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diff --git a/891-h/891-h.htm b/891-h/891-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0dc804 --- /dev/null +++ b/891-h/891-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,18369 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Volume 2 by Edward Gibbon</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre> +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire + Volume 2 + +Author: Edward Gibbon + +Commentator: H. H. Milman + +Release Date: April, 1997 [EBook #891] +[Most recently updated: March 23, 2020] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + + + + +Produced by David Reed, Dale R. Fredrickson and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, VOLUME 2 + </h2> + <h2> + Edward Gibbon, Esq. + </h2> + <h3> + With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman + </h3> + <h4> + 1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch16-p1">Chapter XVI—Conduct Towards The + Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part I.</a> <a + href="#linkch16-p2">Part II.</a> <a href="#linkch16-p3">Part + III.</a> <a href="#linkch16-p4">Part IV.</a> <a + href="#linkch16-p5">Part V.</a> <a href="#linkch16-p6">Part + VI.</a> <a href="#linkch16-p7">Part VII.</a> <a + href="#linkch16-p8">Part VIII.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians, +From The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch17-p1">Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part + I.</a> <a href="#linkch17-p2">Part II.</a> <a + href="#linkch17-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch17-p4">Part + IV.</a> <a href="#linkch17-p5">Part V.</a> <a + href="#linkch17-p6">Part VI.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Foundation Of Constantinople.—Political System Constantine, +And His Successors.—Military Discipline.—The Palace.—The +Finances. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch18-p1">Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And + His Sons.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch18-p2">Part II.</a> + <a href="#linkch18-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch18-p4">Part + IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Character Of Constantine.—Gothic War.—Death Of +Constantine.—Division Of The Empire Among His Three Sons.— +Persian War.—Tragic Deaths Of Constantine The Younger And +Constans.—Usurpation Of Magnentius.—Civil War.—Victory +Of Constantius. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch19-p1">Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part + I.</a> <a href="#linkch19-p2"> PartII.</a> <a + href="#linkch19-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch19-p4">Part + IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Constantius Sole Emperor.—Elevation And Death Of Gallus.— +Danger And Elevation Of Julian.—Sarmatian And Persian Wars.— +Victories Of Julian In Gaul. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch20-p1">Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part + I.</a> <a href="#linkch20-p2">Part II.</a> <a + href="#linkch20-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch20-p4">PartIV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Motives, Progress, And Effects Of The Conversion Of +Constantine.—Legal Establishment And Constitution Of The +Christian Or Catholic Church.<br /> +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch21-p1">Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State + Of The Church.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch21-p2">Part + II.</a> <a href="#linkch21-p3">Part III.</a> <a + href="#linkch21-p4">Part IV.</a> <a href="#linkch21-p5">Part + V.</a> <a href="#linkch21-p6">Part VI.</a> <a + href="#linkch21-p7">Part VII.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Persecution Of Heresy.—The Schism Of The Donatists.—The +Arian Controversy.—Athanasius.—Distracted State Of The +Church And Empire Under Constantine And His Sons.—Toleration +Of Paganism. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch22-p1">Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part + I</a> <a href="#linkch22-p2">Part II.</a> <a + href="#linkch22-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch22-p4">Part + IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Julian Is Declared Emperor By The Legions Of Gaul.—His +March And Success.—The Death Of Constantius.—Civil +Administration Of Julian. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch23-p1">Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part + I.</a> <a href="#linkch23-p2">Part II.</a> <a + href="#linkch23-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch23-p4">Part + IV.</a> <a href="#linkch23-p5">Part V.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Religion Of Julian.—Universal Toleration.—He +Attempts To Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship—To Rebuild +The Temple Of Jerusalem—His Artful Persecution Of The +Christians.—Mutual Zeal And Injustice. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch24-p1">Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of + Julian.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch24-p2">Part II.</a> + <a href="#linkch24-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch24-p4">Part + IV.</a> <a href="#linkch24-p5">Part V.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Residence Of Julian At Antioch.—His Successful Expedition +Against The Persians.—Passage Of The Tigris—The Retreat And +Death Of Julian.—Election Of Jovian.—He Saves The Roman +Army By A Disgraceful Treaty. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch25-p1">Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And + Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part I.</a> <a + href="#linkch25-p2">Part II.</a> <a href="#linkch25-p3">Part + III.</a> <a href="#linkch25-p4">Part IV.</a> <a + href="#linkch25-p5">Part V.</a> <a href="#linkch25-p6">Part + VI.</a> <a href="#linkch25-p7">Part VII.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Government And Death Of Jovian.—Election Of +Valentinian, Who Associates His Brother Valens, And Makes The +Final Division Of The Eastern And Western Empires.—Revolt Of +Procopius.—Civil And Ecclesiastical Administration.— +Germany.—Britain.—Africa.—The East.—The Danube.— +Death Of Valentinian.—His Two Sons, Gratian And Valentinian +II., Succeed To The Western Empire. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linkch26-p1">Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part + I.</a> <a href="#linkch26-p2">Part II.</a> <a + href="#linkch26-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch26-p4">Part + IV.</a> <a href="#linkch26-p5">Part V.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Manners Of The Pastoral Nations.—Progress Of The Huns, From +China To Europe.—Flight Of The Goths.—They Pass The Danube. +—Gothic War.—Defeat And Death Of Valens.—Gratian Invests +Theodosius With The Eastern Empire.—His Character And Success. +—Peace And Settlement Of The Goths.<br /> +</pre> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p1" id="linkch16-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI—Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To + Constantine.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians, +From The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine. +</pre> + <p> + If we seriously consider the purity of the Christian religion, the + sanctity of its moral precepts, and the innocent as well as austere lives + of the greater number of those who during the first ages embraced the + faith of the gospel, we should naturally suppose, that so benevolent a + doctrine would have been received with due reverence, even by the + unbelieving world; that the learned and the polite, however they may + deride the miracles, would have esteemed the virtues, of the new sect; and + that the magistrates, instead of persecuting, would have protected an + order of men who yielded the most passive obedience to the laws, though + they declined the active cares of war and government. If, on the other + hand, we recollect the universal toleration of Polytheism, as it was + invariably maintained by the faith of the people, the incredulity of + philosophers, and the policy of the Roman senate and emperors, we are at a + loss to discover what new offence the Christians had committed, what new + provocation could exasperate the mild indifference of antiquity, and what + new motives could urge the Roman princes, who beheld without concern a + thousand forms of religion subsisting in peace under their gentle sway, to + inflict a severe punishment on any part of their subjects, who had chosen + for themselves a singular but an inoffensive mode of faith and worship.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The religious policy of the ancient world seems to have assumed a more + stern and intolerant character, to oppose the progress of Christianity. + About fourscore years after the death of Christ, his innocent disciples + were punished with death by the sentence of a proconsul of the most + amiable and philosophic character, and according to the laws of an emperor + distinguished by the wisdom and justice of his general administration. The + apologies which were repeatedly addressed to the successors of Trajan are + filled with the most pathetic complaints, that the Christians, who obeyed + the dictates, and solicited the liberty, of conscience, were alone, among + all the subjects of the Roman empire, excluded from the common benefits of + their auspicious government. The deaths of a few eminent martyrs have been + recorded with care; and from the time that Christianity was invested with + the supreme power, the governors of the church have been no less + diligently employed in displaying the cruelty, than in imitating the + conduct, of their Pagan adversaries. To separate (if it be possible) a few + authentic as well as interesting facts from an undigested mass of fiction + and error, and to relate, in a clear and rational manner, the causes, the + extent, the duration, and the most important circumstances of the + persecutions to which the first Christians were exposed, is the design of + the present chapter. *<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sectaries of a persecuted religion, depressed by fear animated with + resentment, and perhaps heated by enthusiasm, are seldom in a proper + temper of mind calmly to investigate, or candidly to appreciate, the + motives of their enemies, which often escape the impartial and discerning + view even of those who are placed at a secure distance from the flames of + persecution. A reason has been assigned for the conduct of the emperors + towards the primitive Christians, which may appear the more specious and + probable as it is drawn from the acknowledged genius of Polytheism. It has + already been observed, that the religious concord of the world was + principally supported by the implicit assent and reverence which the + nations of antiquity expressed for their respective traditions and + ceremonies. It might therefore be expected, that they would unite with + indignation against any sect or people which should separate itself from + the communion of mankind, and claiming the exclusive possession of divine + knowledge, should disdain every form of worship, except its own, as + impious and idolatrous. The rights of toleration were held by mutual + indulgence: they were justly forfeited by a refusal of the accustomed + tribute. As the payment of this tribute was inflexibly refused by the + Jews, and by them alone, the consideration of the treatment which they + experienced from the Roman magistrates, will serve to explain how far + these speculations are justified by facts, and will lead us to discover + the true causes of the persecution of Christianity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Without repeating what has already been mentioned of the reverence of the + Roman princes and governors for the temple of Jerusalem, we shall only + observe, that the destruction of the temple and city was accompanied and + followed by every circumstance that could exasperate the minds of the + conquerors, and authorize religious persecution by the most specious + arguments of political justice and the public safety. From the reign of + Nero to that of Antoninus Pius, the Jews discovered a fierce impatience of + the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke out in the most furious + massacres and insurrections. Humanity is shocked at the recital of the + horrid cruelties which they committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, + and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the + unsuspecting natives; and we are tempted to applaud the severe retaliation + which was exercised by the arms of the legions against a race of fanatics, + whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render them the implacable + enemies not only of the Roman government, but of human kind. The + enthusiasm of the Jews was supported by the opinion, that it was unlawful + for them to pay taxes to an idolatrous master; and by the flattering + promise which they derived from their ancient oracles, that a conquering + Messiah would soon arise, destined to break their fetters, and to invest + the favorites of heaven with the empire of the earth. It was by announcing + himself as their long-expected deliverer, and by calling on all the + descendants of Abraham to assert the hope of Isræl, that the famous + Barchochebas collected a formidable army, with which he resisted during + two years the power of the emperor Hadrian.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these repeated provocations, the resentment of the Roman + princes expired after the victory; nor were their apprehensions continued + beyond the period of war and danger. By the general indulgence of + polytheism, and by the mild temper of Antoninus Pius, the Jews were + restored to their ancient privileges, and once more obtained the + permission of circumcising their children, with the easy restraint, that + they should never confer on any foreign proselyte that distinguishing mark + of the Hebrew race. The numerous remains of that people, though they were + still excluded from the precincts of Jerusalem, were permitted to form and + to maintain considerable establishments both in Italy and in the + provinces, to acquire the freedom of Rome, to enjoy municipal honors, and + to obtain at the same time an exemption from the burdensome and expensive + offices of society. The moderation or the contempt of the Romans gave a + legal sanction to the form of ecclesiastical police which was instituted + by the vanquished sect. The patriarch, who had fixed his residence at + Tiberias, was empowered to appoint his subordinate ministers and apostles, + to exercise a domestic jurisdiction, and to receive from his dispersed + brethren an annual contribution. New synagogues were frequently erected in + the principal cities of the empire; and the sabbaths, the fasts, and the + festivals, which were either commanded by the Mosaic law, or enjoined by + the traditions of the Rabbis, were celebrated in the most solemn and + public manner. Such gentle treatment insensibly assuaged the stern temper + of the Jews. Awakened from their dream of prophecy and conquest, they + assumed the behavior of peaceable and industrious subjects. Their + irreconcilable hatred of mankind, instead of flaming out in acts of blood + and violence, evaporated in less dangerous gratifications. They embraced + every opportunity of overreaching the idolaters in trade; and they + pronounced secret and ambiguous imprecations against the haughty kingdom + of Edom.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Since the Jews, who rejected with abhorrence the deities adored by their + sovereign and by their fellow-subjects, enjoyed, however, the free + exercise of their unsocial religion, there must have existed some other + cause, which exposed the disciples of Christ to those severities from + which the posterity of Abraham was exempt. The difference between them is + simple and obvious; but, according to the sentiments of antiquity, it was + of the highest importance. The Jews were a <strong><em>nation</em></strong>; + the Christians were a <strong><em>sect</em></strong>: and if it was + natural for every community to respect the sacred institutions of their + neighbors, it was incumbent on them to persevere in those of their + ancestors. The voice of oracles, the precepts of philosophers, and the + authority of the laws, unanimously enforced this national obligation. By + their lofty claim of superior sanctity the Jews might provoke the + Polytheists to consider them as an odious and impure race. By disdaining + the intercourse of other nations, they might deserve their contempt. The + laws of Moses might be for the most part frivolous or absurd; yet, since + they had been received during many ages by a large society, his followers + were justified by the example of mankind; and it was universally + acknowledged, that they had a right to practise what it would have been + criminal in them to neglect. But this principle, which protected the + Jewish synagogue, afforded not any favor or security to the primitive + church. By embracing the faith of the gospel, the Christians incurred the + supposed guilt of an unnatural and unpardonable offence. They dissolved + the sacred ties of custom and education, violated the religious + institutions of their country, and presumptuously despised whatever their + fathers had believed as true, or had reverenced as sacred. Nor was this + apostasy (if we may use the expression) merely of a partial or local kind; + since the pious deserter who withdrew himself from the temples of Egypt or + Syria, would equally disdain to seek an asylum in those of Athens or + Carthage. Every Christian rejected with contempt the superstitions of his + family, his city, and his province. The whole body of Christians + unanimously refused to hold any communion with the gods of Rome, of the + empire, and of mankind. It was in vain that the oppressed believer + asserted the inalienable rights of conscience and private judgment. Though + his situation might excite the pity, his arguments could never reach the + understanding, either of the philosophic or of the believing part of the + Pagan world. To their apprehensions, it was no less a matter of surprise, + that any individuals should entertain scruples against complying with the + established mode of worship, than if they had conceived a sudden + abhorrence to the manners, the dress, or the language of their native + country. *<br /> + </p> + <p> + The surprise of the Pagans was soon succeeded by resentment; and the most + pious of men were exposed to the unjust but dangerous imputation of + impiety. Malice and prejudice concurred in representing the Christians as + a society of atheists, who, by the most daring attack on the religious + constitution of the empire, had merited the severest animadversion of the + civil magistrate. They had separated themselves (they gloried in the + confession) from every mode of superstition which was received in any part + of the globe by the various temper of polytheism: but it was not + altogether so evident what deity, or what form of worship, they had + substituted to the gods and temples of antiquity. The pure and sublime + idea which they entertained of the Supreme Being escaped the gross + conception of the Pagan multitude, who were at a loss to discover a + spiritual and solitary God, that was neither represented under any + corporeal figure or visible symbol, nor was adored with the accustomed + pomp of libations and festivals, of altars and sacrifices. The sages of + Greece and Rome, who had elevated their minds to the contemplation of the + existence and attributes of the First Cause, were induced by reason or by + vanity to reserve for themselves and their chosen disciples the privilege + of this philosophical devotion. They were far from admitting the + prejudices of mankind as the standard of truth, but they considered them + as flowing from the original disposition of human nature; and they + supposed that any popular mode of faith and worship which presumed to + disclaim the assistance of the senses, would, in proportion as it receded + from superstition, find itself incapable of restraining the wanderings of + the fancy, and the visions of fanaticism. The careless glance which men of + wit and learning condescended to cast on the Christian revelation, served + only to confirm their hasty opinion, and to persuade them that the + principle, which they might have revered, of the Divine Unity, was defaced + by the wild enthusiasm, and annihilated by the airy speculations, of the + new sectaries. The author of a celebrated dialogue, which has been + attributed to Lucian, whilst he affects to treat the mysterious subject of + the Trinity in a style of ridicule and contempt, betrays his own ignorance + of the weakness of human reason, and of the inscrutable nature of the + divine perfections.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It might appear less surprising, that the founder of Christianity should + not only be revered by his disciples as a sage and a prophet, but that he + should be adored as a God. The Polytheists were disposed to adopt every + article of faith, which seemed to offer any resemblance, however distant + or imperfect, with the popular mythology; and the legends of Bacchus, of + Hercules, and of Æsculapius, had, in some measure, prepared their + imagination for the appearance of the Son of God under a human form. But + they were astonished that the Christians should abandon the temples of + those ancient heroes, who, in the infancy of the world, had invented arts, + instituted laws, and vanquished the tyrants or monsters who infested the + earth, in order to choose for the exclusive object of their religious + worship an obscure teacher, who, in a recent age, and among a barbarous + people, had fallen a sacrifice either to the malice of his own countrymen, + or to the jealousy of the Roman government. The Pagan multitude, reserving + their gratitude for temporal benefits alone, rejected the inestimable + present of life and immortality, which was offered to mankind by Jesus of + Nazareth. His mild constancy in the midst of cruel and voluntary + sufferings, his universal benevolence, and the sublime simplicity of his + actions and character, were insufficient, in the opinion of those carnal + men, to compensate for the want of fame, of empire, and of success; and + whilst they refused to acknowledge his stupendous triumph over the powers + of darkness and of the grave, they misrepresented, or they insulted, the + equivocal birth, wandering life, and ignominious death, of the divine + Author of Christianity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The personal guilt which every Christian had contracted, in thus + preferring his private sentiment to the national religion, was aggravated + in a very high degree by the number and union of the criminals. It is well + known, and has been already observed, that Roman policy viewed with the + utmost jealousy and distrust any association among its subjects; and that + the privileges of private corporations, though formed for the most + harmless or beneficial purposes, were bestowed with a very sparing hand. + The religious assemblies of the Christians who had separated themselves + from the public worship, appeared of a much less innocent nature; they + were illegal in their principle, and in their consequences might become + dangerous; nor were the emperors conscious that they violated the laws of + justice, when, for the peace of society, they prohibited those secret and + sometimes nocturnal meetings. The pious disobedience of the Christians + made their conduct, or perhaps their designs, appear in a much more + serious and criminal light; and the Roman princes, who might perhaps have + suffered themselves to be disarmed by a ready submission, deeming their + honor concerned in the execution of their commands, sometimes attempted, + by rigorous punishments, to subdue this independent spirit, which boldly + acknowledged an authority superior to that of the magistrate. The extent + and duration of this spiritual conspiracy seemed to render it everyday + more deserving of his animadversion. We have already seen that the active + and successful zeal of the Christians had insensibly diffused them through + every province and almost every city of the empire. The new converts + seemed to renounce their family and country, that they might connect + themselves in an indissoluble band of union with a peculiar society, which + every where assumed a different character from the rest of mankind. Their + gloomy and austere aspect, their abhorrence of the common business and + pleasures of life, and their frequent predictions of impending calamities, + inspired the Pagans with the apprehension of some danger, which would + arise from the new sect, the more alarming as it was the more obscure. + "Whatever," says Pliny, "may be the principle of their conduct, their + inflexible obstinacy appeared deserving of punishment."<br /> + </p> + <p> + The precautions with which the disciples of Christ performed the offices + of religion were at first dictated by fear and necessity; but they were + continued from choice. By imitating the awful secrecy which reigned in the + Eleusinian mysteries, the Christians had flattered themselves that they + should render their sacred institutions more respectable in the eyes of + the Pagan world. But the event, as it often happens to the operations of + subtile policy, deceived their wishes and their expectations. It was + concluded, that they only concealed what they would have blushed to + disclose. Their mistaken prudence afforded an opportunity for malice to + invent, and for suspicious credulity to believe, the horrid tales which + described the Christians as the most wicked of human kind, who practised + in their dark recesses every abomination that a depraved fancy could + suggest, and who solicited the favor of their unknown God by the sacrifice + of every moral virtue. There were many who pretended to confess or to + relate the ceremonies of this abhorred society. It was asserted, "that a + new-born infant, entirely covered over with flour, was presented, like + some mystic symbol of initiation, to the knife of the proselyte, who + unknowingly inflicted many a secret and mortal wound on the innocent + victim of his error; that as soon as the cruel deed was perpetrated, the + sectaries drank up the blood, greedily tore asunder the quivering members, + and pledged themselves to eternal secrecy, by a mutual consciousness of + guilt. It was as confidently affirmed, that this inhuman sacrifice was + succeeded by a suitable entertainment, in which intemperance served as a + provocative to brutal lust; till, at the appointed moment, the lights were + suddenly extinguished, shame was banished, nature was forgotten; and, as + accident might direct, the darkness of the night was polluted by the + incestuous commerce of sisters and brothers, of sons and of mothers."<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the perusal of the ancient apologies was sufficient to remove even the + slightest suspicion from the mind of a candid adversary. The Christians, + with the intrepid security of innocence, appeal from the voice of rumor to + the equity of the magistrates. They acknowledge, that if any proof can be + produced of the crimes which calumny has imputed to them, they are worthy + of the most severe punishment. They provoke the punishment, and they + challenge the proof. At the same time they urge, with equal truth and + propriety, that the charge is not less devoid of probability, than it is + destitute of evidence; they ask, whether any one can seriously believe + that the pure and holy precepts of the gospel, which so frequently + restrain the use of the most lawful enjoyments, should inculcate the + practice of the most abominable crimes; that a large society should + resolve to dishonor itself in the eyes of its own members; and that a + great number of persons of either sex, and every age and character, + insensible to the fear of death or infamy, should consent to violate those + principles which nature and education had imprinted most deeply in their + minds. Nothing, it should seem, could weaken the force or destroy the + effect of so unanswerable a justification, unless it were the injudicious + conduct of the apologists themselves, who betrayed the common cause of + religion, to gratify their devout hatred to the domestic enemies of the + church. It was sometimes faintly insinuated, and sometimes boldly + asserted, that the same bloody sacrifices, and the same incestuous + festivals, which were so falsely ascribed to the orthodox believers, were + in reality celebrated by the Marcionites, by the Carpocratians, and by + several other sects of the Gnostics, who, notwithstanding they might + deviate into the paths of heresy, were still actuated by the sentiments of + men, and still governed by the precepts of Christianity. Accusations of a + similar kind were retorted upon the church by the schismatics who had + departed from its communion, and it was confessed on all sides, that the + most scandalous licentiousness of manners prevailed among great numbers of + those who affected the name of Christians. A Pagan magistrate, who + possessed neither leisure nor abilities to discern the almost + imperceptible line which divides the orthodox faith from heretical + pravity, might easily have imagined that their mutual animosity had + extorted the discovery of their common guilt. It was fortunate for the + repose, or at least for the reputation, of the first Christians, that the + magistrates sometimes proceeded with more temper and moderation than is + usually consistent with religious zeal, and that they reported, as the + impartial result of their judicial inquiry, that the sectaries, who had + deserted the established worship, appeared to them sincere in their + professions, and blameless in their manners; however they might incur, by + their absurd and excessive superstition, the censure of the laws.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p2" id="linkch16-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + History, which undertakes to record the transactions of the past, for the + instruction of future ages, would ill deserve that honorable office, if + she condescended to plead the cause of tyrants, or to justify the maxims + of persecution. It must, however, be acknowledged, that the conduct of the + emperors who appeared the least favorable to the primitive church, is by + no means so criminal as that of modern sovereigns, who have employed the + arm of violence and terror against the religious opinions of any part of + their subjects. From their reflections, or even from their own feelings, a + Charles V. or a Lewis XIV. might have acquired a just knowledge of the + rights of conscience, of the obligation of faith, and of the innocence of + error. But the princes and magistrates of ancient Rome were strangers to + those principles which inspired and authorized the inflexible obstinacy of + the Christians in the cause of truth, nor could they themselves discover + in their own breasts any motive which would have prompted them to refuse a + legal, and as it were a natural, submission to the sacred institutions of + their country. The same reason which contributes to alleviate the guilt, + must have tended to abate the vigor, of their persecutions. As they were + actuated, not by the furious zeal of bigots, but by the temperate policy + of legislators, contempt must often have relaxed, and humanity must + frequently have suspended, the execution of those laws which they enacted + against the humble and obscure followers of Christ. From the general view + of their character and motives we might naturally conclude: I. That a + considerable time elapsed before they considered the new sectaries as an + object deserving of the attention of government. II. That in the + conviction of any of their subjects who were accused of so very singular a + crime, they proceeded with caution and reluctance. III. That they were + moderate in the use of punishments; and, IV. That the afflicted church + enjoyed many intervals of peace and tranquility. Notwithstanding the + careless indifference which the most copious and the most minute of the + Pagan writers have shown to the affairs of the Christians, it may still be + in our power to confirm each of these probable suppositions, by the + evidence of authentic facts.<br /> + </p> + <p> + 1. By the wise dispensation of Providence, a mysterious veil was cast over + the infancy of the church, which, till the faith of the Christians was + matured, and their numbers were multiplied, served to protect them not + only from the malice but even from the knowledge of the Pagan world. The + slow and gradual abolition of the Mosaic ceremonies afforded a safe and + innocent disguise to the more early proselytes of the gospel. As they + were, for the greater part, of the race of Abraham, they were + distinguished by the peculiar mark of circumcision, offered up their + devotions in the Temple of Jerusalem till its final destruction, and + received both the Law and the Prophets as the genuine inspirations of the + Deity. The Gentile converts, who by a spiritual adoption had been + associated to the hope of Isræl, were likewise confounded under the + garb and appearance of Jews, and as the Polytheists paid less regard to + articles of faith than to the external worship, the new sect, which + carefully concealed, or faintly announced, its future greatness and + ambition, was permitted to shelter itself under the general toleration + which was granted to an ancient and celebrated people in the Roman empire. + It was not long, perhaps, before the Jews themselves, animated with a + fiercer zeal and a more jealous faith, perceived the gradual separation of + their Nazarene brethren from the doctrine of the synagogue; and they would + gladly have extinguished the dangerous heresy in the blood of its + adherents. But the decrees of Heaven had already disarmed their malice; + and though they might sometimes exert the licentious privilege of + sedition, they no longer possessed the administration of criminal justice; + nor did they find it easy to infuse into the calm breast of a Roman + magistrate the rancor of their own zeal and prejudice. The provincial + governors declared themselves ready to listen to any accusation that might + affect the public safety; but as soon as they were informed that it was a + question not of facts but of words, a dispute relating only to the + interpretation of the Jewish laws and prophecies, they deemed it unworthy + of the majesty of Rome seriously to discuss the obscure differences which + might arise among a barbarous and superstitious people. The innocence of + the first Christians was protected by ignorance and contempt; and the + tribunal of the Pagan magistrate often proved their most assured refuge + against the fury of the synagogue. If indeed we were disposed to adopt the + traditions of a too credulous antiquity, we might relate the distant + peregrinations, the wonderful achievements, and the various deaths of the + twelve apostles: but a more accurate inquiry will induce us to doubt, + whether any of those persons who had been witnesses to the miracles of + Christ were permitted, beyond the limits of Palestine, to seal with their + blood the truth of their testimony. From the ordinary term of human life, + it may very naturally be presumed that most of them were deceased before + the discontent of the Jews broke out into that furious war, which was + terminated only by the ruin of Jerusalem. During a long period, from the + death of Christ to that memorable rebellion, we cannot discover any traces + of Roman intolerance, unless they are to be found in the sudden, the + transient, but the cruel persecution, which was exercised by Nero against + the Christians of the capital, thirty-five years after the former, and + only two years before the latter, of those great events. The character of + the philosophic historian, to whom we are principally indebted for the + knowledge of this singular transaction, would alone be sufficient to + recommend it to our most attentive consideration.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the tenth year of the reign of Nero, the capital of the empire was + afflicted by a fire which raged beyond the memory or example of former + ages. The monuments of Grecian art and of Roman virtue, the trophies of + the Punic and Gallic wars, the most holy temples, and the most splendid + palaces, were involved in one common destruction. Of the fourteen regions + or quarters into which Rome was divided, four only subsisted entire, three + were levelled with the ground, and the remaining seven, which had + experienced the fury of the flames, displayed a melancholy prospect of + ruin and desolation. The vigilance of government appears not to have + neglected any of the precautions which might alleviate the sense of so + dreadful a calamity. The Imperial gardens were thrown open to the + distressed multitude, temporary buildings were erected for their + accommodation, and a plentiful supply of corn and provisions was + distributed at a very moderate price. The most generous policy seemed to + have dictated the edicts which regulated the disposition of the streets + and the construction of private houses; and as it usually happens, in an + age of prosperity, the conflagration of Rome, in the course of a few + years, produced a new city, more regular and more beautiful than the + former. But all the prudence and humanity affected by Nero on this + occasion were insufficient to preserve him from the popular suspicion. + Every crime might be imputed to the assassin of his wife and mother; nor + could the prince who prostituted his person and dignity on the theatre be + deemed incapable of the most extravagant folly. The voice of rumor accused + the emperor as the incendiary of his own capital; and as the most + incredible stories are the best adapted to the genius of an enraged + people, it was gravely reported, and firmly believed, that Nero, enjoying + the calamity which he had occasioned, amused himself with singing to his + lyre the destruction of ancient Troy. To divert a suspicion, which the + power of despotism was unable to suppress, the emperor resolved to + substitute in his own place some fictitious criminals. "With this view," + continues Tacitus, "he inflicted the most exquisite tortures on those men, + who, under the vulgar appellation of Christians, were already branded with + deserved infamy. They derived their name and origin from Christ, who in + the reign of Tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of the procurator + Pontius Pilate. For a while this dire superstition was checked; but it + again burst forth; * and not only spread itself over Judæa, the + first seat of this mischievous sect, but was even introduced into Rome, + the common asylum which receives and protects whatever is impure, whatever + is atrocious. The confessions of those who were seized discovered a great + multitude of their accomplices, and they were all convicted, not so much + for the crime of setting fire to the city, as for their hatred of human + kind. They died in torments, and their torments were imbittered by insult + and derision. Some were nailed on crosses; others sewn up in the skins of + wild beasts, and exposed to the fury of dogs; others again, smeared over + with combustible materials, were used as torches to illuminate the + darkness of the night. The gardens of Nero were destined for the + melancholy spectacle, which was accompanied with a horse-race and honored + with the presence of the emperor, who mingled with the populace in the + dress and attitude of a charioteer. The guilt of the Christians deserved + indeed the most exemplary punishment, but the public abhorrence was + changed into commiseration, from the opinion that those unhappy wretches + were sacrificed, not so much to the public welfare, as to the cruelty of a + jealous tyrant." Those who survey with a curious eye the revolutions of + mankind, may observe, that the gardens and circus of Nero on the Vatican, + which were polluted with the blood of the first Christians, have been + rendered still more famous by the triumph and by the abuse of the + persecuted religion. On the same spot, a temple, which far surpasses the + ancient glories of the Capitol, has been since erected by the Christian + Pontiffs, who, deriving their claim of universal dominion from an humble + fisherman of Galilee, have succeeded to the throne of the Cæsars, + given laws to the barbarian conquerors of Rome, and extended their + spiritual jurisdiction from the coast of the Baltic to the shores of the + Pacific Ocean.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But it would be improper to dismiss this account of Nero's persecution, + till we have made some observations that may serve to remove the + difficulties with which it is perplexed, and to throw some light on the + subsequent history of the church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <strong>1</strong>. The most sceptical criticism is obliged to respect the + truth of this extraordinary fact, and the integrity of this celebrated + passage of Tacitus. The former is confirmed by the diligent and accurate + Suetonius, who mentions the punishment which Nero inflicted on the + Christians, a sect of men who had embraced a new and criminal + superstition. The latter may be proved by the consent of the most ancient + manuscripts; by the inimitable character of the style of Tacitus by his + reputation, which guarded his text from the interpolations of pious fraud; + and by the purport of his narration, which accused the first Christians of + the most atrocious crimes, without insinuating that they possessed any + miraculous or even magical powers above the rest of mankind. <strong>2</strong>. + Notwithstanding it is probable that Tacitus was born some years before the + fire of Rome, he could derive only from reading and conversation the + knowledge of an event which happened during his infancy. Before he gave + himself to the public, he calmly waited till his genius had attained its + full maturity, and he was more than forty years of age, when a grateful + regard for the memory of the virtuous Agricola extorted from him the most + early of those historical compositions which will delight and instruct the + most distant posterity. After making a trial of his strength in the life + of Agricola and the description of Germany, he conceived, and at length + executed, a more arduous work; the history of Rome, in thirty books, from + the fall of Nero to the accession of Nerva. The administration of Nerva + introduced an age of justice and propriety, which Tacitus had destined for + the occupation of his old age; but when he took a nearer view of his + subject, judging, perhaps, that it was a more honorable or a less + invidious office to record the vices of past tyrants, than to celebrate + the virtues of a reigning monarch, he chose rather to relate, under the + form of annals, the actions of the four immediate successors of Augustus. + To collect, to dispose, and to adorn a series of fourscore years, in an + immortal work, every sentence of which is pregnant with the deepest + observations and the most lively images, was an undertaking sufficient to + exercise the genius of Tacitus himself during the greatest part of his + life. In the last years of the reign of Trajan, whilst the victorious + monarch extended the power of Rome beyond its ancient limits, the + historian was describing, in the second and fourth books of his annals, + the tyranny of Tiberius; and the emperor Hadrian must have succeeded to + the throne, before Tacitus, in the regular prosecution of his work, could + relate the fire of the capital, and the cruelty of Nero towards the + unfortunate Christians. At the distance of sixty years, it was the duty of + the annalist to adopt the narratives of contemporaries; but it was natural + for the philosopher to indulge himself in the description of the origin, + the progress, and the character of the new sect, not so much according to + the knowledge or prejudices of the age of Nero, as according to those of + the time of Hadrian. <strong>3</strong> Tacitus very frequently trusts to + the curiosity or reflection of his readers to supply those intermediate + circumstances and ideas, which, in his extreme conciseness, he has thought + proper to suppress. We may therefore presume to imagine some probable + cause which could direct the cruelty of Nero against the Christians of + Rome, whose obscurity, as well as innocence, should have shielded them + from his indignation, and even from his notice. The Jews, who were + numerous in the capital, and oppressed in their own country, were a much + fitter object for the suspicions of the emperor and of the people: nor did + it seem unlikely that a vanquished nation, who already discovered their + abhorrence of the Roman yoke, might have recourse to the most atrocious + means of gratifying their implacable revenge. But the Jews possessed very + powerful advocates in the palace, and even in the heart of the tyrant; his + wife and mistress, the beautiful Poppæa, and a favorite player of + the race of Abraham, who had already employed their intercession in behalf + of the obnoxious people. In their room it was necessary to offer some + other victims, and it might easily be suggested that, although the genuine + followers of Moses were innocent of the fire of Rome, there had arisen + among them a new and pernicious sect of Galilæans, which was capable + of the most horrid crimes. Under the appellation of Galilæans, two + distinctions of men were confounded, the most opposite to each other in + their manners and principles; the disciples who had embraced the faith of + Jesus of Nazareth, and the zealots who had followed the standard of Judas + the Gaulonite. The former were the friends, the latter were the enemies, + of human kind; and the only resemblance between them consisted in the same + inflexible constancy, which, in the defence of their cause, rendered them + insensible of death and tortures. The followers of Judas, who impelled + their countrymen into rebellion, were soon buried under the ruins of + Jerusalem; whilst those of Jesus, known by the more celebrated name of + Christians, diffused themselves over the Roman empire. How natural was it + for Tacitus, in the time of Hadrian, to appropriate to the Christians the + guilt and the sufferings, * which he might, with far greater truth and + justice, have attributed to a sect whose odious memory was almost + extinguished! 4. Whatever opinion may be entertained of this conjecture, + (for it is no more than a conjecture,) it is evident that the effect, as + well as the cause, of Nero's persecution, was confined to the walls of + Rome, that the religious tenets of the Galilæans or Christians, were + never made a subject of punishment, or even of inquiry; and that, as the + idea of their sufferings was for a long time connected with the idea of + cruelty and injustice, the moderation of succeeding princes inclined them + to spare a sect, oppressed by a tyrant, whose rage had been usually + directed against virtue and innocence.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It is somewhat remarkable that the flames of war consumed, almost at the + same time, the temple of Jerusalem and the Capitol of Rome; and it appears + no less singular, that the tribute which devotion had destined to the + former, should have been converted by the power of an assaulting victor to + restore and adorn the splendor of the latter. The emperors levied a + general capitation tax on the Jewish people; and although the sum assessed + on the head of each individual was inconsiderable, the use for which it + was designed, and the severity with which it was exacted, were considered + as an intolerable grievance. Since the officers of the revenue extended + their unjust claim to many persons who were strangers to the blood or + religion of the Jews, it was impossible that the Christians, who had so + often sheltered themselves under the shade of the synagogue, should now + escape this rapacious persecution. Anxious as they were to avoid the + slightest infection of idolatry, their conscience forbade them to + contribute to the honor of that dæmon who had assumed the character + of the Capitoline Jupiter. As a very numerous though declining party among + the Christians still adhered to the law of Moses, their efforts to + dissemble their Jewish origin were detected by the decisive test of + circumcision; nor were the Roman magistrates at leisure to inquire into + the difference of their religious tenets. Among the Christians who were + brought before the tribunal of the emperor, or, as it seems more probable, + before that of the procurator of Judæa, two persons are said to have + appeared, distinguished by their extraction, which was more truly noble + than that of the greatest monarchs. These were the grandsons of St. Jude + the apostle, who himself was the brother of Jesus Christ. Their natural + pretensions to the throne of David might perhaps attract the respect of + the people, and excite the jealousy of the governor; but the meanness of + their garb, and the simplicity of their answers, soon convinced him that + they were neither desirous nor capable of disturbing the peace of the + Roman empire. They frankly confessed their royal origin, and their near + relation to the Messiah; but they disclaimed any temporal views, and + professed that his kingdom, which they devoutly expected, was purely of a + spiritual and angelic nature. When they were examined concerning their + fortune and occupation, they showed their hands, hardened with daily + labor, and declared that they derived their whole subsistence from the + cultivation of a farm near the village of Cocaba, of the extent of about + twenty-four English acres, and of the value of nine thousand drachms, or + three hundred pounds sterling. The grandsons of St. Jude were dismissed + with compassion and contempt.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But although the obscurity of the house of David might protect them from + the suspicions of a tyrant, the present greatness of his own family + alarmed the pusillanimous temper of Domitian, which could only be appeased + by the blood of those Romans whom he either feared, or hated, or esteemed. + Of the two sons of his uncle Flavius Sabinus, the elder was soon convicted + of treasonable intentions, and the younger, who bore the name of Flavius + Clemens, was indebted for his safety to his want of courage and ability. + The emperor for a long time, distinguished so harmless a kinsman by his + favor and protection, bestowed on him his own niece Domitilla, adopted the + children of that marriage to the hope of the succession, and invested + their father with the honors of the consulship.