
+the margin of a beautiful brook. Found the Protuberans lamella, the
+Gemiasma alba and rubra. Observation 2. Found the same. Observation 3.
+Found the same.
+
+Observation 4. Salt marsh below the railroad bridge over the river.
+
+The scrapings of the soil showed beautiful yellow and transparent
+Protuberans, beautiful green sporangias of the Gemiasma verdans.
+
+Observation 5. Near the brook named was a good specimen of the Gemiasma
+plumba. While I could not find out from the lay people I asked that any
+ague was there, I now understand it is all through that locality.
+
+Observation at Wellesley, Mass., Aug. 20, 1877.
+
+No incrustation found. Examined the vegetation found on the margin of
+the Ridge Hills Farm pond. Among other things I found an Anguillula
+fluviatilis. Abundance of microspores, bacteria. Some of the Protococci.
+Gelatinous masses, allied to the protuberans, of a light yellow color
+scattered all over with well developed spores, larger than those found
+in the Protuberans. One or two oval sporanges with double outlines. This
+observation was repeated, but the specimens were not so rich. Another
+specimen from the same locality was shown to be made up of mosses by the
+venation of leaves.
+
+Mine host with whom I lodged had a microscopical mount of the
+Protococcus nivalis in excellent state of preservation. The sporangia
+were very red and beautiful, but they showed no double cell wall.
+
+In this locality ague is unknown; indeed, the place is one of unusual
+salubrity. It is interesting to note here to show how some of the algæ
+are diffused. I found here an artificial pond fed by a spring, and
+subject to overflow from another pond in spring and winter. A stream of
+living water as large as one's arm (adult) feeds this artificial pond,
+still it was crowded with the Clathrocyotis æruginosa of some writers
+and the Polycoccus of Reinsch. How it got there has not yet been
+explained.
+
+The migration of the ague eastward is a matter of great interest; it
+is to be hoped that the localities may be searched carefully for your
+plants, as I did in New Haven.
+
+In this connection I desire to say something about the presence of the
+Gemiasmas in the Croton water. The record I have given of finding
+the Gemiasma verdans is not a solitary instance. I did not find the
+gemiasmas in the Cochituate, nor generally in the drinking waters of
+over thirty different municipalities or towns I have examined during
+several years past. I have no difficulty in accounting for the presence
+of the Gemiasmas in the Croton, as during the last summer I made studies
+of the Gemiasma at Washington Heights, near 165th St. and 10th Ave.,
+N.Y.
+
+Plate VIII. is a photograph of a drawing of some of the Gemiasmas
+projected by the sun on the wall and sketched by the artist on the wall,
+putting the details in from microscopical specimens, viewed in the
+ordinary way. This should make the subject of another observation.
+
+I visited this locality several times during August and October, 1881. I
+found an abundance of the saline incrustation of which you have spoken,
+and at the time of my first visit there was a little pond hole just east
+of the point named that was in the act of drying up. Finally it dried
+completely up, and then the saline and green incrustations both were
+abundant enough. The only species, however, I found of the ague plants
+was the Gemiasma verdans. On two occasions of a visit with my pupils I
+demonstrated the presence of the plants in the nasal excretions from my
+nostrils. I had been sneezing somewhat.
+
+There is one circumstance I would like to mention here: that was, that
+when, for convenience' sake, my visits were made late in the day, I
+did not find the plants abundant, still could always get enough to
+demonstrate their presence; but when my visits were timed so as to come
+in the early morning, when the dew was on, there was no difficulty
+whatever in finding multitudes of beautiful and well developed plants.
+
+To my mind this is a conclusive corroboration of your own statements in
+which you speak of the plants bursting, and being dissipated by the
+heat of the summer sun, and the disseminated spores accumulating in
+aggregations so as to form the white incrustation in connection with
+saline bodies which you have so often pointed out.
+
+I also have repeated your experiments in relation to the collection
+of the mud, turf, sods, etc., and have known them to be carried
+many hundred miles off and identified. I have also found the little
+depressions caused by the tread of cattle affording a fine nidus for the
+plants. You have only to scrape the minutest point off with a needle or
+tooth pick to find an abundance by examination. I have not been able to
+explore many other sites, nor do I care, as I found all the materials I
+sought in the vicinity of New York.
+
+To this I must make one exception; I visited the Palisades last summer
+and examined the localities about Tarrytown. This is an elevated
+location, but I found no Gemiasmas. This is not equivalent to saying
+there were none there. Indeed, I have only given you a mere outline of
+my work in this direction, as I have made it a practice to examine the
+soil wherever I went, but as most of my observations have been conducted
+on non-malarious soils, and I did not find the plants, I have not
+thought it worth while to record all my observations of a negative
+character.
+
+I now come to an important part of the corroborative observations, to
+wit, the blood.
+
+I have found it as you predicted a matter of considerable difficulty to
+find the mature forms of the Gemiasmas in the blood, but the spore forms
+of the vegetation I have no difficulty in finding. The spores have
+appeared to me to be larger than the spores of other vegetations that
+grow in the blood. They are not capable of complete identification
+unless they are cultivated to the full form. They are the so-called
+bacteria of the writers of the day. They can be compared with the spores
+of the vegetation found outside of the body in the swamps and bogs.
+
+You said that the plants are only found as a general rule in the blood
+of old cases, or in the acute, well marked cases. The plants are so few,
+you said, that it was difficult to encounter them sometimes. So also of
+those who have had the ague badly and got well.
+
+Observation at Naval Hospital, N.Y., Aug., 1877. Examined with great
+care the blood of Donovan, who had had intermittent fever badly.
+Negative result.
+
+The same was the result of examining another case of typho-malarial
+(convalescent); though in this man's blood there were found some
+oval and sometimes round bodies like empty Gemiasmas, 1/1000 inch in
+diameter. But they had no well marked double outline. There were no
+forms found in the urine of this patient. In another case (Donovan,) who
+six months previous had had Panama fever, and had well nigh recovered, I
+found no spores or sporangia.
+
+Observations made at Washington, D.C., Sept., 1879. At this time I
+examined with clinical microscope the blood of eight to ten persons
+living near the Congressional Cemetery and in the Arsenal grounds. I was
+successful in finding the plants in the blood of five or more persons
+who were or had been suffering from the intermittent fever.
+
+In 1877, at the Naval Hospital, Chelsea, I accidentally came across
+three well marked and well defined Gemiasmas in the blood of a marine
+whom I was studying for another disease. I learned that he had had
+intermittent fever not long before.
+
+Another positive case came to my notice in connection with micrographic
+work the past summer. The artist was a physician residing in one of the
+suburban cities of New York. I had demonstrated to him Gemiasma verdans,
+showed how to collect them from the soil in my boxes. And he had made
+outline drawings also, for the purposes of more perfectly completing his
+drawings. I gave him some of the Gemiasmas between a slide and cover,
+and also some of the earth containing the soil. He carried them home. It
+so happened that a brother physician came to his house while he was at
+work upon the drawings. My artist showed his friend the plants I had
+collected, then the plants he collected himself from the earth, and then
+he called his daughter, a young lady, and took a drop of blood from
+her finger. The first specimen contained several of the Gemiasmas. The
+demonstration, coming after the previous demonstrations, carried a
+conviction that it otherwise would not have had.
+
+
+AGUE PLANTS IN THE URINE.
+
+I have found them in the urine of persons suffering or having suffered
+from intermittent fever.
+
+When I was at the Naval Hospital in Brooklyn one of the accomplished
+assistant surgeons, after I had showed him some plants in the urine,
+said he had often encountered them in the urine of ague cases, but did
+not know their significance. I might multiply evidence, but think it
+unnecessary. I am not certain that my testimony will convince any one
+save myself, but I know that I had rather have my present definite,
+positive belief based on this evidence, than to be floundering on doubts
+and uncertainties. There is no doubt that the profession believe that
+intermittents have a cause; but this belief has a vagueness which cannot
+be represented by drawings or photograph. Since I have photographed the
+Gemiasma, and studied their biology, I feel like holding on to your
+dicta until upset by something more than words.
+
+In relation to the belief that no Algæ are parasitic, I would state on
+Feb. 9, 1878, I examined the spleen of a decapitated speckled turtle
+with Professor Reinsch. We found various sized red corpuscles in the
+blood in various stages of formation; also filaments of a green Alga
+traversing the spleen, which my associate, a specialist in Algology,
+pronounced one of the Oscillatoriaceæ. These were demonstrated in your
+own observations made years ago. They show that Algæ are parasitic in
+the living spleen of healthy turtles.
+
+This leads to the remark that all parasitic growths are not nocent. I
+understand you take the same position. Prof. Reinsch has published a
+work in Latin, "Contributiones ad Algologiam," Leipsic, 1874, in which
+he gives a large number of drawings and descriptions of Algæ, many of
+them entophytic parasites on other animals or Algæ. Many of these he
+said were innocent guests of their host, but many guest plants were
+death to their host. This is for the benefit of those who say that the
+Gemiasmas are innocent plants and do no harm. All plants, phanerogams
+or cryptogams, can be divided into nocent or innocent, etc., etc. I
+am willing to change my position on better evidence than yours being
+submitted, but till then call me an indorser of your work as to the
+cause and treatment of ague.
+
+Respectfully, yours, ------
+
+There are quite a number of others who have been over my ground, but the
+above must suffice here.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE X.--EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.--1, Spore with thick
+laminated covering, constant colorless contents, and dark nucleus.
+B, Part of the wall of cell highly magnified, 0.022 millimeter in
+thickness. 2, Smaller spore with verruculous covering. 3, Spore with
+punctulated covering. 4, The same. 5, Minute spores with blue-greenish
+colored contents, 0.0021 millimeter in diameter. 6, Larger form of 5. 7,
+Transparent spherical spore, contents distinctly refracting the light,
+0.022 millimeter in diameter. 8, Chroococcoid minute cells, with
+transparent, colorless covering, 0.0041 millimeter in diameter. 9,
+Biciliated zoospore. 10, Plant of the Gemiasma rubra, thallus on both
+ends attenuated, composed of seven cells of unequal size. 11, Another
+complete plant of rectangular shape composed of regularly attached
+cells. 12, Another complete, irregularly shaped and arranged plant. 13,
+Another plant, one end with incrassated and regularly arranged cells.
+14, Another elliptical shaped plant, the covering on one end attenuated
+into a long appendix. 15, Three celled plant. 16, Five celled plant.
+10-16 magnified 440/1.]
+
+I wish to conclude this paper by alluding to some published
+investigations into the cause of ague, which are interesting, and which
+I welcome and am thankful for, because all I ask is investigations--not
+words without investigations.
+
+The first the Bartlett following:
+
+Dr. John Bartlett is a gentleman of Chicago, of good standing in the
+profession. In January, 1874, he published in the _Chicago Medical
+Journal_ a paper on a marsh plant from the Mississippi ague bottoms,
+supposed to be kindred to the Gemiasmas. In a consideration of its
+genetic relations to malarious disease, he states that at Keokuk, Iowa,
+in 1871, near the great ague bottoms of the Mississippi, with Dr. J. P.
+Safford, he procured a sod containing plants that were as large as rape
+seeds. He sent specimens of the plants to distinguished botanists, among
+them M. C. Cook, of London, England. Nothing came of these efforts.
+
+2. In August, 1873, Dr. B. visited Riverside, near Chicago, to hunt up
+the ague plants. Found none, and also that the ague had existed there
+from 1871.
+
+3. Lamonot, a town on the Illinois and Michigan Canal, was next visited.
+A noted ague district. No plants were found, and only two cases of
+ague, one of foreign origin. Dr. B. here speaks of these plants of Dr.
+Safford's as causing ague and being different from the Gemiasmas. But he
+gives no evidence that Safford's plants have been detected in the human
+habitat. In justice to myself I would like to see this evidence before
+giving him the place of precedence.
+
+4. Dr. B., Sept. 1, 1873, requested Dr. Safford to search for his plants
+at East Keokuk. Very few plants and no ague were found where they both
+were rife in 1871.
+
+5. Later, Sept. 15, 1873, ague was extremely prevalent at East Keokuk,
+Iowa, where two weeks before no plants were found; they existed more
+numerously than in 1871.
+
+6. Dr. B. traced five cases of ague, in connection with Dr. Safford's
+plants found in a cesspool of water in a cellar 100 feet distant. It is
+described as a plant to be studied with a power of 200 diameters, and
+consisting of a body and root. The root is a globe with a central cavity
+lined with a white layer, and outside of these a layer of green cells.
+Diameter of largest plant, one-quarter inch. Cavity of plant filled with
+molecular liquid. Root is above six inches in length, Dr. B. found the
+white incrustation; he secured the spores by exposing slides at night
+over the malarious soil resembling the Gemiasmas. He speaks of finding
+ague plants in the blood, one-fifteen-hundredth of an inch in diameter,
+of ague patients. He found them also in his own blood associated with
+the symptoms of remittent fever, quinine always diminishing or removing
+the threatening symptoms. Professors Babcock and Munroe, of Chicago,
+call the plants either the Hydrogastrum of Rabenhorst, or the Botrydium
+of the Micrographic Dictionary, the crystalline acicular bodies being
+deemed parasitic. Dr. B. deserves great credit for his honest and
+careful work and for his valuable paper. Such efforts are ever worthy of
+respect.
+
+There is no report of the full development found in the urine, sputa,
+and sweat. Again, Dr. B. or Dr. Safford did not communicate the disease
+to unprotected persons by exposure. While then I feel satisfied that the
+Gemiasmas produce ague, it is by no means proved that no other cryptogam
+may not produce malaria. I observed the plants Dr. B. described, but
+eliminated them from my account. I hope Dr. B. will pursue this subject
+farther, as the field is very large and the observers are few.
+
+When my facts are upset, I then surrender.
+
+
+"NOTES ON MARSH MIASM (LIMNOPHYSALIS HYALINA). BY ABR. FREDRIK EKLUND,
+M.D., STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN, PHYSICIAN OF THE FIRST CLASS IN THE SWEDISH
+ROYAL NAVY.
+
+[Footnote: Translated from the _Archives de la Medecine Navale_, vol.
+xxx., no. 7, July, 1878, by A. Sibley Campbell, M.D., Augusta, Ga.]
+
+Before giving a succinct account of the discovery of paludal miasma and
+of its natural history, I ought in the first place to state that I
+have not had the opportunity of reading or studying the great original
+treatise of Professor Salisbury. I am acquainted with it only through a
+resume published in the _American Journal of the Medical Sciences_
+for the year 1866, new series, vol. li. p. 51. At the beginning of my
+investigations I was engaged in a microscopic examination of the water
+and mud of swampy shores and of the marshes, also with a comparison of
+their microphytes with those which might exist in the urine of patients
+affected with intermittent fevers. Nearly three months passed without
+my being able to find the least agreement, the least connection. Having
+lost nearly all hope of being able to attain the end which I had
+proposed, I took some of the slime from the marshes and from the masses
+of kelp and Confervæ from the sea shores, where intermittent fevers are
+endemic, and placed them in saucers under the ordinary glass desiccators
+exposed on a balcony, open for twenty-four hours, the most of the time
+under the action of the burning rays of the sun. With the evaporated
+water deposited within the desiccators, I proceeded to an examination,
+drop by drop. I at length found that which I had sought so long, but
+always in vain.
+
+The parasite of intermittent fever, which I have termed Limnophysalis
+hyalina, and which has been observed before me by Drs. J. Lemaire and
+Gratiolet (_Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires de l'Academie des Sciences_,
+Paris, 1867, pp. 317 and 318) and B. Cauvet (_Archives de Medecine
+Navale_, November, 1876), is a fungus which is developed directly
+from the mycelium, each individual of which possesses one or several
+filaments, which are simple or dichotomous, with double outlines,
+extremely fine, plainly marked, hyaline, and pointed. Under favorable
+conditions, that is, with moisture, heat, and the presence of vegetable
+matter in decomposition, the filaments of mycelium increase in length.