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But he had scarcely finished the term of his annual magistracy, when, on a + slight pretence, he was condemned and executed; Domitilla was banished to + a desolate island on the coast of Campania; and sentences either of death + or of confiscation were pronounced against a great number of who were + involved in the same accusation. The guilt imputed to their charge was + that of <strong><em>Atheism</em></strong> and <strong><em>Jewish manners</em></strong>; + a singular association of ideas, which cannot with any propriety be + applied except to the Christians, as they were obscurely and imperfectly + viewed by the magistrates and by the writers of that period. On the + strength of so probable an interpretation, and too eagerly admitting the + suspicions of a tyrant as an evidence of their honorable crime, the church + has placed both Clemens and Domitilla among its first martyrs, and has + branded the cruelty of Domitian with the name of the second persecution. + But this persecution (if it deserves that epithet) was of no long + duration. A few months after the death of Clemens, and the banishment of + Domitilla, Stephen, a freedman belonging to the latter, who had enjoyed + the favor, but who had not surely embraced the faith, of his mistress, * + assassinated the emperor in his palace. The memory of Domitian was + condemned by the senate; his acts were rescinded; his exiles recalled; and + under the gentle administration of Nerva, while the innocent were restored + to their rank and fortunes, even the most guilty either obtained pardon or + escaped punishment.<br /> + </p> + <p> + II. About ten years afterwards, under the reign of Trajan, the younger + Pliny was intrusted by his friend and master with the government of + Bithynia and Pontus. He soon found himself at a loss to determine by what + rule of justice or of law he should direct his conduct in the execution of + an office the most repugnant to his humanity. Pliny had never assisted at + any judicial proceedings against the Christians, with whose name alone he + seems to be acquainted; and he was totally uninformed with regard to the + nature of their guilt, the method of their conviction, and the degree of + their punishment. In this perplexity he had recourse to his usual + expedient, of submitting to the wisdom of Trajan an impartial, and, in + some respects, a favorable account of the new superstition, requesting the + emperor, that he would condescend to resolve his doubts, and to instruct + his ignorance. The life of Pliny had been employed in the acquisition of + learning, and in the business of the world. Since the age of nineteen he + had pleaded with distinction in the tribunals of Rome, filled a place in + the senate, had been invested with the honors of the consulship, and had + formed very numerous connections with every order of men, both in Italy + and in the provinces. From his ignorance therefore we may derive some + useful information. We may assure ourselves, that when he accepted the + government of Bithynia, there were no general laws or decrees of the + senate in force against the Christians; that neither Trajan nor any of his + virtuous predecessors, whose edicts were received into the civil and + criminal jurisprudence, had publicly declared their intentions concerning + the new sect; and that whatever proceedings had been carried on against + the Christians, there were none of sufficient weight and authority to + establish a precedent for the conduct of a Roman magistrate.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p3" id="linkch16-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + The answer of Trajan, to which the Christians of the succeeding age have + frequently appealed, discovers as much regard for justice and humanity as + could be reconciled with his mistaken notions of religious policy. Instead + of displaying the implacable zeal of an inquisitor, anxious to discover + the most minute particles of heresy, and exulting in the number of his + victims, the emperor expresses much more solicitude to protect the + security of the innocent, than to prevent the escape of the guilty. He + acknowledged the difficulty of fixing any general plan; but he lays down + two salutary rules, which often afforded relief and support to the + distressed Christians. Though he directs the magistrates to punish such + persons as are legally convicted, he prohibits them, with a very humane + inconsistency, from making any inquiries concerning the supposed + criminals. Nor was the magistrate allowed to proceed on every kind of + information. Anonymous charges the emperor rejects, as too repugnant to + the equity of his government; and he strictly requires, for the conviction + of those to whom the guilt of Christianity is imputed, the positive + evidence of a fair and open accuser. It is likewise probable, that the + persons who assumed so invidiuous an office, were obliged to declare the + grounds of their suspicions, to specify (both in respect to time and + place) the secret assemblies, which their Christian adversary had + frequented, and to disclose a great number of circumstances, which were + concealed with the most vigilant jealousy from the eye of the profane. If + they succeeded in their prosecution, they were exposed to the resentment + of a considerable and active party, to the censure of the more liberal + portion of mankind, and to the ignominy which, in every age and country, + has attended the character of an informer. If, on the contrary, they + failed in their proofs, they incurred the severe and perhaps capital + penalty, which, according to a law published by the emperor Hadrian, was + inflicted on those who falsely attributed to their fellow-citizens the + crime of Christianity. The violence of personal or superstitious animosity + might sometimes prevail over the most natural apprehensions of disgrace + and danger but it cannot surely be imagined, that accusations of so + unpromising an appearance were either lightly or frequently undertaken by + the Pagan subjects of the Roman empire. *<br /> + </p> + <p> + The expedient which was employed to elude the prudence of the laws, + affords a sufficient proof how effectually they disappointed the + mischievous designs of private malice or superstitious zeal. In a large + and tumultuous assembly, the restraints of fear and shame, so forcible on + the minds of individuals, are deprived of the greatest part of their + influence. The pious Christian, as he was desirous to obtain, or to + escape, the glory of martyrdom, expected, either with impatience or with + terror, the stated returns of the public games and festivals. On those + occasions the inhabitants of the great cities of the empire were collected + in the circus or the theatre, where every circumstance of the place, as + well as of the ceremony, contributed to kindle their devotion, and to + extinguish their humanity. Whilst the numerous spectators, crowned with + garlands, perfumed with incense, purified with the blood of victims, and + surrounded with the altars and statues of their tutelar deities, resigned + themselves to the enjoyment of pleasures, which they considered as an + essential part of their religious worship, they recollected, that the + Christians alone abhorred the gods of mankind, and by their absence and + melancholy on these solemn festivals, seemed to insult or to lament the + public felicity. If the empire had been afflicted by any recent calamity, + by a plague, a famine, or an unsuccessful war; if the Tyber had, or if the + Nile had not, risen beyond its banks; if the earth had shaken, or if the + temperate order of the seasons had been interrupted, the superstitious + Pagans were convinced that the crimes and the impiety of the Christians, + who were spared by the excessive lenity of the government, had at length + provoked the divine justice. It was not among a licentious and exasperated + populace, that the forms of legal proceedings could be observed; it was + not in an amphitheatre, stained with the blood of wild beasts and + gladiators, that the voice of compassion could be heard. The impatient + clamors of the multitude denounced the Christians as the enemies of gods + and men, doomed them to the severest tortures, and venturing to accuse by + name some of the most distinguished of the new sectaries, required with + irresistible vehemence that they should be instantly apprehended and cast + to the lions. The provincial governors and magistrates who presided in the + public spectacles were usually inclined to gratify the inclinations, and + to appease the rage, of the people, by the sacrifice of a few obnoxious + victims. But the wisdom of the emperors protected the church from the + danger of these tumultuous clamors and irregular accusations, which they + justly censured as repugnant both to the firmness and to the equity of + their administration. The edicts of Hadrian and of Antoninus Pius + expressly declared, that the voice of the multitude should never be + admitted as legal evidence to convict or to punish those unfortunate + persons who had embraced the enthusiasm of the Christians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + III. Punishment was not the inevitable consequence of conviction, and the + Christians, whose guilt was the most clearly proved by the testimony of + witnesses, or even by their voluntary confession, still retained in their + own power the alternative of life or death. It was not so much the past + offence, as the actual resistance, which excited the indignation of the + magistrate. He was persuaded that he offered them an easy pardon, since, + if they consented to cast a few grains of incense upon the altar, they + were dismissed from the tribunal in safety and with applause. It was + esteemed the duty of a humane judge to endeavor to reclaim, rather than to + punish, those deluded enthusiasts. Varying his tone according to the age, + the sex, or the situation of the prisoners, he frequently condescended to + set before their eyes every circumstance which could render life more + pleasing, or death more terrible; and to solicit, nay, to entreat, them, + that they would show some compassion to themselves, to their families, and + to their friends. If threats and persuasions proved ineffectual, he had + often recourse to violence; the scourge and the rack were called in to + supply the deficiency of argument, and every art of cruelty was employed + to subdue such inflexible, and, as it appeared to the Pagans, such + criminal, obstinacy. The ancient apologists of Christianity have censured, + with equal truth and severity, the irregular conduct of their persecutors + who, contrary to every principle of judicial proceeding, admitted the use + of torture, in order to obtain, not a confession, but a denial, of the + crime which was the object of their inquiry. The monks of succeeding ages, + who, in their peaceful solitudes, entertained themselves with diversifying + the deaths and sufferings of the primitive martyrs, have frequently + invented torments of a much more refined and ingenious nature. In + particular, it has pleased them to suppose, that the zeal of the Roman + magistrates, disdaining every consideration of moral virtue or public + decency, endeavored to seduce those whom they were unable to vanquish, and + that by their orders the most brutal violence was offered to those whom + they found it impossible to seduce. It is related, that females, who were + prepared to despise death, were sometimes condemned to a more severe + trial, and called upon to determine whether they set a higher value on + their religion or on their chastity. The youths to whose licentious + embraces they were abandoned, received a solemn exhortation from the + judge, to exert their most strenuous efforts to maintain the honor of + Venus against the impious virgin who refused to burn incense on her + altars. Their violence, however, was commonly disappointed, and the + seasonable interposition of some miraculous power preserved the chaste + spouses of Christ from the dishonor even of an involuntary defeat. We + should not indeed neglect to remark, that the more ancient as well as + authentic memorials of the church are seldom polluted with these + extravagant and indecent fictions.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The total disregard of truth and probability in the representation of + these primitive martyrdoms was occasioned by a very natural mistake. The + ecclesiastical writers of the fourth or fifth centuries ascribed to the + magistrates of Rome the same degree of implacable and unrelenting zeal + which filled their own breasts against the heretics or the idolaters of + their own times. It is not improbable that some of those persons who were + raised to the dignities of the empire, might have imbibed the prejudices + of the populace, and that the cruel disposition of others might + occasionally be stimulated by motives of avarice or of personal + resentment. But it is certain, and we may appeal to the grateful + confessions of the first Christians, that the greatest part of those + magistrates who exercised in the provinces the authority of the emperor, + or of the senate, and to whose hands alone the jurisdiction of life and + death was intrusted, behaved like men of polished manners and liberal + education, who respected the rules of justice, and who were conversant + with the precepts of philosophy. They frequently declined the odious task + of persecution, dismissed the charge with contempt, or suggested to the + accused Christian some legal evasion, by which he might elude the severity + of the laws. Whenever they were invested with a discretionary power, they + used it much less for the oppression, than for the relief and benefit of + the afflicted church. They were far from condemning all the Christians who + were accused before their tribunal, and very far from punishing with death + all those who were convicted of an obstinate adherence to the new + superstition. Contenting themselves, for the most part, with the milder + chastisements of imprisonment, exile, or slavery in the mines, they left + the unhappy victims of their justice some reason to hope, that a + prosperous event, the accession, the marriage, or the triumph of an + emperor, might speedily restore them, by a general pardon, to their former + state. The martyrs, devoted to immediate execution by the Roman + magistrates, appear to have been selected from the most opposite extremes. + They were either bishops and presbyters, the persons the most + distinguished among the Christians by their rank and influence, and whose + example might strike terror into the whole sect; or else they were the + meanest and most abject among them, particularly those of the servile + condition, whose lives were esteemed of little value, and whose sufferings + were viewed by the ancients with too careless an indifference. The learned + Origen, who, from his experience as well as reading, was intimately + acquainted with the history of the Christians, declares, in the most + express terms, that the number of martyrs was very inconsiderable. His + authority would alone be sufficient to annihilate that formidable army of + martyrs, whose relics, drawn for the most part from the catacombs of Rome, + have replenished so many churches, and whose marvellous achievements have + been the subject of so many volumes of Holy Romance. But the general + assertion of Origen may be explained and confirmed by the particular + testimony of his friend Dionysius, who, in the immense city of Alexandria, + and under the rigorous persecution of Decius, reckons only ten men and + seven women who suffered for the profession of the Christian name.<br /> + </p> + <p> + During the same period of persecution, the zealous, the eloquent, the + ambitious Cyprian governed the church, not only of Carthage, but even of + Africa. He possessed every quality which could engage the reverence of the + faithful, or provoke the suspicions and resentment of the Pagan + magistrates. His character as well as his station seemed to mark out that + holy prelate as the most distinguished object of envy and danger. The + experience, however, of the life of Cyprian, is sufficient to prove that + our fancy has exaggerated the perilous situation of a Christian bishop; + and the dangers to which he was exposed were less imminent than those + which temporal ambition is always prepared to encounter in the pursuit of + honors. Four Roman emperors, with their families, their favorites, and + their adherents, perished by the sword in the space of ten years, during + which the bishop of Carthage guided by his authority and eloquence the + councils of the African church. It was only in the third year of his + administration, that he had reason, during a few months, to apprehend the + severe edicts of Decius, the vigilance of the magistrate and the clamors + of the multitude, who loudly demanded, that Cyprian, the leader of the + Christians, should be thrown to the lions. Prudence suggested the + necessity of a temporary retreat, and the voice of prudence was obeyed. He + withdrew himself into an obscure solitude, from whence he could maintain a + constant correspondence with the clergy and people of Carthage; and, + concealing himself till the tempest was past, he preserved his life, + without relinquishing either his power or his reputation. His extreme + caution did not, however, escape the censure of the more rigid Christians, + who lamented, or the reproaches of his personal enemies, who insulted, a + conduct which they considered as a pusillanimous and criminal desertion of + the most sacred duty. The propriety of reserving himself for the future + exigencies of the church, the example of several holy bishops, and the + divine admonitions, which, as he declares himself, he frequently received + in visions and ecstacies, were the reasons alleged in his justification. + But his best apology may be found in the cheerful resolution, with which, + about eight years afterwards, he suffered death in the cause of religion. + The authentic history of his martyrdom has been recorded with unusual + candor and impartiality. A short abstract, therefore, of its most + important circumstances, will convey the clearest information of the + spirit, and of the forms, of the Roman persecutions.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p4" id="linkch16-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + When Valerian was consul for the third, and Gallienus for the fourth time, + Paternus, proconsul of Africa, summoned Cyprian to appear in his private + council-chamber. He there acquainted him with the Imperial mandate which + he had just received, that those who had abandoned the Roman religion + should immediately return to the practice of the ceremonies of their + ancestors. Cyprian replied without hesitation, that he was a Christian and + a bishop, devoted to the worship of the true and only Deity, to whom he + offered up his daily supplications for the safety and prosperity of the + two emperors, his lawful sovereigns. With modest confidence he pleaded the + privilege of a citizen, in refusing to give any answer to some invidious + and indeed illegal questions which the proconsul had proposed. A sentence + of banishment was pronounced as the penalty of Cyprian's disobedience; and + he was conducted without delay to Curubis, a free and maritime city of + Zeugitania, in a pleasant situation, a fertile territory, and at the + distance of about forty miles from Carthage. The exiled bishop enjoyed the + conveniences of life and the consciousness of virtue. His reputation was + diffused over Africa and Italy; an account of his behavior was published + for the edification of the Christian world; and his solitude was + frequently interrupted by the letters, the visits, and the congratulations + of the faithful. On the arrival of a new proconsul in the province the + fortune of Cyprian appeared for some time to wear a still more favorable + aspect. He was recalled from banishment; and though not yet permitted to + return to Carthage, his own gardens in the neighborhood of the capital + were assigned for the place of his residence.<br /> + </p> + <p> + At length, exactly one year after Cyprian was first apprehended, Galerius + Maximus, proconsul of Africa, received the Imperial warrant for the + execution of the Christian teachers. The bishop of Carthage was sensible + that he should be singled out for one of the first victims; and the + frailty of nature tempted him to withdraw himself, by a secret flight, + from the danger and the honor of martyrdom; * but soon recovering that + fortitude which his character required, he returned to his gardens, and + patiently expected the ministers of death. Two officers of rank, who were + intrusted with that commission, placed Cyprian between them in a chariot, + and as the proconsul was not then at leisure, they conducted him, not to a + prison, but to a private house in Carthage, which belonged to one of them. + An elegant supper was provided for the entertainment of the bishop, and + his Christian friends were permitted for the last time to enjoy his + society, whilst the streets were filled with a multitude of the faithful, + anxious and alarmed at the approaching fate of their spiritual father. In + the morning he appeared before the tribunal of the proconsul, who, after + informing himself of the name and situation of Cyprian, commanded him to + offer sacrifice, and pressed him to reflect on the consequences of his + disobedience. The refusal of Cyprian was firm and decisive; and the + magistrate, when he had taken the opinion of his council, pronounced with + some reluctance the sentence of death. It was conceived in the following + terms: "That Thascius Cyprianus should be immediately beheaded, as the + enemy of the gods of Rome, and as the chief and ringleader of a criminal + association, which he had seduced into an impious resistance against the + laws of the most holy emperors, Valerian and Gallienus." The manner of his + execution was the mildest and least painful that could be inflicted on a + person convicted of any capital offence; nor was the use of torture + admitted to obtain from the bishop of Carthage either the recantation of + his principles or the discovery of his accomplices.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As soon as the sentence was proclaimed, a general cry of "We will die with + him," arose at once among the listening multitude of Christians who waited + before the palace gates. The generous effusions of their zeal and their + affection were neither serviceable to Cyprian nor dangerous to themselves. + He was led away under a guard of tribunes and centurions, without + resistance and without insult, to the place of his execution, a spacious + and level plain near the city, which was already filled with great numbers + of spectators. His faithful presbyters and deacons were permitted to + accompany their holy bishop. * They assisted him in laying aside his upper + garment, spread linen on the ground to catch the precious relics of his + blood, and received his orders to bestow five-and-twenty pieces of gold on + the executioner. The martyr then covered his face with his hands, and at + one blow his head was separated from his body. His corpse remained during + some hours exposed to the curiosity of the Gentiles: but in the night it + was removed, and transported in a triumphal procession, and with a + splendid illumination, to the burial-place of the Christians. The funeral + of Cyprian was publicly celebrated without receiving any interruption from + the Roman magistrates; and those among the faithful, who had performed the + last offices to his person and his memory, were secure from the danger of + inquiry or of punishment. It is remarkable, that of so great a multitude + of bishops in the province of Africa, Cyprian was the first who was + esteemed worthy to obtain the crown of martyrdom.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It was in the choice of Cyprian, either to die a martyr, or to live an + apostate; but on the choice depended the alternative of honor or infamy. + Could we suppose that the bishop of Carthage had employed the profession + of the Christian faith only as the instrument of his avarice or ambition, + it was still incumbent on him to support the character he had assumed; and + if he possessed the smallest degree of manly fortitude, rather to expose + himself to the most cruel tortures, than by a single act to exchange the + reputation of a whole life, for the abhorrence of his Christian brethren, + and the contempt of the Gentile world. But if the zeal of Cyprian was + supported by the sincere conviction of the truth of those doctrines which + he preached, the crown of martyrdom must have appeared to him as an object + of desire rather than of terror. It is not easy to extract any distinct + ideas from the vague though eloquent declamations of the Fathers, or to + ascertain the degree of immortal glory and happiness which they + confidently promised to those who were so fortunate as to shed their blood + in the cause of religion. They inculcated with becoming diligence, that + the fire of martyrdom supplied every defect and expiated every sin; that + while the souls of ordinary Christians were obliged to pass through a slow + and painful purification, the triumphant sufferers entered into the + immediate fruition of eternal bliss, where, in the society of the + patriarchs, the apostles, and the prophets, they reigned with Christ, and + acted as his assessors in the universal judgment of mankind. The assurance + of a lasting reputation upon earth, a motive so congenial to the vanity of + human nature, often served to animate the courage of the martyrs. The + honors which Rome or Athens bestowed on those citizens who had fallen in + the cause of their country, were cold and unmeaning demonstrations of + respect, when compared with the ardent gratitude and devotion which the + primitive church expressed towards the victorious champions of the faith. + The annual commemoration of their virtues and sufferings was observed as a + sacred ceremony, and at length terminated in religious worship. Among the + Christians who had publicly confessed their religious principles, those + who (as it very frequently happened) had been dismissed from the tribunal + or the prisons of the Pagan magistrates, obtained such honors as were + justly due to their imperfect martyrdom and their generous resolution. The + most pious females courted the permission of imprinting kisses on the + fetters which they had worn, and on the wounds which they had received. + Their persons were esteemed holy, their decisions were admitted with + deference, and they too often abused, by their spiritual pride and + licentious manners, the preeminence which their zeal and intrepidity had + acquired. Distinctions like these, whilst they display the exalted merit, + betray the inconsiderable number of those who suffered, and of those who + died, for the profession of Christianity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sober discretion of the present age will more readily censure than + admire, but can more easily admire than imitate, the fervor of the first + Christians, who, according to the lively expressions of Sulpicius Severus, + desired martyrdom with more eagerness than his own contemporaries + solicited a bishopric. The epistles which Ignatius composed as he was + carried in chains through the cities of Asia, breathe sentiments the most + repugnant to the ordinary feelings of human nature. He earnestly beseeches + the Romans, that when he should be exposed in the amphitheatre, they would + not, by their kind but unseasonable intercession, deprive him of the crown + of glory; and he declares his resolution to provoke and irritate the wild + beasts which might be employed as the instruments of his death. Some + stories are related of the courage of martyrs, who actually performed what + Ignatius had intended; who exasperated the fury of the lions, pressed the + executioner to hasten his office, cheerfully leaped into the fires which + were kindled to consume them, and discovered a sensation of joy and + pleasure in the midst of the most exquisite tortures. Several examples + have been preserved of a zeal impatient of those restraints which the + emperors had provided for the security of the church. The Christians + sometimes supplied by their voluntary declaration the want of an accuser, + rudely disturbed the public service of paganism, and rushing in crowds + round the tribunal of the magistrates, called upon them to pronounce and + to inflict the sentence of the law. The behavior of the Christians was too + remarkable to escape the notice of the ancient philosophers; but they seem + to have considered it with much less admiration than astonishment. + Incapable of conceiving the motives which sometimes transported the + fortitude of believers beyond the bounds of prudence or reason, they + treated such an eagerness to die as the strange result of obstinate + despair, of stupid insensibility, or of superstitious frenzy. "Unhappy + men!" exclaimed the proconsul Antoninus to the Christians of Asia; + "unhappy men! if you are thus weary of your lives, is it so difficult for + you to find ropes and precipices?" He was extremely cautious (as it is + observed by a learned and pious historian) of punishing men who had found + no accusers but themselves, the Imperial laws not having made any + provision for so unexpected a case: condemning therefore a few as a + warning to their brethren, he dismissed the multitude with indignation and + contempt. Notwithstanding this real or affected disdain, the intrepid + constancy of the faithful was productive of more salutary effects on those + minds which nature or grace had disposed for the easy reception of + religious truth. On these melancholy occasions, there were many among the + Gentiles who pitied, who admired, and who were converted. The generous + enthusiasm was communicated from the sufferer to the spectators; and the + blood of martyrs, according to a well-known observation, became the seed + of the church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But although devotion had raised, and eloquence continued to inflame, this + fever of the mind, it insensibly gave way to the more natural hopes and + fears of the human heart, to the love of life, the apprehension of pain, + and the horror of dissolution. The more prudent rulers of the church found + themselves obliged to restrain the indiscreet ardor of their followers, + and to distrust a constancy which too often abandoned them in the hour of + trial. As the lives of the faithful became less mortified and austere, + they were every day less ambitious of the honors of martyrdom; and the + soldiers of Christ, instead of distinguishing themselves by voluntary + deeds of heroism, frequently deserted their post, and fled in confusion + before the enemy whom it was their duty to resist. There were three + methods, however, of escaping the flames of persecution, which were not + attended with an equal degree of guilt: first, indeed, was generally + allowed to be innocent; the second was of a doubtful, or at least of a + venial, nature; but the third implied a direct and criminal apostasy from + the Christian faith.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. A modern inquisitor would hear with surprise, that whenever an + information was given to a Roman magistrate of any person within his + jurisdiction who had embraced the sect of the Christians, the charge was + communicated to the party accused, and that a convenient time was allowed + him to settle his domestic concerns, and to prepare an answer to the crime + which was imputed to him. If he entertained any doubt of his own + constancy, such a delay afforded him the opportunity of preserving his + life and honor by flight, of withdrawing himself into some obscure + retirement or some distant province, and of patiently expecting the return + of peace and security. A measure so consonant to reason was soon + authorized by the advice and example of the most holy prelates; and seems + to have been censured by few except by the Montanists, who deviated into + heresy by their strict and obstinate adherence to the rigor of ancient + discipline. II. The provincial governors, whose zeal was less prevalent + than their avarice, had countenanced the practice of selling certificates, + (or libels, as they were called,) which attested, that the persons therein + mentioned had complied with the laws, and sacrificed to the Roman deities. + By producing these false declarations, the opulent and timid Christians + were enabled to silence the malice of an informer, and to reconcile in + some measure their safety with their religion. A slight penance atoned for + this profane dissimulation. * III. In every persecution there were great + numbers of unworthy Christians who publicly disowned or renounced the + faith which they had professed; and who confirmed the sincerity of their + abjuration, by the legal acts of burning incense or of offering + sacrifices. Some of these apostates had yielded on the first menace or + exhortation of the magistrate; whilst the patience of others had been + subdued by the length and repetition of tortures. The affrighted + countenances of some betrayed their inward remorse, while others advanced + with confidence and alacrity to the altars of the gods. But the disguise + which fear had imposed, subsisted no longer than the present danger. As + soon as the severity of the persecution was abated, the doors of the + churches were assailed by the returning multitude of penitents who + detested their idolatrous submission, and who solicited with equal ardor, + but with various success, their readmission into the society of + Christians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + IV. Notwithstanding the general rules established for the conviction and + punishment of the Christians, the fate of those sectaries, in an extensive + and arbitrary government, must still in a great measure, have depended on + their own behavior, the circumstances of the times, and the temper of + their supreme as well as subordinate rulers. Zeal might sometimes provoke, + and prudence might sometimes avert or assuage, the superstitious fury of + the Pagans. A variety of motives might dispose the provincial governors + either to enforce or to relax the execution of the laws; and of these + motives the most forcible was their regard not only for the public edicts, + but for the secret intentions of the emperor, a glance from whose eye was + sufficient to kindle or to extinguish the flames of persecution. As often + as any occasional severities were exercised in the different parts of the + empire, the primitive Christians lamented and perhaps magnified their own + sufferings; but the celebrated number of ten persecutions has been + determined by the ecclesiastical writers of the fifth century, who + possessed a more distinct view of the prosperous or adverse fortunes of + the church, from the age of Nero to that of Diocletian. The ingenious + parallels of the ten plagues of Egypt, and of the ten horns of the + Apocalypse, first suggested this calculation to their minds; and in their + application of the faith of prophecy to the truth of history, they were + careful to select those reigns which were indeed the most hostile to the + Christian cause. But these transient persecutions served only to revive + the zeal and to restore the discipline of the faithful; and the moments of + extraordinary rigor were compensated by much longer intervals of peace and + security. The indifference of some princes, and the indulgence of others, + permitted the Christians to enjoy, though not perhaps a legal, yet an + actual and public, toleration of their religion.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p5" id="linkch16-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + V. + </h2> + <p> + The apology of Tertullian contains two very ancient, very singular, but at + the same time very suspicious, instances of Imperial clemency; the edicts + published by Tiberius, and by Marcus Antoninus, and designed not only to + protect the innocence of the Christians, but even to proclaim those + stupendous miracles which had attested the truth of their doctrine. The + first of these examples is attended with some difficulties which might + perplex a sceptical mind. We are required to believe, <strong><em>that</em></strong> + Pontius Pilate informed the emperor of the unjust sentence of death which + he had pronounced against an innocent, and, as it appeared, a divine, + person; and that, without acquiring the merit, he exposed himself to the + danger of martyrdom; <strong><em>that</em></strong> Tiberius, who avowed + his contempt for all religion, immediately conceived the design of placing + the Jewish Messiah among the gods of Rome; <strong><em>that</em></strong> + his servile senate ventured to disobey the commands of their master; + <strong><em>that</em></strong> Tiberius, instead of resenting their + refusal, contented himself with protecting the Christians from the + severity of the laws, many years before such laws were enacted, or before + the church had assumed any distinct name or existence; and lastly, <strong><em>that</em></strong> + the memory of this extraordinary transaction was preserved in the most + public and authentic records, which escaped the knowledge of the + historians of Greece and Rome, and were only visible to the eyes of an + African Christian, who composed his apology one hundred and sixty years + after the death of Tiberius. The edict of Marcus Antoninus is supposed to + have been the effect of his devotion and gratitude for the miraculous + deliverance which he had obtained in the Marcomannic war. The distress of + the legions, the seasonable tempest of rain and hail, of thunder and of + lightning, and the dismay and defeat of the barbarians, have been + celebrated by the eloquence of several Pagan writers. If there were any + Christians in that army, it was natural that they should ascribe some + merit to the fervent prayers, which, in the moment of danger, they had + offered up for their own and the public safety. But we are still assured + by monuments of brass and marble, by the Imperial medals, and by the + Antonine column, that neither the prince nor the people entertained any + sense of this signal obligation, since they unanimously attribute their + deliverance to the providence of Jupiter, and to the interposition of + Mercury. During the whole course of his reign, Marcus despised the + Christians as a philosopher, and punished them as a sovereign. *<br /> + </p> + <p> + By a singular fatality, the hardships which they had endured under the + government of a virtuous prince, immediately ceased on the accession of a + tyrant; and as none except themselves had experienced the injustice of + Marcus, so they alone were protected by the lenity of Commodus. The + celebrated Marcia, the most favored of his concubines, and who at length + contrived the murder of her Imperial lover, entertained a singular + affection for the oppressed church; and though it was impossible that she + could reconcile the practice of vice with the precepts of the gospel, she + might hope to atone for the frailties of her sex and profession by + declaring herself the patroness of the Christians. Under the gracious + protection of Marcia, they passed in safety the thirteen years of a cruel + tyranny; and when the empire was established in the house of Severus, they + formed a domestic but more honorable connection with the new court. The + emperor was persuaded, that in a dangerous sickness, he had derived some + benefit, either spiritual or physical, from the holy oil, with which one + of his slaves had anointed him. He always treated with peculiar + distinction several persons of both sexes who had embraced the new + religion. The nurse as well as the preceptor of Caracalla were Christians; + * and if that young prince ever betrayed a sentiment of humanity, it was + occasioned by an incident, which, however trifling, bore some relation to + the cause of Christianity. Under the reign of Severus, the fury of the + populace was checked; the rigor of ancient laws was for some time + suspended; and the provincial governors were satisfied with receiving an + annual present from the churches within their jurisdiction, as the price, + or as the reward, of their moderation. The controversy concerning the + precise time of the celebration of Easter, armed the bishops of Asia and + Italy against each other, and was considered as the most important + business of this period of leisure and tranquillity. Nor was the peace of + the church interrupted, till the increasing numbers of proselytes seem at + length to have attracted the attention, and to have alienated the mind of + Severus. With the design of restraining the progress of Christianity, he + published an edict, which, though it was designed to affect only the new + converts, could not be carried into strict execution, without exposing to + danger and punishment the most zealous of their teachers and missionaries. + In this mitigated persecution we may still discover the indulgent spirit + of Rome and of Polytheism, which so readily admitted every excuse in favor + of those who practised the religious ceremonies of their fathers.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the laws which Severus had enacted soon expired with the authority of + that emperor; and the Christians, after this accidental tempest, enjoyed a + calm of thirty-eight years. Till this period they had usually held their + assemblies in private houses and sequestered places. They were now + permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purpose of + religious worship; to purchase lands, even at Rome itself, for the use of + the community; and to conduct the elections of their ecclesiastical + ministers in so public, but at the same time in so exemplary a manner, as + to deserve the respectful attention of the Gentiles. This long repose of + the church was accompanied with dignity. The reigns of those princes who + derived their extraction from the Asiatic provinces, proved the most + favorable to the Christians; the eminent persons of the sect, instead of + being reduced to implore the protection of a slave or concubine, were + admitted into the palace in the honorable characters of priests and + philosophers; and their mysterious doctrines, which were already diffused + among the people, insensibly attracted the curiosity of their sovereign. + When the empress Mammæa passed through Antioch, she expressed a + desire of conversing with the celebrated Origen, the fame of whose piety + and learning was spread over the East. Origen obeyed so flattering an + invitation, and though he could not expect to succeed in the conversion of + an artful and ambitious woman, she listened with pleasure to his eloquent + exhortations, and honorably dismissed him to his retirement in Palestine. + The sentiments of Mammæa were adopted by her son Alexander, and the + philosophic devotion of that emperor was marked by a singular but + injudicious regard for the Christian religion. In his domestic chapel he + placed the statues of Abraham, of Orpheus, of Apollonius, and of Christ, + as an honor justly due to those respectable sages who had instructed + mankind in the various modes of addressing their homage to the supreme and + universal Deity. A purer faith, as well as worship, was openly professed + and practised among his household. Bishops, perhaps for the first time, + were seen at court; and, after the death of Alexander, when the inhuman + Maximin discharged his fury on the favorites and servants of his + unfortunate benefactor, a great number of Christians of every rank and of + both sexes, were involved the promiscuous massacre, which, on their + account, has improperly received the name of Persecution. *<br /> + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the cruel disposition of Maximin, the effects of his + resentment against the Christians were of a very local and temporary + nature, and the pious Origen, who had been proscribed as a devoted victim, + was still reserved to convey the truths of the gospel to the ear of + monarchs. He addressed several edifying letters to the emperor Philip, to + his wife, and to his mother; and as soon as that prince, who was born in + the neighborhood of Palestine, had usurped the Imperial sceptre, the + Christians acquired a friend and a protector. The public and even partial + favor of Philip towards the sectaries of the new religion, and his + constant reverence for the ministers of the church, gave some color to the + suspicion, which prevailed in his own times, that the emperor himself was + become a convert to the faith; and afforded some grounds for a fable which + was afterwards invented, that he had been purified by confession and + penance from the guilt contracted by the murder of his innocent + predecessor. The fall of Philip introduced, with the change of masters, a + new system of government, so oppressive to the Christians, that their + former condition, ever since the time of Domitian, was represented as a + state of perfect freedom and security, if compared with the rigorous + treatment which they experienced under the short reign of Decius. The + virtues of that prince will scarcely allow us to suspect that he was + actuated by a mean resentment against the favorites of his predecessor; + and it is more reasonable to believe, that in the prosecution of his + general design to restore the purity of Roman manners, he was desirous of + delivering the empire from what he condemned as a recent and criminal + superstition. The bishops of the most considerable cities were removed by + exile or death: the vigilance of the magistrates prevented the clergy of + Rome during sixteen months from proceeding to a new election; and it was + the opinion of the Christians, that the emperor would more patiently + endure a competitor for the purple, than a bishop in the capital. Were it + possible to suppose that the penetration of Decius had discovered pride + under the disguise of humility, or that he could foresee the temporal + dominion which might insensibly arise from the claims of spiritual + authority, we might be less surprised, that he should consider the + successors of St. Peter, as the most formidable rivals to those of + Augustus.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The administration of Valerian was distinguished by a levity and + inconstancy ill suited to the gravity of the <strong><em>Roman Censor</em></strong>. + In the first part of his reign, he surpassed in clemency those princes who + had been suspected of an attachment to the Christian faith. In the last + three years and a half, listening to the insinuations of a minister + addicted to the superstitions of Egypt, he adopted the maxims, and + imitated the severity, of his predecessor Decius. The accession of + Gallienus, which increased the calamities of the empire, restored peace to + the church; and the Christians obtained the free exercise of their + religion by an edict addressed to the bishops, and conceived in such terms + as seemed to acknowledge their office and public character. The ancient + laws, without being formally repealed, were suffered to sink into + oblivion; and (excepting only some hostile intentions which are attributed + to the emperor Aurelian ) the disciples of Christ passed above forty years + in a state of prosperity, far more dangerous to their virtue than the + severest trials of persecution.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The story of Paul of Samosata, who filled the metropolitan see of Antioch, + while the East was in the hands of Odenathus and Zenobia, may serve to + illustrate the condition and character of the times. The wealth of that + prelate was a sufficient evidence of his guilt, since it was neither + derived from the inheritance of his fathers, nor acquired by the arts of + honest industry. But Paul considered the service of the church as a very + lucrative profession. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction was venal and + rapacious; he extorted frequent contributions from the most opulent of the + faithful, and converted to his own use a considerable part of the public + revenue. By his pride and luxury, the Christian religion was rendered + odious in the eyes of the Gentiles. His council chamber and his throne, + the splendor with which he appeared in public, the suppliant crowd who + solicited his attention, the multitude of letters and petitions to which + he dictated his answers, and the perpetual hurry of business in which he + was involved, were circumstances much better suited to the state of a + civil magistrate, than to the humility of a primitive bishop. When he + harangued his people from the pulpit, Paul affected the figurative style + and the theatrical gestures of an Asiatic sophist, while the cathedral + resounded with the loudest and most extravagant acclamations in the praise + of his divine eloquence. Against those who resisted his power, or refused + to flatter his vanity, the prelate of Antioch was arrogant, rigid, and + inexorable; but he relaxed the discipline, and lavished the treasures of + the church on his dependent clergy, who were permitted to imitate their + master in the gratification of every sensual appetite. For Paul indulged + himself very freely in the pleasures of the table, and he had received + into the episcopal palace two young and beautiful women as the constant + companions of his leisure moments.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these scandalous vices, if Paul of Samosata had preserved + the purity of the orthodox faith, his reign over the capital of Syria + would have ended only with his life; and had a seasonable persecution + intervened, an effort of courage might perhaps have placed him in the rank + of saints and martyrs. * Some nice and subtle errors, which he imprudently + adopted and obstinately maintained, concerning the doctrine of the + Trinity, excited the zeal and indignation of the Eastern churches. From + Egypt to the Euxine Sea, the bishops were in arms and in motion. Several + councils were held, confutations were published, excommunications were + pronounced, ambiguous explanations were by turns accepted and refused, + treaties were concluded and violated, and at length Paul of Samosata was + degraded from his episcopal character, by the sentence of seventy or + eighty bishops, who assembled for that purpose at Antioch, and who, + without consulting the rights of the clergy or people, appointed a + successor by their own authority. The manifest irregularity of this + proceeding increased the numbers of the discontented faction; and as Paul, + who was no stranger to the arts of courts, had insinuated himself into the + favor of Zenobia, he maintained above four years the possession of the + episcopal house and office. * The victory of Aurelian changed the face of + the East, and the two contending parties, who applied to each other the + epithets of schism and heresy, were either commanded or permitted to plead + their cause before the tribunal of the conqueror. This public and very + singular trial affords a convincing proof that the existence, the + property, the privileges, and the internal policy of the Christians, were + acknowledged, if not by the laws, at least by the magistrates, of the + empire. As a Pagan and as a soldier, it could scarcely be expected that + Aurelian should enter into the discussion, whether the sentiments of Paul + or those of his adversaries were most agreeable to the true standard of + the orthodox faith. His determination, however, was founded on the general + principles of equity and reason. He considered the bishops of Italy as the + most impartial and respectable judges among the Christians, and as soon as + he was informed that they had unanimously approved the sentence of the + council, he acquiesced in their opinion, and immediately gave orders that + Paul should be compelled to relinquish the temporal possessions belonging + to an office, of which, in the judgment of his brethren, he had been + regularly deprived. But while we applaud the justice, we should not + overlook the policy, of Aurelian, who was desirous of restoring and + cementing the dependence of the provinces on the capital, by every means + which could bind the interest or prejudices of any part of his subjects.