+From these long filaments springs the fungus. The sporangia, or more
+exactly the conidia, are composed of unilocular vesicles, perfectly
+colorless and transparent, which generally rise from one or both sides
+of the filaments of the mycelium, beginning as from little buds or eyes;
+very often several (two to three) sporangia occur placed one upon the
+other, at least on one side of the mycelium.
+
+With a linear magnitude of 480, the sporangia have a transverse diameter
+of one to five millimeters, or a little more in the larger specimens.
+The filaments of mycelium, under the same magnitude, appear exceedingly
+thin and finer than a hair. The shape of the conidia, though presenting
+some varieties, is, notwithstanding, always perfectly characteristic.
+Sometimes they resemble in appearance the segments of a semicircle more
+or less great, sometimes the wings of butterflies, double or single. It
+is only exceptionally that their form is so irregular.
+
+Again, when young, they are perfectly colorless and transparent;
+sometimes they are of a beautiful violet or blue color (mykianthinin
+mykocyanin). Upon this variety of the Limnophysalis hyalina depends the
+vomiting of blue matters observed by Dr. John Sullivan, at Havana, in
+patients affected with pernicious intermittent fever (algid and comatose
+form). In the perfectly mature sporangia, the sporidia have a dark brown
+color (mykophaein). From the sporidia, the Italian physicians, Lanzi and
+Perrigi, in the course of their attempts at its cultivation, have seen
+produced the Monilia penicinata friesii, which is, consequently, the
+second generation of the Limnophysalis hyalina, in which alternate
+generation takes place, admitting that their observations may be
+verified. The sporangia are never spherical, but always flat. When
+they are perfectly developed, they are distinctly separated from their
+filament of mycelium by a septum--that is to say, by limiting lines
+plainly marked. It is not rare, however, to see the individual sporangia
+perfectly isolated and disembarrassed of their filament of mycelium
+floating in the water. It seems to me very probable that these isolated
+sporangia are identical with the hyaline coagula so accurately described
+by Frerichs, who has observed them in the blood of patients dying of
+intermittent fevers. But if two sporangia are observed with their bases
+coherent without intermediary filaments of mycelium, it seems to me
+probable that the reproduction has taken place through the union, which
+happens in the following manner: Two filaments of mycelium become
+juxtaposed; after which the filaments of mycelium disappear in the
+sporangia newly formed, which by this same metamorphosis are deprived of
+the faculty of reproducing themselves through the filaments of myclium
+of which they are deprived. The smallest portion of a filament
+of mycelium evidently possesses the faculty of producing the new
+individuals.
+
+It is unquestionable that the Limnophysalis hyalina enter into the blood
+either by the bronchial mucous membrane, by the surface of the pulmonary
+vesicles, or by the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, most often,
+no doubt, by the last, with the ingested water; this introduction is
+aided by the force of suction and pressure, which facilitates their
+absorption. It develops in the glands of Lieberkuhn, and multiplies
+itself; after which the individuals, as soon as they are formed, are
+drawn out and carried away in the blood of the circulation.
+
+The Limnophysalis hyalina is, in short, a solid body, of an extreme
+levity, and endowed with a most delicate organization. It is not a
+miasm, in the common signification of the term; it does not carry with
+it any poison; it is not vegetable matter in decomposition, but it
+flourishes by preference amid the last.
+
+In regard to other circumstances relative to the presence of this
+fungus, there are, above all, two remarkable facts, namely, its property
+of adhering to surfaces as perfectly polished as that of a mirror, and
+its power of resistance against the reagents, if we except the caustic
+alkalies and the concentrated mineral acids. This power of resisting the
+ordinary reagents explains in a plausible manner why the fungus is not
+destroyed by the digestive process in the stomach, where, however, the
+acid reaction of the gastric juice probably arrests its development--is
+that of the schistomycetes in general--and keeps it in a state of
+temporary inactivity. This property of adhering to smooth surfaces
+explains perhaps the power of the Eucalyptus globulus in arresting the
+progress of paludal miasm (?). But it is evident that other trees,
+shrubs, and plants of resinous or balsamic foliage, as, for example, the
+Populus balsamifera, Cannabis sativa, Pinus silvestris, Pinus abies,
+Juniperus communis, have equally, with us, the same faculty; they are
+favorable also for the drying of the soil, and the more completely, as
+their roots are spreading, more extended, and more ramified.
+
+In order to demonstrate the presence of the limnophysalis in the blood
+of patients affected with intermittent fever during the febrile stage,
+properly speaking, it appeared necessary for me to dilute the blood of
+patients with a solution of nitrate of potassa, having at 37.5°C. the
+same specific gravity as the serum of the blood. With capillary tubes of
+glass, a little dilated toward the middle, of the same shape and size as
+those which are used in collecting vaccine lymph, I took up a little
+of the solution of nitrate of potassa above indicated. After this I
+introduced the point of an ordinary inoculating needle under the skin,
+especially in the splenic region, where I ruptured some of the smallest
+blood-vessels of the subcutaneous cellular tissue. I collected some
+of the blood which flowed out or was forced out by pressure, in the
+capillary tubes just described, containing a solution of potassa;
+after which I melted the ends with the flame of a candle. With all the
+intermittent fever patients whose blood I have collected and diluted
+during the febrile stage, properly speaking, I have constantly succeeded
+in finding the Limnophysalis hyalina in the blood by microscopic
+examination.
+
+It is only necessary for me to mention here that it is of the highest
+importance to be able to demonstrate the presence of fungus in the blood
+of the circulation and in the urine of patients in whom the diagnosis
+is doubtful. The presence of the Limnophysalis hyalina in the urine
+indicates that the patient is liable to a relapse, and that his
+intermittent fever is not cured, which is important in a prognostic and
+therapeutic point of view.
+
+When the question is to prevent the propagation of intermittent fevers,
+it is evident that it should be remembered that the Limnophysalis
+hyalina enters into the blood by the mucous membrane of the organs of
+respiration, of digestion, and the surface of the pulmonary vesicles. We
+have also to consider the soil, and the water that is used for drinking.
+
+In regard to the soil, several circumstances are very worthy of
+attention. It is desirable, not only to lower as much as possible the
+level of the subterranean water (grunawassen) by pipes of deep drainage,
+the cleansing, and if there is reason, the enlargement (J. Ory) of
+the capacity of the water collectors, besides covering and keeping in
+perfect repair the principal ditches in all the secondary valleys to
+render the lands wholesome, but also to completely drain the ground,
+diverting the rain water and cultivating the land, in the cultivation of
+which those trees, shrubs, and plants should be selected which thrive
+the most on marshy grounds and on the shores and paludal coasts of the
+sea, and which have their roots most speading and most ramified. Some
+of the ordinary grasses are also quite appropriate, but crops of the
+cereals, which are obtained after a suitable reformation of marshy
+lands, yield a much better return. After the soil in the neighborhood of
+the dwellings has been drained and cultivated with care, and in a more
+systematic manner than at present, the bottoms of the cellars should be
+purified as well as the foundations of the walls and of the houses.
+
+The water intended for drinking, which contains the Limnophysalis
+hyalina, should be freed from the fungus by a vigorous filtration. But,
+as it is known, the filtering beds of the basins in the water conduits
+are soon covered with a thick coating of confervæ, and the Limnophysalis
+hyalina then extends from the deepest portions of the filtering beds
+into the filtered water subjacent. It is for this reason that it is
+absolutely necessary to renew so often the filtering beds of the water
+conduits, and, at all events, before they have become coated with a
+thick layer of confervæ. The disappearance of intermittent fevers will
+testify to the utility of these measures. It is for a similar reason
+that wooden barrels are so injurious for equipages. When the wood has
+begun to decay by the contact of the impure water, the filaments of
+mycelium of the Limnophysalis hyalina penetrate into the decayed wood,
+which becomes a fertile soil for the intermittent fever fungi.