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Amidst the frequent revolutions of the empire, the Christians still + flourished in peace and prosperity; and notwithstanding a celebrated + æra of martyrs has been deduced from the accession of Diocletian, + the new system of policy, introduced and maintained by the wisdom of that + prince, continued, during more than eighteen years, to breathe the mildest + and most liberal spirit of religious toleration. The mind of Diocletian + himself was less adapted indeed to speculative inquiries, than to the + active labors of war and government. His prudence rendered him averse to + any great innovation, and though his temper was not very susceptible of + zeal or enthusiasm, he always maintained an habitual regard for the + ancient deities of the empire. But the leisure of the two empresses, of + his wife Prisca, and of Valeria, his daughter, permitted them to listen + with more attention and respect to the truths of Christianity, which in + every age has acknowledged its important obligations to female devotion. + The principal eunuchs, Lucian and Dorotheus, Gorgonius and Andrew, who + attended the person, possessed the favor, and governed the household of + Diocletian, protected by their powerful influence the faith which they had + embraced. Their example was imitated by many of the most considerable + officers of the palace, who, in their respective stations, had the care of + the Imperial ornaments, of the robes, of the furniture, of the jewels, and + even of the private treasury; and, though it might sometimes be incumbent + on them to accompany the emperor when he sacrificed in the temple, they + enjoyed, with their wives, their children, and their slaves, the free + exercise of the Christian religion. Diocletian and his colleagues + frequently conferred the most important offices on those persons who + avowed their abhorrence for the worship of the gods, but who had displayed + abilities proper for the service of the state. The bishops held an + honorable rank in their respective provinces, and were treated with + distinction and respect, not only by the people, but by the magistrates + themselves. Almost in every city, the ancient churches were found + insufficient to contain the increasing multitude of proselytes; and in + their place more stately and capacious edifices were erected for the + public worship of the faithful. The corruption of manners and principles, + so forcibly lamented by Eusebius, may be considered, not only as a + consequence, but as a proof, of the liberty which the Christians enjoyed + and abused under the reign of Diocletian. Prosperity had relaxed the + nerves of discipline. Fraud, envy, and malice prevailed in every + congregation. The presbyters aspired to the episcopal office, which every + day became an object more worthy of their ambition. The bishops, who + contended with each other for ecclesiastical preeminence, appeared by + their conduct to claim a secular and tyrannical power in the church; and + the lively faith which still distinguished the Christians from the + Gentiles, was shown much less in their lives, than in their controversial + writings.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this seeming security, an attentive observer might discern + some symptoms that threatened the church with a more violent persecution + than any which she had yet endured. The zeal and rapid progress of the + Christians awakened the Polytheists from their supine indifference in the + cause of those deities, whom custom and education had taught them to + revere. The mutual provocations of a religious war, which had already + continued above two hundred years, exasperated the animosity of the + contending parties. The Pagans were incensed at the rashness of a recent + and obscure sect, which presumed to accuse their countrymen of error, and + to devote their ancestors to eternal misery. The habits of justifying the + popular mythology against the invectives of an implacable enemy, produced + in their minds some sentiments of faith and reverence for a system which + they had been accustomed to consider with the most careless levity. The + supernatural powers assumed by the church inspired at the same time terror + and emulation. The followers of the established religion intrenched + themselves behind a similar fortification of prodigies; invented new modes + of sacrifice, of expiation, and of initiation; attempted to revive the + credit of their expiring oracles; and listened with eager credulity to + every impostor, who flattered their prejudices by a tale of wonders. Both + parties seemed to acknowledge the truth of those miracles which were + claimed by their adversaries; and while they were contented with ascribing + them to the arts of magic, and to the power of dæmons, they mutually + concurred in restoring and establishing the reign of superstition. + Philosophy, her most dangerous enemy, was now converted into her most + useful ally. The groves of the academy, the gardens of Epicurus, and even + the portico of the Stoics, were almost deserted, as so many different + schools of scepticism or impiety; and many among the Romans were desirous + that the writings of Cicero should be condemned and suppressed by the + authority of the senate. The prevailing sect of the new Platonicians + judged it prudent to connect themselves with the priests, whom perhaps + they despised, against the Christians, whom they had reason to fear. These + fashionable Philosophers prosecuted the design of extracting allegorical + wisdom from the fictions of the Greek poets; instituted mysterious rites + of devotion for the use of their chosen disciples; recommended the worship + of the ancient gods as the emblems or ministers of the Supreme Deity, and + composed against the faith of the gospel many elaborate treatises, which + have since been committed to the flames by the prudence of orthodox + emperors.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p6" id="linkch16-p6"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + VI. + </h2> + <p> + Although the policy of Diocletian and the humanity of Constantius inclined + them to preserve inviolate the maxims of toleration, it was soon + discovered that their two associates, Maximian and Galerius, entertained + the most implacable aversion for the name and religion of the Christians. + The minds of those princes had never been enlightened by science; + education had never softened their temper. They owed their greatness to + their swords, and in their most elevated fortune they still retained their + superstitious prejudices of soldiers and peasants. In the general + administration of the provinces they obeyed the laws which their + benefactor had established; but they frequently found occasions of + exercising within their camp and palaces a secret persecution, for which + the imprudent zeal of the Christians sometimes offered the most specious + pretences. A sentence of death was executed upon Maximilianus, an African + youth, who had been produced by his own father *before the magistrate as a + sufficient and legal recruit, but who obstinately persisted in declaring, + that his conscience would not permit him to embrace the profession of a + soldier. It could scarcely be expected that any government should suffer + the action of Marcellus the Centurion to pass with impunity. On the day of + a public festival, that officer threw away his belt, his arms, and the + ensigns of his office, and exclaimed with a loud voice, that he would obey + none but Jesus Christ the eternal King, and that he renounced forever the + use of carnal weapons, and the service of an idolatrous master. The + soldiers, as soon as they recovered from their astonishment, secured the + person of Marcellus. He was examined in the city of Tingi by the president + of that part of Mauritania; and as he was convicted by his own confession, + he was condemned and beheaded for the crime of desertion. Examples of such + a nature savor much less of religious persecution than of martial or even + civil law; but they served to alienate the mind of the emperors, to + justify the severity of Galerius, who dismissed a great number of + Christian officers from their employments; and to authorize the opinion, + that a sect of enthusiastics, which avowed principles so repugnant to the + public safety, must either remain useless, or would soon become dangerous, + subjects of the empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After the success of the Persian war had raised the hopes and the + reputation of Galerius, he passed a winter with Diocletian in the palace + of Nicomedia; and the fate of Christianity became the object of their + secret consultations. The experienced emperor was still inclined to pursue + measures of lenity; and though he readily consented to exclude the + Christians from holding any employments in the household or the army, he + urged in the strongest terms the danger as well as cruelty of shedding the + blood of those deluded fanatics. Galerius at length extorted from him the + permission of summoning a council, composed of a few persons the most + distinguished in the civil and military departments of the state. The + important question was agitated in their presence, and those ambitious + courtiers easily discerned, that it was incumbent on them to second, by + their eloquence, the importunate violence of the Cæsar. It may be + presumed, that they insisted on every topic which might interest the + pride, the piety, or the fears, of their sovereign in the destruction of + Christianity. Perhaps they represented, that the glorious work of the + deliverance of the empire was left imperfect, as long as an independent + people was permitted to subsist and multiply in the heart of the + provinces. The Christians, (it might specially be alleged,) renouncing the + gods and the institutions of Rome, had constituted a distinct republic, + which might yet be suppressed before it had acquired any military force; + but which was already governed by its own laws and magistrates, was + possessed of a public treasure, and was intimately connected in all its + parts by the frequent assemblies of the bishops, to whose decrees their + numerous and opulent congregations yielded an implicit obedience. + Arguments like these may seem to have determined the reluctant mind of + Diocletian to embrace a new system of persecution; but though we may + suspect, it is not in our power to relate, the secret intrigues of the + palace, the private views and resentments, the jealousy of women or + eunuchs, and all those trifling but decisive causes which so often + influence the fate of empires, and the councils of the wisest monarchs.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The pleasure of the emperors was at length signified to the Christians, + who, during the course of this melancholy winter, had expected, with + anxiety, the result of so many secret consultations. The twenty-third of + February, which coincided with the Roman festival of the Terminalia, was + appointed (whether from accident or design) to set bounds to the progress + of Christianity. At the earliest dawn of day, the Prætorian præfect, + accompanied by several generals, tribunes, and officers of the revenue, + repaired to the principal church of Nicomedia, which was situated on an + eminence in the most populous and beautiful part of the city. The doors + were instantly broke open; they rushed into the sanctuary; and as they + searched in vain for some visible object of worship, they were obliged to + content themselves with committing to the flames the volumes of the holy + Scripture. The ministers of Diocletian were followed by a numerous body of + guards and pioneers, who marched in order of battle, and were provided + with all the instruments used in the destruction of fortified cities. By + their incessant labor, a sacred edifice, which towered above the Imperial + palace, and had long excited the indignation and envy of the Gentiles, was + in a few hours levelled with the ground.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The next day the general edict of persecution was published; and though + Diocletian, still averse to the effusion of blood, had moderated the fury + of Galerius, who proposed, that every one refusing to offer sacrifice + should immediately be burnt alive, the penalties inflicted on the + obstinacy of the Christians might be deemed sufficiently rigorous and + effectual. It was enacted, that their churches, in all the provinces of + the empire, should be demolished to their foundations; and the punishment + of death was denounced against all who should presume to hold any secret + assemblies for the purpose of religious worship. The philosophers, who now + assumed the unworthy office of directing the blind zeal of persecution, + had diligently studied the nature and genius of the Christian religion; + and as they were not ignorant that the speculative doctrines of the faith + were supposed to be contained in the writings of the prophets, of the + evangelists, and of the apostles, they most probably suggested the order, + that the bishops and presbyters should deliver all their sacred books into + the hands of the magistrates; who were commanded, under the severest + penalties, to burn them in a public and solemn manner. By the same edict, + the property of the church was at once confiscated; and the several parts + of which it might consist were either sold to the highest bidder, united + to the Imperial domain, bestowed on the cities and corporations, or + granted to the solicitations of rapacious courtiers. After taking such + effectual measures to abolish the worship, and to dissolve the government + of the Christians, it was thought necessary to subject to the most + intolerable hardships the condition of those perverse individuals who + should still reject the religion of nature, of Rome, and of their + ancestors. Persons of a liberal birth were declared incapable of holding + any honors or employments; slaves were forever deprived of the hopes of + freedom, and the whole body of the people were put out of the protection + of the law. The judges were authorized to hear and to determine every + action that was brought against a Christian. But the Christians were not + permitted to complain of any injury which they themselves had suffered; + and thus those unfortunate sectaries were exposed to the severity, while + they were excluded from the benefits, of public justice. This new species + of martyrdom, so painful and lingering, so obscure and ignominious, was, + perhaps, the most proper to weary the constancy of the faithful: nor can + it be doubted that the passions and interest of mankind were disposed on + this occasion to second the designs of the emperors. But the policy of a + well-ordered government must sometimes have interposed in behalf of the + oppressed Christians; * nor was it possible for the Roman princes entirely + to remove the apprehension of punishment, or to connive at every act of + fraud and violence, without exposing their own authority and the rest of + their subjects to the most alarming dangers.<br /> + </p> + <p> + This edict was scarcely exhibited to the public view, in the most + conspicuous place of Nicomedia, before it was torn down by the hands of a + Christian, who expressed at the same time, by the bitterest invectives, + his contempt as well as abhorrence for such impious and tyrannical + governors. His offence, according to the mildest laws, amounted to + treason, and deserved death. And if it be true that he was a person of + rank and education, those circumstances could serve only to aggravate his + guilt. He was burnt, or rather roasted, by a slow fire; and his + executioners, zealous to revenge the personal insult which had been + offered to the emperors, exhausted every refinement of cruelty, without + being able to subdue his patience, or to alter the steady and insulting + smile which in his dying agonies he still preserved in his countenance. + The Christians, though they confessed that his conduct had not been + strictly conformable to the laws of prudence, admired the divine fervor of + his zeal; and the excessive commendations which they lavished on the + memory of their hero and martyr, contributed to fix a deep impression of + terror and hatred in the mind of Diocletian.<br /> + </p> + <p> + His fears were soon alarmed by the view of a danger from which he very + narrowly escaped. Within fifteen days the palace of Nicomedia, and even + the bed-chamber of Diocletian, were twice in flames; and though both times + they were extinguished without any material damage, the singular + repetition of the fire was justly considered as an evident proof that it + had not been the effect of chance or negligence. The suspicion naturally + fell on the Christians; and it was suggested, with some degree of + probability, that those desperate fanatics, provoked by their present + sufferings, and apprehensive of impending calamities, had entered into a + conspiracy with their faithful brethren, the eunuchs of the palace, + against the lives of two emperors, whom they detested as the + irreconcilable enemies of the church of God. Jealousy and resentment + prevailed in every breast, but especially in that of Diocletian. A great + number of persons, distinguished either by the offices which they had + filled, or by the favor which they had enjoyed, were thrown into prison. + Every mode of torture was put in practice, and the court, as well as city, + was polluted with many bloody executions. But as it was found impossible + to extort any discovery of this mysterious transaction, it seems incumbent + on us either to presume the innocence, or to admire the resolution, of the + sufferers. A few days afterwards Galerius hastily withdrew himself from + Nicomedia, declaring, that if he delayed his departure from that devoted + palace, he should fall a sacrifice to the rage of the Christians. The + ecclesiastical historians, from whom alone we derive a partial and + imperfect knowledge of this persecution, are at a loss how to account for + the fears and dangers of the emperors. Two of these writers, a prince and + a rhetorician, were eye-witnesses of the fire of Nicomedia. The one + ascribes it to lightning, and the divine wrath; the other affirms, that it + was kindled by the malice of Galerius himself.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As the edict against the Christians was designed for a general law of the + whole empire, and as Diocletian and Galerius, though they might not wait + for the consent, were assured of the concurrence, of the Western princes, + it would appear more consonant to our ideas of policy, that the governors + of all the provinces should have received secret instructions to publish, + on one and the same day, this declaration of war within their respective + departments. It was at least to be expected, that the convenience of the + public highways and established posts would have enabled the emperors to + transmit their orders with the utmost despatch from the palace of + Nicomedia to the extremities of the Roman world; and that they would not + have suffered fifty days to elapse, before the edict was published in + Syria, and near four months before it was signified to the cities of + Africa. This delay may perhaps be imputed to the cautious temper of + Diocletian, who had yielded a reluctant consent to the measures of + persecution, and who was desirous of trying the experiment under his more + immediate eye, before he gave way to the disorders and discontent which it + must inevitably occasion in the distant provinces. At first, indeed, the + magistrates were restrained from the effusion of blood; but the use of + every other severity was permitted, and even recommended to their zeal; + nor could the Christians, though they cheerfully resigned the ornaments of + their churches, resolve to interrupt their religious assemblies, or to + deliver their sacred books to the flames. The pious obstinacy of Felix, an + African bishop, appears to have embarrassed the subordinate ministers of + the government. The curator of his city sent him in chains to the + proconsul. The proconsul transmitted him to the Prætorian præfect + of Italy; and Felix, who disdained even to give an evasive answer, was at + length beheaded at Venusia, in Lucania, a place on which the birth of + Horace has conferred fame. This precedent, and perhaps some Imperial + rescript, which was issued in consequence of it, appeared to authorize the + governors of provinces, in punishing with death the refusal of the + Christians to deliver up their sacred books. There were undoubtedly many + persons who embraced this opportunity of obtaining the crown of martyrdom; + but there were likewise too many who purchased an ignominious life, by + discovering and betraying the holy Scripture into the hands of infidels. A + great number even of bishops and presbyters acquired, by this criminal + compliance, the opprobrious epithet of <strong><em>Traditors</em></strong>; + and their offence was productive of much present scandal and of much + future discord in the African church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The copies as well as the versions of Scripture, were already so + multiplied in the empire, that the most severe inquisition could no longer + be attended with any fatal consequences; and even the sacrifice of those + volumes, which, in every congregation, were preserved for public use, + required the consent of some treacherous and unworthy Christians. But the + ruin of the churches was easily effected by the authority of the + government, and by the labor of the Pagans. In some provinces, however, + the magistrates contented themselves with shutting up the places of + religious worship. In others, they more literally complied with the terms + of the edict; and after taking away the doors, the benches, and the + pulpit, which they burnt as it were in a funeral pile, they completely + demolished the remainder of the edifice. It is perhaps to this melancholy + occasion that we should apply a very remarkable story, which is related + with so many circumstances of variety and improbability, that it serves + rather to excite than to satisfy our curiosity. In a small town in + Phrygia, of whose name as well as situation we are left ignorant, it + should seem that the magistrates and the body of the people had embraced + the Christian faith; and as some resistance might be apprehended to the + execution of the edict, the governor of the province was supported by a + numerous detachment of legionaries. On their approach the citizens threw + themselves into the church, with the resolution either of defending by + arms that sacred edifice, or of perishing in its ruins. They indignantly + rejected the notice and permission which was given them to retire, till + the soldiers, provoked by their obstinate refusal, set fire to the + building on all sides, and consumed, by this extraordinary kind of + martyrdom, a great number of Phrygians, with their wives and children.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Some slight disturbances, though they were suppressed almost as soon as + excited, in Syria and the frontiers of Armenia, afforded the enemies of + the church a very plausible occasion to insinuate, that those troubles had + been secretly fomented by the intrigues of the bishops, who had already + forgotten their ostentatious professions of passive and unlimited + obedience. The resentment, or the fears, of Diocletian, at length + transported him beyond the bounds of moderation, which he had hitherto + preserved, and he declared, in a series of cruel edicts, his intention of + abolishing the Christian name. By the first of these edicts, the governors + of the provinces were directed to apprehend all persons of the + ecclesiastical order; and the prisons, destined for the vilest criminals, + were soon filled with a multitude of bishops, presbyters, deacons, + readers, and exorcists. By a second edict, the magistrates were commanded + to employ every method of severity, which might reclaim them from their + odious superstition, and oblige them to return to the established worship + of the gods. This rigorous order was extended, by a subsequent edict, to + the whole body of Christians, who were exposed to a violent and general + persecution. Instead of those salutary restraints, which had required the + direct and solemn testimony of an accuser, it became the duty as well as + the interest of the Imperial officers to discover, to pursue, and to + torment the most obnoxious among the faithful. Heavy penalties were + denounced against all who should presume to save a prescribed sectary from + the just indignation of the gods, and of the emperors. Yet, + notwithstanding the severity of this law, the virtuous courage of many of + the Pagans, in concealing their friends or relations, affords an honorable + proof, that the rage of superstition had not extinguished in their minds + the sentiments of nature and humanity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p7" id="linkch16-p7"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + VII. + </h2> + <p> + Diocletian had no sooner published his edicts against the Christians, + than, as if he had been desirous of committing to other hands the work of + persecution, he divested himself of the Imperial purple. The character and + situation of his colleagues and successors sometimes urged them to enforce + and sometimes inclined them to suspend, the execution of these rigorous + laws; nor can we acquire a just and distinct idea of this important period + of ecclesiastical history, unless we separately consider the state of + Christianity, in the different parts of the empire, during the space of + ten years, which elapsed between the first edicts of Diocletian and the + final peace of the church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The mild and humane temper of Constantius was averse to the oppression of + any part of his subjects. The principal offices of his palace were + exercised by Christians. He loved their persons, esteemed their fidelity, + and entertained not any dislike to their religious principles. But as long + as Constantius remained in the subordinate station of Cæsar, it was + not in his power openly to reject the edicts of Diocletian, or to disobey + the commands of Maximian. His authority contributed, however, to alleviate + the sufferings which he pitied and abhorred. He consented with reluctance + to the ruin of the churches; but he ventured to protect the Christians + themselves from the fury of the populace, and from the rigor of the laws. + The provinces of Gaul (under which we may probably include those of + Britain) were indebted for the singular tranquillity which they enjoyed, + to the gentle interposition of their sovereign. But Datianus, the + president or governor of Spain, actuated either by zeal or policy, chose + rather to execute the public edicts of the emperors, than to understand + the secret intentions of Constantius; and it can scarcely be doubted, that + his provincial administration was stained with the blood of a few martyrs. + The elevation of Constantius to the supreme and independent dignity of + Augustus, gave a free scope to the exercise of his virtues, and the + shortness of his reign did not prevent him from establishing a system of + toleration, of which he left the precept and the example to his son + Constantine. His fortunate son, from the first moment of his accession, + declaring himself the protector of the church, at length deserved the + appellation of the first emperor who publicly professed and established + the Christian religion. The motives of his conversion, as they may + variously be deduced from benevolence, from policy, from conviction, or + from remorse, and the progress of the revolution, which, under his + powerful influence and that of his sons, rendered Christianity the + reigning religion of the Roman empire, will form a very interesting and + important chapter in the present volume of this history. At present it may + be sufficient to observe, that every victory of Constantine was productive + of some relief or benefit to the church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The provinces of Italy and Africa experienced a short but violent + persecution. The rigorous edicts of Diocletian were strictly and + cheerfully executed by his associate Maximian, who had long hated the + Christians, and who delighted in acts of blood and violence. In the autumn + of the first year of the persecution, the two emperors met at Rome to + celebrate their triumph; several oppressive laws appear to have issued + from their secret consultations, and the diligence of the magistrates was + animated by the presence of their sovereigns. After Diocletian had + divested himself of the purple, Italy and Africa were administered under + the name of Severus, and were exposed, without defence, to the implacable + resentment of his master Galerius. Among the martyrs of Rome, Adauctus + deserves the notice of posterity. He was of a noble family in Italy, and + had raised himself, through the successive honors of the palace, to the + important office of treasurer of the private Jemesnes. Adauctus is the + more remarkable for being the only person of rank and distinction who + appears to have suffered death, during the whole course of this general + persecution.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The revolt of Maxentius immediately restored peace to the churches of + Italy and Africa; and the same tyrant who oppressed every other class of + his subjects, showed himself just, humane, and even partial, towards the + afflicted Christians. He depended on their gratitude and affection, and + very naturally presumed, that the injuries which they had suffered, and + the dangers which they still apprehended from his most inveterate enemy, + would secure the fidelity of a party already considerable by their numbers + and opulence. Even the conduct of Maxentius towards the bishops of Rome + and Carthage may be considered as the proof of his toleration, since it is + probable that the most orthodox princes would adopt the same measures with + regard to their established clergy. Marcellus, the former of these + prelates, had thrown the capital into confusion, by the severe penance + which he imposed on a great number of Christians, who, during the late + persecution, had renounced or dissembled their religion. The rage of + faction broke out in frequent and violent seditions; the blood of the + faithful was shed by each other's hands, and the exile of Marcellus, whose + prudence seems to have been less eminent than his zeal, was found to be + the only measure capable of restoring peace to the distracted church of + Rome. The behavior of Mensurius, bishop of Carthage, appears to have been + still more reprehensible. A deacon of that city had published a libel + against the emperor. The offender took refuge in the episcopal palace; and + though it was somewhat early to advance any claims of ecclesiastical + immunities, the bishop refused to deliver him up to the officers of + justice. For this treasonable resistance, Mensurius was summoned to court, + and instead of receiving a legal sentence of death or banishment, he was + permitted, after a short examination, to return to his diocese. Such was + the happy condition of the Christian subjects of Maxentius, that whenever + they were desirous of procuring for their own use any bodies of martyrs, + they were obliged to purchase them from the most distant provinces of the + East. A story is related of Aglæ, a Roman lady, descended from a + consular family, and possessed of so ample an estate, that it required the + management of seventy-three stewards. Among these Boniface was the + favorite of his mistress; and as Aglæ mixed love with devotion, it + is reported that he was admitted to share her bed. Her fortune enabled her + to gratify the pious desire of obtaining some sacred relics from the East. + She intrusted Boniface with a considerable sum of gold, and a large + quantity of aromatics; and her lover, attended by twelve horsemen and + three covered chariots, undertook a remote pilgrimage, as far as Tarsus in + Cilicia.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sanguinary temper of Galerius, the first and principal author of the + persecution, was formidable to those Christians whom their misfortunes had + placed within the limits of his dominions; and it may fairly be presumed + that many persons of a middle rank, who were not confined by the chains + either of wealth or of poverty, very frequently deserted their native + country, and sought a refuge in the milder climate of the West. As long as + he commanded only the armies and provinces of Illyricum, he could with + difficulty either find or make a considerable number of martyrs, in a + warlike country, which had entertained the missionaries of the gospel with + more coldness and reluctance than any other part of the empire. But when + Galerius had obtained the supreme power, and the government of the East, + he indulged in their fullest extent his zeal and cruelty, not only in the + provinces of Thrace and Asia, which acknowledged his immediate + jurisdiction, but in those of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, where Maximin + gratified his own inclination, by yielding a rigorous obedience to the + stern commands of his benefactor. The frequent disappointments of his + ambitious views, the experience of six years of persecution, and the + salutary reflections which a lingering and painful distemper suggested to + the mind of Galerius, at length convinced him that the most violent + efforts of despotism are insufficient to extirpate a whole people, or to + subdue their religious prejudices. Desirous of repairing the mischief that + he had occasioned, he published in his own name, and in those of Licinius + and Constantine, a general edict, which, after a pompous recital of the + Imperial titles, proceeded in the following manner:—<br /> + </p> + <p> + "Among the important cares which have occupied our mind for the utility + and preservation of the empire, it was our intention to correct and + reestablish all things according to the ancient laws and public discipline + of the Romans. We were particularly desirous of reclaiming into the way of + reason and nature, the deluded Christians who had renounced the religion + and ceremonies instituted by their fathers; and presumptuously despising + the practice of antiquity, had invented extravagant laws and opinions, + according to the dictates of their fancy, and had collected a various + society from the different provinces of our empire. The edicts, which we + have published to enforce the worship of the gods, having exposed many of + the Christians to danger and distress, many having suffered death, and + many more, who still persist in their impious folly, being left destitute + of <strong><em>any</em></strong> public exercise of religion, we are + disposed to extend to those unhappy men the effects of our wonted + clemency. We permit them therefore freely to profess their private + opinions, and to assemble in their conventicles without fear or + molestation, provided always that they preserve a due respect to the + established laws and government. By another rescript we shall signify our + intentions to the judges and magistrates; and we hope that our indulgence + will engage the Christians to offer up their prayers to the Deity whom + they adore, for our safety and prosperity for their own, and for that of + the republic." It is not usually in the language of edicts and manifestos + that we should search for the real character or the secret motives of + princes; but as these were the words of a dying emperor, his situation, + perhaps, may be admitted as a pledge of his sincerity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + When Galerius subscribed this edict of toleration, he was well assured + that Licinius would readily comply with the inclinations of his friend and + benefactor, and that any measures in favor of the Christians would obtain + the approbation of Constantine. But the emperor would not venture to + insert in the preamble the name of Maximin, whose consent was of the + greatest importance, and who succeeded a few days afterwards to the + provinces of Asia. In the first six months, however, of his new reign, + Maximin affected to adopt the prudent counsels of his predecessor; and + though he never condescended to secure the tranquillity of the church by a + public edict, Sabinus, his Prætorian præfect, addressed a + circular letter to all the governors and magistrates of the provinces, + expatiating on the Imperial clemency, acknowledging the invincible + obstinacy of the Christians, and directing the officers of justice to + cease their ineffectual prosecutions, and to connive at the secret + assemblies of those enthusiasts. In consequence of these orders, great + numbers of Christians were released from prison, or delivered from the + mines. The confessors, singing hymns of triumph, returned into their own + countries; and those who had yielded to the violence of the tempest, + solicited with tears of repentance their readmission into the bosom of the + church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But this treacherous calm was of short duration; nor could the Christians + of the East place any confidence in the character of their sovereign. + Cruelty and superstition were the ruling passions of the soul of Maximin. + The former suggested the means, the latter pointed out the objects of + persecution. The emperor was devoted to the worship of the gods, to the + study of magic, and to the belief of oracles. The prophets or + philosophers, whom he revered as the favorites of Heaven, were frequently + raised to the government of provinces, and admitted into his most secret + councils. They easily convinced him that the Christians had been indebted + for their victories to their regular discipline, and that the weakness of + polytheism had principally flowed from a want of union and subordination + among the ministers of religion. A system of government was therefore + instituted, which was evidently copied from the policy of the church. In + all the great cities of the empire, the temples were repaired and + beautified by the order of Maximin, and the officiating priests of the + various deities were subjected to the authority of a superior pontiff + destined to oppose the bishop, and to promote the cause of paganism. These + pontiffs acknowledged, in their turn, the supreme jurisdiction of the + metropolitans or high priests of the province, who acted as the immediate + vicegerents of the emperor himself. A white robe was the ensign of their + dignity; and these new prelates were carefully selected from the most + noble and opulent families. By the influence of the magistrates, and of + the sacerdotal order, a great number of dutiful addresses were obtained, + particularly from the cities of Nicomedia, Antioch, and Tyre, which + artfully represented the well-known intentions of the court as the general + sense of the people; solicited the emperor to consult the laws of justice + rather than the dictates of his clemency; expressed their abhorrence of + the Christians, and humbly prayed that those impious sectaries might at + least be excluded from the limits of their respective territories. The + answer of Maximin to the address which he obtained from the citizens of + Tyre is still extant. He praises their zeal and devotion in terms of the + highest satisfaction, descants on the obstinate impiety of the Christians, + and betrays, by the readiness with which he consents to their banishment, + that he considered himself as receiving, rather than as conferring, an + obligation. The priests as well as the magistrates were empowered to + enforce the execution of his edicts, which were engraved on tables of + brass; and though it was recommended to them to avoid the effusion of + blood, the most cruel and ignominious punishments were inflicted on the + refractory Christians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The Asiatic Christians had every thing to dread from the severity of a + bigoted monarch who prepared his measures of violence with such deliberate + policy. But a few months had scarcely elapsed before the edicts published + by the two Western emperors obliged Maximin to suspend the prosecution of + his designs: the civil war which he so rashly undertook against Licinius + employed all his attention; and the defeat and death of Maximin soon + delivered the church from the last and most implacable of her enemies.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In this general view of the persecution, which was first authorized by the + edicts of Diocletian, I have purposely refrained from describing the + particular sufferings and deaths of the Christian martyrs. It would have + been an easy task, from the history of Eusebius, from the declamations of + Lactantius, and from the most ancient acts, to collect a long series of + horrid and disgustful pictures, and to fill many pages with racks and + scourges, with iron hooks and red-hot beds, and with all the variety of + tortures which fire and steel, savage beasts, and more savage + executioners, could inflict upon the human body. These melancholy scenes + might be enlivened by a crowd of visions and miracles destined either to + delay the death, to celebrate the triumph, or to discover the relics of + those canonized saints who suffered for the name of Christ. But I cannot + determine what I ought to transcribe, till I am satisfied how much I ought + to believe. The gravest of the ecclesiastical historians, Eusebius + himself, indirectly confesses, that he has related whatever might redound + to the glory, and that he has suppressed all that could tend to the + disgrace, of religion. Such an acknowledgment will naturally excite a + suspicion that a writer who has so openly violated one of the fundamental + laws of history, has not paid a very strict regard to the observance of + the other; and the suspicion will derive additional credit from the + character of Eusebius, * which was less tinctured with credulity, and more + practised in the arts of courts, than that of almost any of his + contemporaries. On some particular occasions, when the magistrates were + exasperated by some personal motives of interest or resentment, the rules + of prudence, and perhaps of decency, to overturn the altars, to pour out + imprecations against the emperors, or to strike the judge as he sat on his + tribunal, it may be presumed, that every mode of torture which cruelty + could invent, or constancy could endure, was exhausted on those devoted + victims. Two circumstances, however, have been unwarily mentioned, which + insinuate that the general treatment of the Christians, who had been + apprehended by the officers of justice, was less intolerable than it is + usually imagined to have been. 1. The confessors who were condemned to + work in the mines were permitted by the humanity or the negligence of + their keepers to build chapels, and freely to profess their religion in + the midst of those dreary habitations. 2. The bishops were obliged to + check and to censure the forward zeal of the Christians, who voluntarily + threw themselves into the hands of the magistrates. Some of these were + persons oppressed by poverty and debts, who blindly sought to terminate a + miserable existence by a glorious death. Others were allured by the hope + that a short confinement would expiate the sins of a whole life; and + others again were actuated by the less honorable motive of deriving a + plentiful subsistence, and perhaps a considerable profit, from the alms + which the charity of the faithful bestowed on the prisoners. After the + church had triumphed over all her enemies, the interest as well as vanity + of the captives prompted them to magnify the merit of their respective + sufferings. A convenient distance of time or place gave an ample scope to + the progress of fiction; and the frequent instances which might be alleged + of holy martyrs, whose wounds had been instantly healed, whose strength + had been renewed, and whose lost members had miraculously been restored, + were extremely convenient for the purpose of removing every difficulty, + and of silencing every objection. The most extravagant legends, as they + conduced to the honor of the church, were applauded by the credulous + multitude, countenanced by the power of the clergy, and attested by the + suspicious evidence of ecclesiastical history.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch16-p8" id="linkch16-p8"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVI: Conduct Towards The Christians, From Nero To Constantine.—Part + VIII. + </h2> + <p> + The vague descriptions of exile and imprisonment, of pain and torture, are + so easily exaggerated or softened by the pencil of an artful orator, * + that we are naturally induced to inquire into a fact of a more distinct + and stubborn kind; the number of persons who suffered death in consequence + of the edicts published by Diocletian, his associates, and his successors. + The recent legendaries record whole armies and cities, which were at once + swept away by the undistinguishing rage of persecution. The more ancient + writers content themselves with pouring out a liberal effusion of loose + and tragical invectives, without condescending to ascertain the precise + number of those persons who were permitted to seal with their blood their + belief of the gospel. From the history of Eusebius, it may, however, be + collected, that only nine bishops were punished with death; and we are + assured, by his particular enumeration of the martyrs of Palestine, that + no more than ninety-two Christians were entitled to that honorable + appellation. As we are unacquainted with the degree of episcopal zeal and + courage which prevailed at that time, it is not in our power to draw any + useful inferences from the former of these facts: but the latter may serve + to justify a very important and probable conclusion. According to the + distribution of Roman provinces, Palestine may be considered as the + sixteenth part of the Eastern empire: and since there were some governors, + who from a real or affected clemency had preserved their hands unstained + with the blood of the faithful, it is reasonable to believe, that the + country which had given birth to Christianity, produced at least the + sixteenth part of the martyrs who suffered death within the dominions of + Galerius and Maximin; the whole might consequently amount to about fifteen + hundred, a number which, if it is equally divided between the ten years of + the persecution, will allow an annual consumption of one hundred and fifty + martyrs. Allotting the same proportion to the provinces of Italy, Africa, + and perhaps Spain, where, at the end of two or three years, the rigor of + the penal laws was either suspended or abolished, the multitude of + Christians in the Roman empire, on whom a capital punishment was inflicted + by a judicial, sentence, will be reduced to somewhat less than two + thousand persons. Since it cannot be doubted that the Christians were more + numerous, and their enemies more exasperated, in the time of Diocletian, + than they had ever been in any former persecution, this probable and + moderate computation may teach us to estimate the number of primitive + saints and martyrs who sacrificed their lives for the important purpose of + introducing Christianity into the world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + We shall conclude this chapter by a melancholy truth, which obtrudes + itself on the reluctant mind; that even admitting, without hesitation or + inquiry, all that history has recorded, or devotion has feigned, on the + subject of martyrdoms, it must still be acknowledged, that the Christians, + in the course of their intestine dissensions, have inflicted far greater + severities on each other, than they had experienced from the zeal of + infidels. During the ages of ignorance which followed the subversion of + the Roman empire in the West, the bishops of the Imperial city extended + their dominion over the laity as well as clergy of the Latin church. The + fabric of superstition which they had erected, and which might long have + defied the feeble efforts of reason, was at length assaulted by a crowd of + daring fanatics, who from the twelfth to the sixteenth century assumed the + popular character of reformers. The church of Rome defended by violence + the empire which she had acquired by fraud; a system of peace and + benevolence was soon disgraced by proscriptions, war, massacres, and the + institution of the holy office. And as the reformers were animated by the + love of civil as well as of religious freedom, the Catholic princes + connected their own interest with that of the clergy, and enforced by fire + and the sword the terrors of spiritual censures. In the Netherlands alone, + more than one hundred thousand of the subjects of Charles V. are said to + have suffered by the hand of the executioner; and this extraordinary + number is attested by Grotius, a man of genius and learning, who preserved + his moderation amidst the fury of contending sects, and who composed the + annals of his own age and country, at a time when the invention of + printing had facilitated the means of intelligence, and increased the + danger of detection. If we are obliged to submit our belief to the + authority of Grotius, it must be allowed, that the number of Protestants, + who were executed in a single province and a single reign, far exceeded + that of the primitive martyrs in the space of three centuries, and of the + Roman empire. But if the improbability of the fact itself should prevail + over the weight of evidence; if Grotius should be convicted of + exaggerating the merit and sufferings of the Reformers; we shall be + naturally led to inquire what confidence can be placed in the doubtful and + imperfect monuments of ancient credulity; what degree of credit can be + assigned to a courtly bishop, and a passionate declaimer, * who, under the + protection of Constantine, enjoyed the exclusive privilege of recording + the persecutions inflicted on the Christians by the vanquished rivals or + disregarded predecessors of their gracious sovereign.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch17-p1" id="linkch17-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part I.</h2/p> + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Foundation Of Constantinople.—Political System Constantine, +And His Successors.—Military Discipline.—The Palace.—The +Finances. +</pre> + <p> + The unfortunate Licinius was the last rival who opposed the greatness, and + the last captive who adorned the triumph, of Constantine. After a tranquil + and prosperous reign, the conqueror bequeathed to his family the + inheritance of the Roman empire; a new capital, a new policy, and a new + religion; and the innovations which he established have been embraced and + consecrated by succeeding generations. The age of the great Constantine + and his sons is filled with important events; but the historian must be + oppressed by their number and variety, unless he diligently separates from + each other the scenes which are connected only by the order of time. He + will describe the political institutions that gave strength and stability + to the empire, before he proceeds to relate the wars and revolutions which + hastened its decline. He will adopt the division unknown to the ancients + of civil and ecclesiastical affairs: the victory of the Christians, and + their intestine discord, will supply copious and distinct materials both + for edification and for scandal.