+
+The employment for the preparation of mortar of water not filtered, or
+of foul, muddy sand which contains the Limnophysalis hyalina, explains
+how intermittent fevers may proceed from the walls of houses. This
+arises also from the pasting of wall-paper with flour paste prepared
+with water which contains an abundance of the fungi of intermittent
+fever.
+
+The miasm in the latter case is therefore endoecic, or more exactly
+entoichic. With us the propagation of intermittent fever has been
+observed in persons occupying rooms scoured with unfiltered water
+containing the Limnophysalis hyalina in great quantity.
+
+The following imperial ordinance was published on the 25th of March,
+1877, by the chief of admiralty of the German marine. It has for its
+object the prevention and eradication of infectious diseases:
+
+"In those places where infectious diseases, according to experience, are
+prevalent and unusually severe and frequent, it is necessary to abstain
+as much as possible from the employment of water taken from without the
+ship for cleansing said vessel, and also for washing out the hold when
+the water of the sea or of a river, in the judgment of the commander of
+a vessel, confirmed by the statement of the physician, is shown to be
+surcharged with organic matter liable to putrefaction. With this end in
+view, if you are unable to send elsewhere for suitable water, you must
+make use of good and fresh water, but with the greatest economy. In that
+event the purification of the hold must be accomplished by mechanical
+means or by disinfectants."
+
+"As I have demonstrated by my investigations that in the distillation
+of paludal water, and that from the marshy shores of the sea, the
+Limnophysalis hyalina, which is impalpable, is carried away and may be
+detected again after the distillation, it must be insisted that the
+water intended to be used for drinking on shipboard shall be carefully
+filtered before and after its distillation."
+
+The Klebs-Tommasi and Dr. Sternberg's report, as summarized in the
+Supplement No. 14, National Board of Health Bulletin, Washington, D.C.,
+July 18, I would cordially recommend to all students of this subject.
+
+I welcome these observers into the field. Nothing but good can come from
+such careful and accurate observations into the cause of disease. For
+myself I am ready to say that it may be that the Roman gentlemen have
+bit on the cause of the Roman fever, which is of such a pernicious type.
+I do not see how I can judge, as I never investigated the Roman fever;
+still, while giving them all due credit, and treating them with respect,
+in order to put myself right I may say that I have long ago ceased to
+regard all the bacilli, micrococci, and bacteria, etc., as ultimate
+forms of animal or vegetable life. I look upon them as simply the
+embryos of mature forms, which are capable of propagating themselves
+in this embryonal state. I have observed these forms in many diseased
+conditions; many of them in one disease are nothing but the vinegar
+yeast developing, away from the air, in the blood where the full
+development of the plant is not apt to be found. In diphtheria I
+developed the bacteria to the full form--the Mucor malignans. So in the
+study of ague, for the vegetation which seems to me to be connected with
+ague, I look to the fully developed sporangias as the true plant.
+
+Again, I think that crucial experiments should be made on man for his
+diseases as far as it is possible. Rabbits, on which the experiments
+were made, for example, are of a different organization and food than
+man, and bear tests differently. While there are so many human beings
+subject to ague, it seems to me they should be the subjects on whom the
+crucial tests are to be made, as I did in my labors.
+
+As far as I can see, Dr. Sternberg's inquiries tend to disprove the
+Roman experiments, and as he does not offer anything positive as a
+cause of ague, I can only express the hope that he will continue his
+investigations with zeal and earnestness, and that he will produce
+something positive and tangible in his labors in so interesting and
+important a field.
+
+I would then that all would join hands in settling the cause of this
+disease; and while I do not expect that all will agree with me, still, I
+shall respect others' opinions, and so long as I keep close to my facts
+I shall hope my views, based on my facts, will not be treated with
+disrespect.
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+Gemiasma verdans and Gemiasma rubra collected Sept. 10, 1882, on
+Washington Heights, near High Bridge. The illustrations show the manner
+in which the mature plants discharge their contents.
+
+Plate VIII. A, B, and C represent very large plants of the Gemiasma
+verdans. A represents a mature plant. B represents the same plant,
+discharging its spores and spermatia through a small opening in the cell
+walls. The discharge is quite rapid but not continuous, being spasmodic,
+as if caused by intermittent contractions in the cell walls. The
+discharge begins suddenly and with considerable force--a sort of
+explosion which projects a portion of the contents rapidly and to quite
+a little distance. This goes on for a few seconds, and then the cell is
+at rest for a few seconds, when the contractions and explosions begin
+again and go on as before. Under ordinary conditions it takes a plant
+from half an hour to an hour to deliver itself. It is about two-thirds
+emptied. C represents the mature plant, entirely emptied of its spore
+contents, there remaining inside only a few actively moving spermatia,
+which are slowly escaping. The spermatia differ from the spores and
+young plants in being smaller, and of possessing the power of moving and
+tumbling about rapidly, while the spores of young plants are larger
+and quiescent. D, E, F, and G represent mature plants belonging to the
+Gemiasma rubra. D represents a ripe plant, filled with spores, embryonic
+plants, and spermatia. E represents a ripe plant in the act of
+discharging its contents, it being about half emptied. F represents
+a ripe plant after its spore and embryonic plant contents are all
+discharged, leaving behind only a few actively moving spermatia, which
+are slowly escaping. G represents the emptied plant in a quiescent
+state.
+
+Figs. A, B, C represent an unusually large variety of the Gemiasma
+verdans. This species is usually about the size of the rubra. This
+large variety was found on the upper part of New York Island, near High
+Bridge, in a natural depression where the water stands most of the
+year, except in July, August, and September, when it becomes an area
+of drying, cracked mud two hundred feet across. As the mud dries these
+plants develop in great profusion, giving an appearance to the surface
+as if covered thickly with brick dust.
+
+These depressions and swaily places, holding water part of the year, and
+becoming dry during the malarial season, can be easily dried by means
+of covered drains, and grassed or sodded over, when they will cease to
+grow; this vegetation and ague in such localities will disappear.
+
+The malarial vegetations begin to develop moderately in July, but do not
+spring forth abundantly enough to do much damage till about the middle
+of August, when they in ague localities spring into existence in vast
+multitudes, and continue to develop in great profusion till frost comes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF THE MALARIA PLANT (GEMIASMA RUBRA).
+
+By Prof Paulus F. Reinsch.
+
+
+Author Algæ of France, 1866; Latest Observations on Algology, 1867;
+Chemical Investigation of the Connections of the Lias and Jura
+Formations, 1859; Chemical Investigation of the Viscum Album, 1860;
+Contributions to Algology and Fungology, 1874-75, vol. i.; New
+Investigation of the Microscopic Structure of Pit Coal, 1881;
+Micrographic Photographs of the Structure and Composition of Pit Coal,
+1888.
+
+Dr. Cutter writes me September 28, 1882: "My dear Professor: By this
+mail I send you a specimen of the Gemiasma rubra of Salisbury, described
+in 1862, as found in bogs, mud holes, and marshes of ague districts, in
+the air suspended at night, in the sputa, blood, and urine, and on
+the skin of persons suffering with ague. It is regarded as one of the
+Palmellaceæ. This rubra is found in the more malignant and fatal types
+of the disease. I have found it in all the habitats described by Dr.
+Salisbury. Both he and myself would like you to examine and hear what
+you have to say about it."
+
+The substance of clayish soil contains, besides fragments of shells of
+larger diatoms (Suriella synhedra), shells of Navicula minutissima,
+Pinnularia viridis. Spores belonging to various cryptogams.
+
+1. Spherical transparent spores with laminated covering and dark
+nucleus--0.022 millimeter in diameter.
+
+2. Spherical spores with thick covering of granulated surface.
+
+3. Spherical spores with punctulated surface--0.007 millimeter in
+diameter.
+
+4. Very minute, transparent, bluish-greenish colored spores, with thin
+covering and finely granulated contents--0.006 millimeter in diameter.
+
+5. Chroococcoid cells with two larger nuclei--0.0031 millimeter in
+diameter. Sometimes biciliated minute cells are found; without any doubt
+they are zoospores derived from any algoid or fungoid species.
+
+I cannot say whether there exists any genetic connection between these
+various sorts of spores. It seems to me that probably numbers 1-4
+represent resting states of the hyphomycetes.
+
+No. 5 represents one and two celled states of chroococcus species belong
+to Chroococcus minutus.
+
+The crust of the clayish earth is covered with a reddish brown covering
+of about half a millimeter in thickness. This covering proves to be
+composed, under the microscope, of cellular filaments and various shaped
+bodies of various composition. They are made up of cells with densely
+and coarsely granulated reddish colored contents--shape, size, and
+composition are very variable, as shown in the figures. _The cellular
+bodies make up the essential organic part of the clayish substance, and,
+without any doubt, if anything of the organic compounds of the substance
+is in genetical connection with the disease, these bodies would have
+this role_. The structure and coloration of cell contents exhibit the
+closest alliance to the characteristics of the division of Chroolepideæ
+and of this small division of Chlorophyllaceous Algæ, nearest to
+Gongrosira--a genus whose five to six species are inhabitants of fresh
+water, mostly attached to various minute aquatic Algæ and mosses. Each
+cell of all the plants of this genus produces a large number of mobile
+cells--zoospores.
+
+Fig. 9 represents very probably one zoospore developed from these plants
+as figured from 10 to 16.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBON.
+
+
+M. Berthelot, in the _Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie_ for March,
+states that from peculiar physical relations he is led to suspect that
+the true element carbon is unknown, and that diamond and graphite are
+substances of a different order. Elementary carbon ought to be gaseous
+at the ordinary temperature, and the various kinds of carbon which
+occur in nature are in reality polymerized products of the true element
+carbon. Spectrum analysis is thought to confirm this view; and it is
+supposed the second spectrum seen in a Geissler tube belongs to gaseous
+carbon. This spectrum, which has been recognized along with that of
+hydrogen in the light of the tails of comets, indicates a carbide,
+probably acetylene.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CANNED MEATS.
+
+By P. CARLES.
+
+
+When tinned iron serves for containing alimentary matters, it is
+essential that the tin employed should be free from lead. The latter
+metal is rapidly oxidized on the surface and is dissolved in this form
+in the neutral acids of vegetables, meat, etc. The most exact method
+of demonstrating the presence of lead consists in treating the
+alloy--so-called tin--with _aqua regia_ containing relatively little
+nitric acid. The whole dissolves; the excess of acid is driven off by
+evaporation at a boiling heat, and the residue, diluted with water, is
+saturated with hydrogen sulphide. The iron remains in solution, while
+the mixed lead and tin sulphides precipitated are allowed to digest for
+a long time in an alkaline sulphide. The tin sulphide only dissolves; it
+is filtered off and converted into stannic acid, while the lead sulphide
+is transformed into sulphate and weighed as such.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW BLEACHING PROCESS, WITH REGENERATION OF THE BATHS USED.
+
+By MR. BONNEVILLE.
+
+
+To a cold solution containing 1 per cent. of bromine, 1 per cent. of
+caustic soda at 36° B. is added, then the material, to be bleached is
+first wet and then immersed in this bath until completely decolorized.
+It is passed into a newly-acidulated bath, rinsed, and dried. After the
+bromine bath has been used up, it is regenerated by adding 1 per cent.
+of sulphuric acid, which liberates the bromine. To the same bath
+caustic soda is added, which regenerates the hypobromite of soda. The
+hydrofluosilicic acid can be used, instead of the sulphuric acid, with
+greater advantage. A bath used up can also be regenerated by means of
+the electric current.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DETECTION OF MAGENTA, ARCHIL, AND CUDBEAR IN WINE.
+
+
+These colors are not suitable for converting white wine into red, but
+they can be used for giving wines a faint red tint, for darkening pale
+red wines, and in making up a factitious bouquet essence, which is added
+to red wines. The most suitable methods for the detection of magenta are
+those given by Romei and Falieres-Ritter. If a wine colored with archil
+and one colored with cudbear are treated treated according to Romei's
+method, the former gives, with basic lead acetate, a blue, and the
+latter a fine violet precipitate. The filtrate, if shaken up with amylic
+alcohol, gives it in either case a red color. A knowledge of this fact
+is important, or it may be mistaken for magenta. The behavior of the
+amylic alcohol, thus colored red, with hydrochloric acid and ammonia is
+characteristic. If the red color is due to magenta, it is destroyed by
+both these reagents, while hydrocholoric acid does not decolorize the
+solutions of archil and cudbear, and ammonia turns their red color to a
+purple violet. If the wine is examined according to the Falieres-Ritter
+method in presence of magenta, ether, when shaken up with the wine,
+previously rendered ammoniacal, remains colorless, while if archil
+or cudbear is present the ether is colored red. Wartha has made a
+convenient modification in the Falieres-Ritter method by adding ammonia
+and ether to the concentrated wine while still warm. If the red color of
+the wool is due to archil or cudbear, it is extracted by hydrochloric
+acid, which is colored red. Ammonia turns the color to a purple violet.
+König mixed 50 c.c. wine with ammonia in slight excess, and places in
+the mixture about one-half grm. clean white woolen yarn. The whole is
+then boiled in a flask until all the alcohol and the excess of ammonia
+are driven off. The wool taken out of the liquid and purified by washing
+in water and wringing is moistened in a test-tube with pure potassa
+lye at 10 per cent. It is carefully heated till the wool is completely
+dissolved, and the solution, when cold, is mixed first with half its
+volume of pure alcohol, upon which is carefully poured the same volume
+of ether, and the whole is shaken. The stratum of ether decanted off is
+mixed in a test-tube with a drop of acetic acid. A red color appears if
+the slightest trace of magenta is present. The shaking must not be too
+violent, lest an emulsion should be formed. If the wine is colored with
+archil, on prolonged heating, after the addition of ammonia, it is
+decolorized. If it is then let cool and shaken a little, the red color
+returns. If the wool is taken out of the hot liquid after the red color
+has disappeared, and exposed to the air, it takes a red color. But if
+it is quickly taken out of the liquid and at once washed, there remains
+merely a trace of color in the wool. If these precautions are observed,
+magenta can be distinguished from archil with certainty according to
+König's method. As the coloring-matter of archil is not precipitated
+by baryta and magnesia, but changed to a purple, the baryta method,
+recommended by Pasteur, Balard, and Wurtz, and the magnesia test, are
+useless. Magenta may in course of time be removed by the precipitates
+formed in the wine. It is therefore necessary to test not merely the
+clear liquid, but the sediment, if any.--_Dr. B. Haas, in Budermann's
+Centralblatt.--Analyst_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PANAX VICTORIÆ.
+
+
+Panax Victoriæ is a compact and charming plant, which sends up numbers
+of stems from the bottom in place of continually growing upward and thus
+becoming ungainly; it bears a profusion of elegantly curled, tasseled,
+and variegated foliage, very catching to the eye, and unlike any of its
+predecessors. The other, P. dumosum, is of similar habit, the foliage
+being crested and fringed after the manner of some of our rare crested
+ferns.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle_.
+
+[Illustration: PANAX VICTORIÆ.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NOTE ON SAP.
+
+[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society,
+London, April 4, 1883.]
+
+By Professor ATTFIELD, F.R.S.
+
+
+Beneath a white birch tree growing in my garden I noticed, yesterday
+evening, a very wet place on the gravel path, the water of which was
+obviously being fed by the cut extremity of a branch of the birch about
+an inch in diameter and some ten feet from the ground. I afterward found
+that exactly fifteen days ago circumstances rendered necessary the
+removal of the portion of the branch which hung over the path, 4 or 5
+feet being still left on the tree. The water or sap was dropping fast
+from the branch, at the rate of sixteen large drops per minute, each
+drop twice or thrice the size of a "minim," and neither catkins nor
+leaves had yet expanded. I decided that some interest would attach to a
+determination both of the rate of flow of the fluid and of its chemical
+composition, especially at such a stage of the tree's life.