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After the defeat and abdication of Licinius, his victorious rival + proceeded to lay the foundations of a city destined to reign in future + times, the mistress of the East, and to survive the empire and religion of + Constantine. The motives, whether of pride or of policy, which first + induced Diocletian to withdraw himself from the ancient seat of + government, had acquired additional weight by the example of his + successors, and the habits of forty years. Rome was insensibly confounded + with the dependent kingdoms which had once acknowledged her supremacy; and + the country of the Cæsars was viewed with cold indifference by a + martial prince, born in the neighborhood of the Danube, educated in the + courts and armies of Asia, and invested with the purple by the legions of + Britain. The Italians, who had received Constantine as their deliverer, + submissively obeyed the edicts which he sometimes condescended to address + to the senate and people of Rome; but they were seldom honored with the + presence of their new sovereign. During the vigor of his age, Constantine, + according to the various exigencies of peace and war, moved with slow + dignity, or with active diligence, along the frontiers of his extensive + dominions; and was always prepared to take the field either against a + foreign or a domestic enemy. But as he gradually reached the summit of + prosperity and the decline of life, he began to meditate the design of + fixing in a more permanent station the strength as well as majesty of the + throne. In the choice of an advantageous situation, he preferred the + confines of Europe and Asia; to curb with a powerful arm the barbarians + who dwelt between the Danube and the Tanais; to watch with an eye of + jealousy the conduct of the Persian monarch, who indignantly supported the + yoke of an ignominious treaty. With these views, Diocletian had selected + and embellished the residence of Nicomedia: but the memory of Diocletian + was justly abhorred by the protector of the church: and Constantine was + not insensible to the ambition of founding a city which might perpetuate + the glory of his own name. During the late operations of the war against + Licinius, he had sufficient opportunity to contemplate, both as a soldier + and as a statesman, the incomparable position of Byzantium; and to observe + how strongly it was guarded by nature against a hostile attack, whilst it + was accessible on every side to the benefits of commercial intercourse. + Many ages before Constantine, one of the most judicious historians of + antiquity had described the advantages of a situation, from whence a + feeble colony of Greeks derived the command of the sea, and the honors of + a flourishing and independent republic.<br /> + </p> + <p> + If we survey Byzantium in the extent which it acquired with the august + name of Constantinople, the figure of the Imperial city may be represented + under that of an unequal triangle. The obtuse point, which advances + towards the east and the shores of Asia, meets and repels the waves of the + Thracian Bosphorus. The northern side of the city is bounded by the + harbor; and the southern is washed by the Propontis, or Sea of Marmara. + The basis of the triangle is opposed to the west, and terminates the + continent of Europe. But the admirable form and division of the + circumjacent land and water cannot, without a more ample explanation, be + clearly or sufficiently understood.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The winding channel through which the waters of the Euxine flow with a + rapid and incessant course towards the Mediterranean, received the + appellation of Bosphorus, a name not less celebrated in the history, than + in the fables, of antiquity. A crowd of temples and of votive altars, + profusely scattered along its steep and woody banks, attested the + unskilfulness, the terrors, and the devotion of the Grecian navigators, + who, after the example of the Argonauts, explored the dangers of the + inhospitable Euxine. On these banks tradition long preserved the memory of + the palace of Phineus, infested by the obscene harpies; and of the sylvan + reign of Amycus, who defied the son of Leda to the combat of the cestus. + The straits of the Bosphorus are terminated by the Cyanean rocks, which, + according to the description of the poets, had once floated on the face of + the waters; and were destined by the gods to protect the entrance of the + Euxine against the eye of profane curiosity. From the Cyanean rocks to the + point and harbor of Byzantium, the winding length of the Bosphorus extends + about sixteen miles, and its most ordinary breadth may be computed at + about one mile and a half. The <strong><em>new</em></strong> castles of + Europe and Asia are constructed, on either continent, upon the foundations + of two celebrated temples, of Serapis and of Jupiter Urius. The <strong><em>old</em></strong>castles, + a work of the Greek emperors, command the narrowest part of the channel in + a place where the opposite banks advance within five hundred paces of each + other. These fortresses were destroyed and strengthened by Mahomet the + Second, when he meditated the siege of Constantinople: but the Turkish + conqueror was most probably ignorant, that near two thousand years before + his reign, continents had been joined by a bridge of boats. At a small distance from the + old castles we discover the little town of Chrysopolis, or Scutari, which + may almost be considered as the Asiatic suburb of Constantinople. The + Bosphorus, as it begins to open into the Propontis, passes between + Byzantium and Chalcedon. The latter of those cities was built by the + Greeks, a few years before the former; and the blindness of its founders, + who overlooked the superior advantages of the opposite coast, has been + stigmatized by a proverbial expression of contempt.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The harbor of Constantinople, which may be considered as an arm of the + Bosphorus, obtained, in a very remote period, the denomination of the + <strong><em>Golden Horn</em></strong>. The curve which it describes might + be compared to the horn of a stag, or as it should seem, with more + propriety, to that of an ox. The epithet of <strong><em>golden</em></strong> + was expressive of the riches which every wind wafted from the most distant + countries into the secure and capacious port of Constantinople. The River + Lycus, formed by the conflux of two little streams, pours into the harbor + a perpetual supply of fresh water, which serves to cleanse the bottom, and + to invite the periodical shoals of fish to seek their retreat in that + convenient recess. As the vicissitudes of tides are scarcely felt in those + seas, the constant depth of the harbor allows goods to be landed on the + quays without the assistance of boats; and it has been observed, that in + many places the largest vessels may rest their prows against the houses, + while their sterns are floating in the water. From the mouth of the Lycus + to that of the harbor, this arm of the Bosphorus is more than seven miles + in length. The entrance is about five hundred yards broad, and a strong + chain could be occasionally drawn across it, to guard the port and city + from the attack of a hostile navy.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Between the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, the shores of Europe and Asia, + receding on either side, enclose the sea of Marmara, which was known to + the ancients by the denomination of Propontis. The navigation from the + issue of the Bosphorus to the entrance of the Hellespont is about one + hundred and twenty miles. Those who steer their westward course through + the middle of the Propontis, and at once descry the high lands of Thrace + and Bithynia, and never lose sight of the lofty summit of Mount Olympus, + covered with eternal snows. They leave on the left a deep gulf, at the + bottom of which Nicomedia was seated, the Imperial residence of + Diocletian; and they pass the small islands of Cyzicus and Proconnesus + before they cast anchor at Gallipoli; where the sea, which separates Asia + from Europe, is again contracted into a narrow channel.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The geographers who, with the most skilful accuracy, have surveyed the + form and extent of the Hellespont, assign about sixty miles for the + winding course, and about three miles for the ordinary breadth of those + celebrated straits. But the narrowest part of the channel is found to the + northward of the old Turkish castles between the cities of Sestus and + Abydus. It was here that the adventurous Leander braved the passage of the + flood for the possession of his mistress. It was here likewise, in a place + where the distance between the opposite banks cannot exceed five hundred + paces, that Xerxes imposed a stupendous bridge of boats, for the purpose + of transporting into Europe a hundred and seventy myriads of barbarians. A + sea contracted within such narrow limits may seem but ill to deserve the + singular epithet of <strong><em>broad</em></strong>, which Homer, as well + as Orpheus, has frequently bestowed on the Hellespont. * But our ideas of + greatness are of a relative nature: the traveller, and especially the + poet, who sailed along the Hellespont, who pursued the windings of the + stream, and contemplated the rural scenery, which appeared on every side + to terminate the prospect, insensibly lost the remembrance of the sea; and + his fancy painted those celebrated straits, with all the attributes of a + mighty river flowing with a swift current, in the midst of a woody and + inland country, and at length, through a wide mouth, discharging itself + into the Ægean or Archipelago. Ancient Troy, seated on a an eminence + at the foot of Mount Ida, overlooked the mouth of the Hellespont, which + scarcely received an accession of waters from the tribute of those + immortal rivulets the Simois and Scamander. The Grecian camp had stretched + twelve miles along the shore from the Sigæan to the Rhætean + promontory; and the flanks of the army were guarded by the bravest chiefs + who fought under the banners of Agamemnon. The first of those promontories + was occupied by Achilles with his invincible myrmidons, and the dauntless + Ajax pitched his tents on the other. After Ajax had fallen a sacrifice to + his disappointed pride, and to the ingratitude of the Greeks, his + sepulchre was erected on the ground where he had defended the navy against + the rage of Jove and of Hector; and the citizens of the rising town of Rhæteum + celebrated his memory with divine honors. Before Constantine gave a just + preference to the situation of Byzantium, he had conceived the design of + erecting the seat of empire on this celebrated spot, from whence the + Romans derived their fabulous origin. The extensive plain which lies below + ancient Troy, towards the Rhætean promontory and the tomb of Ajax, + was first chosen for his new capital; and though the undertaking was soon + relinquished the stately remains of unfinished walls and towers attracted + the notice of all who sailed through the straits of the Hellespont.<br /> + </p> + <p> + We are at present qualified to view the advantageous position of + Constantinople; which appears to have been formed by nature for the centre + and capital of a great monarchy. Situated in the forty-first degree of + latitude, the Imperial city commanded, from her seven hills, the opposite + shores of Europe and Asia; the climate was healthy and temperate, the soil + fertile, the harbor secure and capacious; and the approach on the side of + the continent was of small extent and easy defence. The Bosphorus and the + Hellespont may be considered as the two gates of Constantinople; and the + prince who possessed those important passages could always shut them + against a naval enemy, and open them to the fleets of commerce. The + preservation of the eastern provinces may, in some degree, be ascribed to + the policy of Constantine, as the barbarians of the Euxine, who in the + preceding age had poured their armaments into the heart of the + Mediterranean, soon desisted from the exercise of piracy, and despaired of + forcing this insurmountable barrier. When the gates of the Hellespont and + Bosphorus were shut, the capital still enjoyed within their spacious + enclosure every production which could supply the wants, or gratify the + luxury, of its numerous inhabitants. The sea-coasts of Thrace and + Bithynia, which languish under the weight of Turkish oppression, still + exhibit a rich prospect of vineyards, of gardens, and of plentiful + harvests; and the Propontis has ever been renowned for an inexhaustible + store of the most exquisite fish, that are taken in their stated seasons, + without skill, and almost without labor. But when the passages of the + straits were thrown open for trade, they alternately admitted the natural + and artificial riches of the north and south, of the Euxine, and of the + Mediterranean. Whatever rude commodities were collected in the forests of + Germany and Scythia, and far as the sources of the Tanais and the + Borysthenes; whatsoever was manufactured by the skill of Europe or Asia; + the corn of Egypt, and the gems and spices of the farthest India, were + brought by the varying winds into the port of Constantinople, which for + many ages attracted the commerce of the ancient world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + [See Basilica Of Constantinople]<br /> + </p> + <p> + The prospect of beauty, of safety, and of wealth, united in a single spot, + was sufficient to justify the choice of Constantine. But as some decent + mixture of prodigy and fable has, in every age, been supposed to reflect a + becoming majesty on the origin of great cities, the emperor was desirous + of ascribing his resolution, not so much to the uncertain counsels of + human policy, as to the infallible and eternal decrees of divine wisdom. + In one of his laws he has been careful to instruct posterity, that in + obedience to the commands of God, he laid the everlasting foundations of + Constantinople: and though he has not condescended to relate in what + manner the celestial inspiration was communicated to his mind, the defect + of his modest silence has been liberally supplied by the ingenuity of + succeeding writers; who describe the nocturnal vision which appeared to + the fancy of Constantine, as he slept within the walls of Byzantium. The + tutelar genius of the city, a venerable matron sinking under the weight of + years and infirmities, was suddenly transformed into a blooming maid, whom + his own hands adorned with all the symbols of Imperial greatness. The + monarch awoke, interpreted the auspicious omen, and obeyed, without + hesitation, the will of Heaven. The day which gave birth to a city or + colony was celebrated by the Romans with such ceremonies as had been + ordained by a generous superstition; and though Constantine might omit + some rites which savored too strongly of their Pagan origin, yet he was + anxious to leave a deep impression of hope and respect on the minds of the + spectators. On foot, with a lance in his hand, the emperor himself led the + solemn procession; and directed the line, which was traced as the boundary + of the destined capital: till the growing circumference was observed with + astonishment by the assistants, who, at length, ventured to observe, that + he had already exceeded the most ample measure of a great city. "I shall + still advance," replied Constantine, "till He, the invisible guide who + marches before me, thinks proper to stop." Without presuming to + investigate the nature or motives of this extraordinary conductor, we + shall content ourselves with the more humble task of describing the extent + and limits of Constantinople.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the actual state of the city, the palace and gardens of the Seraglio + occupy the eastern promontory, the first of the seven hills, and cover + about one hundred and fifty acres of our own measure. The seat of Turkish + jealousy and despotism is erected on the foundations of a Grecian + republic; but it may be supposed that the Byzantines were tempted by the + conveniency of the harbor to extend their habitations on that side beyond + the modern limits of the Seraglio. The new walls of Constantine stretched + from the port to the Propontis across the enlarged breadth of the + triangle, at the distance of fifteen stadia from the ancient + fortification; and with the city of Byzantium they enclosed five of the + seven hills, which, to the eyes of those who approach Constantinople, + appear to rise above each other in beautiful order. About a century after + the death of the founder, the new buildings, extending on one side up the + harbor, and on the other along the Propontis, already covered the narrow + ridge of the sixth, and the broad summit of the seventh hill. The + necessity of protecting those suburbs from the incessant inroads of the + barbarians engaged the younger Theodosius to surround his capital with an + adequate and permanent enclosure of walls. From the eastern promontory to + the golden gate, the extreme length of Constantinople was about three + Roman miles; the circumference measured between ten and eleven; and the + surface might be computed as equal to about two thousand English acres. It + is impossible to justify the vain and credulous exaggerations of modern + travellers, who have sometimes stretched the limits of Constantinople over + the adjacent villages of the European, and even of the Asiatic coast. But + the suburbs of Pera and Galata, though situate beyond the harbor, may + deserve to be considered as a part of the city; and this addition may + perhaps authorize the measure of a Byzantine historian, who assigns + sixteen Greek (about fourteen Roman) miles for the circumference of his + native city. Such an extent may not seem unworthy of an Imperial + residence. Yet Constantinople must yield to Babylon and Thebes, to ancient + Rome, to London, and even to Paris.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch17-p2" id="linkch17-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The master of the Roman world, who aspired to erect an eternal monument of + the glories of his reign could employ in the prosecution of that great + work, the wealth, the labor, and all that yet remained of the genius of + obedient millions. Some estimate may be formed of the expense bestowed + with Imperial liberality on the foundation of Constantinople, by the + allowance of about two millions five hundred thousand pounds for the + construction of the walls, the porticos, and the aqueducts. The forests + that overshadowed the shores of the Euxine, and the celebrated quarries of + white marble in the little island of Proconnesus, supplied an + inexhaustible stock of materials, ready to be conveyed, by the convenience + of a short water carriage, to the harbor of Byzantium. A multitude of + laborers and artificers urged the conclusion of the work with incessant + toil: but the impatience of Constantine soon discovered, that, in the + decline of the arts, the skill as well as numbers of his architects bore a + very unequal proportion to the greatness of his designs. The magistrates + of the most distant provinces were therefore directed to institute + schools, to appoint professors, and by the hopes of rewards and + privileges, to engage in the study and practice of architecture a + sufficient number of ingenious youths, who had received a liberal + education. The buildings of the new city were executed by such artificers + as the reign of Constantine could afford; but they were decorated by the + hands of the most celebrated masters of the age of Pericles and Alexander. + To revive the genius of Phidias and Lysippus, surpassed indeed the power + of a Roman emperor; but the immortal productions which they had bequeathed + to posterity were exposed without defence to the rapacious vanity of a + despot. By his commands the cities of Greece and Asia were despoiled of + their most valuable ornaments. The trophies of memorable wars, the objects + of religious veneration, the most finished statues of the gods and heroes, + of the sages and poets, of ancient times, contributed to the splendid + triumph of Constantinople; and gave occasion to the remark of the + historian Cedrenus, who observes, with some enthusiasm, that nothing + seemed wanting except the souls of the illustrious men whom these + admirable monuments were intended to represent. But it is not in the city + of Constantine, nor in the declining period of an empire, when the human + mind was depressed by civil and religious slavery, that we should seek for + the souls of Homer and of Demosthenes.<br /> + </p> + <p> + During the siege of Byzantium, the conqueror had pitched his tent on the + commanding eminence of the second hill. To perpetuate the memory of his + success, he chose the same advantageous position for the principal Forum; + which appears to have been of a circular, or rather elliptical form. The + two opposite entrances formed triumphal arches; the porticos, which + enclosed it on every side, were filled with statues; and the centre of the + Forum was occupied by a lofty column, of which a mutilated fragment is now + degraded by the appellation of the <strong><em>burnt pillar</em></strong>. + This column was erected on a pedestal of white marble twenty feet high; + and was composed of ten pieces of porphyry, each of which measured about + ten feet in height, and about thirty-three in circumference. On the summit + of the pillar, above one hundred and twenty feet from the ground, stood + the colossal statue of Apollo. It was a bronze, had been transported + either from Athens or from a town of Phrygia, and was supposed to be the + work of Phidias. The artist had represented the god of day, or, as it was + afterwards interpreted, the emperor Constantine himself, with a sceptre in + his right hand, the globe of the world in his left, and a crown of rays + glittering on his head. The Circus, or Hippodrome, was a stately building + about four hundred paces in length, and one hundred in breadth. The space + between the two metoe or goals were filled with statues and obelisks; and we + may still remark a very singular fragment of antiquity; the bodies of + three serpents, twisted into one pillar of brass. Their triple heads had + once supported the golden tripod which, after the defeat of Xerxes, was + consecrated in the temple of Delphi by the victorious Greeks. The beauty + of the Hippodrome has been long since defaced by the rude hands of the + Turkish conquerors; but, under the similar appellation of Atmeidan, it + still serves as a place of exercise for their horses. From the throne, + whence the emperor viewed the Circensian games, a winding staircase + descended to the palace; a magnificent edifice, which scarcely yielded to + the residence of Rome itself, and which, together with the dependent + courts, gardens, and porticos, covered a considerable extent of ground + upon the banks of the Propontis between the Hippodrome and the church of + St. Sophia. We might likewise celebrate the baths, which still retained + the name of Zeuxippus, after they had been enriched, by the munificence of + Constantine, with lofty columns, various marbles, and above threescore + statues of bronze. But we should deviate from the design of this history, + if we attempted minutely to describe the different buildings or quarters + of the city. It may be sufficient to observe, that whatever could adorn + the dignity of a great capital, or contribute to the benefit or pleasure + of its numerous inhabitants, was contained within the walls of + Constantinople. A particular description, composed about a century after + its foundation, enumerates a capitol or school of learning, a circus, two + theatres, eight public, and one hundred and fifty-three private baths, + fifty-two porticos, five granaries, eight aqueducts or reservoirs of + water, four spacious halls for the meetings of the senate or courts of + justice, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, and four thousand three + hundred and eighty-eight houses, which, for their size or beauty, deserved + to be distinguished from the multitude of plebeian inhabitants.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The populousness of his favored city was the next and most serious object + of the attention of its founder. In the dark ages which succeeded the + translation of the empire, the remote and the immediate consequences of + that memorable event were strangely confounded by the vanity of the Greeks + and the credulity of the Latins. It was asserted, and believed, that all + the noble families of Rome, the senate, and the equestrian order, with + their innumerable attendants, had followed their emperor to the banks of + the Propontis; that a spurious race of strangers and plebeians was left to + possess the solitude of the ancient capital; and that the lands of Italy, + long since converted into gardens, were at once deprived of cultivation + and inhabitants. In the course of this history, such exaggerations will be + reduced to their just value: yet, since the growth of Constantinople + cannot be ascribed to the general increase of mankind and of industry, it + must be admitted that this artificial colony was raised at the expense of + the ancient cities of the empire. Many opulent senators of Rome, and of + the eastern provinces, were probably invited by Constantine to adopt for + their country the fortunate spot, which he had chosen for his own + residence. The invitations of a master are scarcely to be distinguished + from commands; and the liberality of the emperor obtained a ready and + cheerful obedience. He bestowed on his favorites the palaces which he had + built in the several quarters of the city, assigned them lands and + pensions for the support of their dignity, and alienated the demesnes of + Pontus and Asia to grant hereditary estates by the easy tenure of + maintaining a house in the capital. But these encouragements and + obligations soon became superfluous, and were gradually abolished. + Wherever the seat of government is fixed, a considerable part of the + public revenue will be expended by the prince himself, by his ministers, + by the officers of justice, and by the domestics of the palace. The most + wealthy of the provincials will be attracted by the powerful motives of + interest and duty, of amusement and curiosity. A third and more numerous + class of inhabitants will insensibly be formed, of servants, of + artificers, and of merchants, who derive their subsistence from their own + labor, and from the wants or luxury of the superior ranks. In less than a + century, Constantinople disputed with Rome itself the preeminence of + riches and numbers. New piles of buildings, crowded together with too + little regard to health or convenience, scarcely allowed the intervals of + narrow streets for the perpetual throng of men, of horses, and of + carriages. The allotted space of ground was insufficient to contain the + increasing people; and the additional foundations, which, on either side, + were advanced into the sea, might alone have composed a very considerable + city.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The frequent and regular distributions of wine and oil, of corn or bread, + of money or provisions, had almost exempted the poorest citizens of Rome + from the necessity of labor. The magnificence of the first Cæsars + was in some measure imitated by the founder of Constantinople: but his + liberality, however it might excite the applause of the people, has in + curred the censure of posterity. A nation of legislators and conquerors + might assert their claim to the harvests of Africa, which had been + purchased with their blood; and it was artfully contrived by Augustus, + that, in the enjoyment of plenty, the Romans should lose the memory of + freedom. But the prodigality of Constantine could not be excused by any + consideration either of public or private interest; and the annual tribute + of corn imposed upon Egypt for the benefit of his new capital, was applied + to feed a lazy and insolent populace, at the expense of the husbandmen of + an industrious province. * Some other regulations of this emperor are less + liable to blame, but they are less deserving of notice. He divided + Constantinople into fourteen regions or quarters, dignified the public + council with the appellation of senate, communicated to the citizens the + privileges of Italy, and bestowed on the rising city the title of Colony, + the first and most favored daughter of ancient Rome. The venerable parent + still maintained the legal and acknowledged supremacy, which was due to + her age, her dignity, and to the remembrance of her former greatness.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As Constantine urged the progress of the work with the impatience of a + lover, the walls, the porticos, and the principal edifices were completed + in a few years, or, according to another account, in a few months; but + this extraordinary diligence should excite the less admiration, since many + of the buildings were finished in so hasty and imperfect a manner, that + under the succeeding reign, they were preserved with difficulty from + impending ruin. But while they displayed the vigor and freshness of youth, + the founder prepared to celebrate the dedication of his city. The games + and largesses which crowned the pomp of this memorable festival may easily + be supposed; but there is one circumstance of a more singular and + permanent nature, which ought not entirely to be overlooked. As often as + the birthday of the city returned, the statue of Constantine, framed by + his order, of gilt wood, and bearing in his right hand a small image of + the genius of the place, was erected on a triumphal car. The guards, + carrying white tapers, and clothed in their richest apparel, accompanied + the solemn procession as it moved through the Hippodrome. When it was + opposite to the throne of the reigning emperor, he rose from his seat, and + with grateful reverence adored the memory of his predecessor. At the + festival of the dedication, an edict, engraved on a column of marble, + bestowed the title of Second or New Rome on the city of Constantine. But + the name of Constantinople has prevailed over that honorable epithet; and + after the revolution of fourteen centuries, still perpetuates the fame of + its author.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The foundation of a new capital is naturally connected with the + establishment of a new form of civil and military administration. The + distinct view of the complicated system of policy, introduced by + Diocletian, improved by Constantine, and completed by his immediate + successors, may not only amuse the fancy by the singular picture of a + great empire, but will tend to illustrate the secret and internal causes + of its rapid decay. In the pursuit of any remarkable institution, we may + be frequently led into the more early or the more recent times of the + Roman history; but the proper limits of this inquiry will be included + within a period of about one hundred and thirty years, from the accession + of Constantine to the publication of the Theodosian code; from which, as + well as from the <strong><em>Notitia</em></strong> * of the East and West, + we derive the most copious and authentic information of the state of the + empire. This variety of objects will suspend, for some time, the course of + the narrative; but the interruption will be censured only by those readers + who are insensible to the importance of laws and manners, while they + peruse, with eager curiosity, the transient intrigues of a court, or the + accidental event of a battle.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch17-p3" id="linkch17-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The manly pride of the Romans, content with substantial power, had left to + the vanity of the East the forms and ceremonies of ostentatious greatness. + But when they lost even the semblance of those virtues which were derived + from their ancient freedom, the simplicity of Roman manners was insensibly + corrupted by the stately affectation of the courts of Asia. The + distinctions of personal merit and influence, so conspicuous in a + republic, so feeble and obscure under a monarchy, were abolished by the + despotism of the emperors; who substituted in their room a severe + subordination of rank and office from the titled slaves who were seated on + the steps of the throne, to the meanest instruments of arbitrary power. + This multitude of abject dependants was interested in the support of the + actual government from the dread of a revolution, which might at once + confound their hopes and intercept the reward of their services. In this + divine hierarchy (for such it is frequently styled) every rank was marked + with the most scrupulous exactness, and its dignity was displayed in a + variety of trifling and solemn ceremonies, which it was a study to learn, + and a sacrilege to neglect. The purity of the Latin language was debased, + by adopting, in the intercourse of pride and flattery, a profusion of + epithets, which Tully would scarcely have understood, and which Augustus + would have rejected with indignation. The principal officers of the empire + were saluted, even by the sovereign himself, with the deceitful titles of + your <strong><em>Sincerity</em></strong>, your <strong><em>Gravity</em></strong>, + your <strong><em>Excellency</em></strong>, your <strong><em>Eminence</em></strong>, + your <strong><em>sublime and wonderful Magnitude</em></strong>, your + <strong><em>illustrious and magnificent Highness</em></strong>. The + codicils or patents of their office were curiously emblazoned with such + emblems as were best adapted to explain its nature and high dignity; the + image or portrait of the reigning emperors; a triumphal car; the book of + mandates placed on a table, covered with a rich carpet, and illuminated by + four tapers; the allegorical figures of the provinces which they governed; + or the appellations and standards of the troops whom they commanded. Some + of these official ensigns were really exhibited in their hall of audience; + others preceded their pompous march whenever they appeared in public; and + every circumstance of their demeanor, their dress, their ornaments, and + their train, was calculated to inspire a deep reverence for the + representatives of supreme majesty. By a philosophic observer, the system + of the Roman government might have been mistaken for a splendid theatre, + filled with players of every character and degree, who repeated the + language, and imitated the passions, of their original model.<br /> + </p> + <p> + All the magistrates of sufficient importance to find a place in the + general state of the empire, were accurately divided into three classes. + 1. The <strong><em>Illustrious</em></strong>. 2. The <strong><em>Spectabiles</em></strong>, + or <strong><em>Respectable</em></strong>. And, 3. the <strong><em>Clarissimi</em></strong>; + whom we may translate by the word <strong><em>Honorable</em></strong>. In + the times of Roman simplicity, the last-mentioned epithet was used only as + a vague expression of deference, till it became at length the peculiar and + appropriated title of all who were members of the senate, and consequently + of all who, from that venerable body, were selected to govern the + provinces. The vanity of those who, from their rank and office, might + claim a superior distinction above the rest of the senatorial order, was + long afterwards indulged with the new appellation of <strong><em>Respectable</em></strong>; + but the title of <strong><em>Illustrious</em></strong> was always reserved + to some eminent personages who were obeyed or reverenced by the two + subordinate classes. It was communicated only, I. To the consuls and + patricians; II. To the Prætorian præfects, with the præfects + of Rome and Constantinople; III. To the masters-general of the cavalry and + the infantry; and IV. To the seven ministers of the palace, who exercised + their <strong><em>sacred</em></strong> functions about the person of the + emperor. Among those illustrious magistrates who were esteemed coordinate + with each other, the seniority of appointment gave place to the union of + dignities. By the expedient of honorary codicils, the emperors, who were + fond of multiplying their favors, might sometimes gratify the vanity, + though not the ambition, of impatient courtiers.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. As long as the Roman consuls were the first magistrates of a free + state, they derived their right to power from the choice of the people. As + long as the emperors condescended to disguise the servitude which they + imposed, the consuls were still elected by the real or apparent suffrage + of the senate. From the reign of Diocletian, even these vestiges of + liberty were abolished, and the successful candidates who were invested + with the annual honors of the consulship, affected to deplore the + humiliating condition of their predecessors. The Scipios and the Catos had + been reduced to solicit the votes of plebeians, to pass through the + tedious and expensive forms of a popular election, and to expose their + dignity to the shame of a public refusal; while their own happier fate had + reserved them for an age and government in which the rewards of virtue + were assigned by the unerring wisdom of a gracious sovereign. In the + epistles which the emperor addressed to the two consuls elect, it was + declared, that they were created by his sole authority. Their names and + portraits, engraved on gilt tables of ivory, were dispersed over the + empire as presents to the provinces, the cities, the magistrates, the + senate, and the people. Their solemn inauguration was performed at the + place of the Imperial residence; and during a period of one hundred and + twenty years, Rome was constantly deprived of the presence of her ancient + magistrates. On the morning of the first of January, the consuls assumed + the ensigns of their dignity. Their dress was a robe of purple, + embroidered in silk and gold, and sometimes ornamented with costly gems. + On this solemn occasion they were attended by the most eminent officers of + the state and army, in the habit of senators; and the useless fasces, + armed with the once formidable axes, were borne before them by the + lictors. The procession moved from the palace to the Forum or principal + square of the city; where the consuls ascended their tribunal, and seated + themselves in the curule chairs, which were framed after the fashion of + ancient times. They immediately exercised an act of jurisdiction, by the + manumission of a slave, who was brought before them for that purpose; and + the ceremony was intended to represent the celebrated action of the elder + Brutus, the author of liberty and of the consulship, when he admitted + among his fellow-citizens the faithful Vindex, who had revealed the + conspiracy of the Tarquins. The public festival was continued during + several days in all the principal cities in Rome, from custom; in + Constantinople, from imitation in Carthage, Antioch, and Alexandria, from + the love of pleasure, and the superfluity of wealth. In the two capitals + of the empire the annual games of the theatre, the circus, and the + amphitheatre, cost four thousand pounds of gold, (about) one hundred and + sixty thousand pounds sterling: and if so heavy an expense surpassed the + faculties or the inclinations of the magistrates themselves, the sum was + supplied from the Imperial treasury. As soon as the consuls had discharged + these customary duties, they were at liberty to retire into the shade of + private life, and to enjoy, during the remainder of the year, the + undisturbed contemplation of their own greatness. They no longer presided + in the national councils; they no longer executed the resolutions of peace + or war. Their abilities (unless they were employed in more effective + offices) were of little moment; and their names served only as the legal + date of the year in which they had filled the chair of Marius and of + Cicero. Yet it was still felt and acknowledged, in the last period of + Roman servitude, that this empty name might be compared, and even + preferred, to the possession of substantial power. The title of consul was + still the most splendid object of ambition, the noblest reward of virtue + and loyalty. The emperors themselves, who disdained the faint shadow of + the republic, were conscious that they acquired an additional splendor and + majesty as often as they assumed the annual honors of the consular + dignity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The proudest and most perfect separation which can be found in any age or + country, between the nobles and the people, is perhaps that of the + Patricians and the Plebeians, as it was established in the first age of + the Roman republic. Wealth and honors, the offices of the state, and the + ceremonies of religion, were almost exclusively possessed by the former + who, preserving the purity of their blood with the most insulting + jealousy, held their clients in a condition of specious vassalage. But + these distinctions, so incompatible with the spirit of a free people, were + removed, after a long struggle, by the persevering efforts of the + Tribunes. The most active and successful of the Plebeians accumulated + wealth, aspired to honors, deserved triumphs, contracted alliances, and, + after some generations, assumed the pride of ancient nobility. The + Patrician families, on the other hand, whose original number was never + recruited till the end of the commonwealth, either failed in the ordinary + course of nature, or were extinguished in so many foreign and domestic + wars, or, through a want of merit or fortune, insensibly mingled with the + mass of the people. Very few remained who could derive their pure and + genuine origin from the infancy of the city, or even from that of the + republic, when Cæsar and Augustus, Claudius and Vespasian, created + from the body of the senate a competent number of new Patrician families, + in the hope of perpetuating an order, which was still considered as + honorable and sacred. But these artificial supplies (in which the reigning + house was always included) were rapidly swept away by the rage of tyrants, + by frequent revolutions, by the change of manners, and by the intermixture + of nations. Little more was left when Constantine ascended the throne, + than a vague and imperfect tradition, that the Patricians had once been + the first of the Romans. To form a body of nobles, whose influence may + restrain, while it secures the authority of the monarch, would have been + very inconsistent with the character and policy of Constantine; but had he + seriously entertained such a design, it might have exceeded the measure of + his power to ratify, by an arbitrary edict, an institution which must + expect the sanction of time and of opinion. He revived, indeed, the title + of Patricians, but he revived it as a personal, not as an hereditary + distinction. They yielded only to the transient superiority of the annual + consuls; but they enjoyed the pre-eminence over all the great officers of + state, with the most familiar access to the person of the prince. This + honorable rank was bestowed on them for life; and as they were usually + favorites, and ministers who had grown old in the Imperial court, the true + etymology of the word was perverted by ignorance and flattery; and the + Patricians of Constantine were reverenced as the adopted <strong><em>Fathers</em></strong> + of the emperor and the republic.<br /> + </p> + <p> + II. The fortunes of the Prætorian præfects were essentially + different from those of the consuls and Patricians. The latter saw their + ancient greatness evaporate in a vain title. The former, rising by degrees + from the most humble condition, were invested with the civil and military + administration of the Roman world. From the reign of Severus to that of + Diocletian, the guards and the palace, the laws and the finances, the + armies and the provinces, were intrusted to their superintending care; + and, like the Viziers of the East, they held with one hand the seal, and + with the other the standard, of the empire. The ambition of the præfects, + always formidable, and sometimes fatal to the masters whom they served, + was supported by the strength of the Prætorian bands; but after + those haughty troops had been weakened by Diocletian, and finally + suppressed by Constantine, the præfects, who survived their fall, + were reduced without difficulty to the station of useful and obedient + ministers. When they were no longer responsible for the safety of the + emperor's person, they resigned the jurisdiction which they had hitherto + claimed and exercised over all the departments of the palace. They were + deprived by Constantine of all military command, as soon as they had + ceased to lead into the field, under their immediate orders, the flower of + the Roman troops; and at length, by a singular revolution, the captains of + the guards were transformed into the civil magistrates of the provinces. + According to the plan of government instituted by Diocletian, the four + princes had each their Prætorian præfect; and after the + monarchy was once more united in the person of Constantine, he still + continued to create the same number of Four Præfects, and intrusted + to their care the same provinces which they already administered. 1. The + præfect of the East stretched his ample jurisdiction into the three + parts of the globe which were subject to the Romans, from the cataracts of + the Nile to the banks of the Phasis, and from the mountains of Thrace to + the frontiers of Persia. 2. The important provinces of Pannonia, Dacia, + Macedonia, and Greece, once acknowledged the authority of the præfect + of Illyricum. 3. The power of the præfect of Italy was not confined + to the country from whence he derived his title; it extended over the + additional territory of Rhætia as far as the banks of the Danube, + over the dependent islands of the Mediterranean, and over that part of the + continent of Africa which lies between the confines of Cyrene and those of + Tingitania. 4. The præfect of the Gauls comprehended under that + plural denomination the kindred provinces of Britain and Spain, and his + authority was obeyed from the wall of Antoninus to the foot of Mount + Atlas.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After the Prætorian præfects had been dismissed from all + military command, the civil functions which they were ordained to exercise + over so many subject nations, were adequate to the ambition and abilities + of the most consummate ministers. To their wisdom was committed the + supreme administration of justice and of the finances, the two objects + which, in a state of peace, comprehend almost all the respective duties of + the sovereign and of the people; of the former, to protect the citizens + who are obedient to the laws; of the latter, to contribute the share of + their property which is required for the expenses of the state. The coin, + the highways, the posts, the granaries, the manufactures, whatever could + interest the public prosperity, was moderated by the authority of the Prætorian + præfects. As the immediate representatives of the Imperial majesty, + they were empowered to explain, to enforce, and on some occasions to + modify, the general edicts by their discretionary proclamations. They + watched over the conduct of the provincial governors, removed the + negligent, and inflicted punishments on the guilty. From all the inferior + jurisdictions, an appeal in every matter of importance, either civil or + criminal, might be brought before the tribunal of the præfect; but + <strong><em>his</em></strong> sentence was final and absolute; and the + emperors themselves refused to admit any complaints against the judgment + or the integrity of a magistrate whom they honored with such unbounded + confidence. His appointments were suitable to his dignity; and if avarice + was his ruling passion, he enjoyed frequent opportunities of collecting a + rich harvest of fees, of presents, and of perquisites. Though the emperors + no longer dreaded the ambition of their præfects, they were + attentive to counterbalance the power of this great office by the + uncertainty and shortness of its duration.<br /> + </p> + <p> + From their superior importance and dignity, Rome and Constantinople were + alone excepted from the jurisdiction of the Prætorian præfects. + The immense size of the city, and the experience of the tardy, ineffectual + operation of the laws, had furnished the policy of Augustus with a + specious pretence for introducing a new magistrate, who alone could + restrain a servile and turbulent populace by the strong arm of arbitrary + power. Valerius Messalla was appointed the first præfect of Rome, + that his reputation might countenance so invidious a measure; but, at the + end of a few days, that accomplished citizen resigned his office, + declaring, with a spirit worthy of the friend of Brutus, that he found + himself incapable of exercising a power incompatible with public freedom. + As the sense of liberty became less exquisite, the advantages of order + were more clearly understood; and the præfect, who seemed to have + been designed as a terror only to slaves and vagrants, was permitted to + extend his civil and criminal jurisdiction over the equestrian and noble + families of Rome. The prætors, annually created as the judges of law + and equity, could not long dispute the possession of the Forum with a + vigorous and permanent magistrate, who was usually admitted into the + confidence of the prince. Their courts were deserted, their number, which + had once fluctuated between twelve and eighteen, was gradually reduced to + two or three, and their important functions were confined to the expensive + obligation of exhibiting games for the amusement of the people. After the + office of the Roman consuls had been changed into a vain pageant, which + was rarely displayed in the capital, the præfects assumed their + vacant place in the senate, and were soon acknowledged as the ordinary + presidents of that venerable assembly. They received appeals from the + distance of one hundred miles; and it was allowed as a principle of + jurisprudence, that all municipal authority was derived from them alone. + In the discharge of his laborious employment, the governor of Rome was + assisted by fifteen officers, some of whom had been originally his equals, + or even his superiors. The principal departments were relative to the + command of a numerous watch, established as a safeguard against fires, + robberies, and nocturnal disorders; the custody and distribution of the + public allowance of corn and provisions; the care of the port, of the + aqueducts, of the common sewers, and of the navigation and bed of the + Tyber; the inspection of the markets, the theatres, and of the private as + well as the public works. Their vigilance insured the three principal + objects of a regular police, safety, plenty, and cleanliness; and as a + proof of the attention of government to preserve the splendor and + ornaments of the capital, a particular inspector was appointed for the + statues; the guardian, as it were, of that inanimate people, which, + according to the extravagant computation of an old writer, was scarcely + inferior in number to the living inhabitants of Rome. About thirty years + after the foundation of Constantinople, a similar magistrate was created + in that rising metropolis, for the same uses and with the same powers. A + perfect equality was established between the dignity of the two municipal, + and that of the <strong><em>four</em></strong> Prætorian præfects.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch17-p4" id="linkch17-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Those who, in the imperial hierarchy, were distinguished by the title of + <strong><em>Respectable</em></strong>, formed an intermediate class + between the <strong><em>illustrious</em></strong> præfects, and the + <strong><em>honorable</em></strong> magistrates of the provinces. In this + class the proconsuls of Asia, Achaia, and Africa, claimed a preëminence, + which was yielded to the remembrance of their ancient dignity; and the + appeal from their tribunal to that of the præfects was almost the + only mark of their dependence. But the civil government of the empire was + distributed into thirteen great Dioceses, each of which equalled the just + measure of a powerful kingdom. The first of these dioceses was subject to + the jurisdiction of the <strong><em>count</em></strong> of the east; and + we may convey some idea of the importance and variety of his functions, by + observing, that six hundred apparitors, who would be styled at present + either secretaries, or clerks, or ushers, or messengers, were employed in + his immediate office. The place of <strong><em>Augustal prefect</em></strong> + of Egypt was no longer filled by a Roman knight; but the name was + retained; and the extraordinary powers which the situation of the country, + and the temper of the inhabitants, had once made indispensable, were still + continued to the governor. The eleven remaining dioceses, of Asiana, + Pontica, and Thrace; of Macedonia, Dacia, and Pannonia, or Western + Illyricum; of Italy and Africa; of Gaul, Spain, and Britain; were governed + by twelve <strong><em>vicars</em></strong> or <strong><em>vice-prefects</em></strong>, + whose name sufficiently explains the nature and dependence of their + office. It may be added, that the lieutenant-generals of the Roman armies, + the military counts and dukes, who will be hereafter mentioned, were + allowed the rank and title of <strong><em>Respectable</em></strong>.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As the spirit of jealousy and ostentation prevailed in the councils of the + emperors, they proceeded with anxious diligence to divide the substance + and to multiply the titles of power. The vast countries which the Roman + conquerors had united under the same simple form of administration, were + imperceptibly crumbled into minute fragments; till at length the whole + empire was distributed into one hundred and sixteen provinces, each of + which supported an expensive and splendid establishment. Of these, three + were governed by <strong><em>proconsuls</em></strong>, thirty-seven by + <strong><em>consulars</em></strong>, five by <strong><em>correctors</em></strong>, + and seventy-one by <strong><em>presidents</em></strong>. The appellations + of these magistrates were different; they ranked in successive order, and the + ensigns of and their situation, from accidental circumstances, might be + more or less agreeable or advantageous. But they were all (excepting only + the pro-consuls) alike included in the class of <strong><em>honorable</em></strong> + persons; and they were alike intrusted, during the pleasure of the prince, + and under the authority of the præfects or their deputies, with the + administration of justice and the finances in their respective districts. + The ponderous volumes of the Codes and Pandects would furnish ample + materials for a minute inquiry into the system of provincial government, + as in the space of six centuries it was approved by the wisdom of the + Roman statesmen and lawyers. It may be sufficient for the historian to + select two singular and salutary provisions, intended to restrain the + abuse of authority. 1. For the preservation of peace and order, the + governors of the provinces were armed with the sword of justice. They + inflicted corporal punishments, and they exercised, in capital offences, + the power of life and death. But they were not authorized to indulge the + condemned criminal with the choice of his own execution, or to pronounce a + sentence of the mildest and most honorable kind of exile. These + prerogatives were reserved to the præfects, who alone could impose + the heavy fine of fifty pounds of gold: their vicegerents were confined to + the trifling weight of a few ounces. This distinction, which seems to + grant the larger, while it denies the smaller degree of authority, was + founded on a very rational motive. The smaller degree was infinitely more + liable to abuse. The passions of a provincial magistrate might frequently + provoke him into acts of oppression, which affected only the freedom or + the fortunes of the subject; though, from a principle of prudence, perhaps + of humanity, he might still be terrified by the guilt of innocent blood. + It may likewise be considered, that exile, considerable fines, or the + choice of an easy death, relate more particularly to the rich and the + noble; and the persons the most exposed to the avarice or resentment of a + provincial magistrate, were thus removed from his obscure persecution to + the more august and impartial tribunal of the Prætorian præfect. + 2. As it was reasonably apprehended that the integrity of the judge might + be biased, if his interest was concerned, or his affections were engaged, + the strictest regulations were established, to exclude any person, without + the special dispensation of the emperor, from the government of the + province where he was born; and to prohibit the governor or his son from + contracting marriage with a native, or an inhabitant; or from purchasing + slaves, lands, or houses, within the extent of his jurisdiction. + Notwithstanding these rigorous precautions, the emperor Constantine, after + a reign of twenty-five years, still deplores the venal and oppressive + administration of justice, and expresses the warmest indignation that the + audience of the judge, his despatch of business, his seasonable delays, + and his final sentence, were publicly sold, either by himself or by the + officers of his court. The continuance, and perhaps the impunity, of these + crimes, is attested by the repetition of impotent laws and ineffectual + menaces.<br /> + </p> + <p> + All the civil magistrates were drawn from the profession of the law. The + celebrated Institutes of Justinian are addressed to the youth of his + dominions, who had devoted themselves to the study of Roman jurisprudence; + and the sovereign condescends to animate their diligence, by the assurance + that their skill and ability would in time be rewarded by an adequate + share in the government of the republic. The rudiments of this lucrative + science were taught in all the considerable cities of the east and west; + but the most famous school was that of Berytus, on the coast of Phoenicia; + which flourished above three centuries from the time of Alexander Severus, + the author perhaps of an institution so advantageous to his native + country. After a regular course of education, which lasted five years, the + students dispersed themselves through the provinces, in search of fortune + and honors; nor could they want an inexhaustible supply of business in a great + empire, already corrupted by the multiplicity of laws, of arts, and of + vices. The court of the Prætorian præfect of the east could + alone furnish employment for one hundred and fifty advocates, sixty-four + of whom were distinguished by peculiar privileges, and two were annually + chosen, with a salary of sixty pounds of gold, to defend the causes of the + treasury. The first experiment was made of their judicial talents, by + appointing them to act occasionally as assessors to the magistrates; from + thence they were often raised to preside in the tribunals before which + they had pleaded. They obtained the government of a province; and, by the + aid of merit, of reputation, or of favor, they ascended, by successive + steps, to the <strong><em>illustrious</em></strong> dignities of the + state. In the practice of the bar, these men had considered reason as the + instrument of dispute; they interpreted the laws according to the dictates + of private interest and the same pernicious habits might still adhere to + their characters in the public administration of the state. The honor of a + liberal profession has indeed been vindicated by ancient and modern + advocates, who have filled the most important stations, with pure + integrity and consummate wisdom: but in the decline of Roman + jurisprudence, the ordinary promotion of lawyers was pregnant with + mischief and disgrace. The noble art, which had once been preserved as the + sacred inheritance of the patricians, was fallen into the hands of + freedmen and plebeians, who, with cunning rather than with skill, + exercised a sordid and pernicious trade. Some of them procured admittance + into families for the purpose of fomenting differences, of encouraging + suits, and of preparing a harvest of gain for themselves or their + brethren. Others, recluse in their chambers, maintained the dignity of + legal professors, by furnishing a rich client with subtleties to confound + the plainest truths, and with arguments to color the most unjustifiable + pretensions. The splendid and popular class was composed of the advocates, + who filled the Forum with the sound of their turgid and loquacious + rhetoric. Careless of fame and of justice, they are described, for the + most part, as ignorant and rapacious guides, who conducted their clients + through a maze of expense, of delay, and of disappointment; from whence, + after a tedious series of years, they were at length dismissed, when their + patience and fortune were almost exhausted.<br /> + </p> + <p> + III. In the system of policy introduced by Augustus, the governors, those + at least of the Imperial provinces, were invested with the full powers of + the sovereign himself. Ministers of peace and war, the distribution of + rewards and punishments depended on them alone, and they successively + appeared on their tribunal in the robes of civil magistracy, and in + complete armor at the head of the Roman legions. The influence of the + revenue, the authority of law, and the command of a military force, + concurred to render their power supreme and absolute; and whenever they + were tempted to violate their allegiance, the loyal province which they + involved in their rebellion was scarcely sensible of any change in its + political state. From the time of Commodus to the reign of Constantine, + near one hundred governors might be enumerated, who, with various success, + erected the standard of revolt; and though the innocent were too often + sacrificed, the guilty might be sometimes prevented, by the suspicious + cruelty of their master. To secure his throne and the public tranquillity + from these formidable servants, Constantine resolved to divide the + military from the civil administration, and to establish, as a permanent + and professional distinction, a practice which had been adopted only as an + occasional expedient. The supreme jurisdiction exercised by the Prætorian + præfects over the armies of the empire, was transferred to the two + <strong><em>masters-general</em></strong> whom he instituted, the one for + the <strong><em>cavalry</em></strong>, the other for the <strong><em>infantry</em></strong>; + and though each of these <strong><em>illustrious</em></strong> officers + was more peculiarly responsible for the discipline of those troops which + were under his immediate inspection, they both indifferently commanded in + the field the several bodies, whether of horse or foot, which were united + in the same army. Their number was soon doubled by the division of the + east and west; and as separate generals of the same rank and title were + appointed on the four important frontiers of the Rhine, of the Upper and + the Lower Danube, and of the Euphrates, the defence of the Roman empire + was at length committed to eight masters-general of the cavalry and + infantry. Under their orders, thirty-five military commanders were + stationed in the provinces: three in Britain, six in Gaul, one in Spain, + one in Italy, five on the Upper, and four on the Lower Danube; in Asia, + eight, three in Egypt, and four in Africa. The titles of <strong><em>counts</em></strong>, + and <strong><em>dukes</em></strong>, by which they were properly + distinguished, have obtained in modern languages so very different a + sense, that the use of them may occasion some surprise. But it should be + recollected, that the second of those appellations is only a corruption of + the Latin word, which was indiscriminately applied to any military chief. + All these provincial generals were therefore <strong><em>dukes</em></strong>; + but no more than ten among them were dignified with the rank of <strong><em>counts</em></strong> + or companions, a title of honor, or rather of favor, which had been + recently invented in the court of Constantine. A gold belt was the ensign + which distinguished the office of the counts and dukes; and besides their + pay, they received a liberal allowance sufficient to maintain one hundred + and ninety servants, and one hundred and fifty-eight horses. They were + strictly prohibited from interfering in any matter which related to the + administration of justice or the revenue; but the command which they + exercised over the troops of their department, was independent of the + authority of the magistrates. About the same time that Constantine gave a + legal sanction to the ecclesiastical order, he instituted in the Roman + empire the nice balance of the civil and the military powers. The + emulation, and sometimes the discord, which reigned between two + professions of opposite interests and incompatible manners, was productive + of beneficial and of pernicious consequences. It was seldom to be expected + that the general and the civil governor of a province should either + conspire for the disturbance, or should unite for the service, of their + country. While the one delayed to offer the assistance which the other + disdained to solicit, the troops very frequently remained without orders + or without supplies; the public safety was betrayed, and the defenceless + subjects were left exposed to the fury of the Barbarians. The divided + administration which had been formed by Constantine, relaxed the vigor of + the state, while it secured the tranquillity of the monarch.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The memory of Constantine has been deservedly censured for another + innovation, which corrupted military discipline and prepared the ruin of + the empire. The nineteen years which preceded his final victory over + Licinius, had been a period of license and intestine war. The rivals who + contended for the possession of the Roman world, had withdrawn the + greatest part of their forces from the guard of the general frontier; and + the principal cities which formed the boundary of their respective + dominions were filled with soldiers, who considered their countrymen as + their most implacable enemies. After the use of these internal garrisons + had ceased with the civil war, the conqueror wanted either wisdom or + firmness to revive the severe discipline of Diocletian, and to suppress a + fatal indulgence, which habit had endeared and almost confirmed to the + military order. From the reign of Constantine, a popular and even legal + distinction was admitted between the <strong><em>Palatines</em></strong> + and the <strong><em>Borderers</em></strong>; the troops of the court, as + they were improperly styled, and the troops of the frontier. The former, + elevated by the superiority of their pay and privileges, were permitted, + except in the extraordinary emergencies of war, to occupy their tranquil + stations in the heart of the provinces. The most flourishing cities were + oppressed by the intolerable weight of quarters. The soldiers insensibly + forgot the virtues of their profession, and contracted only the vices of + civil life. They were either degraded by the industry of mechanic trades, + or enervated by the luxury of baths and theatres. They soon became + careless of their martial exercises, curious in their diet and apparel; + and while they inspired terror to the subjects of the empire, they + trembled at the hostile approach of the Barbarians. The chain of + fortifications which Diocletian and his colleagues had extended along the + banks of the great rivers, was no longer maintained with the same care, or + defended with the same vigilance. The numbers which still remained under + the name of the troops of the frontier, might be sufficient for the + ordinary defence; but their spirit was degraded by the humiliating + reflection, that <strong><em>they</em></strong> who were exposed to the + hardships and dangers of a perpetual warfare, were rewarded only with + about two thirds of the pay and emoluments which were lavished on the + troops of the court. Even the bands or legions that were raised the + nearest to the level of those unworthy favorites, were in some measure + disgraced by the title of honor which they were allowed to assume. It was + in vain that Constantine repeated the most dreadful menaces of fire and + sword against the Borderers who should dare desert their colors, to + connive at the inroads of the Barbarians, or to participate in the spoil. + The mischiefs which flow from injudicious counsels are seldom removed by + the application of partial severities; and though succeeding princes + labored to restore the strength and numbers of the frontier garrisons, the + empire, till the last moment of its dissolution, continued to languish + under the mortal wound which had been so rashly or so weakly inflicted by + the hand of Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The same timid policy, of dividing whatever is united, of reducing + whatever is eminent, of dreading every active power, and of expecting that + the most feeble will prove the most obedient, seems to pervade the + institutions of several princes, and particularly those of Constantine. + The martial pride of the legions, whose victorious camps had so often been + the scene of rebellion, was nourished by the memory of their past + exploits, and the consciousness of their actual strength. As long as they + maintained their ancient establishment of six thousand men, they + subsisted, under the reign of Diocletian, each of them singly, a visible + and important object in the military history of the Roman empire. A few + years afterwards, these gigantic bodies were shrunk to a very diminutive + size; and when seven legions, with some auxiliaries, defended the city of + Amida against the Persians, the total garrison, with the inhabitants of + both sexes, and the peasants of the deserted country, did not exceed the + number of twenty thousand persons. From this fact, and from similar + examples, there is reason to believe, that the constitution of the + legionary troops, to which they partly owed their valor and discipline, + was dissolved by Constantine; and that the bands of Roman infantry, which + still assumed the same names and the same honors, consisted only of one + thousand or fifteen hundred men. The conspiracy of so many separate + detachments, each of which was awed by the sense of its own weakness, + could easily be checked; and the successors of Constantine might indulge + their love of ostentation, by issuing their orders to one hundred and + thirty-two legions, inscribed on the muster-roll of their numerous armies. + The remainder of their troops was distributed into several hundred cohorts + of infantry, and squadrons of cavalry. Their arms, and titles, and + ensigns, were calculated to inspire terror, and to display the variety of + nations who marched under the Imperial standard. And not a vestige was + left of that severe simplicity, which, in the ages of freedom and victory, + had distinguished the line of battle of a Roman army from the confused + host of an Asiatic monarch. A more particular enumeration, drawn from the + <strong><em>Notitia</em></strong>, might exercise the diligence of an + antiquary; but the historian will content himself with observing, that the + number of permanent stations or garrisons established on the frontiers of + the empire, amounted to five hundred and eighty-three; and that, under the + successors of Constantine, the complete force of the military + establishment was computed at six hundred and forty-five thousand + soldiers. An effort so prodigious surpassed the wants of a more ancient, + and the faculties of a later, period.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the various states of society, armies are recruited from very different + motives. Barbarians are urged by the love of war; the citizens of a free + republic may be prompted by a principle of duty; the subjects, or at least + the nobles, of a monarchy, are animated by a sentiment of honor; but the + timid and luxurious inhabitants of a declining empire must be allured into + the service by the hopes of profit, or compelled by the dread of + punishment. The resources of the Roman treasury were exhausted by the + increase of pay, by the repetition of donatives, and by the invention of + new emolument and indulgences, which, in the opinion of the provincial + youth might compensate the hardships and dangers of a military life. Yet, + although the stature was lowered, although slaves, least by a tacit + connivance, were indiscriminately received into the ranks, the + insurmountable difficulty of procuring a regular and adequate supply of + volunteers, obliged the emperors to adopt more effectual and coercive + methods. The lands bestowed on the veterans, as the free reward of their + valor were henceforward granted under a condition which contain the first + rudiments of the feudal tenures; that their sons, who succeeded to the + inheritance, should devote themselves to the profession of arms, as soon + as they attained the age of manhood; and their cowardly refusal was + punished by the lose of honor, of fortune, or even of life. But as the + annual growth of the sons of the veterans bore a very small proportion to + the demands of the service, levies of men were frequently required from + the provinces, and every proprietor was obliged either to take up arms, or + to procure a substitute, or to purchase his exemption by the payment of a + heavy fine. The sum of forty-two pieces of gold, to which it was <strong><em>reduced</em></strong>, + ascertains the exorbitant price of volunteers, and the reluctance with + which the government admitted of this alternative. Such was the horror for + the profession of a soldier, which had affected the minds of the + degenerate Romans, that many of the youth of Italy and the provinces chose + to cut off the fingers of their right hand, to escape from being pressed + into the service; and this strange expedient was so commonly practised, as + to deserve the severe animadversion of the laws, and a peculiar name in + the Latin language.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch17-p5" id="linkch17-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The introduction of Barbarians into the Roman armies became every day more + universal, more necessary, and more fatal. The most daring of the + Scythians, of the Goths, and of the Germans, who delighted in war, and who + found it more profitable to defend than to ravage the provinces, were + enrolled, not only in the auxiliaries of their respective nations, but in + the legions themselves, and among the most distinguished of the Palatine + troops. As they freely mingled with the subjects of the empire, they + gradually learned to despise their manners, and to imitate their arts. + They abjured the implicit reverence which the pride of Rome had exacted + from their ignorance, while they acquired the knowledge and possession of + those advantages by which alone she supported her declining greatness. The + Barbarian soldiers, who displayed any military talents, were advanced, + without exception, to the most important commands; and the names of the + tribunes, of the counts and dukes, and of the generals themselves, betray + a foreign origin, which they no longer condescended to disguise. They were + often intrusted with the conduct of a war against their countrymen; and + though most of them preferred the ties of allegiance to those of blood, + they did not always avoid the guilt, or at least the suspicion, of holding + a treasonable correspondence with the enemy, of inviting his invasion, or + of sparing his retreat. The camps and the palace of the son of Constantine + were governed by the powerful faction of the Franks, who preserved the + strictest connection with each other, and with their country, and who + resented every personal affront as a national indignity. When the tyrant + Caligula was suspected of an intention to invest a very extraordinary + candidate with the consular robes, the sacrilegious profanation would have + scarcely excited less astonishment, if, instead of a horse, the noblest + chieftain of Germany or Britain had been the object of his choice. The + revolution of three centuries had produced so remarkable a change in the + prejudices of the people, that, with the public approbation, Constantine + showed his successors the example of bestowing the honors of the + consulship on the Barbarians, who, by their merit and services, had + deserved to be ranked among the first of the Romans. But as these hardy + veterans, who had been educated in the ignorance or contempt of the laws, + were incapable of exercising any civil offices, the powers of the human + mind were contracted by the irreconcilable separation of talents as well + as of professions. The accomplished citizens of the Greek and Roman + republics, whose characters could adapt themselves to the bar, the senate, + the camp, or the schools, had learned to write, to speak, and to act with + the same spirit, and with equal abilities.<br /> + </p> + <p> + IV. Besides the magistrates and generals, who at a distance from the court + diffused their delegated authority over the provinces and armies, the + emperor conferred the rank of <strong><em>Illustrious</em></strong> on + seven of his more immediate servants, to whose fidelity he intrusted his + safety, or his counsels, or his treasures. <strong>1</strong>. The private + apartments of the palace were governed by a favorite eunuch, who, in the + language of that age, was styled the <strong><em>propositus</em></strong>, + or præfect of the sacred bed-chamber. His duty was to attend the + emperor in his hours of state, or in those of amusement, and to perform + about his person all those menial services, which can only derive their + splendor from the influence of royalty. Under a prince who deserved to + reign, the great chamberlain (for such we may call him) was a useful and + humble domestic; but an artful domestic, who improves every occasion of + unguarded confidence, will insensibly acquire over a feeble mind that + ascendant which harsh wisdom and uncomplying virtue can seldom obtain. The + degenerate grandsons of Theodosius, who were invisible to their subjects, + and contemptible to their enemies, exalted the præfects of their + bed-chamber above the heads of all the ministers of the palace; and even + his deputy, the first of the splendid train of slaves who waited in the + presence, was thought worthy to rank before the <strong><em>respectable</em></strong> + proconsuls of Greece or Asia. The jurisdiction of the chamberlain was + acknowledged by the <strong><em>counts</em></strong>, or superintendents, + who regulated the two important provinces of the magnificence of the + wardrobe, and of the luxury of the Imperial table. <strong>2</strong>. The + principal administration of public affairs was committed to the diligence + and abilities of the <strong><em>master of the offices</em></strong>. He + was the supreme magistrate of the palace, inspected the discipline of the + civil and military <strong><em>schools</em></strong>, and received appeals + from all parts of the empire, in the causes which related to that numerous + army of privileged persons, who, as the servants of the court, had + obtained for themselves and families a right to decline the authority of + the ordinary judges. The correspondence between the prince and his + subjects was managed by the four <strong><em>scrinia</em></strong>, or + offices of this minister of state. The first was appropriated to + memorials, the second to epistles, the third to petitions, and the fourth + to papers and orders of a miscellaneous kind. Each of these was directed + by an inferior <strong><em>master of respectable</em></strong> dignity, + and the whole business was despatched by a hundred and forty-eight + secretaries, chosen for the most part from the profession of the law, on + account of the variety of abstracts of reports and references which + frequently occurred in the exercise of their several functions. From a + condescension, which in former ages would have been esteemed unworthy the + Roman majesty, a particular secretary was allowed for the Greek language; + and interpreters were appointed to receive the ambassadors of the + Barbarians; but the department of foreign affairs, which constitutes so + essential a part of modern policy, seldom diverted the attention of the + master of the offices. His mind was more seriously engaged by the general + direction of the posts and arsenals of the empire. There were thirty-four + cities, fifteen in the East, and nineteen in the West, in which regular + companies of workmen were perpetually employed in fabricating defensive + armor, offensive weapons of all sorts, and military engines, which were + deposited in the arsenals, and occasionally delivered for the service of + the troops. <strong>3</strong>. In the course of nine centuries, the + office of <strong><em>quæstor</em></strong> had experienced a very + singular revolution. In the infancy of Rome, two inferior magistrates were + annually elected by the people, to relieve the consuls from the invidious + management of the public treasure; a similar assistant was granted to + every proconsul, and to every prætor, who exercised a military or + provincial command; with the extent of conquest, the two quæstors + were gradually multiplied to the number of four, of eight, of twenty, and, + for a short time, perhaps, of forty; and the noblest citizens ambitiously + solicited an office which gave them a seat in the senate, and a just hope + of obtaining the honors of the republic. Whilst Augustus affected to + maintain the freedom of election, he consented to accept the annual + privilege of recommending, or rather indeed of nominating, a certain + proportion of candidates; and it was his custom to select one of these + distinguished youths, to read his orations or epistles in the assemblies + of the senate. The practice of Augustus was imitated by succeeding + princes; the occasional commission was established as a permanent office; + and the favored quæstor, assuming a new and more illustrious + character, alone survived the suppression of his ancient and useless + colleagues. As the orations which he composed in the name of the emperor, + acquired the force, and, at length, the form, of absolute edicts, he was + considered as the representative of the legislative power, the oracle of + the council, and the original source of the civil jurisprudence. He was + sometimes invited to take his seat in the supreme judicature of the + Imperial consistory, with the Prætorian præfects, and the + master of the offices; and he was frequently requested to resolve the + doubts of inferior judges: but as he was not oppressed with a variety of + subordinate business, his leisure and talents were employed to cultivate + that dignified style of eloquence, which, in the corruption of taste and + language, still preserves the majesty of the Roman laws. In some respects, + the office of the Imperial quæstor may be compared with that of a + modern chancellor; but the use of a great seal, which seems to have been + adopted by the illiterate barbarians, was never introduced to attest the + public acts of the emperors. <strong>4</strong>. The extraordinary title + of <strong><em>count of the sacred largesses</em></strong> was bestowed on + the treasurer-general of the revenue, with the intention perhaps of + inculcating, that every payment flowed from the voluntary bounty of the + monarch. To conceive the almost infinite detail of the annual and daily + expense of the civil and military administration in every part of a great + empire, would exceed the powers of the most vigorous imagination. The + actual account employed several hundred persons, distributed into eleven + different offices, which were artfully contrived to examine and control + their respective operations. The multitude of these agents had a natural + tendency to increase; and it was more than once thought expedient to + dismiss to their native homes the useless supernumeraries, who, deserting + their honest labors, had pressed with too much eagerness into the + lucrative profession of the finances. Twenty-nine provincial receivers, of + whom eighteen were honored with the title of count, corresponded with the + treasurer; and he extended his jurisdiction over the mines from whence the + precious metals were extracted, over the mints, in which they were + converted into the current coin, and over the public treasuries of the + most important cities, where they were deposited for the service of the + state. The foreign trade of the empire was regulated by this minister, who + directed likewise all the linen and woollen manufactures, in which the + successive operations of spinning, weaving, and dyeing were executed, + chiefly by women of a servile condition, for the use of the palace and + army. Twenty-six of these institutions are enumerated in the West, where + the arts had been more recently introduced, and a still larger proportion + may be allowed for the industrious provinces of the East. <strong>5</strong>. + Besides the public revenue, which an absolute monarch might levy and + expend according to his pleasure, the emperors, in the capacity of opulent + citizens, possessed a very extensive property, which was administered by + the <strong><em>count</em></strong> or treasurer of <strong><em>the + private estate</em></strong>. Some part had perhaps been the ancient + demesnes of kings and republics; some accessions might be derived from the + families which were successively invested with the purple; but the most + considerable portion flowed from the impure source of confiscations and + forfeitures. The Imperial estates were scattered through the provinces, + from Mauritania to Britain; but the rich and fertile soil of Cappadocia + tempted the monarch to acquire in that country his fairest possessions, + and either Constantine or his successors embraced the occasion of + justifying avarice by religious zeal. They suppressed the rich temple of + Comana, where the high priest of the goddess of war supported the dignity + of a sovereign prince; and they applied to their private use the + consecrated lands, which were inhabited by six thousand subjects or slaves + of the deity and her ministers. But these were not the valuable + inhabitants: the plains that stretch from the foot of Mount Argæus + to the banks of the Sarus, bred a generous race of horses, renowned above + all others in the ancient world for their majestic shape and incomparable + swiftness. These sacred animals, destined for the service of the palace + and the Imperial games, were protected by the laws from the profanation of + a vulgar master. The demesnes of Cappadocia were important enough to + require the inspection of a count; officers of an inferior rank were + stationed in the other parts of the empire; and the deputies of the + private, as well as those of the public, treasurer were maintained in the + exercise of their independent functions, and encouraged to control the + authority of the provincial magistrates. <strong>6<em>,</em> 7</strong>. + The chosen bands of cavalry and infantry, which guarded the person of the + emperor, were under the immediate command of the <strong><em>two counts of + the domestics</em></strong>. The whole number consisted of three thousand + five hundred men, divided into seven <strong><em>schools</em></strong>, or + troops, of five hundred each; and in the East, this honorable service was + almost entirely appropriated to the Armenians. Whenever, on public + ceremonies, they were drawn up in the courts and porticos of the palace, + their lofty stature, silent order, and splendid arms of silver and gold, + displayed a martial pomp not unworthy of the Roman majesty. From the seven + schools two companies of horse and foot were selected, of the <strong><em>protectors</em></strong>, + whose advantageous station was the hope and reward of the most deserving + soldiers. They mounted guard in the interior apartments, and were + occasionally despatched into the provinces, to execute with celerity and + vigor the orders of their master. The counts of the domestics had + succeeded to the office of the Prætorian præfects; like the præfects, + they aspired from the service of the palace to the command of armies.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The perpetual intercourse between the court and the provinces was + facilitated by the construction of roads and the institution of posts. But + these beneficial establishments were accidentally connected with a + pernicious and intolerable abuse. Two or three hundred agents or + messengers were employed, under the jurisdiction of the master of the + offices, to announce the names of the annual consuls, and the edicts or + victories of the emperors. They insensibly assumed the license of + reporting whatever they could observe of the conduct either of magistrates + or of private citizens; and were soon considered as the eyes of the + monarch, and the scourge of the people. Under the warm influence of a + feeble reign, they multiplied to the incredible number of ten thousand, + disdained the mild though frequent admonitions of the laws, and exercised + in the profitable management of the posts a rapacious and insolent + oppression. These official spies, who regularly corresponded with the + palace, were encouraged by favor and reward, anxiously to watch the + progress of every treasonable design, from the faint and latent symptoms + of disaffection, to the actual preparation of an open revolt. Their + careless or criminal violation of truth and justice was covered by the + consecrated mask of zeal; and they might securely aim their poisoned + arrows at the breast either of the guilty or the innocent, who had + provoked their resentment, or refused to purchase their silence. A + faithful subject, of Syria perhaps, or of Britain, was exposed to the + danger, or at least to the dread, of being dragged in chains to the court + of Milan or Constantinople, to defend his life and fortune against the + malicious charge of these privileged informers. The ordinary + administration was conducted by those methods which extreme necessity can + alone palliate; and the defects of evidence were diligently supplied by + the use of torture.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The deceitful and dangerous experiment of the criminal <strong><em>question</em></strong>, + as it is emphatically styled, was admitted, rather than approved, in the + jurisprudence of the Romans. They applied this sanguinary mode of + examination only to servile bodies, whose sufferings were seldom weighed + by those haughty republicans in the scale of justice or humanity; but they + would never consent to violate the sacred person of a citizen, till they + possessed the clearest evidence of his guilt. The annals of tyranny, from + the reign of Tiberius to that of Domitian, circumstantially relate the + executions of many innocent victims; but, as long as the faintest + remembrance was kept alive of the national freedom and honor, the last + hours of a Roman were secured from the danger of ignominious torture. The + conduct of the provincial magistrates was not, however, regulated by the + practice of the city, or the strict maxims of the civilians. They found + the use of torture established not only among the slaves of oriental + despotism, but among the Macedonians, who obeyed a limited monarch; among + the Rhodians, who flourished by the liberty of commerce; and even among + the sage Athenians, who had asserted and adorned the dignity of human + kind. The acquiescence of the provincials encouraged their governors to + acquire, or perhaps to usurp, a discretionary power of employing the rack, + to extort from vagrants or plebeian criminals the confession of their + guilt, till they insensibly proceeded to confound the distinction of rank, + and to disregard the privileges of Roman citizens. The apprehensions of + the subjects urged them to solicit, and the interest of the sovereign + engaged him to grant, a variety of special exemptions, which tacitly + allowed, and even authorized, the general use of torture. They protected + all persons of illustrious or honorable rank, bishops and their + presbyters, professors of the liberal arts, soldiers and their families, + municipal officers, and their posterity to the third generation, and all + children under the age of puberty. But a fatal maxim was introduced into + the new jurisprudence of the empire, that in the case of treason, which + included every offence that the subtlety of lawyers could derive from a + <strong><em>hostile intention</em></strong> towards the prince or + republic, all privileges were suspended, and all conditions were reduced + to the same ignominious level. As the safety of the emperor was avowedly + preferred to every consideration of justice or humanity, the dignity of + age and the tenderness of youth were alike exposed to the most cruel + tortures; and the terrors of a malicious information, which might select + them as the accomplices, or even as the witnesses, perhaps, of an + imaginary crime, perpetually hung over the heads of the principal citizens + of the Roman world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + These evils, however terrible they may appear, were confined to the + smaller number of Roman subjects, whose dangerous situation was in some + degree compensated by the enjoyment of those advantages, either of nature + or of fortune, which exposed them to the jealousy of the monarch. The + obscure millions of a great empire have much less to dread from the + cruelty than from the avarice of their masters, and <strong><em>their</em></strong> + humble happiness is principally affected by the grievance of excessive + taxes, which, gently pressing on the wealthy, descend with accelerated + weight on the meaner and more indigent classes of society. An ingenious + philosopher has calculated the universal measure of the public impositions + by the degrees of freedom and servitude; and ventures to assert, that, + according to an invariable law of nature, it must always increase with the + former, and diminish in a just proportion to the latter. But this + reflection, which would tend to alleviate the miseries of despotism, is + contradicted at least by the history of the Roman empire; which accuses + the same princes of despoiling the senate of its authority, and the + provinces of their wealth. Without abolishing all the various customs and + duties on merchandises, which are imperceptibly discharged by the apparent + choice of the purchaser, the policy of Constantine and his successors + preferred a simple and direct mode of taxation, more congenial to the + spirit of an arbitrary government.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch17-p6" id="linkch17-p6"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVII: Foundation Of Constantinople.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + The name and use of the <strong><em>indictions</em></strong>, which serve + to ascertain the chronology of the middle ages, were derived from the + regular practice of the Roman tributes. The emperor subscribed with his + own hand, and in purple ink, the solemn edict, or indiction, which was + fixed up in the principal city of each diocese, during two months previous + to the first day of September. And by a very easy connection of ideas, the + word <strong><em>indiction</em></strong> was transferred to the measure of + tribute which it prescribed, and to the annual term which it allowed for + the payment. This general estimate of the supplies was proportioned to the + real and imaginary wants of the state; but as often as the expense + exceeded the revenue, or the revenue fell short of the computation, an + additional tax, under the name of <strong><em>superindiction</em></strong>, + was imposed on the people, and the most valuable attribute of sovereignty + was communicated to the Prætorian præfects, who, on some + occasions, were permitted to provide for the unforeseen and extraordinary + exigencies of the public service. The execution of these laws (which it + would be tedious to pursue in their minute and intricate detail) consisted + of two distinct operations: the resolving the general imposition into its + constituent parts, which were assessed on the provinces, the cities, and + the individuals of the Roman world; and the collecting the separate + contributions of the individuals, the cities, and the provinces, till the + accumulated sums were poured into the Imperial treasuries. But as the + account between the monarch and the subject was perpetually open, and as + the renewal of the demand anticipated the perfect discharge of the + preceding obligation, the weighty machine of the finances was moved by the + same hands round the circle of its yearly revolution. Whatever was + honorable or important in the administration of the revenue, was committed + to the wisdom of the præfects, and their provincial representatives; + the lucrative functions were claimed by a crowd of subordinate officers, + some of whom depended on the treasurer, others on the governor of the + province; and who, in the inevitable conflicts of a perplexed + jurisdiction, had frequent opportunities of disputing with each other the + spoils of the people. The laborious offices, which could be productive + only of envy and reproach, of expense and danger, were imposed on the + <strong><em>Decurions</em></strong>, who formed the corporations of the + cities, and whom the severity of the Imperial laws had condemned to + sustain the burdens of civil society. The whole landed property of the + empire (without excepting the patrimonial estates of the monarch) was the + object of ordinary taxation; and every new purchaser contracted the + obligations of the former proprietor. An accurate census, or survey, was + the only equitable mode of ascertaining the proportion which every citizen + should be obliged to contribute for the public service; and from the + well-known period of the indictions, there is reason to believe that this + difficult and expensive operation was repeated at the regular distance of + fifteen years. The lands were measured by surveyors, who were sent into + the provinces; their nature, whether arable or pasture, or vineyards or + woods, was distinctly reported; and an estimate was made of their common + value from the average produce of five years. The numbers of slaves and of + cattle constituted an essential part of the report; an oath was + administered to the proprietors, which bound them to disclose the true + state of their affairs; and their attempts to prevaricate, or elude the + intention of the legislator, were severely watched, and punished as a + capital crime, which included the double guilt of treason and sacrilege. A + large portion of the tribute was paid in money; and of the current coin of + the empire, gold alone could be legally accepted. The remainder of the + taxes, according to the proportions determined by the annual indiction, + was furnished in a manner still more direct, and still more oppressive. + According to the different nature of lands, their real produce in the + various articles of wine or oil, corn or barley, wood or iron, was + transported by the labor or at the expense of the provincials * to the + Imperial magazines, from whence they were occasionally distributed for the + use of the court, of the army, and of two capitals, Rome and + Constantinople. The commissioners of the revenue were so frequently + obliged to make considerable purchases, that they were strictly prohibited + from allowing any compensation, or from receiving in money the value of + those supplies which were exacted in kind. In the primitive simplicity of + small communities, this method may be well adapted to collect the almost + voluntary offerings of the people; but it is at once susceptible of the + utmost latitude, and of the utmost strictness, which in a corrupt and + absolute monarchy must introduce a perpetual contest between the power of + oppression and the arts of fraud. The agriculture of the Roman provinces + was insensibly ruined, and, in the progress of despotism which tends to + disappoint its own purpose, the emperors were obliged to derive some merit + from the forgiveness of debts, or the remission of tributes, which their + subjects were utterly incapable of paying. According to the new division + of Italy, the fertile and happy province of Campania, the scene of the + early victories and of the delicious retirements of the citizens of Rome, + extended between the sea and the Apennine, from the Tiber to the Silarus. + Within sixty years after the death of Constantine, and on the evidence of + an actual survey, an exemption was granted in favor of three hundred and + thirty thousand English acres of desert and uncultivated land; which + amounted to one eighth of the whole surface of the province. As the + footsteps of the Barbarians had not yet been seen in Italy, the cause of + this amazing desolation, which is recorded in the laws, can be ascribed + only to the administration of the Roman emperors.