+
+A bottle was at once so suspended beneath the wound as to catch the
+whole of the exuding sap. It caught nearly 5 fluid ounces between eight
+and nine o'clock. During the succeeding eleven hours of the night 44
+fluid ounces were collected, an average of 4 ounces per hour. From 8:15
+to 9:15 this morning, very nearly 7 ounces were obtained. From 9:15
+to 10:15, with bright sunshine, 8 ounces. From 10:15 until 8:15 this
+evening the hourly record kept by my son Harvey shows that the amount
+during that time has slowly diminished from 8 to a little below 7 ounces
+per hour. Apparently the flow is faster in sunshine than in shade, and
+by day than by night.
+
+It would seem, therefore, that this slender tree, with a stem which at
+the ground is only 7 inches in diameter, having a height of 39 feet,
+and before it has any expanded leaves from whose united surfaces large
+amounts of water might evaporate, is able to draw from the ground about
+4 liters, or seven-eighths of a gallon of fluid every twenty-four hours.
+That at all events was the amount flowing from this open tap in its
+water system. Even the topmost branches of the tree had not become,
+during the fifteen days, abnormally flaccid, so that, apparently, no
+drainage of fluid from the upper portion of the tree had been taking
+place. For a fortnight the tree apparently had been drawing, pumping,
+sucking--I know not what word to use--nearly a gallon of fluid daily
+from the soil in the neigborhood of its roots. This soil had only an
+ordinary degree of dampness. It was not wet, still less was there any
+actually fluid water to be seen. Indeed, usually all the adjacent soil
+is of a dry kind, for we are on the plateau of a hill 265 feet above the
+sea, and the level of the local water reservoir into which our wells dip
+is about 80 feet below the surface. My gardener tells me that the tree
+has been "bleeding" at about the same rate for fourteen of the fifteen
+days, the first day the branch becoming only somewhat damp. During the
+earlier part of that time we had frosts at night, and sunshine, but with
+extremely cold winds, during the days. At one time the exuding sap
+gave, I am told by two different observers, icicles a foot long. A much
+warmer, almost summer, temperature has prevailed during the past three
+days, and no wind. This morning the temperature of the sap as it escaped
+was constant at 52° F., while that of the surrounding air was varying
+considerably.
+
+The collected sap was a clear, bright, water-like fluid. After a pint
+had stood aside for twelve hours, there was the merest trace of a
+sediment at the bottom of the vessel. The microscope showed this to
+consist of parenchymatous cells, with here and there a group of
+the wheel-like or radiating cells which botanists, I think, term
+sphere-crystals. The sap was slightly heavier than water, in the
+proportion of 1,005 to 1,000. It had a faintly sweet taste and a very
+slight aromatic odor.
+
+Chemical analysis showed that this sap consisted of 99 parts of pure
+water with 1 part of dissolved solid matter. Eleven-twelfths of the
+latter were sugar.
+
+That the birch readily yields its sap when the wood is wounded is well
+known. Philipps, quoted by Sowerby, says:
+
+  "Even afflictive birch,
+  Cursed by unlettered youth, distills,
+  A limpid current from her wounded bark,
+  Profuse of nursing sap."
+
+And that birch sap contains sugar is known, the peasants of many
+countries, especially Russia, being well acquainted with the art of
+making birch wine by fermenting its saccharine juice.
+
+But I find no hourly or daily record of the amount of sugar-bearing
+sap which can be drawn from the birch, or from any tree, before it
+has acquired its great digesting or rather developing and transpiring
+apparatus--its leaf system. And I do not know of any extended chemical
+analysis of sap either of the birch, or other tree.
+
+Besides sugar, which is present in this sap to the extent of 616
+grains--nearly an ounce and a half--per gallon, there are present a
+mere trace of mucilage; no starch; no tannin; 3½ grains per gallon
+of ammoniacal salts yielding 10 per cent. of nitrogen; 3 grains of
+albuminoid matter yielding 10 per cent. of nitrogen; a distinct trace of
+nitrites; 7.4 grains of nitrates containing 17 per cent. of nitrogen; no
+chlorides, or the merest trace; no sulphates; no sodium salts; a little
+of potassium salts; much phosphate and organic salts of calcium; and
+some similar magnesian compounds. These calcareous and magnesian
+substances yield an ash when the sap is evaporated to dryness and the
+sugar and other organic matter burnt away, the amount of this residual
+matter being exactly 50 grains per gallon. The sap contained no peroxide
+of hydrogen. It was faintly if at all acid. It held in solution a
+ferment capable of converting starch into sugar. Exposed to the air it
+soon swarmed with bacteria, its sugar being changed to alcohol.
+
+A teaspoonful or two of, say, apple juice, and a tablespoonful of sugar
+put into a gallon of such rather hard well-water as we have in our
+chalky district, would very fairly represent this specimen of the sap of
+the silver birch. Indeed, in the phraseology of a water-analyst, I may
+say that the sap itself has 25 degrees of total, permanent hardness.
+
+How long the tree would continue to yield such a flow of sap I cannot
+say; probably until the store of sugar it manufactured last summer to
+feed its young buds this spring was exhausted. Even within twenty-four
+hours the sugar has slightly diminished in proportion in the fluid.
+
+Whether or not this little note throws a single ray of light on the much
+debated question of the cause of the rise of sap in plants I must leave
+to botanists to decide. I cannot hope that it does, for Julius Sachs,
+than whom no one appears to have more carefully considered the subject,
+says, at page 677 of the recently published English translation of his
+textbook of botany, that "although the movements of water in plants have
+been copiously investigated and discussed for nearly two hundred years,
+it is nevertheless still impossible to give a satisfactory and deductive
+account of the mode of operation of these movements in detail." As
+a chemist and physicist myself, knowing something about capillary
+attraction, exosmose, endosmose, atmospheric pressure, and gravitation
+generally, and the movements caused by chemical attraction, I am afraid
+I must concur in the opinion that we do not yet know the real ultimate
+cause or causes of the rise of sap in plants.
+
+Ashlands, Watford, Herts.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CROW.
+
+[Footnote: Abstract of a recent discussion before the Connecticut State
+Board of Agriculture.]
+
+
+Prof. W. A. Stearns, in a lecture upon the utility of birds in
+agriculture, stated that the few facts we do know regarding the matter
+have been obtained more through the direct experience of those who have
+stumbled on the facts they relate than those who have made any special
+study of the matter. One great difficulty has been that people looked
+too far and studied too deeply for facts which were right before them.
+For instance, people are well acquainted with the fact that hawks,
+becoming bold, pounce down upon and carry off chickens from the
+hen-yards and eat them. How many are acquainted with the fact that in
+hard winters, when pressed for food, crows do this likewise? But
+what does this signify? Simply that the crow regulates its food from
+necessity, not from choice.
+
+Now, carry this fact into operation in the spring into the cornfield. Do
+you suppose that the crow, being hungry, and dropping into a field of
+corn wherein is abundance to satisfy his desires, stops, as many affirm,
+to pick out only those kernels which are affected with mildew, larva, or
+weevil? Does he instinctively know what corns, when three or four inches
+beneath the ground, are thus affected? Not a bit of it. To him, a
+strictly grain-feeding and not an insect-eating bird, the necessity
+takes the place of the choice. He is hungry; the means of satisfying his
+hunger are at hand. He naturally drops down in the first cornfield
+he sees, calls all his neighbors to the feast, and then roots up and
+swallows all the kernels until he can hold no more. There is no doubt
+the crow is a damage to the agriculturist. He preys upon the cornfield
+and eats the corn indiscriminately, whether there are any insects or
+not. That has been proved by dissection of stomach and crop.
+
+If corn can be protected by tarring, so that the crows will not eat it,
+they will prove a benefit by leaving the corn and picking up grubs in
+the field. Where corn has been tarred, I have never known the crows to
+touch it.
+
+Mr. Sedgwick remarked that, in addition to destroying the corn crop, the
+crow was also very destructive of the eggs of other birds. Last spring
+I watched a pair of crows flying through an orchard, and in several
+instances saw them fly into birds' nests, take out the eggs, and then go
+on around the field.