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Either from design or from accident, the mode of assessment seemed to + unite the substance of a land tax with the forms of a capitation. The + returns which were sent of every province or district, expressed the + number of tributary subjects, and the amount of the public impositions. + The latter of these sums was divided by the former; and the estimate, that + such a province contained so many <strong><em>capita</em></strong>, or + heads of tribute; and that each <strong><em>head</em></strong> was rated + at such a price, was universally received, not only in the popular, but + even in the legal computation. The value of a tributary head must have + varied, according to many accidental, or at least fluctuating + circumstances; but some knowledge has been preserved of a very curious + fact, the more important, since it relates to one of the richest provinces + of the Roman empire, and which now flourishes as the most splendid of the + European kingdoms. The rapacious ministers of Constantius had exhausted + the wealth of Gaul, by exacting twenty-five pieces of gold for the annual + tribute of every head. The humane policy of his successor reduced the + capitation to seven pieces. A moderate proportion between these opposite + extremes of extraordinary oppression and of transient indulgence, may + therefore be fixed at sixteen pieces of gold, or about nine pounds + sterling, the common standard, perhaps, of the impositions of Gaul. But + this calculation, or rather, indeed, the facts from whence it is deduced, + cannot fail of suggesting two difficulties to a thinking mind, who will be + at once surprised by the <strong><em>equality</em></strong>, and by the + <strong><em>enormity</em></strong>, of the capitation. An attempt to + explain them may perhaps reflect some light on the interesting subject of + the finances of the declining empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. It is obvious, that, as long as the immutable constitution of human + nature produces and maintains so unequal a division of property, the most + numerous part of the community would be deprived of their subsistence, by + the equal assessment of a tax from which the sovereign would derive a very + trifling revenue. Such indeed might be the theory of the Roman capitation; + but in the practice, this unjust equality was no longer felt, as the + tribute was collected on the principle of a <strong><em>real</em></strong>, + not of a <strong><em>personal</em></strong> imposition. * Several indigent + citizens contributed to compose a single <strong><em>head</em></strong>, + or share of taxation; while the wealthy provincial, in proportion to his + fortune, alone represented several of those imaginary beings. In a + poetical request, addressed to one of the last and most deserving of the + Roman princes who reigned in Gaul, Sidonius Apollinaris personifies his + tribute under the figure of a triple monster, the Geryon of the Grecian + fables, and entreats the new Hercules that he would most graciously be + pleased to save his life by cutting off three of his heads. The fortune of + Sidonius far exceeded the customary wealth of a poet; but if he had + pursued the allusion, he might have painted many of the Gallic nobles with + the hundred heads of the deadly Hydra, spreading over the face of the + country, and devouring the substance of a hundred families. II. The + difficulty of allowing an annual sum of about nine pounds sterling, even + for the average of the capitation of Gaul, may be rendered more evident by + the comparison of the present state of the same country, as it is now + governed by the absolute monarch of an industrious, wealthy, and + affectionate people. The taxes of France cannot be magnified, either by + fear or by flattery, beyond the annual amount of eighteen millions + sterling, which ought perhaps to be shared among four and twenty millions + of inhabitants. Seven millions of these, in the capacity of fathers, or + brothers, or husbands, may discharge the obligations of the remaining + multitude of women and children; yet the equal proportion of each + tributary subject will scarcely rise above fifty shillings of our money, + instead of a proportion almost four times as considerable, which was + regularly imposed on their Gallic ancestors. The reason of this difference + may be found, not so much in the relative scarcity or plenty of gold and + silver, as in the different state of society, in ancient Gaul and in + modern France. In a country where personal freedom is the privilege of + every subject, the whole mass of taxes, whether they are levied on + property or on consumption, may be fairly divided among the whole body of + the nation. But the far greater part of the lands of ancient Gaul, as well + as of the other provinces of the Roman world, were cultivated by slaves, + or by peasants, whose dependent condition was a less rigid servitude. In + such a state the poor were maintained at the expense of the masters who + enjoyed the fruits of their labor; and as the rolls of tribute were filled + only with the names of those citizens who possessed the means of an + honorable, or at least of a decent subsistence, the comparative smallness + of their numbers explains and justifies the high rate of their capitation. + The truth of this assertion may be illustrated by the following example: + The Ædui, one of the most powerful and civilized tribes or <strong><em>cities</em></strong> + of Gaul, occupied an extent of territory, which now contains about five + hundred thousand inhabitants, in the two ecclesiastical dioceses of Autun + and Nevers; and with the probable accession of those of Chalons and Macon, + the population would amount to eight hundred thousand souls. In the time + of Constantine, the territory of the Ædui afforded no more than + twenty-five thousand <strong><em>heads</em></strong> of capitation, of + whom seven thousand were discharged by that prince from the intolerable + weight of tribute. A just analogy would seem to countenance the opinion of + an ingenious historian, that the free and tributary citizens did not + surpass the number of half a million; and if, in the ordinary + administration of government, their annual payments may be computed at + about four millions and a half of our money, it would appear, that + although the share of each individual was four times as considerable, a + fourth part only of the modern taxes of France was levied on the Imperial + province of Gaul. The exactions of Constantius may be calculated at seven + millions sterling, which were reduced to two millions by the humanity or + the wisdom of Julian.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But this tax, or capitation, on the proprietors of land, would have + suffered a rich and numerous class of free citizens to escape. With the + view of sharing that species of wealth which is derived from art or labor, + and which exists in money or in merchandise, the emperors imposed a + distinct and personal tribute on the trading part of their subjects. Some + exemptions, very strictly confined both in time and place, were allowed to + the proprietors who disposed of the produce of their own estates. Some + indulgence was granted to the profession of the liberal arts: but every + other branch of commercial industry was affected by the severity of the + law. The honorable merchant of Alexandria, who imported the gems and + spices of India for the use of the western world; the usurer, who derived + from the interest of money a silent and ignominious profit; the ingenious + manufacturer, the diligent mechanic, and even the most obscure retailer of + a sequestered village, were obliged to admit the officers of the revenue + into the partnership of their gain; and the sovereign of the Roman empire, + who tolerated the profession, consented to share the infamous salary, of + public prostitutes. As this general tax upon industry was collected every + fourth year, it was styled the <strong><em>Lustral Contribution</em></strong>: + and the historian Zosimus laments that the approach of the fatal period + was announced by the tears and terrors of the citizens, who were often + compelled by the impending scourge to embrace the most abhorred and + unnatural methods of procuring the sum at which their property had been + assessed. The testimony of Zosimus cannot indeed be justified from the + charge of passion and prejudice; but, from the nature of this tribute it + seems reasonable to conclude, that it was arbitrary in the distribution, + and extremely rigorous in the mode of collecting. The secret wealth of + commerce, and the precarious profits of art or labor, are susceptible only + of a discretionary valuation, which is seldom disadvantageous to the + interest of the treasury; and as the person of the trader supplies the + want of a visible and permanent security, the payment of the imposition, + which, in the case of a land tax, may be obtained by the seizure of + property, can rarely be extorted by any other means than those of corporal + punishments. The cruel treatment of the insolvent debtors of the state, is + attested, and was perhaps mitigated by a very humane edict of Constantine, + who, disclaiming the use of racks and of scourges, allots a spacious and + airy prison for the place of their confinement.<br /> + </p> + <p> + These general taxes were imposed and levied by the absolute authority of + the monarch; but the occasional offerings of the <strong><em>coronary gold</em></strong>still + retained the name and semblance of popular consent. It was an ancient + custom that the allies of the republic, who ascribed their safety or + deliverance to the success of the Roman arms, and even the cities of + Italy, who admired the virtues of their victorious general, adorned the + pomp of his triumph by their voluntary gifts of crowns of gold, which + after the ceremony were consecrated in the temple of Jupiter, to remain a + lasting monument of his glory to future ages. The progress of zeal and + flattery soon multiplied the number, and increased the size, of these + popular donations; and the triumph of Cæsar was enriched with two + thousand eight hundred and twenty-two massy crowns, whose weight amounted + to twenty thousand four hundred and fourteen pounds of gold. This treasure + was immediately melted down by the prudent dictator, who was satisfied + that it would be more serviceable to his soldiers than to the gods: his + example was imitated by his successors; and the custom was introduced of + exchanging these splendid ornaments for the more acceptable present of the + current gold coin of the empire. The spontaneous offering was at length + exacted as the debt of duty; and instead of being confined to the occasion + of a triumph, it was supposed to be granted by the several cities and + provinces of the monarchy, as often as the emperor condescended to + announce his accession, his consulship, the birth of a son, the creation + of a Cæsar, a victory over the Barbarians, or any other real or + imaginary event which graced the annals of his reign. The peculiar free + gift of the senate of Rome was fixed by custom at sixteen hundred pounds + of gold, or about sixty-four thousand pounds sterling. The oppressed + subjects celebrated their own felicity, that their sovereign should + graciously consent to accept this feeble but voluntary testimony of their + loyalty and gratitude.<br /> + </p> + <p> + A people elated by pride, or soured by discontent, are seldom qualified to + form a just estimate of their actual situation. The subjects of + Constantine were incapable of discerning the decline of genius and manly + virtue, which so far degraded them below the dignity of their ancestors; + but they could feel and lament the rage of tyranny, the relaxation of + discipline, and the increase of taxes. The impartial historian, who + acknowledges the justice of their complaints, will observe some favorable + circumstances which tended to alleviate the misery of their condition. The + threatening tempest of Barbarians, which so soon subverted the foundations + of Roman greatness, was still repelled, or suspended, on the frontiers. + The arts of luxury and literature were cultivated, and the elegant + pleasures of society were enjoyed, by the inhabitants of a considerable + portion of the globe. The forms, the pomp, and the expense of the civil + administration contributed to restrain the irregular license of the + soldiers; and although the laws were violated by power, or perverted by + subtlety, the sage principles of the Roman jurisprudence preserved a sense + of order and equity, unknown to the despotic governments of the East. The + rights of mankind might derive some protection from religion and + philosophy; and the name of freedom, which could no longer alarm, might + sometimes admonish, the successors of Augustus, that they did not reign + over a nation of Slaves or Barbarians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch18-p1" id="linkch18-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Character Of Constantine.—Gothic War.—Death Of +Constantine.—Division Of The Empire Among His Three Sons.— +Persian War.—Tragic Deaths Of Constantine The Younger And +Constans.—Usurpation Of Magnentius.—Civil War.—Victory +Of Constantius. +</pre> + <p> + The character of the prince who removed the seat of empire, and introduced + such important changes into the civil and religious constitution of his + country, has fixed the attention, and divided the opinions, of mankind. By + the grateful zeal of the Christians, the deliverer of the church has been + decorated with every attribute of a hero, and even of a saint; while the + discontent of the vanquished party has compared Constantine to the most + abhorred of those tyrants, who, by their vice and weakness, dishonored the + Imperial purple. The same passions have in some degree been perpetuated to + succeeding generations, and the character of Constantine is considered, + even in the present age, as an object either of satire or of panegyric. By + the impartial union of those defects which are confessed by his warmest + admirers, and of those virtues which are acknowledged by his + most-implacable enemies, we might hope to delineate a just portrait of + that extraordinary man, which the truth and candor of history should adopt + without a blush. But it would soon appear, that the vain attempt to blend + such discordant colors, and to reconcile such inconsistent qualities, must + produce a figure monstrous rather than human, unless it is viewed in its + proper and distinct lights, by a careful separation of the different + periods of the reign of Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The person, as well as the mind, of Constantine, had been enriched by + nature with her choicest endowments. His stature was lofty, his countenance + majestic, his deportment graceful; his strength and activity were + displayed in every manly exercise, and from his earliest youth, to a very + advanced season of life, he preserved the vigor of his constitution by a + strict adherence to the domestic virtues of chastity and temperance. He + delighted in the social intercourse of familiar conversation; and though + he might sometimes indulge his disposition to raillery with less reserve + than was required by the severe dignity of his station, the courtesy and + liberality of his manners gained the hearts of all who approached him. The + sincerity of his friendship has been suspected; yet he showed, on some + occasions, that he was not incapable of a warm and lasting attachment. The + disadvantage of an illiterate education had not prevented him from forming + a just estimate of the value of learning; and the arts and sciences + derived some encouragement from the munificent protection of Constantine. + In the despatch of business, his diligence was indefatigable; and the + active powers of his mind were almost continually exercised in reading, + writing, or meditating, in giving audiences to ambassadors, and in + examining the complaints of his subjects. Even those who censured the + propriety of his measures were compelled to acknowledge, that he possessed + magnanimity to conceive, and patience to execute, the most arduous + designs, without being checked either by the prejudices of education, or + by the clamors of the multitude. In the field, he infused his own intrepid + spirit into the troops, whom he conducted with the talents of a consummate + general; and to his abilities, rather than to his fortune, we may ascribe + the signal victories which he obtained over the foreign and domestic foes + of the republic. He loved glory as the reward, perhaps as the motive, of + his labors. The boundless ambition, which, from the moment of his + accepting the purple at York, appears as the ruling passion of his soul, + may be justified by the dangers of his own situation, by the character of + his rivals, by the consciousness of superior merit, and by the prospect + that his success would enable him to restore peace and order throughout the + distracted empire. In his civil wars against Maxentius and Licinius, he + had engaged on his side the inclinations of the people, who compared the + undissembled vices of those tyrants with the spirit of wisdom and justice + which seemed to direct the general tenor of the administration of + Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Had Constantine fallen on the banks of the Tyber, or even in the plains of + Hadrianople, such is the character which, with a few exceptions, he might + have transmitted to posterity. But the conclusion of his reign (according + to the moderate and indeed tender sentence of a writer of the same age) + degraded him from the rank which he had acquired among the most deserving + of the Roman princes. In the life of Augustus, we behold the tyrant of the + republic, converted, almost by imperceptible degrees, into the father of + his country, and of human kind. In that of Constantine, we may contemplate + a hero, who had so long inspired his subjects with love, and his enemies + with terror, degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch, corrupted by + his fortune, or raised by conquest above the necessity of dissimulation. + The general peace which he maintained during the last fourteen years of + his reign, was a period of apparent splendor rather than of real + prosperity; and the old age of Constantine was disgraced by the opposite + yet reconcilable vices of rapaciousness and prodigality. The accumulated + treasures found in the palaces of Maxentius and Licinius, were lavishly + consumed; the various innovations introduced by the conqueror, were + attended with an increasing expense; the cost of his buildings, his court, + and his festivals, required an immediate and plentiful supply; and the + oppression of the people was the only fund which could support the + magnificence of the sovereign. His unworthy favorites, enriched by the + boundless liberality of their master, usurped with impunity the privilege + of rapine and corruption. A secret but universal decay was felt in every + part of the public administration, and the emperor himself, though he + still retained the obedience, gradually lost the esteem, of his subjects. + The dress and manners, which, towards the decline of life, he chose to + affect, served only to degrade him in the eyes of mankind. The Asiatic + pomp, which had been adopted by the pride of Diocletian, assumed an air of + softness and effeminacy in the person of Constantine. He is represented + with false hair of various colors, laboriously arranged by the skilful + artists to the times; a diadem of a new and more expensive fashion; a + profusion of gems and pearls, of collars and bracelets, and a variegated + flowing robe of silk, most curiously embroidered with flowers of gold. In + such apparel, scarcely to be excused by the youth and folly of Elagabalus, + we are at a loss to discover the wisdom of an aged monarch, and the + simplicity of a Roman veteran. A mind thus relaxed by prosperity and + indulgence, was incapable of rising to that magnanimity which disdains + suspicion, and dares to forgive. The deaths of Maximian and Licinius may + perhaps be justified by the maxims of policy, as they are taught in the + schools of tyrants; but an impartial narrative of the executions, or + rather murders, which sullied the declining age of Constantine, will + suggest to our most candid thoughts the idea of a prince who could + sacrifice without reluctance the laws of justice, and the feelings of + nature, to the dictates either of his passions or of his interest.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The same fortune which so invariably followed the standard of Constantine, + seemed to secure the hopes and comforts of his domestic life. Those among + his predecessors who had enjoyed the longest and most prosperous reigns, + Augustus Trajan, and Diocletian, had been disappointed of posterity; and + the frequent revolutions had never allowed sufficient time for any + Imperial family to grow up and multiply under the shade of the purple. But + the royalty of the Flavian line, which had been first ennobled by the + Gothic Claudius, descended through several generations; and Constantine + himself derived from his royal father the hereditary honors which he + transmitted to his children. The emperor had been twice married. + Minervina, the obscure but lawful object of his youthful attachment, had + left him only one son, who was called Crispus. By Fausta, the daughter of + Maximian, he had three daughters, and three sons known by the kindred + names of Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. The unambitious brothers + of the great Constantine, Julius Constantius, Dalmatius, and + Hannibalianus, were permitted to enjoy the most honorable rank, and the + most affluent fortune, that could be consistent with a private station. + The youngest of the three lived without a name, and died without + posterity. His two elder brothers obtained in marriage the daughters of + wealthy senators, and propagated new branches of the Imperial race. Gallus + and Julian afterwards became the most illustrious of the children of + Julius Constantius, the <strong><em>Patrician</em></strong>. The two sons + of Dalmatius, who had been decorated with the vain title of <strong><em>Censor</em></strong>, + were named Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The two sisters of the great + Constantine, Anastasia and Eutropia, were bestowed on Optatus and + Nepotianus, two senators of noble birth and of consular dignity. His third + sister, Constantia, was distinguished by her preeminence of greatness and + of misery. She remained the widow of the vanquished Licinius; and it was + by her entreaties, that an innocent boy, the offspring of their marriage, + preserved, for some time, his life, the title of Cæsar, and a + precarious hope of the succession. Besides the females, and the allies of + the Flavian house, ten or twelve males, to whom the language of modern + courts would apply the title of princes of the blood, seemed, according to + the order of their birth, to be destined either to inherit or to support + the throne of Constantine. But in less than thirty years, this numerous + and increasing family was reduced to the persons of Constantius and + Julian, who alone had survived a series of crimes and calamities, such as + the tragic poets have deplored in the devoted lines of Pelops and of + Cadmus.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, and the presumptive heir of the + empire, is represented by impartial historians as an amiable and + accomplished youth. The care of his education, or at least of his studies, + was intrusted to Lactantius, the most eloquent of the Christians; a + preceptor admirably qualified to form the taste, and the excite the + virtues, of his illustrious disciple. At the age of seventeen, Crispus was + invested with the title of Cæsar, and the administration of the + Gallic provinces, where the inroads of the Germans gave him an early + occasion of signalizing his military prowess. In the civil war which broke + out soon afterwards, the father and son divided their powers; and this + history has already celebrated the valor as well as conduct displayed by + the latter, in forcing the straits of the Hellespont, so obstinately + defended by the superior fleet of Licinius. This naval victory contributed + to determine the event of the war; and the names of Constantine and of + Crispus were united in the joyful acclamations of their eastern subjects; + who loudly proclaimed, that the world had been subdued, and was now + governed, by an emperor endowed with every virtue; and by his illustrious + son, a prince beloved of Heaven, and the lively image of his father's + perfections. The public favor, which seldom accompanies old age, diffused + its lustre over the youth of Crispus. He deserved the esteem, and he + engaged the affections, of the court, the army, and the people. The + experienced merit of a reigning monarch is acknowledged by his subjects + with reluctance, and frequently denied with partial and discontented + murmurs; while, from the opening virtues of his successor, they fondly + conceive the most unbounded hopes of private as well as public felicity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + This dangerous popularity soon excited the attention of Constantine, who, + both as a father and as a king, was impatient of an equal. Instead of + attempting to secure the allegiance of his son by the generous ties of + confidence and gratitude, he resolved to prevent the mischiefs which might + be apprehended from dissatisfied ambition. Crispus soon had reason to + complain, that while his infant brother Constantius was sent, with the + title of Cæsar, to reign over his peculiar department of the Gallic + provinces, <strong><em>he</em></strong>, a prince of mature years, who had + performed such recent and signal services, instead of being raised to the + superior rank of Augustus, was confined almost a prisoner to his father's + court; and exposed, without power or defence, to every calumny which the + malice of his enemies could suggest. Under such painful circumstances, the + royal youth might not always be able to compose his behavior, or suppress + his discontent; and we may be assured, that he was encompassed by a train + of indiscreet or perfidious followers, who assiduously studied to inflame, + and who were perhaps instructed to betray, the unguarded warmth of his + resentment. An edict of Constantine, published about this time, manifestly + indicates his real or affected suspicions, that a secret conspiracy had + been formed against his person and government. By all the allurements of + honors and rewards, he invites informers of every degree to accuse without + exception his magistrates or ministers, his friends or his most intimate + favorites, protesting, with a solemn asseveration, that he himself will + listen to the charge, that he himself will revenge his injuries; and + concluding with a prayer, which discovers some apprehension of danger, + that the providence of the Supreme Being may still continue to protect the + safety of the emperor and of the empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The informers, who complied with so liberal an invitation, were + sufficiently versed in the arts of courts to select the friends and + adherents of Crispus as the guilty persons; nor is there any reason to + distrust the veracity of the emperor, who had promised an ample measure of + revenge and punishment. The policy of Constantine maintained, however, the + same appearances of regard and confidence towards a son, whom he began to + consider as his most irreconcilable enemy. Medals were struck with the + customary vows for the long and auspicious reign of the young Cæsar; + and as the people, who were not admitted into the secrets of the palace, + still loved his virtues, and respected his dignity, a poet who solicits + his recall from exile, adores with equal devotion the majesty of the + father and that of the son. The time was now arrived for celebrating the + august ceremony of the twentieth year of the reign of Constantine; and the + emperor, for that purpose, removed his court from Nicomedia to Rome, where + the most splendid preparations had been made for his reception. Every eye, + and every tongue, affected to express their sense of the general + happiness, and the veil of ceremony and dissimulation was drawn for a + while over the darkest designs of revenge and murder. In the midst of the + festival, the unfortunate Crispus was apprehended by order of the emperor, + who laid aside the tenderness of a father, without assuming the equity of + a judge. The examination was short and private; and as it was thought + decent to conceal the fate of the young prince from the eyes of the Roman + people, he was sent under a strong guard to Pola, in Istria, where, soon + afterwards, he was put to death, either by the hand of the executioner, or + by the more gentle operations of poison. The Cæsar Licinius, a youth + of amiable manners, was involved in the ruin of Crispus: and the stern + jealousy of Constantine was unmoved by the prayers and tears of his + favorite sister, pleading for the life of a son, whose rank was his only + crime, and whose loss she did not long survive. The story of these unhappy + princes, the nature and evidence of their guilt, the forms of their trial, + and the circumstances of their death, were buried in mysterious obscurity; + and the courtly bishop, who has celebrated in an elaborate work the + virtues and piety of his hero, observes a prudent silence on the subject + of these tragic events. Such haughty contempt for the opinion of mankind, + whilst it imprints an indelible stain on the memory of Constantine, must + remind us of the very different behavior of one of the greatest monarchs + of the present age. The Czar Peter, in the full possession of despotic + power, submitted to the judgment of Russia, of Europe, and of posterity, + the reasons which had compelled him to subscribe the condemnation of a + criminal, or at least of a degenerate son.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The innocence of Crispus was so universally acknowledged, that the modern + Greeks, who adore the memory of their founder, are reduced to palliate the + guilt of a parricide, which the common feelings of human nature forbade + them to justify. They pretend, that as soon as the afflicted father + discovered the falsehood of the accusation by which his credulity had been + so fatally misled, he published to the world his repentance and remorse; + that he mourned forty days, during which he abstained from the use of the + bath, and all the ordinary comforts of life; and that, for the lasting + instruction of posterity, he erected a golden statue of Crispus, with this + memorable inscription: To my son, whom I unjustly condemned. A tale so + moral and so interesting would deserve to be supported by less + exceptionable authority; but if we consult the more ancient and authentic + writers, they will inform us, that the repentance of Constantine was + manifested only in acts of blood and revenge; and that he atoned for the + murder of an innocent son, by the execution, perhaps, of a guilty wife. + They ascribe the misfortunes of Crispus to the arts of his step-mother + Fausta, whose implacable hatred, or whose disappointed love, renewed in + the palace of Constantine the ancient tragedy of Hippolitus and of Phædra. + Like the daughter of Minos, the daughter of Maximian accused her + son-in-law of an incestuous attempt on the chastity of his father's wife; + and easily obtained, from the jealousy of the emperor, a sentence of death + against a young prince, whom she considered with reason as the most + formidable rival of her own children. But Helena, the aged mother of + Constantine, lamented and revenged the untimely fate of her grandson + Crispus; nor was it long before a real or pretended discovery was made, + that Fausta herself entertained a criminal connection with a slave + belonging to the Imperial stables. Her condemnation and punishment were + the instant consequences of the charge; and the adulteress was suffocated + by the steam of a bath, which, for that purpose, had been heated to an + extraordinary degree. By some it will perhaps be thought, that the + remembrance of a conjugal union of twenty years, and the honor of their + common offspring, the destined heirs of the throne, might have softened + the obdurate heart of Constantine, and persuaded him to suffer his wife, + however guilty she might appear, to expiate her offences in a solitary + prison. But it seems a superfluous labor to weigh the propriety, unless we + could ascertain the truth, of this singular event, which is attended with + some circumstances of doubt and perplexity. Those who have attacked, and + those who have defended, the character of Constantine, have alike + disregarded two very remarkable passages of two orations pronounced under + the succeeding reign. The former celebrates the virtues, the beauty, and + the fortune of the empress Fausta, the daughter, wife, sister, and mother + of so many princes. The latter asserts, in explicit terms, that the mother + of the younger Constantine, who was slain three years after his father's + death, survived to weep over the fate of her son. Notwithstanding the + positive testimony of several writers of the Pagan as well as of the + Christian religion, there may still remain some reason to believe, or at + least to suspect, that Fausta escaped the blind and suspicious cruelty of + her husband. * The deaths of a son and a nephew, with the execution of a + great number of respectable, and perhaps innocent friends, who were + involved in their fall, may be sufficient, however, to justify the + discontent of the Roman people, and to explain the satirical verses + affixed to the palace gate, comparing the splendid and bloody reigns of + Constantine and Nero.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch18-p2" id="linkch18-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + By the death of Crispus, the inheritance of the empire seemed to devolve + on the three sons of Fausta, who have been already mentioned under the + names of Constantine, of Constantius, and of Constans. These young princes + were successively invested with the title of Cæsar; and the dates of + their promotion may be referred to the tenth, the twentieth, and the + thirtieth years of the reign of their father. This conduct, though it + tended to multiply the future masters of the Roman world, might be excused + by the partiality of paternal affection; but it is not so easy to + understand the motives of the emperor, when he endangered the safety both + of his family and of his people, by the unnecessary elevation of his two + nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The former was raised, by the title + of Cæsar, to an equality with his cousins. In favor of the latter, + Constantine invented the new and singular appellation of <strong><em>Nobilissimus</em></strong>; + to which he annexed the flattering distinction of a robe of purple and + gold. But of the whole series of Roman princes in any age of the empire, + Hannibalianus alone was distinguished by the title of King; a name which + the subjects of Tiberius would have detested, as the profane and cruel + insult of capricious tyranny. The use of such a title, even as it appears + under the reign of Constantine, is a strange and unconnected fact, which + can scarcely be admitted on the joint authority of Imperial medals and + contemporary writers.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The whole empire was deeply interested in the education of these five + youths, the acknowledged successors of Constantine. The exercise of the + body prepared them for the fatigues of war and the duties of active life. + Those who occasionally mention the education or talents of Constantius, + allow that he excelled in the gymnastic arts of leaping and running that + he was a dexterous archer, a skilful horseman, and a master of all the + different weapons used in the service either of the cavalry or of the + infantry. The same assiduous cultivation was bestowed, though not perhaps + with equal success, to improve the minds of the sons and nephews of + Constantine. The most celebrated professors of the Christian faith, of the + Grecian philosophy, and of the Roman jurisprudence, were invited by the + liberality of the emperor, who reserved for himself the important task of + instructing the royal youths in the science of government, and the + knowledge of mankind. But the genius of Constantine himself had been + formed by adversity and experience. In the free intercourse of private + life, and amidst the dangers of the court of Galerius, he had learned to + command his own passions, to encounter those of his equals, and to depend + for his present safety and future greatness on the prudence and firmness + of his personal conduct. His destined successors had the misfortune of + being born and educated in the imperial purple. Incessantly surrounded + with a train of flatterers, they passed their youth in the enjoyment of + luxury, and the expectation of a throne; nor would the dignity of their + rank permit them to descend from that elevated station from whence the + various characters of human nature appear to wear a smooth and uniform + aspect. The indulgence of Constantine admitted them, at a very tender age, + to share the administration of the empire; and they studied the art of + reigning, at the expense of the people intrusted to their care. The + younger Constantine was appointed to hold his court in Gaul; and his + brother Constantius exchanged that department, the ancient patrimony of + their father, for the more opulent, but less martial, countries of the + East. Italy, the Western Illyricum, and Africa, were accustomed to revere + Constans, the third of his sons, as the representative of the great + Constantine. He fixed Dalmatius on the Gothic frontier, to which he + annexed the government of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. The city of Cæsarea + was chosen for the residence of Hannibalianus; and the provinces of + Pontus, Cappadocia, and the Lesser Armenia, were destined to form the + extent of his new kingdom. For each of these princes a suitable + establishment was provided. A just proportion of guards, of legions, and + of auxiliaries, was allotted for their respective dignity and defence. The + ministers and generals, who were placed about their persons, were such as + Constantine could trust to assist, and even to control, these youthful + sovereigns in the exercise of their delegated power. As they advanced in + years and experience, the limits of their authority were insensibly + enlarged: but the emperor always reserved for himself the title of + Augustus; and while he showed the <strong><em>Cæsars</em></strong> + to the armies and provinces, he maintained every part of the empire in + equal obedience to its supreme head. The tranquillity of the last fourteen + years of his reign was scarcely interrupted by the contemptible + insurrection of a camel-driver in the Island of Cyprus, or by the active + part which the policy of Constantine engaged him to assume in the wars of + the Goths and Sarmatians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Among the different branches of the human race, the Sarmatians form a very + remarkable shade; as they seem to unite the manners of the Asiatic + barbarians with the figure and complexion of the ancient inhabitants of + Europe. According to the various accidents of peace and war, of alliance + or conquest, the Sarmatians were sometimes confined to the banks of the + Tanais; and they sometimes spread themselves over the immense plains which + lie between the Vistula and the Volga. The care of their numerous flocks + and herds, the pursuit of game, and the exercises of war, or rather of + rapine, directed the vagrant motions of the Sarmatians. The movable camps + or cities, the ordinary residence of their wives and children, consisted + only of large wagons drawn by oxen, and covered in the form of tents. The + military strength of the nation was composed of cavalry; and the custom of + their warriors, to lead in their hand one or two spare horses, enabled + them to advance and to retreat with a rapid diligence, which surprised the + security, and eluded the pursuit, of a distant enemy. Their poverty of + iron prompted their rude industry to invent a sort of cuirass, which was + capable of resisting a sword or javelin, though it was formed only of + horses' hoofs, cut into thin and polished slices, carefully laid over each + other in the manner of scales or feathers, and strongly sewed upon an + under garment of coarse linen. The offensive arms of the Sarmatians were + short daggers, long lances, and a weighty bow with a quiver of arrows. + They were reduced to the necessity of employing fish-bones for the points + of their weapons; but the custom of dipping them in a venomous liquor, + that poisoned the wounds which they inflicted, is alone sufficient to + prove the most savage manners, since a people impressed with a sense of + humanity would have abhorred so cruel a practice, and a nation skilled in + the arts of war would have disdained so impotent a resource. Whenever + these Barbarians issued from their deserts in quest of prey, their shaggy + beards, uncombed locks, the furs with which they were covered from head to + foot, and their fierce countenances, which seemed to express the innate + cruelty of their minds, inspired the more civilized provincials of Rome + with horror and dismay.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The tender Ovid, after a youth spent in the enjoyment of fame and luxury, + was condemned to a hopeless exile on the frozen banks of the Danube, where + he was exposed, almost without defence, to the fury of these monsters of + the desert, with whose stern spirits he feared that his gentle shade might + hereafter be confounded. In his pathetic, but sometimes unmanly + lamentations, he describes in the most lively colors the dress and + manners, the arms and inroads, of the Getæ and Sarmatians, who were + associated for the purposes of destruction; and from the accounts of + history there is some reason to believe that these Sarmatians were the + Jazygæ, one of the most numerous and warlike tribes of the nation. + The allurements of plenty engaged them to seek a permanent establishment + on the frontiers of the empire. Soon after the reign of Augustus, they + obliged the Dacians, who subsisted by fishing on the banks of the River + Teyss or Tibiscus, to retire into the hilly country, and to abandon to the + victorious Sarmatians the fertile plains of the Upper Hungary, which are + bounded by the course of the Danube and the semicircular enclosure of the + Carpathian Mountains. In this advantageous position, they watched or + suspended the moment of attack, as they were provoked by injuries or + appeased by presents; they gradually acquired the skill of using more + dangerous weapons, and although the Sarmatians did not illustrate their + name by any memorable exploits, they occasionally assisted their eastern + and western neighbors, the Goths and the Germans, with a formidable body + of cavalry. They lived under the irregular aristocracy of their + chieftains: but after they had received into their bosom the fugitive + Vandals, who yielded to the pressure of the Gothic power, they seem to + have chosen a king from that nation, and from the illustrious race of the + Astingi, who had formerly dwelt on the shores of the northern ocean.<br /> + </p> + <p> + This motive of enmity must have inflamed the subjects of contention, which + perpetually arise on the confines of warlike and independent nations. The + Vandal princes were stimulated by fear and revenge; the Gothic kings + aspired to extend their dominion from the Euxine to the frontiers of + Germany; and the waters of the Maros, a small river which falls into the + Teyss, were stained with the blood of the contending Barbarians. After + some experience of the superior strength and numbers of their adversaries, + the Sarmatians implored the protection of the Roman monarch, who beheld + with pleasure the discord of the nations, but who was justly alarmed by + the progress of the Gothic arms. As soon as Constantine had declared + himself in favor of the weaker party, the haughty Araric, king of the + Goths, instead of expecting the attack of the legions, boldly passed the + Danube, and spread terror and devastation through the province of Mæsia. + To oppose the inroad of this destroying host, the aged emperor took the + field in person; but on this occasion either his conduct or his fortune + betrayed the glory which he had acquired in so many foreign and domestic + wars. He had the mortification of seeing his troops fly before an + inconsiderable detachment of the Barbarians, who pursued them to the edge + of their fortified camp, and obliged him to consult his safety by a + precipitate and ignominious retreat. * The event of a second and more + successful action retrieved the honor of the Roman name; and the powers of + art and discipline prevailed, after an obstinate contest, over the efforts + of irregular valor. The broken army of the Goths abandoned the field of + battle, the wasted province, and the passage of the Danube: and although + the eldest of the sons of Constantine was permitted to supply the place of + his father, the merit of the victory, which diffused universal joy, was + ascribed to the auspicious counsels of the emperor himself.<br /> + </p> + <p> + He contributed at least to improve this advantage, by his negotiations + with the free and warlike people of Chersonesus, whose capital, situate on + the western coast of the Tauric or Crimæan peninsula, still retained + some vestiges of a Grecian colony, and was governed by a perpetual + magistrate, assisted by a council of senators, emphatically styled the + Fathers of the City. The Chersonites were animated against the Goths, by + the memory of the wars, which, in the preceding century, they had + maintained with unequal forces against the invaders of their country. They + were connected with the Romans by the mutual benefits of commerce; as they + were supplied from the provinces of Asia with corn and manufactures, which + they purchased with their only productions, salt, wax, and hides. Obedient + to the requisition of Constantine, they prepared, under the conduct of + their magistrate Diogenes, a considerable army, of which the principal + strength consisted in cross-bows and military chariots. The speedy march + and intrepid attack of the Chersonites, by diverting the attention of the + Goths, assisted the operations of the Imperial generals. The Goths, + vanquished on every side, were driven into the mountains, where, in the + course of a severe campaign, above a hundred thousand were computed to + have perished by cold and hunger. Peace was at length granted to their + humble supplications; the eldest son of Araric was accepted as the most + valuable hostage; and Constantine endeavored to convince their chiefs, by + a liberal distribution of honors and rewards, how far the friendship of + the Romans was preferable to their enmity. In the expressions of his + gratitude towards the faithful Chersonites, the emperor was still more + magnificent. The pride of the nation was gratified by the splendid and + almost royal decorations bestowed on their magistrate and his successors. + A perpetual exemption from all duties was stipulated for their vessels + which traded to the ports of the Black Sea. A regular subsidy was + promised, of iron, corn, oil, and of every supply which could be useful + either in peace or war. But it was thought that the Sarmatians were + sufficiently rewarded by their deliverance from impending ruin; and the + emperor, perhaps with too strict an economy, deducted some part of the + expenses of the war from the customary gratifications which were allowed + to that turbulent nation.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Exasperated by this apparent neglect, the Sarmatians soon forgot, with the + levity of barbarians, the services which they had so lately received, and + the dangers which still threatened their safety. Their inroads on the + territory of the empire provoked the indignation of Constantine to leave + them to their fate; and he no longer opposed the ambition of Geberic, a + renowned warrior, who had recently ascended the Gothic throne. Wisumar, + the Vandal king, whilst alone, and unassisted, he defended his dominions + with undaunted courage, was vanquished and slain in a decisive battle, + which swept away the flower of the Sarmatian youth. * The remainder of the + nation embraced the desperate expedient of arming their slaves, a hardy + race of hunters and herdsmen, by whose tumultuary aid they revenged their + defeat, and expelled the invader from their confines. But they soon + discovered that they had exchanged a foreign for a domestic enemy, more + dangerous and more implacable. Enraged by their former servitude, elated + by their present glory, the slaves, under the name of Limigantes, claimed + and usurped the possession of the country which they had saved. Their + masters, unable to withstand the ungoverned fury of the populace, + preferred the hardships of exile to the tyranny of their servants. Some of + the fugitive Sarmatians solicited a less ignominious dependence, under the + hostile standard of the Goths. A more numerous band retired beyond the + Carpathian Mountains, among the Quadi, their German allies, and were + easily admitted to share a superfluous waste of uncultivated land. But the + far greater part of the distressed nation turned their eyes towards the + fruitful provinces of Rome. Imploring the protection and forgiveness of + the emperor, they solemnly promised, as subjects in peace, and as soldiers + in war, the most inviolable fidelity to the empire which should graciously + receive them into its bosom. According to the maxims adopted by Probus and + his successors, the offers of this barbarian colony were eagerly accepted; + and a competent portion of lands in the provinces of Pannonia, Thrace, + Macedonia, and Italy, were immediately assigned for the habitation and + subsistence of three hundred thousand Sarmatians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + By chastising the pride of the Goths, and by accepting the homage of a + suppliant nation, Constantine asserted the majesty of the Roman empire; + and the ambassadors of Æthiopia, Persia, and the most remote + countries of India, congratulated the peace and prosperity of his + government. If he reckoned, among the favors of fortune, the death of his + eldest son, of his nephew, and perhaps of his wife, he enjoyed an + uninterrupted flow of private as well as public felicity, till the + thirtieth year of his reign; a period which none of his predecessors, + since Augustus, had been permitted to celebrate. Constantine survived that + solemn festival about ten months; and at the mature age of sixty-four, + after a short illness, he ended his memorable life at the palace of + Aquyrion, in the suburbs of Nicomedia, whither he had retired for the + benefit of the air, and with the hope of recruiting his exhausted strength + by the use of the warm baths. The excessive demonstrations of grief, or at + least of mourning, surpassed whatever had been practised on any former + occasion. Notwithstanding the claims of the senate and people of ancient + Rome, the corpse of the deceased emperor, according to his last request, + was transported to the city, which was destined to preserve the name and + memory of its founder. The body of Constantine adorned with the vain + symbols of greatness, the purple and diadem, was deposited on a golden bed + in one of the apartments of the palace, which for that purpose had been + splendidly furnished and illuminated. The forms of the court were strictly + maintained. Every day, at the appointed hours, the principal officers of + the state, the army, and the household, approaching the person of their + sovereign with bended knees and a composed countenance, offered their + respectful homage as seriously as if he had been still alive. From motives + of policy, this theatrical representation was for some time continued; nor + could flattery neglect the opportunity of remarking that Constantine + alone, by the peculiar indulgence of Heaven, had reigned after his death.