+
+In answer to Mr. Hubbard, who claimed the crow would eat animal food in
+any form, and might not be rightly classified as a grain-eating bird,
+Prof. Stearns said the crow was thus classified by reason of the
+structure of its crop being similar to that of the finches, the
+blackbird, the sparrows, and other seed-eating birds.
+
+[Illustration: THE AMERICAN CROW.]
+
+Mr. Wetherell said: Crows are greedy devourers of the white worm, which
+sometimes destroys acres of grass. As a grub eater, the crow deserves
+much praise. The crow is the scavenger of the bird family, eating
+anything and everything, whether it is sweet or carrion. The only
+quarrel I have with the crow is because it destroys the eggs and young
+birds.
+
+Mr. Lockwood described the experience of a neighbor who planted corn
+after tarring it. This seemed to prevent the ravages of the crows until
+the second hoeing, when the corn was up some eighteen inches, at which
+time the crows came in and pulled nearly an acre clean.
+
+Crows, said Dr. Riggs, have no crop, like a great many carnivorous
+birds. The passage leading from the mouth goes directly to the gizzard,
+something like the duck. The duck has no crop, yet the passage leading
+from the mouth to the gizzard in the duck becomes considerably enlarged.
+In the crow there is no enlargement of this passage, and everything
+passes directly into the gizzard, where it is digested.
+
+Dr. Riggs had raised corn and watched the operations of the crows. Going
+upon the field in less than a minute after the crows had left it, he
+found they had pulled the corn, hill after hill, marching from one hill
+to the other. Not until the corn had become softened and had come up
+would they molest it. In the fall they would come in droves on to a
+field of corn, where it is in stacks, pick out the corn from the husks,
+and put it into their gizzards. They raid robbins' nests and swallows'
+nests, devouring eggs and young birds. Yet crows are great scavengers.
+In the spring they get a great many insects and moths from the ground,
+and do good work in picking up those large white grubs with red heads
+that work such destruction in some of our mowing fields.
+
+Mr. Pratt stated that he had used coal tar on his seed corn for five or
+six years, and had never a spear pulled by the crows. Dr. Riggs never
+had known a crow to touch corn after it got to the second tier of
+leaves. Mr. Lockwood said crows would sample a whole field of corn to
+find corn not tarred. Mr. Pratt recommended to pour boiling water on the
+corn before applying the tar. A large tablespoonful of tar will color a
+pail of water.
+
+According to Dr. Riggs, the hot mixture with the corn must be stirred
+continually; if not, the life of the corn will be killed and germination
+prevented. It may be poured on very hot, if the stirring is kept up and
+too much tar is not used. If the water is hot it will dissolve the tar,
+and as it is poured on it will coat every kernel of corn. If the water
+is allowed to stand upon the corn any great length of time, the chit of
+the corn will be damaged. The liquid should be poured off and the corn
+allowed to cool immediately after a good stirring.
+
+Mr. Gold had known of crows pulling corn after the second hoeing, when
+the scare-crows had been removed from the field. The corn thus pulled
+had reached pretty good size. This pulling must have been done from
+sheer malice on the part of the crows.
+
+Mr. Ayer was inclined to befriend the crow. For five years he had
+planted from eight to twelve acres of corn each year and had not lost
+twenty hills by crows. He does not use tar, but does not allow himself
+to go out of a newly-planted cornfield without first stretching a string
+around it on high poles and also providing a wind-mill with a little
+rattle box on it to make a noise. With him this practice keeps the crows
+away.
+
+Mr. Goodwin thought crows were scavengers of the forests and did good
+service in destroying the worms, grubs, and insects that preyed upon
+our trees. He had raised some forty crops of corn, and whenever he had
+thoroughly twined it at the time of planting, crows did not pull it up.
+In damp spots, during the wet time and after his twine was down, he had
+known crows to pull up corn that was seven or eight inches high.
+
+Respecting crows as insect eaters, Prof. Stearns admitted that they did
+devour insects; he had seen them eat insects on pear trees. Tame crows
+at his home had been watched while eating insects, yet a crow will
+eat corn a great deal quicker than he will eat insects.--_Boston
+Cultivator_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PRAYING MANTIS AND ITS ALLIES.
+
+
+On examining the strange forms shown in the accompanying engraving, many
+persons would suppose they were looking at exotic insects. Although this
+is true for many species of this group, which are indigenous to warm
+countries, and reach at the most only the southern temperate zone, yet
+there are certain of these insects that are beginning to be found in
+France, to the south of the Loire, and that are always too rare, since,
+being exclusively feeders on living prey, they prove useful aids to us.
+
+These insects belong among the orthoptera--an order including species
+whose transformations are less complete than in other groups, and whose
+larval and pupal forms are very active, and closely resemble the imago.
+Two pairs of large wings characterize the adult state, the first pair
+of which are somewhat thickened to protect the broad, net-veined hinder
+pair, which fold up like a fan upon the abdomen. The hind legs are large
+and adapted for leaping.
+
+The raptorial group called _Mantidæ_, which forms the subject of this
+article, includes species that maybe easily recognized by their large
+size, their enormous, spinous fore legs, which are adapted for seizing
+other insects, and from their devotional attitude when watching their
+prey.
+
+These insects exhibit in general the phenomenon of mimicry, or
+adaptation for protection, through their color and form, some being
+green, like the plants upon which they live, others yellowish or
+grayish, and others brownish like dead leaves.
+
+In the best known species, _Mantis religiosa_, the head is triangular,
+the eyes large, the prothorax very long, and the body narrowed and
+lengthened; the anterior feet are armed with hooks and spines, and the
+shanks are capable of being doubled up on the under side of the thighs.
+When at rest it sits upon the four posterior legs, with the head and
+prothorax nearly erect, and the anterior feet folded backward. The
+female insect attains a length of 54 millimeters, and the male only 40.
+
+The color is of a handsome green, sometimes yellow, or of a yellowish
+red. The insects are slow in their motions, waiting on the branches of
+trees and shrubs for some other insect to pass within their reach, when
+they seize and hold it with the anterior feet, and tear it to pieces.
+They are very voracious, and sometimes prey upon each other. Their eggs
+are deposited in two long rows, protected by a parchment-like envelope,
+and attached to the stalk of a plant. The nymph is as voracious as the
+perfect insect, from which it differs principally in the less developed
+wings.
+
+The devotional attitude of these insects when watching for their
+prey--their fore legs being elevated and joined in a supplicating
+manner--has given them in English the popular names of "soothsayer,"
+"prophet," and "praying mantis," in French, "prie-Dieu," in Portuguese,
+"louva-Deos," etc. According to Sparmann, the Nubians and Hottentots
+regard mantides as tutelary divinities, and worship them as such. A
+monkish legend tells us that Saint Francis Xavier, having perceived a
+mantis holding its legs toward heaven, ordered it to sing the praises of
+God, when immediately the insect struck up one of the most exemplary of
+canticles! Pison, in his "Natural History of the East Indies," makes use
+of the word _Vates_ (divine) to designate these insects, and speaks of
+that superstition, common to both Christians and heathens, that assigns
+to them the gifts of prophecy and divination. The habit that the mantis
+has of first stretching out one fore leg, and then the other, and of
+preserving such a position for some little time, has also led to the
+belief among the illiterate that it is in the act, in such cases, of
+pointing out the road to the passer by.
+
+[Illustration: MANTIDES AND EMPUSÆ]
+
+The old naturalist, Moufet, in his _Theatrum Insectorum_ (London, 1634),
+says of the praying mantis (_M. religiosa_) that it is reported so
+divine that if a child asks his way of it, it will show him the right
+road by stretching out its leg, and that it will rarely or never deceive
+him.
+
+This group of insects is most abundant in the tropical regions of
+Africa, South America, and India, but some species are found in the
+warmer parts of North America, Europe, and Australia. The American
+species is the "race-horse" (_M. carolina_), and occurs in the Southern
+and Western States. Burmeister says that _M. argentina_, of Buenos
+Ayres, seizes and eats small birds.