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But this reign could subsist only in empty pageantry; and it was soon + discovered that the will of the most absolute monarch is seldom obeyed, + when his subjects have no longer anything to hope from his favor, or to + dread from his resentment. The same ministers and generals, who bowed with + such referential awe before the inanimate corpse of their deceased + sovereign, were engaged in secret consultations to exclude his two + nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, from the share which he had assigned + them in the succession of the empire. We are too imperfectly acquainted + with the court of Constantine to form any judgment of the real motives + which influenced the leaders of the conspiracy; unless we should suppose + that they were actuated by a spirit of jealousy and revenge against the præfect + Ablavius, a proud favorite, who had long directed the counsels and abused + the confidence of the late emperor. The arguments, by which they solicited + the concurrence of the soldiers and people, are of a more obvious nature; + and they might with decency, as well as truth, insist on the superior rank + of the children of Constantine, the danger of multiplying the number of + sovereigns, and the impending mischiefs which threatened the republic, + from the discord of so many rival princes, who were not connected by the + tender sympathy of fraternal affection. The intrigue was conducted with + zeal and secrecy, till a loud and unanimous declaration was procured from + the troops, that they would suffer none except the sons of their lamented + monarch to reign over the Roman empire. The younger Dalmatius, who was + united with his collateral relations by the ties of friendship and + interest, is allowed to have inherited a considerable share of the + abilities of the great Constantine; but, on this occasion, he does not + appear to have concerted any measure for supporting, by arms, the just + claims which himself and his royal brother derived from the liberality of + their uncle. Astonished and overwhelmed by the tide of popular fury, they + seem to have remained, without the power of flight or of resistance, in + the hands of their implacable enemies. Their fate was suspended till the + arrival of Constantius, the second, and perhaps the most favored, of the + sons of Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch18-p3" id="linkch18-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The voice of the dying emperor had recommended the care of his funeral to + the piety of Constantius; and that prince, by the vicinity of his eastern + station, could easily prevent the diligence of his brothers, who resided + in their distant government of Italy and Gaul. As soon as he had taken + possession of the palace of Constantinople, his first care was to remove + the apprehensions of his kinsmen, by a solemn oath which he pledged for + their security. His next employment was to find some specious pretence + which might release his conscience from the obligation of an imprudent + promise. The arts of fraud were made subservient to the designs of + cruelty; and a manifest forgery was attested by a person of the most + sacred character. From the hands of the Bishop of Nicomedia, Constantius + received a fatal scroll, affirmed to be the genuine testament of his + father; in which the emperor expressed his suspicions that he had been + poisoned by his brothers; and conjured his sons to revenge his death, and + to consult their own safety, by the punishment of the guilty. Whatever + reasons might have been alleged by these unfortunate princes to defend + their life and honor against so incredible an accusation, they were + silenced by the furious clamors of the soldiers, who declared themselves, + at once, their enemies, their judges, and their executioners. The spirit, + and even the forms of legal proceedings were repeatedly violated in a + promiscuous massacre; which involved the two uncles of Constantius, seven + of his cousins, of whom Dalmatius and Hannibalianus were the most + illustrious, the Patrician Optatus, who had married a sister of the late + emperor, and the Præfect Ablavius, whose power and riches had + inspired him with some hopes of obtaining the purple. If it were necessary + to aggravate the horrors of this bloody scene, we might add, that + Constantius himself had espoused the daughter of his uncle Julius, and + that he had bestowed his sister in marriage on his cousin Hannibalianus. + These alliances, which the policy of Constantine, regardless of the public + prejudice, had formed between the several branches of the Imperial house, + served only to convince mankind, that these princes were as cold to the + endearments of conjugal affection, as they were insensible to the ties of + consanguinity, and the moving entreaties of youth and innocence. Of so + numerous a family, Gallus and Julian alone, the two youngest children of + Julius Constantius, were saved from the hands of the assassins, till their + rage, satiated with slaughter, had in some measure subsided. The emperor + Constantius, who, in the absence of his brothers, was the most obnoxious + to guilt and reproach, discovered, on some future occasions, a faint and + transient remorse for those cruelties which the perfidious counsels of his + ministers, and the irresistible violence of the troops, had extorted from + his unexperienced youth.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The massacre of the Flavian race was succeeded by a new division of the + provinces; which was ratified in a personal interview of the three + brothers. Constantine, the eldest of the Cæsars, obtained, with a + certain preeminence of rank, the possession of the new capital, which bore + his own name and that of his father. Thrace, and the countries of the + East, were allotted for the patrimony of Constantius; and Constans was + acknowledged as the lawful sovereign of Italy, Africa, and the Western + Illyricum. The armies submitted to their hereditary right; and they + condescended, after some delay, to accept from the Roman senate the title + of Augustus. When they first assumed the reins of government, the eldest + of these princes was twenty-one, the second twenty, and the third only + seventeen, years of age.<br /> + </p> + <p> + While the martial nations of Europe followed the standards of his + brothers, Constantius, at the head of the effeminate troops of Asia, was + left to sustain the weight of the Persian war. At the decease of + Constantine, the throne of the East was filled by Sapor, son of Hormouz, + or Hormisdas, and grandson of Narses, who, after the victory of Galerius, + had humbly confessed the superiority of the Roman power. Although Sapor + was in the thirtieth year of his long reign, he was still in the vigor of + youth, as the date of his accession, by a very strange fatality, had + preceded that of his birth. The wife of Hormouz remained pregnant at the + time of her husband's death; and the uncertainty of the sex, as well as of + the event, excited the ambitious hopes of the princes of the house of + Sassan. The apprehensions of civil war were at length removed, by the + positive assurance of the Magi, that the widow of Hormouz had conceived, + and would safely produce a son. Obedient to the voice of superstition, the + Persians prepared, without delay, the ceremony of his coronation. A royal + bed, on which the queen lay in state, was exhibited in the midst of the + palace; the diadem was placed on the spot, which might be supposed to + conceal the future heir of Artaxerxes, and the prostrate satraps adored + the majesty of their invisible and insensible sovereign. If any credit can + be given to this marvellous tale, which seems, however, to be countenanced + by the manners of the people, and by the extraordinary duration of his + reign, we must admire not only the fortune, but the genius, of Sapor. In + the soft, sequestered education of a Persian harem, the royal youth could + discover the importance of exercising the vigor of his mind and body; and, + by his personal merit, deserved a throne, on which he had been seated, + while he was yet unconscious of the duties and temptations of absolute + power. His minority was exposed to the almost inevitable calamities of + domestic discord; his capital was surprised and plundered by Thair, a + powerful king of Yemen, or Arabia; and the majesty of the royal family was + degraded by the captivity of a princess, the sister of the deceased king. + But as soon as Sapor attained the age of manhood, the presumptuous Thair, + his nation, and his country, fell beneath the first effort of the young + warrior; who used his victory with so judicious a mixture of rigor and + clemency, that he obtained from the fears and gratitude of the Arabs the + title of <strong><em>Dhoulacnaf</em></strong>, or protector of the nation.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The ambition of the Persian, to whom his enemies ascribe the virtues of a + soldier and a statesman, was animated by the desire of revenging the + disgrace of his fathers, and of wresting from the hands of the Romans the + five provinces beyond the Tigris. The military fame of Constantine, and + the real or apparent strength of his government, suspended the attack; and + while the hostile conduct of Sapor provoked the resentment, his artful + negotiations amused the patience of the Imperial court. The death of + Constantine was the signal of war, and the actual condition of the Syrian + and Armenian frontier seemed to encourage the Persians by the prospect of + a rich spoil and an easy conquest. The example of the massacres of the + palace diffused a spirit of licentiousness and sedition among the troops + of the East, who were no longer restrained by their habits of obedience to + a veteran commander. By the prudence of Constantius, who, from the + interview with his brothers in Pannonia, immediately hastened to the banks + of the Euphrates, the legions were gradually restored to a sense of duty + and discipline; but the season of anarchy had permitted Sapor to form the + siege of Nisibis, and to occupy several of the most important fortresses + of Mesopotamia. In Armenia, the renowned Tiridates had long enjoyed the + peace and glory which he deserved by his valor and fidelity to the cause + of Rome. The firm alliance which he maintained with Constantine was + productive of spiritual as well as of temporal benefits; by the conversion + of Tiridates, the character of a saint was applied to that of a hero, the + Christian faith was preached and established from the Euphrates to the + shores of the Caspian, and Armenia was attached to the empire by the + double ties of policy and religion. But as many of the Armenian nobles + still refused to abandon the plurality of their gods and of their wives, + the public tranquillity was disturbed by a discontented faction, which + insulted the feeble age of their sovereign, and impatiently expected the + hour of his death. He died at length after a reign of fifty-six years, and + the fortune of the Armenian monarchy expired with Tiridates. His lawful + heir was driven into exile, the Christian priests were either murdered or + expelled from their churches, the barbarous tribes of Albania were + solicited to descend from their mountains; and two of the most powerful + governors, usurping the ensigns or the powers of royalty, implored the + assistance of Sapor, and opened the gates of their cities to the Persian + garrisons. The Christian party, under the guidance of the Archbishop of + Artaxata, the immediate successor of St. Gregory the Illuminator, had + recourse to the piety of Constantius. After the troubles had continued + about three years, Antiochus, one of the officers of the household, + executed with success the Imperial commission of restoring Chosroes, * the + son of Tiridates, to the throne of his fathers, of distributing honors and + rewards among the faithful servants of the house of Arsaces, and of + proclaiming a general amnesty, which was accepted by the greater part of + the rebellious satraps. But the Romans derived more honor than advantage + from this revolution. Chosroes was a prince of a puny stature and a + pusillanimous spirit. Unequal to the fatigues of war, averse to the + society of mankind, he withdrew from his capital to a retired palace, + which he built on the banks of the River Eleutherus, and in the centre of + a shady grove; where he consumed his vacant hours in the rural sports of + hunting and hawking. To secure this inglorious ease, he submitted to the + conditions of peace which Sapor condescended to impose; the payment of an + annual tribute, and the restitution of the fertile province of Atropatene, + which the courage of Tiridates, and the victorious arms of Galerius, had + annexed to the Armenian monarchy.<br /> + </p> + <p> + During the long period of the reign of Constantius, the provinces of the + East were afflicted by the calamities of the Persian war. The irregular + incursions of the light troops alternately spread terror and devastation + beyond the Tigris and beyond the Euphrates, from the gates of Ctesiphon to + those of Antioch; and this active service was performed by the Arabs of + the desert, who were divided in their interest and affections; some of + their independent chiefs being enlisted in the party of Sapor, whilst + others had engaged their doubtful fidelity to the emperor. The more grave + and important operations of the war were conducted with equal vigor; and + the armies of Rome and Persia encountered each other in nine bloody + fields, in two of which Constantius himself commanded in person. The event + of the day was most commonly adverse to the Romans, but in the battle of + Singara, heir imprudent valor had almost achieved a signal and decisive + victory. The stationary troops of Singara * retired on the approach of + Sapor, who passed the Tigris over three bridges, and occupied near the + village of Hilleh an advantageous camp, which, by the labor of his + numerous pioneers, he surrounded in one day with a deep ditch and a lofty + rampart. His formidable host, when it was drawn out in order of battle, + covered the banks of the river, the adjacent heights, and the whole extent + of a plain of above twelve miles, which separated the two armies. Both + were alike impatient to engage; but the Barbarians, after a slight + resistance, fled in disorder; unable to resist, or desirous to weary, the + strength of the heavy legions, who, fainting with heat and thirst, pursued + them across the plain, and cut in pieces a line of cavalry, clothed in + complete armor, which had been posted before the gates of the camp to + protect their retreat. Constantius, who was hurried along in the pursuit, + attempted, without effect, to restrain the ardor of his troops, by + representing to them the dangers of the approaching night, and the + certainty of completing their success with the return of day. As they + depended much more on their own valor than on the experience or the + abilities of their chief, they silenced by their clamors his timid + remonstrances; and rushing with fury to the charge, filled up the ditch, + broke down the rampart, and dispersed themselves through the tents to + recruit their exhausted strength, and to enjoy the rich harvest of their + labors. But the prudent Sapor had watched the moment of victory. His army, + of which the greater part, securely posted on the heights, had been + spectators of the action, advanced in silence, and under the shadow of the + night; and his Persian archers, guided by the illumination of the camp, + poured a shower of arrows on a disarmed and licentious crowd. The + sincerity of history declares, that the Romans were vanquished with a + dreadful slaughter, and that the flying remnant of the legions was exposed + to the most intolerable hardships. Even the tenderness of panegyric, + confessing that the glory of the emperor was sullied by the disobedience + of his soldiers, chooses to draw a veil over the circumstances of this + melancholy retreat. Yet one of those venal orators, so jealous of the fame + of Constantius, relates, with amazing coolness, an act of such incredible + cruelty, as, in the judgment of posterity, must imprint a far deeper stain + on the honor of the Imperial name. The son of Sapor, the heir of his + crown, had been made a captive in the Persian camp. The unhappy youth, who + might have excited the compassion of the most savage enemy, was scourged, + tortured, and publicly executed by the inhuman Romans.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Whatever advantages might attend the arms of Sapor in the field, though + nine repeated victories diffused among the nations the fame of his valor + and conduct, he could not hope to succeed in the execution of his designs, + while the fortified towns of Mesopotamia, and, above all, the strong and + ancient city of Nisibis, remained in the possession of the Romans. In the + space of twelve years, Nisibis, which, since the time of Lucullus, had + been deservedly esteemed the bulwark of the East, sustained three + memorable sieges against the power of Sapor; and the disappointed monarch, + after urging his attacks above sixty, eighty, and a hundred days, was + thrice repulsed with loss and ignominy. This large and populous city was + situate about two days' journey from the Tigris, in the midst of a + pleasant and fertile plain at the foot of Mount Masius. A treble enclosure + of brick walls was defended by a deep ditch; and the intrepid resistance + of Count Lucilianus, and his garrison, was seconded by the desperate + courage of the people. The citizens of Nisibis were animated by the + exhortations of their bishop, inured to arms by the presence of danger, + and convinced of the intentions of Sapor to plant a Persian colony in + their room, and to lead them away into distant and barbarous captivity. + The event of the two former sieges elated their confidence, and + exasperated the haughty spirit of the Great King, who advanced a third + time towards Nisibis, at the head of the united forces of Persia and + India. The ordinary machines, invented to batter or undermine the walls, + were rendered ineffectual by the superior skill of the Romans; and many + days had vainly elapsed, when Sapor embraced a resolution worthy of an + eastern monarch, who believed that the elements themselves were subject to + his power. At the stated season of the melting of the snows in Armenia, + the River Mygdonius, which divides the plain and the city of Nisibis, + forms, like the Nile, an inundation over the adjacent country. By the + labor of the Persians, the course of the river was stopped below the town, + and the waters were confined on every side by solid mounds of earth. On + this artificial lake, a fleet of armed vessels filled with soldiers, and + with engines which discharged stones of five hundred pounds weight, + advanced in order of battle, and engaged, almost upon a level, the troops + which defended the ramparts. *The irresistible force of the waters was + alternately fatal to the contending parties, till at length a portion of + the walls, unable to sustain the accumulated pressure, gave way at once, + and exposed an ample breach of one hundred and fifty feet. The Persians + were instantly driven to the assault, and the fate of Nisibis depended on + the event of the day. The heavy-armed cavalry, who led the van of a deep + column, were embarrassed in the mud, and great numbers were drowned in the + unseen holes which had been filled by the rushing waters. The elephants, + made furious by their wounds, increased the disorder, and trampled down + thousands of the Persian archers. The Great King, who, from an exalted + throne, beheld the misfortunes of his arms, sounded, with reluctant + indignation, the signal of the retreat, and suspended for some hours the + prosecution of the attack. But the vigilant citizens improved the + opportunity of the night; and the return of day discovered a new wall of + six feet in height, rising every moment to fill up the interval of the + breach. Notwithstanding the disappointment of his hopes, and the loss of + more than twenty thousand men, Sapor still pressed the reduction of + Nisibis, with an obstinate firmness, which could have yielded only to the + necessity of defending the eastern provinces of Persia against a + formidable invasion of the Massagetæ. Alarmed by this intelligence, + he hastily relinquished the siege, and marched with rapid diligence from + the banks of the Tigris to those of the Oxus. The danger and difficulties + of the Scythian war engaged him soon afterwards to conclude, or at least + to observe, a truce with the Roman emperor, which was equally grateful to + both princes; as Constantius himself, after the death of his two brothers, + was involved, by the revolutions of the West, in a civil contest, which + required and seemed to exceed the most vigorous exertion of his undivided + strength.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After the partition of the empire, three years had scarcely elapsed before + the sons of Constantine seemed impatient to convince mankind that they + were incapable of contenting themselves with the dominions which they were + unqualified to govern. The eldest of those princes soon complained, that + he was defrauded of his just proportion of the spoils of their murdered + kinsmen; and though he might yield to the superior guilt and merit of + Constantius, he exacted from Constans the cession of the African + provinces, as an equivalent for the rich countries of Macedonia and + Greece, which his brother had acquired by the death of Dalmatius. The want + of sincerity, which Constantine experienced in a tedious and fruitless + negotiation, exasperated the fierceness of his temper; and he eagerly + listened to those favorites, who suggested to him that his honor, as well + as his interest, was concerned in the prosecution of the quarrel. At the + head of a tumultuary band, suited for rapine rather than for conquest, he + suddenly broke onto the dominions of Constans, by the way of the Julian + Alps, and the country round Aquileia felt the first effects of his + resentment. The measures of Constans, who then resided in Dacia, were + directed with more prudence and ability. On the news of his brother's + invasion, he detached a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian + troops, proposing to follow them in person, with the remainder of his + forces. But the conduct of his lieutenants soon terminated the unnatural + contest. By the artful appearances of flight, Constantine was betrayed + into an ambuscade, which had been concealed in a wood, where the rash + youth, with a few attendants, was surprised, surrounded, and slain. His + body, after it had been found in the obscure stream of the Alsa, obtained + the honors of an Imperial sepulchre; but his provinces transferred their + allegiance to the conqueror, who, refusing to admit his elder brother + Constantius to any share in these new acquisitions, maintained the + undisputed possession of more than two thirds of the Roman empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch18-p4" id="linkch18-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XVIII: Character Of Constantine And His Sons.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The fate of Constans himself was delayed about ten years longer, and the + revenge of his brother's death was reserved for the more ignoble hand of a + domestic traitor. The pernicious tendency of the system introduced by + Constantine was displayed in the feeble administration of his sons; who, + by their vices and weakness, soon lost the esteem and affections of their + people. The pride assumed by Constans, from the unmerited success of his + arms, was rendered more contemptible by his want of abilities and + application. His fond partiality towards some German captives, + distinguished only by the charms of youth, was an object of scandal to the + people; and Magnentius, an ambitious soldier, who was himself of Barbarian + extraction, was encouraged by the public discontent to assert the honor of + the Roman name. The chosen bands of Jovians and Herculians, who + acknowledged Magnentius as their leader, maintained the most respectable + and important station in the Imperial camp. The friendship of Marcellinus, + count of the sacred largesses, supplied with a liberal hand the means of + seduction. The soldiers were convinced by the most specious arguments, + that the republic summoned them to break the bonds of hereditary + servitude; and, by the choice of an active and vigilant prince, to reward + the same virtues which had raised the ancestors of the degenerate Constans + from a private condition to the throne of the world. As soon as the + conspiracy was ripe for execution, Marcellinus, under the pretence of + celebrating his son's birthday, gave a splendid entertainment to the + <strong><em>illustrious</em></strong> and <strong><em>honorable</em></strong> + persons of the court of Gaul, which then resided in the city of Autun. The + intemperance of the feast was artfully protracted till a very late hour of + the night; and the unsuspecting guests were tempted to indulge themselves + in a dangerous and guilty freedom of conversation. On a sudden the doors + were thrown open, and Magnentius, who had retired for a few moments, + returned into the apartment, invested with the diadem and purple. The + conspirators instantly saluted him with the titles of Augustus and + Emperor. The surprise, the terror, the intoxication, the ambitious hopes, + and the mutual ignorance of the rest of the assembly, prompted them to + join their voices to the general acclamation. The guards hastened to take + the oath of fidelity; the gates of the town were shut; and before the dawn + of day, Magnentius became master of the troops and treasure of the palace + and city of Autun. By his secrecy and diligence he entertained some hopes + of surprising the person of Constans, who was pursuing in the adjacent + forest his favorite amusement of hunting, or perhaps some pleasures of a + more private and criminal nature. The rapid progress of fame allowed him, + however, an instant for flight, though the desertion of his soldiers and + subjects deprived him of the power of resistance. Before he could reach a + seaport in Spain, where he intended to embark, he was overtaken near + Helena, at the foot of the Pyrenees, by a party of light cavalry, whose + chief, regardless of the sanctity of a temple, executed his commission by + the murder of the son of Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As soon as the death of Constans had decided this easy but important + revolution, the example of the court of Autun was imitated by the + provinces of the West. The authority of Magnentius was acknowledged + through the whole extent of the two great præfectures of Gaul and + Italy; and the usurper prepared, by every act of oppression, to collect a + treasure, which might discharge the obligation of an immense donative, and + supply the expenses of a civil war. The martial countries of Illyricum, + from the Danube to the extremity of Greece, had long obeyed the government + of Vetranio, an aged general, beloved for the simplicity of his manners, + and who had acquired some reputation by his experience and services in + war. Attached by habit, by duty, and by gratitude, to the house of + Constantine, he immediately gave the strongest assurances to the only + surviving son of his late master, that he would expose, with unshaken + fidelity, his person and his troops, to inflict a just revenge on the + traitors of Gaul. But the legions of Vetranio were seduced, rather than + provoked, by the example of rebellion; their leader soon betrayed a want + of firmness, or a want of sincerity; and his ambition derived a specious + pretence from the approbation of the princess Constantina. That cruel and + aspiring woman, who had obtained from the great Constantine, her father, + the rank of <strong><em>Augusta</em></strong>, placed the diadem with her + own hands on the head of the Illyrian general; and seemed to expect from + his victory the accomplishment of those unbounded hopes, of which she had + been disappointed by the death of her husband Hannibalianus. Perhaps it + was without the consent of Constantina, that the new emperor formed a + necessary, though dishonorable, alliance with the usurper of the West, + whose purple was so recently stained with her brother's blood.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The intelligence of these important events, which so deeply affected the + honor and safety of the Imperial house, recalled the arms of Constantius + from the inglorious prosecution of the Persian war. He recommended the + care of the East to his lieutenants, and afterwards to his cousin Gallus, + whom he raised from a prison to a throne; and marched towards Europe, with + a mind agitated by the conflict of hope and fear, of grief and + indignation. On his arrival at Heraclea in Thrace, the emperor gave + audience to the ambassadors of Magnentius and Vetranio. The first author + of the conspiracy Marcellinus, who in some measure had bestowed the purple + on his new master, boldly accepted this dangerous commission; and his + three colleagues were selected from the illustrious personages of the + state and army. These deputies were instructed to soothe the resentment, + and to alarm the fears, of Constantius. They were empowered to offer him + the friendship and alliance of the western princes, to cement their union + by a double marriage; of Constantius with the daughter of Magnentius, and + of Magnentius himself with the ambitious Constantina; and to acknowledge + in the treaty the preeminence of rank, which might justly be claimed by + the emperor of the East. Should pride and mistaken piety urge him to + refuse these equitable conditions, the ambassadors were ordered to + expatiate on the inevitable ruin which must attend his rashness, if he + ventured to provoke the sovereigns of the West to exert their superior + strength; and to employ against him that valor, those abilities, and those + legions, to which the house of Constantine had been indebted for so many + triumphs. Such propositions and such arguments appeared to deserve the + most serious attention; the answer of Constantius was deferred till the + next day; and as he had reflected on the importance of justifying a civil + war in the opinion of the people, he thus addressed his council, who + listened with real or affected credulity: "Last night," said he, "after I + retired to rest, the shade of the great Constantine, embracing the corpse + of my murdered brother, rose before my eyes; his well-known voice awakened + me to revenge, forbade me to despair of the republic, and assured me of + the success and immortal glory which would crown the justice of my arms." + The authority of such a vision, or rather of the prince who alleged it, + silenced every doubt, and excluded all negotiation. The ignominious terms + of peace were rejected with disdain. One of the ambassadors of the tyrant + was dismissed with the haughty answer of Constantius; his colleagues, as + unworthy of the privileges of the law of nations, were put in irons; and + the contending powers prepared to wage an implacable war.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Such was the conduct, and such perhaps was the duty, of the brother of + Constans towards the perfidious usurper of Gaul. The situation and + character of Vetranio admitted of milder measures; and the policy of the + Eastern emperor was directed to disunite his antagonists, and to separate + the forces of Illyricum from the cause of rebellion. It was an easy task + to deceive the frankness and simplicity of Vetranio, who, fluctuating some + time between the opposite views of honor and interest, displayed to the + world the insincerity of his temper, and was insensibly engaged in the + snares of an artful negotiation. Constantius acknowledged him as a + legitimate and equal colleague in the empire, on condition that he would + renounce his disgraceful alliance with Magnentius, and appoint a place of + interview on the frontiers of their respective provinces; where they might + pledge their friendship by mutual vows of fidelity, and regulate by common + consent the future operations of the civil war. In consequence of this + agreement, Vetranio advanced to the city of Sardica, at the head of twenty + thousand horse, and of a more numerous body of infantry; a power so far + superior to the forces of Constantius, that the Illyrian emperor appeared + to command the life and fortunes of his rival, who, depending on the + success of his private negotiations, had seduced the troops, and + undermined the throne, of Vetranio. The chiefs, who had secretly embraced + the party of Constantius, prepared in his favor a public spectacle, + calculated to discover and inflame the passions of the multitude. The + united armies were commanded to assemble in a large plain near the city. + In the centre, according to the rules of ancient discipline, a military + tribunal, or rather scaffold, was erected, from whence the emperors were + accustomed, on solemn and important occasions, to harangue the troops. The + well-ordered ranks of Romans and Barbarians, with drawn swords, or with + erected spears, the squadrons of cavalry, and the cohorts of infantry, + distinguished by the variety of their arms and ensigns, formed an immense + circle round the tribunal; and the attentive silence which they preserved + was sometimes interrupted by loud bursts of clamor or of applause. In the + presence of this formidable assembly, the two emperors were called upon to + explain the situation of public affairs: the precedency of rank was + yielded to the royal birth of Constantius; and though he was indifferently + skilled in the arts of rhetoric, he acquitted himself, under these + difficult circumstances, with firmness, dexterity, and eloquence. The + first part of his oration seemed to be pointed only against the tyrant of + Gaul; but while he tragically lamented the cruel murder of Constans, he + insinuated, that none, except a brother, could claim a right to the + succession of his brother. He displayed, with some complacency, the + glories of his Imperial race; and recalled to the memory of the troops the + valor, the triumphs, the liberality of the great Constantine, to whose + sons they had engaged their allegiance by an oath of fidelity, which the + ingratitude of his most favored servants had tempted them to violate. The + officers, who surrounded the tribunal, and were instructed to act their + part in this extraordinary scene, confessed the irresistible power of + reason and eloquence, by saluting the emperor Constantius as their lawful + sovereign. The contagion of loyalty and repentance was communicated from + rank to rank; till the plain of Sardica resounded with the universal + acclamation of "Away with these upstart usurpers! Long life and victory to + the son of Constantine! Under his banners alone we will fight and + conquer." The shout of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce + clashing of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, + who stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in anxious and silent + suspense. Instead of embracing the last refuge of generous despair, he + tamely submitted to his fate; and taking the diadem from his head, in the + view of both armies fell prostrate at the feet of his conqueror. + Constantius used his victory with prudence and moderation; and raising + from the ground the aged suppliant, whom he affected to style by the + endearing name of Father, he gave him his hand to descend from the throne. + The city of Prusa was assigned for the exile or retirement of the + abdicated monarch, who lived six years in the enjoyment of ease and + affluence. He often expressed his grateful sense of the goodness of + Constantius, and, with a very amiable simplicity, advised his benefactor + to resign the sceptre of the world, and to seek for content (where alone + it could be found) in the peaceful obscurity of a private condition.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The behavior of Constantius on this memorable occasion was celebrated with + some appearance of justice; and his courtiers compared the studied + orations which a Pericles or a Demosthenes addressed to the populace of + Athens, with the victorious eloquence which had persuaded an armed + multitude to desert and depose the object of their partial choice. The + approaching contest with Magnentius was of a more serious and bloody kind. + The tyrant advanced by rapid marches to encounter Constantius, at the head + of a numerous army, composed of Gauls and Spaniards, of Franks and Saxons; + of those provincials who supplied the strength of the legions, and of + those barbarians who were dreaded as the most formidable enemies of the + republic. The fertile plains of the Lower Pannonia, between the Drave, the + Save, and the Danube, presented a spacious theatre; and the operations of + the civil war were protracted during the summer months by the skill or + timidity of the combatants. Constantius had declared his intention of + deciding the quarrel in the fields of Cibalis, a name that would animate + his troops by the remembrance of the victory, which, on the same + auspicious ground, had been obtained by the arms of his father + Constantine. Yet by the impregnable fortifications with which the emperor + encompassed his camp, he appeared to decline, rather than to invite, a + general engagement. It was the object of Magnentius to tempt or to compel + his adversary to relinquish this advantageous position; and he employed, + with that view, the various marches, evolutions, and stratagems, which the + knowledge of the art of war could suggest to an experienced officer. He + carried by assault the important town of Siscia; made an attack on the + city of Sirmium, which lay in the rear of the Imperial camp, attempted to + force a passage over the Save into the eastern provinces of Illyricum; and + cut in pieces a numerous detachment, which he had allured into the narrow + passes of Adarne. During the greater part of the summer, the tyrant of + Gaul showed himself master of the field. The troops of Constantius were + harassed and dispirited; his reputation declined in the eye of the world; + and his pride condescended to solicit a treaty of peace, which would have + resigned to the assassin of Constans the sovereignty of the provinces + beyond the Alps. These offers were enforced by the eloquence of Philip the + Imperial ambassador; and the council as well as the army of Magnentius + were disposed to accept them. But the haughty usurper, careless of the + remonstrances of his friends, gave orders that Philip should be detained + as a captive, or, at least, as a hostage; while he despatched an officer + to reproach Constantius with the weakness of his reign, and to insult him + by the promise of a pardon if he would instantly abdicate the purple. + "That he should confide in the justice of his cause, and the protection of + an avenging Deity," was the only answer which honor permitted the emperor + to return. But he was so sensible of the difficulties of his situation, + that he no longer dared to retaliate the indignity which had been offered + to his representative. The negotiation of Philip was not, however, + ineffectual, since he determined Sylvanus the Frank, a general of merit + and reputation, to desert with a considerable body of cavalry, a few days + before the battle of Mursa.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The city of Mursa, or Essek, celebrated in modern times for a bridge of + boats, five miles in length, over the River Drave, and the adjacent + morasses, has been always considered as a place of importance in the wars + of Hungary. Magnentius, directing his march towards Mursa, set fire to the + gates, and, by a sudden assault, had almost scaled the walls of the town. + The vigilance of the garrison extinguished the flames; the approach of + Constantius left him no time to continue the operations of the siege; and + the emperor soon removed the only obstacle that could embarrass his + motions, by forcing a body of troops which had taken post in an adjoining + amphitheatre. The field of battle round Mursa was a naked and level plain: + on this ground the army of Constantius formed, with the Drave on their + right; while their left, either from the nature of their disposition, or + from the superiority of their cavalry, extended far beyond the right flank + of Magnentius. The troops on both sides remained under arms, in anxious + expectation, during the greatest part of the morning; and the son of + Constantine, after animating his soldiers by an eloquent speech, retired + into a church at some distance from the field of battle, and committed to + his generals the conduct of this decisive day. They deserved his + confidence by the valor and military skill which they exerted. They wisely + began the action upon the left; and advancing their whole wing of cavalry + in an oblique line, they suddenly wheeled it on the right flank of the + enemy, which was unprepared to resist the impetuosity of their charge. But + the Romans of the West soon rallied, by the habits of discipline; and the + Barbarians of Germany supported the renown of their national bravery. The + engagement soon became general; was maintained with various and singular + turns of fortune; and scarcely ended with the darkness of the night. The + signal victory which Constantius obtained is attributed to the arms of his + cavalry. His cuirassiers are described as so many massy statues of steel, + glittering with their scaly armor, and breaking with their ponderous + lances the firm array of the Gallic legions. As soon as the legions gave + way, the lighter and more active squadrons of the second line rode sword + in hand into the intervals, and completed the disorder. In the mean while, + the huge bodies of the Germans were exposed almost naked to the dexterity + of the Oriental archers; and whole troops of those Barbarians were urged + by anguish and despair to precipitate themselves into the broad and rapid + stream of the Drave. The number of the slain was computed at fifty-four + thousand men, and the slaughter of the conquerors was more considerable + than that of the vanquished; a circumstance which proves the obstinacy of + the contest, and justifies the observation of an ancient writer, that the + forces of the empire were consumed in the fatal battle of Mursa, by the + loss of a veteran army, sufficient to defend the frontiers, or to add new + triumphs to the glory of Rome. Notwithstanding the invectives of a servile + orator, there is not the least reason to believe that the tyrant deserted + his own standard in the beginning of the engagement. He seems to have + displayed the virtues of a general and of a soldier till the day was + irrecoverably lost, and his camp in the possession of the enemy. + Magnentius then consulted his safety, and throwing away the Imperial + ornaments, escaped with some difficulty from the pursuit of the light + horse, who incessantly followed his rapid flight from the banks of the + Drave to the foot of the Julian Alps.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The approach of winter supplied the indolence of Constantius with specious + reasons for deferring the prosecution of the war till the ensuing spring. + Magnentius had fixed his residence in the city of Aquileia, and showed a + seeming resolution to dispute the passage of the mountains and morasses + which fortified the confines of the Venetian province. The surprisal of a + castle in the Alps by the secret march of the Imperialists, could scarcely + have determined him to relinquish the possession of Italy, if the + inclinations of the people had supported the cause of their tyrant. But + the memory of the cruelties exercised by his ministers, after the + unsuccessful revolt of Nepotian, had left a deep impression of horror and + resentment on the minds of the Romans. That rash youth, the son of the + princess Eutropia, and the nephew of Constantine, had seen with + indignation the sceptre of the West usurped by a perfidious barbarian. + Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered the + feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage of + the senate, and assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned + during a tumult of twenty-eight days. The march of some regular forces put + an end to his ambitious hopes: the rebellion was extinguished in the blood + of Nepotian, of his mother Eutropia, and of his adherents; and the + proscription was extended to all who had contracted a fatal alliance with + the name and family of Constantine. But as soon as Constantius, after the + battle of Mursa, became master of the sea-coast of Dalmatia, a band of + noble exiles, who had ventured to equip a fleet in some harbor of the + Adriatic, sought protection and revenge in his victorious camp. By their + secret intelligence with their countrymen, Rome and the Italian cities + were persuaded to display the banners of Constantius on their walls. The + grateful veterans, enriched by the liberality of the father, signalized + their gratitude and loyalty to the son. The cavalry, the legions, and the + auxiliaries of Italy, renewed their oath of allegiance to Constantius; and + the usurper, alarmed by the general desertion, was compelled, with the + remains of his faithful troops, to retire beyond the Alps into the + provinces of Gaul. The detachments, however, which were ordered either to + press or to intercept the flight of Magnentius, conducted themselves with + the usual imprudence of success; and allowed him, in the plains of Pavia, + an opportunity of turning on his pursuers, and of gratifying his despair + by the carnage of a useless victory.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The pride of Magnentius was reduced, by repeated misfortunes, to sue, and + to sue in vain, for peace. He first despatched a senator, in whose + abilities he confided, and afterwards several bishops, whose holy + character might obtain a more favorable audience, with the offer of + resigning the purple, and the promise of devoting the remainder of his + life to the service of the emperor. But Constantius, though he granted + fair terms of pardon and reconciliation to all who abandoned the standard + of rebellion, avowed his inflexible resolution to inflict a just + punishment on the crimes of an assassin, whom he prepared to overwhelm on + every side by the effort of his victorious arms. An Imperial fleet + acquired the easy possession of Africa and Spain, confirmed the wavering + faith of the Moorish nations, and landed a considerable force, which + passed the Pyrenees, and advanced towards Lyons, the last and fatal + station of Magnentius. The temper of the tyrant, which was never inclined + to clemency, was urged by distress to exercise every act of oppression + which could extort an immediate supply from the cities of Gaul. Their + patience was at length exhausted; and Treves, the seat of Prætorian + government, gave the signal of revolt, by shutting her gates against + Decentius, who had been raised by his brother to the rank either of Cæsar + or of Augustus. From Treves, Decentius was obliged to retire to Sens, + where he was soon surrounded by an army of Germans, whom the pernicious + arts of Constantius had introduced into the civil dissensions of Rome. In + the mean time, the Imperial troops forced the passages of the Cottian + Alps, and in the bloody combat of Mount Seleucus irrevocably fixed the + title of rebels on the party of Magnentius. He was unable to bring another + army into the field; the fidelity of his guards was corrupted; and when he + appeared in public to animate them by his exhortations, he was saluted + with a unanimous shout of "Long live the emperor Constantius!" The tyrant, + who perceived that they were preparing to deserve pardon and rewards by + the sacrifice of the most obnoxious criminal, prevented their design by + falling on his sword; a death more easy and more honorable than he could + hope to obtain from the hands of an enemy, whose revenge would have been + colored with the specious pretence of justice and fraternal piety. The + example of suicide was imitated by Decentius, who strangled himself on the + news of his brother's death. The author of the conspiracy, Marcellinus, + had long since disappeared in the battle of Mursa, and the public + tranquillity was confirmed by the execution of the surviving leaders of a + guilty and unsuccessful faction. A severe inquisition was extended over + all who, either from choice or from compulsion, had been involved in the + cause of rebellion. Paul, surnamed Catena from his superior skill in the + judicial exercise of tyranny, * was sent to explore the latent remains of + the conspiracy in the remote province of Britain. The honest indignation + expressed by Martin, vice-præfect of the island, was interpreted as + an evidence of his own guilt; and the governor was urged to the necessity + of turning against his breast the sword with which he had been provoked to + wound the Imperial minister. The most innocent subjects of the West were + exposed to exile and confiscation, to death and torture; and as the timid + are always cruel, the mind of Constantius was inaccessible to mercy.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch19-p1" id="linkch19-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Constantius Sole Emperor.—Elevation And Death Of Gallus.— +Danger And Elevation Of Julian.—Sarmatian And Persian Wars.