+
+The genera allied to _Mantis--Vates, Empusa, Harpax_, and
+_Schizocephala_--occur in the tropics. The genus _Eremophila_ inhabits
+the deserts of Northern Africa, where it resembles the sand in color.
+
+The species shown in the engraving (which we borrow from _La Nature_)
+inhabit France.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MAY-FLIES.
+
+
+There are usually found in the month of June, especially near water,
+certain insects that are called Ephemera, and which long ago acquired
+true celebrity, and furnished material for comparison to poets and
+philosophers. Indeed, in the adult state they live but one day, a fact
+that has given them their name. They appear for a few hours, fluttering
+about in the rays of a sun whose setting they are not to see, as they
+live during the space of a single twilight only. These insects have
+very short antennæ, an imperfect mouth incapable of taking food, and
+delicate, gauze like wings, the posterior ones of which are always
+small, or even rudimentary or wanting. Their legs are very delicate--the
+anterior ones very long--and their abdomen terminates in two or three
+long articulated filaments. One character, which is unique among
+insects, is peculiar to Ephemerids; the adults issuing from the pupal
+envelope undergo still another moult in divesting themselves of a thin
+pellicle that covers the body, wings, and other appendages. This is what
+is called the _subimago_, and precedes the imago or perfect state of the
+insect. The short life of adult May-flies is, with most of them, passed
+in a continual state of agitation. They are seen rising vertically in
+a straight line, their long fore-legs stretched out like antennæ, and
+serving to balance the posterior part of the body and the filaments
+of the abdomen during flight. On reaching a certain height they allow
+themselves to descend, stretching out while doing so their long wings
+and tail, which then serve as a parachute. Then a rapid working of these
+organs suddenly changes the direction of the motion, and they begin to
+ascend again. Coupling takes place during these aerial dances. Soon
+afterward the females approach the surface of the water and lay therein
+their eggs, spreading them out the while with the caudal filaments, or
+else depositing them all together in one mass that falls to the bottom.
+
+These insects seek the light, and are attracted by an artificial one,
+describing concentric circles around it and finally falling into it and
+being burnt up. Their bodies on falling into the water constitute a food
+which is eagerly sought by fishes, and which is made use of by fishermen
+as a bait.
+
+But the above is not the only state of Ephemerids, for their entire
+existence really lasts a year. Linnæus has thus summed up the total life
+of these little creatures: "The larvæ swim in water; and, in becoming
+winged insects, have only the shortest kind of joy, for they often
+celebrate in a single day their wedding, parturition, and funeral
+obsequies." The eggs, in fact, give birth to more or less elongated
+larvæ, which are always provided with three filaments at the end of
+the abdomen, and which breathe the oxygen dissolved in the water by
+tracheo-branchiæ along the sides of the body. They are carnivorous, and
+live on small animal prey. The most recent authors who have studied
+them are Mr. Eaton, in England, and Mr. Vayssiere, of the Faculte des
+Sciences, at Marseilles.
+
+_A propos_ of the larvæ of Ephemera or May-flies, we must speak of one
+of the entomological rarities of France, the nature and zoological place
+of which it has taken more than a century to demonstrate. Geoffroy, the
+old historian of the insects of the vicinity of Paris, was the first to
+find in the waters of the Seine a small animal resembling one of the
+Daphnids. This animal has six short and slender thoracic legs, which
+terminate in a hook and are borne on the under side of the cephalic
+shield. This latter is provided above with two slender six-jointed
+antennæ, two very large faceted eyes at the side, and three ocelli
+forming a triangle. The large thoraceo-abdominal shield is hollowed out
+behind into two movable valves which cover the first five segments of
+the abdomen (Fig. 1). The last four segments, of decreasing breadth,
+are retractile beneath the carapax, as is also the broad plume that
+terminates them, and which is formed of three short, transparent, and
+elegantly ciliated bristles. These are the locomotive organs of the
+animal, whose total length, with the segments of the tail expanded, does
+not exceed seven to eight millimeters. The animal is found in running
+waters, at a depth of from half a meter to a meter and a half. It hides
+under stones of all sizes, and, as soon as it is touched, its first care
+is to fix itself by the breast to their rough surface, and then to swim
+off to a more quiet place. It fastens itself so firmly to the stone that
+it is necessary to pass a thin knife-blade under it in order to detach
+it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--LARVA OF MAY FLY. (Magnified 12 times.)]
+
+Geoffroy, because of the two large eyes, and without paying attention to
+the ocelli, named this larva the "feather-tailed binocle." C. Dumeril,
+in 1876, found it again in pools that formed after rains, and named the
+creature (which is of a bluish color passing to red) the "pisciform
+binocle." Since then, this larva has been found in the Seine at
+Point-du-Jour, Bas-Meudon, and between Epone and Mantes. Latreille,
+in 1832, decided it to be a crustacean, and named it _Prosopistoma
+foliaceum_. In September, 1868, the animal was found at Toulouse by Dr.
+E. Joly in the nearly dry Garonne. Finally, in 1880, Mr. Vayssiere met
+with it in abundance in the Rhone, near Avignon.
+
+The abnormal existence of a six-legged crustacean occupied the
+attention of naturalists considerably. In 1869, Messrs. N. and E. Joly
+demonstrated that the famous "feather-tailed binocle" was the larva of
+an insect. They found in its mouth the buccal pieces of the Neuroptera,
+and, under the carapax, five pairs of branchial tufts attached to the
+segments that are invisible outwardly. Inside the animal were found
+tracheæ, the digestic tube of an insect, and malpighian canals.
+Finally, in June, 1880, Mr. Vayssière was enabled to establish the fact
+definitely that the insect belonged among the Ephemerids. Two of the
+larvae that he raised in water became, from yellowish, gradually brown.
+Then they crawled up a stone partially out of water, the carapax
+gradually split, and the adults readily issued therefrom--the head
+first, then the legs, and finally the abdomen. At the same time, the
+wings, which were in three folds in the direction of their length,
+spread out in their definite form (Fig. 2). The insects finally flew
+away to alight at a distance from the water. The wings of the insect,
+which are of an iron gray, are covered with a down of fine hairs. The
+posterior ones soon disappear.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAY-FLY (adult magnified 14 times).]
+
+Perhaps the subimago in this genus of Ephemerids, as in certain others,
+is the permanent aerial state of the female.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Connecticut is rapidly advancing in the cultivation of oysters. About
+90,000 acres are now planted, and thirty steamers and many sailing
+vessels are engaged in the trade.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COLOR OF WATER.
+
+
+It is well known that the water of different lakes and rivers differs in
+color. The Mediterranean Sea is indigo blue, the ocean sky blue, Lake
+Geneva is azure, while the Lake of the Four Forest Cantons and Lake
+Constance, in Switzerland, as well as the river Rhine, are chrome green,
+and Kloenthaler Lake is grass green.
+
+Tyndall thought that the blue color of water had a similar cause as
+the blue color of the air, being blue by reflected light and red by
+transmitted light. W. Spring has recently communicated to the Belgian
+Academy the results of his investigations upon the color of water.
+He proved that perfectly pure water in a tube 10 meters long had a
+distinctly blue color, while it ought, according to Tyndall, to look
+red. Spring also showed that water in which carbonate of lime, silica,
+clay, and salts were suspended in a fine state of division offered a
+resistance to the passage of light that was not inconsiderable. Since
+the red and violet light of the spectrum are much more feeble than the
+yellow, the former will be completely absorbed, while the latter passes
+through, producing, with the blue of the water itself, different shades
+of green.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is to be held in Paris this year, from the 1st to the 22d of July,
+an insect exhibition, organized by the Central Society of Agriculture
+and Insectology. It will include (1) useful insects; (2) their products,
+raw, and in the first transformations; (3) apparatus and instruments
+used in the preparation of these products; (4) injurious insects and
+the various processes for destroying them; (5) everything relating to
+insectology.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+385, May 19, 1883, by Various
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