— +Victories Of Julian In Gaul. +</pre> + <p> + The divided provinces of the empire were again united by the victory of + Constantius; but as that feeble prince was destitute of personal merit, + either in peace or war; as he feared his generals, and distrusted his + ministers; the triumph of his arms served only to establish the reign of + the eunuchs over the Roman world. Those unhappy beings, the ancient + production of Oriental jealousy and despotism, were introduced into Greece + and Rome by the contagion of Asiatic luxury. Their progress was rapid; and + the eunuchs, who, in the time of Augustus, had been abhorred, as the + monstrous retinue of an Egyptian queen, were gradually admitted into the + families of matrons, of senators, and of the emperors themselves. + Restrained by the severe edicts of Domitian and Nerva, cherished by the + pride of Diocletian, reduced to an humble station by the prudence of + Constantine, they multiplied in the palaces of his degenerate sons, and + insensibly acquired the knowledge, and at length the direction, of the + secret councils of Constantius. The aversion and contempt which mankind + had so uniformly entertained for that imperfect species, appears to have + degraded their character, and to have rendered them almost as incapable as + they were supposed to be, of conceiving any generous sentiment, or of + performing any worthy action. But the eunuchs were skilled in the arts of + flattery and intrigue; and they alternately governed the mind of + Constantius by his fears, his indolence, and his vanity. Whilst he viewed + in a deceitful mirror the fair appearance of public prosperity, he + supinely permitted them to intercept the complaints of the injured + provinces, to accumulate immense treasures by the sale of justice and of + honors; to disgrace the most important dignities, by the promotion of + those who had purchased at their hands the powers of oppression, and to + gratify their resentment against the few independent spirits, who + arrogantly refused to solicit the protection of slaves. Of these slaves + the most distinguished was the chamberlain Eusebius, who ruled the monarch + and the palace with such absolute sway, that Constantius, according to the + sarcasm of an impartial historian, possessed some credit with this haughty + favorite. By his artful suggestions, the emperor was persuaded to + subscribe the condemnation of the unfortunate Gallus, and to add a new + crime to the long list of unnatural murders which pollute the honor of the + house of Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + When the two nephews of Constantine, Gallus and Julian, were saved from + the fury of the soldiers, the former was about twelve, and the latter + about six, years of age; and, as the eldest was thought to be of a sickly + constitution, they obtained with the less difficulty a precarious and + dependent life, from the affected pity of Constantius, who was sensible + that the execution of these helpless orphans would have been esteemed, by + all mankind, an act of the most deliberate cruelty. * Different cities of + Ionia and Bithynia were assigned for the places of their exile and + education; but as soon as their growing years excited the jealousy of the + emperor, he judged it more prudent to secure those unhappy youths in the + strong castle of Macellum, near Cæsarea. The treatment which they + experienced during a six years' confinement, was partly such as they could + hope from a careful guardian, and partly such as they might dread from a + suspicious tyrant. Their prison was an ancient palace, the residence of + the kings of Cappadocia; the situation was pleasant, the buildings + stately, the enclosure spacious. They pursued their studies, and practised + their exercises, under the tuition of the most skilful masters; and the + numerous household appointed to attend, or rather to guard, the nephews of + Constantine, was not unworthy of the dignity of their birth. But they + could not disguise to themselves that they were deprived of fortune, of + freedom, and of safety; secluded from the society of all whom they could + trust or esteem, and condemned to pass their melancholy hours in the + company of slaves devoted to the commands of a tyrant who had already + injured them beyond the hope of reconciliation. At length, however, the + emergencies of the state compelled the emperor, or rather his eunuchs, to + invest Gallus, in the twenty-fifth year of his age, with the title of Cæsar, + and to cement this political connection by his marriage with the princess + Constantina. After a formal interview, in which the two princes mutually + engaged their faith never to undertake any thing to the prejudice of each + other, they repaired without delay to their respective stations. + Constantius continued his march towards the West, and Gallus fixed his + residence at Antioch; from whence, with a delegated authority, he + administered the five great dioceses of the eastern præfecture. In + this fortunate change, the new Cæsar was not unmindful of his + brother Julian, who obtained the honors of his rank, the appearances of + liberty, and the restitution of an ample patrimony.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The writers the most indulgent to the memory of Gallus, and even Julian + himself, though he wished to cast a veil over the frailties of his + brother, are obliged to confess that the Cæsar was incapable of + reigning. Transported from a prison to a throne, he possessed neither + genius nor application, nor docility to compensate for the want of + knowledge and experience. A temper naturally morose and violent, instead + of being corrected, was soured by solitude and adversity; the remembrance + of what he had endured disposed him to retaliation rather than to + sympathy; and the ungoverned sallies of his rage were often fatal to those + who approached his person, or were subject to his power. Constantina, his + wife, is described, not as a woman, but as one of the infernal furies + tormented with an insatiate thirst of human blood. Instead of employing + her influence to insinuate the mild counsels of prudence and humanity, she + exasperated the fierce passions of her husband; and as she retained the + vanity, though she had renounced, the gentleness of her sex, a pearl + necklace was esteemed an equivalent price for the murder of an innocent + and virtuous nobleman. The cruelty of Gallus was sometimes displayed in + the undissembled violence of popular or military executions; and was + sometimes disguised by the abuse of law, and the forms of judicial + proceedings. The private houses of Antioch, and the places of public + resort, were besieged by spies and informers; and the Cæsar himself, + concealed in a plebeian habit, very frequently condescended to assume that + odious character. Every apartment of the palace was adorned with the + instruments of death and torture, and a general consternation was diffused + through the capital of Syria. The prince of the East, as if he had been + conscious how much he had to fear, and how little he deserved to reign, + selected for the objects of his resentment the provincials accused of some + imaginary treason, and his own courtiers, whom with more reason he + suspected of incensing, by their secret correspondence, the timid and + suspicious mind of Constantius. But he forgot that he was depriving + himself of his only support, the affection of the people; whilst he + furnished the malice of his enemies with the arms of truth, and afforded + the emperor the fairest pretence of exacting the forfeit of his purple, + and of his life.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As long as the civil war suspended the fate of the Roman world, + Constantius dissembled his knowledge of the weak and cruel administration + to which his choice had subjected the East; and the discovery of some + assassins, secretly despatched to Antioch by the tyrant of Gaul, was + employed to convince the public, that the emperor and the Cæsar were + united by the same interest, and pursued by the same enemies. But when the + victory was decided in favor of Constantius, his dependent colleague + became less useful and less formidable. Every circumstance of his conduct + was severely and suspiciously examined, and it was privately resolved, + either to deprive Gallus of the purple, or at least to remove him from the + indolent luxury of Asia to the hardships and dangers of a German war. The + death of Theophilus, consular of the province of Syria, who in a time of + scarcity had been massacred by the people of Antioch, with the connivance, + and almost at the instigation, of Gallus, was justly resented, not only as + an act of wanton cruelty, but as a dangerous insult on the supreme majesty + of Constantius. Two ministers of illustrious rank, Domitian the Oriental + præfect, and Montius, quæstor of the palace, were empowered by + a special commission * to visit and reform the state of the East. They + were instructed to behave towards Gallus with moderation and respect, and, + by the gentlest arts of persuasion, to engage him to comply with the + invitation of his brother and colleague. The rashness of the præfect + disappointed these prudent measures, and hastened his own ruin, as well as + that of his enemy. On his arrival at Antioch, Domitian passed disdainfully + before the gates of the palace, and alleging a slight pretence of + indisposition, continued several days in sullen retirement, to prepare an + inflammatory memorial, which he transmitted to the Imperial court. + Yielding at length to the pressing solicitations of Gallus, the præfect + condescended to take his seat in council; but his first step was to + signify a concise and haughty mandate, importing that the Cæsar + should immediately repair to Italy, and threatening that he himself would + punish his delay or hesitation, by suspending the usual allowance of his + household. The nephew and daughter of Constantine, who could ill brook the + insolence of a subject, expressed their resentment by instantly delivering + Domitian to the custody of a guard. The quarrel still admitted of some + terms of accommodation. They were rendered impracticable by the imprudent + behavior of Montius, a statesman whose arts and experience were frequently + betrayed by the levity of his disposition. The quæstor reproached + Gallus in a haughty language, that a prince who was scarcely authorized to + remove a municipal magistrate, should presume to imprison a Prætorian + præfect; convoked a meeting of the civil and military officers; and + required them, in the name of their sovereign, to defend the person and + dignity of his representatives. By this rash declaration of war, the + impatient temper of Gallus was provoked to embrace the most desperate + counsels. He ordered his guards to stand to their arms, assembled the + populace of Antioch, and recommended to their zeal the care of his safety + and revenge. His commands were too fatally obeyed. They rudely seized the + præfect and the quæstor, and tying their legs together with + ropes, they dragged them through the streets of the city, inflicted a + thousand insults and a thousand wounds on these unhappy victims, and at + last precipitated their mangled and lifeless bodies into the stream of the + Orontes.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After such a deed, whatever might have been the designs of Gallus, it was + only in a field of battle that he could assert his innocence with any hope + of success. But the mind of that prince was formed of an equal mixture of + violence and weakness. Instead of assuming the title of Augustus, instead + of employing in his defence the troops and treasures of the East, he + suffered himself to be deceived by the affected tranquillity of + Constantius, who, leaving him the vain pageantry of a court, imperceptibly + recalled the veteran legions from the provinces of Asia. But as it still + appeared dangerous to arrest Gallus in his capital, the slow and safer + arts of dissimulation were practised with success. The frequent and + pressing epistles of Constantius were filled with professions of + confidence and friendship; exhorting the Cæsar to discharge the + duties of his high station, to relieve his colleague from a part of the + public cares, and to assist the West by his presence, his counsels, and + his arms. After so many reciprocal injuries, Gallus had reason to fear and + to distrust. But he had neglected the opportunities of flight and of + resistance; he was seduced by the flattering assurances of the tribune + Scudilo, who, under the semblance of a rough soldier, disguised the most + artful insinuation; and he depended on the credit of his wife Constantina, + till the unseasonable death of that princess completed the ruin in which + he had been involved by her impetuous passions.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch19-p2" id="linkch19-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + After a long delay, the reluctant Cæsar set forwards on his journey + to the Imperial court. From Antioch to Hadrianople, he traversed the wide + extent of his dominions with a numerous and stately train; and as he + labored to conceal his apprehensions from the world, and perhaps from + himself, he entertained the people of Constantinople with an exhibition of + the games of the circus. The progress of the journey might, however, have + warned him of the impending danger. In all the principal cities he was met + by ministers of confidence, commissioned to seize the offices of + government, to observe his motions, and to prevent the hasty sallies of + his despair. The persons despatched to secure the provinces which he left + behind, passed him with cold salutations, or affected disdain; and the + troops, whose station lay along the public road, were studiously removed + on his approach, lest they might be tempted to offer their swords for the + service of a civil war. After Gallus had been permitted to repose himself + a few days at Hadrianople, he received a mandate, expressed in the most + haughty and absolute style, that his splendid retinue should halt in that + city, while the Cæsar himself, with only ten post-carriages, should + hasten to the Imperial residence at Milan. In this rapid journey, the + profound respect which was due to the brother and colleague of + Constantius, was insensibly changed into rude familiarity; and Gallus, who + discovered in the countenances of the attendants that they already + considered themselves as his guards, and might soon be employed as his + executioners, began to accuse his fatal rashness, and to recollect, with + terror and remorse, the conduct by which he had provoked his fate. The + dissimulation which had hitherto been preserved, was laid aside at + Petovio, * in Pannonia. He was conducted to a palace in the suburbs, where + the general Barbatio, with a select band of soldiers, who could neither be + moved by pity, nor corrupted by rewards, expected the arrival of his + illustrious victim. In the close of the evening he was arrested, + ignominiously stripped of the ensigns of Cæsar, and hurried away to + Pola, in Istria, a sequestered prison, which had been so recently polluted + with royal blood. The horror which he felt was soon increased by the + appearance of his implacable enemy the eunuch Eusebius, who, with the + assistance of a notary and a tribune, proceeded to interrogate him + concerning the administration of the East. The Cæsar sank under the + weight of shame and guilt, confessed all the criminal actions and all the + treasonable designs with which he was charged; and by imputing them to the + advice of his wife, exasperated the indignation of Constantius, who + reviewed with partial prejudice the minutes of the examination. The + emperor was easily convinced, that his own safety was incompatible with + the life of his cousin: the sentence of death was signed, despatched, and + executed; and the nephew of Constantine, with his hands tied behind his + back, was beheaded in prison like the vilest malefactor. Those who are + inclined to palliate the cruelties of Constantius, assert that he soon + relented, and endeavored to recall the bloody mandate; but that the second + messenger, intrusted with the reprieve, was detained by the eunuchs, who + dreaded the unforgiving temper of Gallus, and were desirous of reuniting + to <strong><em>their</em></strong> empire the wealthy provinces of the + East.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Besides the reigning emperor, Julian alone survived, of all the numerous + posterity of Constantius Chlorus. The misfortune of his royal birth + involved him in the disgrace of Gallus. From his retirement in the happy + country of Ionia, he was conveyed under a strong guard to the court of + Milan; where he languished above seven months, in the continual + apprehension of suffering the same ignominious death, which was daily + inflicted almost before his eyes, on the friends and adherents of his + persecuted family. His looks, his gestures, his silence, were scrutinized + with malignant curiosity, and he was perpetually assaulted by enemies whom + he had never offended, and by arts to which he was a stranger. But in the + school of adversity, Julian insensibly acquired the virtues of firmness + and discretion. He defended his honor, as well as his life, against the + insnaring subtleties of the eunuchs, who endeavored to extort some + declaration of his sentiments; and whilst he cautiously suppressed his + grief and resentment, he nobly disdained to flatter the tyrant, by any + seeming approbation of his brother's murder. Julian most devoutly ascribes + his miraculous deliverance to the protection of the gods, who had exempted + his innocence from the sentence of destruction pronounced by their justice + against the impious house of Constantine. As the most effectual instrument + of their providence, he gratefully acknowledges the steady and generous + friendship of the empress Eusebia, a woman of beauty and merit, who, by + the ascendant which she had gained over the mind of her husband, + counterbalanced, in some measure, the powerful conspiracy of the eunuchs. + By the intercession of his patroness, Julian was admitted into the + Imperial presence: he pleaded his cause with a decent freedom, he was + heard with favor; and, notwithstanding the efforts of his enemies, who + urged the danger of sparing an avenger of the blood of Gallus, the milder + sentiment of Eusebia prevailed in the council. But the effects of a second + interview were dreaded by the eunuchs; and Julian was advised to withdraw + for a while into the neighborhood of Milan, till the emperor thought + proper to assign the city of Athens for the place of his honorable exile. + As he had discovered, from his earliest youth, a propensity, or rather + passion, for the language, the manners, the learning, and the religion of + the Greeks, he obeyed with pleasure an order so agreeable to his wishes. + Far from the tumult of arms, and the treachery of courts, he spent six + months under the groves of the academy, in a free intercourse with the + philosophers of the age, who studied to cultivate the genius, to encourage + the vanity, and to inflame the devotion of their royal pupil. Their labors + were not unsuccessful; and Julian inviolably preserved for Athens that + tender regard which seldom fails to arise in a liberal mind, from the + recollection of the place where it has discovered and exercised its + growing powers. The gentleness and affability of manners, which his temper + suggested and his situation imposed, insensibly engaged the affections of + the strangers, as well as citizens, with whom he conversed. Some of his + fellow-students might perhaps examine his behavior with an eye of + prejudice and aversion; but Julian established, in the schools of Athens, + a general prepossession in favor of his virtues and talents, which was + soon diffused over the Roman world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Whilst his hours were passed in studious retirement, the empress, resolute + to achieve the generous design which she had undertaken, was not unmindful + of the care of his fortune. The death of the late Cæsar had left + Constantius invested with the sole command, and oppressed by the + accumulated weight, of a mighty empire. Before the wounds of civil discord + could be healed, the provinces of Gaul were overwhelmed by a deluge of + Barbarians. The Sarmatians no longer respected the barrier of the Danube. + The impunity of rapine had increased the boldness and numbers of the wild + Isaurians: those robbers descended from their craggy mountains to ravage + the adjacent country, and had even presumed, though without success, to + besiege the important city of Seleucia, which was defended by a garrison + of three Roman legions. Above all, the Persian monarch, elated by victory, + again threatened the peace of Asia, and the presence of the emperor was + indispensably required, both in the West and in the East. For the first + time, Constantius sincerely acknowledged, that his single strength was + unequal to such an extent of care and of dominion. Insensible to the voice + of flattery, which assured him that his all-powerful virtue, and celestial + fortune, would still continue to triumph over every obstacle, he listened + with complacency to the advice of Eusebia, which gratified his indolence, + without offending his suspicious pride. As she perceived that the + remembrance of Gallus dwelt on the emperor's mind, she artfully turned his + attention to the opposite characters of the two brothers, which from their + infancy had been compared to those of Domitian and of Titus. She + accustomed her husband to consider Julian as a youth of a mild, + unambitious disposition, whose allegiance and gratitude might be secured + by the gift of the purple, and who was qualified to fill with honor a + subordinate station, without aspiring to dispute the commands, or to shade + the glories, of his sovereign and benefactor. After an obstinate, though + secret struggle, the opposition of the favorite eunuchs submitted to the + ascendency of the empress; and it was resolved that Julian, after + celebrating his nuptials with Helena, sister of Constantius, should be + appointed, with the title of Cæsar, to reign over the countries + beyond the Alps.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Although the order which recalled him to court was probably accompanied by + some intimation of his approaching greatness, he appeals to the people of + Athens to witness his tears of undissembled sorrow, when he was + reluctantly torn away from his beloved retirement. He trembled for his + life, for his fame, and even for his virtue; and his sole confidence was + derived from the persuasion, that Minerva inspired all his actions, and + that he was protected by an invisible guard of angels, whom for that + purpose she had borrowed from the Sun and Moon. He approached, with + horror, the palace of Milan; nor could the ingenuous youth conceal his + indignation, when he found himself accosted with false and servile respect + by the assassins of his family. Eusebia, rejoicing in the success of her + benevolent schemes, embraced him with the tenderness of a sister; and + endeavored, by the most soothing caresses, to dispel his terrors, and + reconcile him to his fortune. But the ceremony of shaving his beard, and + his awkward demeanor, when he first exchanged the cloak of a Greek + philosopher for the military habit of a Roman prince, amused, during a few + days, the levity of the Imperial court.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The emperors of the age of Constantine no longer deigned to consult with + the senate in the choice of a colleague; but they were anxious that their + nomination should be ratified by the consent of the army. On this solemn + occasion, the guards, with the other troops whose stations were in the + neighborhood of Milan, appeared under arms; and Constantius ascended his + lofty tribunal, holding by the hand his cousin Julian, who entered the + same day into the twenty-fifth year of his age. In a studied speech, + conceived and delivered with dignity, the emperor represented the various + dangers which threatened the prosperity of the republic, the necessity of + naming a Cæsar for the administration of the West, and his own + intention, if it was agreeable to their wishes, of rewarding with the + honors of the purple the promising virtues of the nephew of Constantine. + The approbation of the soldiers was testified by a respectful murmur; they + gazed on the manly countenance of Julian, and observed with pleasure, that + the fire which sparkled in his eyes was tempered by a modest blush, on + being thus exposed, for the first time, to the public view of mankind. As + soon as the ceremony of his investiture had been performed, Constantius + addressed him with the tone of authority which his superior age and + station permitted him to assume; and exhorting the new Cæsar to + deserve, by heroic deeds, that sacred and immortal name, the emperor gave + his colleague the strongest assurances of a friendship which should never + be impaired by time, nor interrupted by their separation into the most + distant climes. As soon as the speech was ended, the troops, as a token of + applause, clashed their shields against their knees; while the officers + who surrounded the tribunal expressed, with decent reserve, their sense of + the merits of the representative of Constantius.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The two princes returned to the palace in the same chariot; and during the + slow procession, Julian repeated to himself a verse of his favorite Homer, + which he might equally apply to his fortune and to his fears. The + four-and-twenty days which the Cæsar spent at Milan after his + investiture, and the first months of his Gallic reign, were devoted to a + splendid but severe captivity; nor could the acquisition of honor + compensate for the loss of freedom. His steps were watched, his + correspondence was intercepted; and he was obliged, by prudence, to + decline the visits of his most intimate friends. Of his former domestics, + four only were permitted to attend him; two pages, his physician, and his + librarian; the last of whom was employed in the care of a valuable + collection of books, the gift of the empress, who studied the inclinations + as well as the interest of her friend. In the room of these faithful + servants, a household was formed, such indeed as became the dignity of a Cæsar; + but it was filled with a crowd of slaves, destitute, and perhaps + incapable, of any attachment for their new master, to whom, for the most + part, they were either unknown or suspected. His want of experience might + require the assistance of a wise council; but the minute instructions + which regulated the service of his table, and the distribution of his + hours, were adapted to a youth still under the discipline of his + preceptors, rather than to the situation of a prince intrusted with the + conduct of an important war. If he aspired to deserve the esteem of his + subjects, he was checked by the fear of displeasing his sovereign; and + even the fruits of his marriage-bed were blasted by the jealous artifices + of Eusebia herself, who, on this occasion alone, seems to have been + unmindful of the tenderness of her sex, and the generosity of her + character. The memory of his father and of his brothers reminded Julian of + his own danger, and his apprehensions were increased by the recent and + unworthy fate of Sylvanus. In the summer which preceded his own elevation, + that general had been chosen to deliver Gaul from the tyranny of the + Barbarians; but Sylvanus soon discovered that he had left his most + dangerous enemies in the Imperial court. A dexterous informer, + countenanced by several of the principal ministers, procured from him some + recommendatory letters; and erasing the whole of the contents, except the + signature, filled up the vacant parchment with matters of high and + treasonable import. By the industry and courage of his friends, the fraud + was however detected, and in a great council of the civil and military + officers, held in the presence of the emperor himself, the innocence of + Sylvanus was publicly acknowledged. But the discovery came too late; the + report of the calumny, and the hasty seizure of his estate, had already + provoked the indignant chief to the rebellion of which he was so unjustly + accused. He assumed the purple at his head-quarters of Cologne, and his + active powers appeared to menace Italy with an invasion, and Milan with a + siege. In this emergency, Ursicinus, a general of equal rank, regained, by + an act of treachery, the favor which he had lost by his eminent services + in the East. Exasperated, as he might speciously allege, by the injuries + of a similar nature, he hastened with a few followers to join the + standard, and to betray the confidence, of his too credulous friend. After + a reign of only twenty-eight days, Sylvanus was assassinated: the soldiers + who, without any criminal intention, had blindly followed the example of + their leader, immediately returned to their allegiance; and the flatterers + of Constantius celebrated the wisdom and felicity of the monarch who had + extinguished a civil war without the hazard of a battle.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The protection of the Rhætian frontier, and the persecution of the + Catholic church, detained Constantius in Italy above eighteen months after + the departure of Julian. Before the emperor returned into the East, he + indulged his pride and curiosity in a visit to the ancient capital. He + proceeded from Milan to Rome along the Æmilian and Flaminian ways, + and as soon as he approached within forty miles of the city, the march of + a prince who had never vanquished a foreign enemy, assumed the appearance + of a triumphal procession. His splendid train was composed of all the + ministers of luxury; but in a time of profound peace, he was encompassed + by the glittering arms of the numerous squadrons of his guards and + cuirassiers. Their streaming banners of silk, embossed with gold, and + shaped in the form of dragons, waved round the person of the emperor. + Constantius sat alone in a lofty car, resplendent with gold and precious + gems; and, except when he bowed his head to pass under the gates of the + cities, he affected a stately demeanor of inflexible, and, as it might + seem, of insensible gravity. The severe discipline of the Persian youth + had been introduced by the eunuchs into the Imperial palace; and such were + the habits of patience which they had inculcated, that during a slow and + sultry march, he was never seen to move his hand towards his face, or to + turn his eyes either to the right or to the left. He was received by the + magistrates and senate of Rome; and the emperor surveyed, with attention, + the civil honors of the republic, and the consular images of the noble + families. The streets were lined with an innumerable multitude. Their + repeated acclamations expressed their joy at beholding, after an absence + of thirty-two years, the sacred person of their sovereign, and Constantius + himself expressed, with some pleasantry, he affected surprise that the + human race should thus suddenly be collected on the same spot. The son of + Constantine was lodged in the ancient palace of Augustus: he presided in + the senate, harangued the people from the tribunal which Cicero had so + often ascended, assisted with unusual courtesy at the games of the Circus, + and accepted the crowns of gold, as well as the Panegyrics which had been + prepared for the ceremony by the deputies of the principal cities. His + short visit of thirty days was employed in viewing the monuments of art + and power which were scattered over the seven hills and the interjacent + valleys. He admired the awful majesty of the Capitol, the vast extent of + the baths of Caracalla and Diocletian, the severe simplicity of the + Pantheon, the massy greatness of the amphitheatre of Titus, the elegant + architecture of the theatre of Pompey and the Temple of Peace, and, above + all, the stately structure of the Forum and column of Trajan; + acknowledging that the voice of fame, so prone to invent and to magnify, + had made an inadequate report of the metropolis of the world. The + traveller, who has contemplated the ruins of ancient Rome, may conceive + some imperfect idea of the sentiments which they must have inspired when + they reared their heads in the splendor of unsullied beauty.<br /> + </p> + <p> + [See The Pantheon: The severe simplicity of the Pantheon]<br /> + </p> + <p> + The satisfaction which Constantius had received from this journey excited + him to the generous emulation of bestowing on the Romans some memorial of + his own gratitude and munificence. His first idea was to imitate the + equestrian and colossal statue which he had seen in the Forum of Trajan; + but when he had maturely weighed the difficulties of the execution, he + chose rather to embellish the capital by the gift of an Egyptian obelisk. + In a remote but polished age, which seems to have preceded the invention + of alphabetical writing, a great number of these obelisks had been + erected, in the cities of Thebes and Heliopolis, by the ancient sovereigns + of Egypt, in a just confidence that the simplicity of their form, and the + hardness of their substance, would resist the injuries of time and + violence. Several of these extraordinary columns had been transported to + Rome by Augustus and his successors, as the most durable monuments of + their power and victory; but there remained one obelisk, which, from its + size or sanctity, escaped for a long time the rapacious vanity of the + conquerors. It was designed by Constantine to adorn his new city; and, + after being removed by his order from the pedestal where it stood before + the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, was floated down the Nile to + Alexandria. The death of Constantine suspended the execution of his + purpose, and this obelisk was destined by his son to the ancient capital + of the empire. A vessel of uncommon strength and capaciousness was + provided to convey this enormous weight of granite, at least a hundred and + fifteen feet in length, from the banks of the Nile to those of the Tyber. + The obelisk of Constantius was landed about three miles from the city, and + elevated, by the efforts of art and labor, in the great Circus of Rome.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The departure of Constantius from Rome was hastened by the alarming + intelligence of the distress and danger of the Illyrian provinces. The + distractions of civil war, and the irreparable loss which the Roman + legions had sustained in the battle of Mursa, exposed those countries, + almost without defence, to the light cavalry of the Barbarians; and + particularly to the inroads of the Quadi, a fierce and powerful nation, + who seem to have exchanged the institutions of Germany for the arms and + military arts of their Sarmatian allies. The garrisons of the frontiers + were insufficient to check their progress; and the indolent monarch was at + length compelled to assemble, from the extremities of his dominions, the + flower of the Palatine troops, to take the field in person, and to employ + a whole campaign, with the preceding autumn and the ensuing spring, in the + serious prosecution of the war. The emperor passed the Danube on a bridge + of boats, cut in pieces all that encountered his march, penetrated into + the heart of the country of the Quadi, and severely retaliated the + calamities which they had inflicted on the Roman province. The dismayed + Barbarians were soon reduced to sue for peace: they offered the + restitution of his captive subjects as an atonement for the past, and the + noblest hostages as a pledge of their future conduct. The generous + courtesy which was shown to the first among their chieftains who implored + the clemency of Constantius, encouraged the more timid, or the more + obstinate, to imitate their example; and the Imperial camp was crowded + with the princes and ambassadors of the most distant tribes, who occupied + the plains of the Lesser Poland, and who might have deemed themselves + secure behind the lofty ridge of the Carpathian Mountains. While + Constantius gave laws to the Barbarians beyond the Danube, he + distinguished, with specious compassion, the Sarmatian exiles, who had + been expelled from their native country by the rebellion of their slaves, + and who formed a very considerable accession to the power of the Quadi. + The emperor, embracing a generous but artful system of policy, released + the Sarmatians from the bands of this humiliating dependence, and restored + them, by a separate treaty, to the dignity of a nation united under the + government of a king, the friend and ally of the republic. He declared his + resolution of asserting the justice of their cause, and of securing the + peace of the provinces by the extirpation, or at least the banishment, of + the Limigantes, whose manners were still infected with the vices of their + servile origin. The execution of this design was attended with more + difficulty than glory. The territory of the Limigantes was protected + against the Romans by the Danube, against the hostile Barbarians by the + Teyss. The marshy lands which lay between those rivers, and were often + covered by their inundations, formed an intricate wilderness, pervious + only to the inhabitants, who were acquainted with its secret paths and + inaccessible fortresses. On the approach of Constantius, the Limigantes + tried the efficacy of prayers, of fraud, and of arms; but he sternly + rejected their supplications, defeated their rude stratagems, and repelled + with skill and firmness the efforts of their irregular valor. One of their + most warlike tribes, established in a small island towards the conflux of + the Teyss and the Danube, consented to pass the river with the intention + of surprising the emperor during the security of an amicable conference. + They soon became the victims of the perfidy which they meditated. + Encompassed on every side, trampled down by the cavalry, slaughtered by + the swords of the legions, they disdained to ask for mercy; and with an + undaunted countenance, still grasped their weapons in the agonies of + death. After this victory, a considerable body of Romans was landed on the + opposite banks of the Danube; the Taifalæ, a Gothic tribe engaged in + the service of the empire, invaded the Limigantes on the side of the + Teyss; and their former masters, the free Sarmatians, animated by hope and + revenge, penetrated through the hilly country, into the heart of their + ancient possessions. A general conflagration revealed the huts of the + Barbarians, which were seated in the depth of the wilderness; and the + soldier fought with confidence on marshy ground, which it was dangerous + for him to tread. In this extremity, the bravest of the Limigantes were + resolved to die in arms, rather than to yield: but the milder sentiment, + enforced by the authority of their elders, at length prevailed; and the + suppliant crowd, followed by their wives and children, repaired to the + Imperial camp, to learn their fate from the mouth of the conqueror. After + celebrating his own clemency, which was still inclined to pardon their + repeated crimes, and to spare the remnant of a guilty nation, Constantius + assigned for the place of their exile a remote country, where they might + enjoy a safe and honorable repose. The Limigantes obeyed with reluctance; + but before they could reach, at least before they could occupy, their + destined habitations, they returned to the banks of the Danube, + exaggerating the hardships of their situation, and requesting, with + fervent professions of fidelity, that the emperor would grant them an + undisturbed settlement within the limits of the Roman provinces. Instead + of consulting his own experience of their incurable perfidy, Constantius + listened to his flatterers, who were ready to represent the honor and + advantage of accepting a colony of soldiers, at a time when it was much + easier to obtain the pecuniary contributions than the military service of + the subjects of the empire. The Limigantes were permitted to pass the + Danube; and the emperor gave audience to the multitude in a large plain + near the modern city of Buda. They surrounded the tribunal, and seemed to + hear with respect an oration full of mildness and dignity when one of the + Barbarians, casting his shoe into the air, exclaimed with a loud voice, + <strong><em>Marha! Marha!</em></strong> * a word of defiance, which was + received as a signal of the tumult. They rushed with fury to seize the + person of the emperor; his royal throne and golden couch were pillaged by + these rude hands; but the faithful defence of his guards, who died at his + feet, allowed him a moment to mount a fleet horse, and to escape from the + confusion. The disgrace which had been incurred by a treacherous surprise + was soon retrieved by the numbers and discipline of the Romans; and the + combat was only terminated by the extinction of the name and nation of the + Limigantes. The free Sarmatians were reinstated in the possession of their + ancient seats; and although Constantius distrusted the levity of their + character, he entertained some hopes that a sense of gratitude might + influence their future conduct. He had remarked the lofty stature and + obsequious demeanor of Zizais, one of the noblest of their chiefs. He + conferred on him the title of King; and Zizais proved that he was not + unworthy to reign, by a sincere and lasting attachment to the interests of + his benefactor, who, after this splendid success, received the name of + <strong><em>Sarmaticus</em></strong> from the acclamations of his + victorious army.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch19-p3" id="linkch19-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + While the Roman emperor and the Persian monarch, at the distance of three + thousand miles, defended their extreme limits against the Barbarians of + the Danube and of the Oxus, their intermediate frontier experienced the + vicissitudes of a languid war, and a precarious truce. Two of the eastern + ministers of Constantius, the Prætorian præfect Musonian, + whose abilities were disgraced by the want of truth and integrity, and + Cassian, duke of Mesopotamia, a hardy and veteran soldier, opened a secret + negotiation with the satrap Tamsapor. These overtures of peace, translated + into the servile and flattering language of Asia, were transmitted to the + camp of the Great King; who resolved to signify, by an ambassador, the + terms which he was inclined to grant to the suppliant Romans. Narses, whom + he invested with that character, was honorably received in his passage + through Antioch and Constantinople: he reached Sirmium after a long + journey, and, at his first audience, respectfully unfolded the silken veil + which covered the haughty epistle of his sovereign. Sapor, King of Kings, + and Brother of the Sun and Moon, (such were the lofty titles affected by + Oriental vanity,) expressed his satisfaction that his brother, Constantius + Cæsar, had been taught wisdom by adversity. As the lawful successor + of Darius Hystaspes, Sapor asserted, that the River Strymon, in Macedonia, + was the true and ancient boundary of his empire; declaring, however, that + as an evidence of his moderation, he would content himself with the + provinces of Armenia and Mesopotamia, which had been fraudulently extorted + from his ancestors. He alleged, that, without the restitution of these + disputed countries, it was impossible to establish any treaty on a solid + and permanent basis; and he arrogantly threatened, that if his ambassador + returned in vain, he was prepared to take the field in the spring, and to + support the justice of his cause by the strength of his invincible arms. + Narses, who was endowed with the most polite and amiable manners, + endeavored, as far as was consistent with his duty, to soften the + harshness of the message. Both the style and substance were maturely + weighed in the Imperial council, and he was dismissed with the following + answer: "Constantius had a right to disclaim the officiousness of his + ministers, who had acted without any specific orders from the throne: he + was not, however, averse to an equal and honorable treaty; but it was + highly indecent, as well as absurd, to propose to the sole and victorious + emperor of the Roman world, the same conditions of peace which he had + indignantly rejected at the time when his power was contracted within the + narrow limits of the East: the chance of arms was uncertain; and Sapor + should recollect, that if the Romans had sometimes been vanquished in + battle, they had almost always been successful in the event of the war." A + few days after the departure of Narses, three ambassadors were sent to the + court of Sapor, who was already returned from the Scythian expedition to + his ordinary residence of Ctesiphon. A count, a notary, and a sophist, had + been selected for this important commission; and Constantius, who was + secretly anxious for the conclusion of the peace, entertained some hopes + that the dignity of the first of these ministers, the dexterity of the + second, and the rhetoric of the third, would persuade the Persian monarch + to abate of the rigor of his demands. But the progress of their + negotiation was opposed and defeated by the hostile arts of Antoninus, a + Roman subject of Syria, who had fled from oppression, and was admitted + into the councils of Sapor, and even to the royal table, where, according + to the custom of the Persians, the most important business was frequently + discussed. The dexterous fugitive promoted his interest by the same + conduct which gratified his revenge. He incessantly urged the ambition of + his new master to embrace the favorable opportunity when the bravest of + the Palatine troops were employed with the emperor in a distant war on the + Danube. He pressed Sapor to invade the exhausted and defenceless provinces + of the East, with the numerous armies of Persia, now fortified by the + alliance and accession of the fiercest Barbarians. The ambassadors of Rome + retired without success, and a second embassy, of a still more honorable + rank, was detained in strict confinement, and threatened either with death + or exile.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The military historian, who was himself despatched to observe the army of + the Persians, as they were preparing to construct a bridge of boats over + the Tigris, beheld from an eminence the plain of Assyria, as far as the + edge of the horizon, covered with men, with horses, and with arms. Sapor + appeared in the front, conspicuous by the splendor of his purple. On his + left hand, the place of honor among the Orientals, Grumbates, king of the + Chionites, displayed the stern countenance of an aged and renowned + warrior. The monarch had reserved a similar place on his right hand for + the king of the Albanians, who led his independent tribes from the shores + of the Caspian. * The satraps and generals were distributed according to + their several ranks, and the whole army, besides the numerous train of + Oriental luxury, consisted of more than one hundred thousand effective + men, inured to fatigue, and selected from the bravest nations of Asia. The + Roman deserter, who in some measure guided the councils of Sapor, had + prudently advised, that, instead of wasting the summer in tedious and + difficult sieges, he should march directly to the Euphrates, and press + forwards without delay to seize the feeble and wealthy metropolis of + Syria. But the Persians were no sooner advanced into the plains of + Mesopotamia, than they discovered that every precaution had been used + which could retard their progress, or defeat their design. The + inhabitants, with their cattle, were secured in places of strength, the + green forage throughout the country was set on fire, the fords of the + rivers were fortified by sharp stakes; military engines were planted on + the opposite banks, and a seasonable swell of the waters of the Euphrates + deterred the Barbarians from attempting the ordinary passage of the bridge + of Thapsacus. Their skilful guide, changing his plan of operations, then + conducted the army by a longer circuit, but through a fertile territory, + towards the head of the Euphrates, where the infant river is reduced to a + shallow and accessible stream. Sapor overlooked, with prudent disdain, the + strength of Nisibis; but as he passed under the walls of Amida, he + resolved to try whether the majesty of his presence would not awe the + garrison into immediate submission. The sacrilegious insult of a random + dart, which glanced against the royal tiara, convinced him of his error; + and the indignant monarch listened with impatience to the advice of his + ministers, who conjured him not to sacrifice the success of his ambition + to the gratification of his resentment. The following day Grumbates + advanced towards the gates with a select body of troops, and required the + instant surrender of the city, as the only atonement which could be + accepted for such an act of rashness and insolence. His proposals were + answered by a general discharge, and his only son, a beautiful and valiant + youth, was pierced through the heart by a javelin, shot from one of the + balistæ. The funeral of the prince of the Chionites was celebrated + according to the rites of the country; and the grief of his aged father + was alleviated by the solemn promise of Sapor, that the guilty city of + Amida should serve as a funeral pile to expiate the death, and to + perpetuate the memory, of his son.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The ancient city of Amid or Amida, which sometimes assumes the provincial + appellation of Diarbekir, is advantageously situate in a fertile plain, + watered by the natural and artificial channels of the Tigris, of which the + least inconsiderable stream bends in a semicircular form round the eastern + part of the city. The emperor Constantius had recently conferred on Amida + the honor of his own name, and the additional fortifications of strong + walls and lofty towers. It was provided with an arsenal of military + engines, and the ordinary garrison had been reenforced to the amount of + seven legions, when the place was invested by the arms of Sapor. His first + and most sanguine hopes depended on the success of a general assault. To + the several nations which followed his standard, their respective posts + were assigned; the south to the Vertæ; the north to the Albanians; + the east to the Chionites, inflamed with grief and indignation; the west + to the Segestans, the bravest of his warriors, who covered their front + with a formidable line of Indian elephants. The Persians, on every side, + supported their efforts, and animated their courage; and the monarch + himself, careless of his rank and safety, displayed, in the prosecution of + the siege, the ardor of a youthful soldier. After an obstinate combat, the + Barbarians were repulsed; they incessantly returned to the charge; they + were again driven back with a dreadful slaughter, and two rebel legions of + Gauls, who had been banished into the East, signalized their undisciplined + courage by a nocturnal sally into the heart of the Persian camp. In one of + the fiercest of these repeated assaults, Amida was betrayed by the + treachery of a deserter, who indicated to the Barbarians a secret and + neglected staircase, scooped out of the rock that hangs over the stream of + the Tigris. Seventy chosen archers of the royal guard ascended in silence + to the third story of a lofty tower, which commanded the precipice; they + elevated on high the Persian banner, the signal of confidence to the + assailants, and of dismay to the besieged; and if this devoted band could + have maintained their post a few minutes longer, the reduction of the + place might have been purchased by the sacrifice of their lives. After + Sapor had tried, without success, the efficacy of force and of stratagem, + he had recourse to the slower but more certain operations of a regular + siege, in the conduct of which he was instructed by the skill of the Roman + deserters. The trenches were opened at a convenient distance, and the + troops destined for that service advanced under the portable cover of + strong hurdles, to fill up the ditch, and undermine the foundations of the + walls. Wooden towers were at the same time constructed, and moved forwards + on wheels, till the soldiers, who were provided with every species of + missile weapons, could engage almost on level ground with the troops who + defended the rampart. Every mode of resistance which art could suggest, or + courage could execute, was employed in the defence of Amida, and the works + of Sapor were more than once destroyed by the fire of the Romans. But the + resources of a besieged city may be exhausted. The Persians repaired their + losses, and pushed their approaches; a large preach was made by the + battering-ram, and the strength of the garrison, wasted by the sword and + by disease, yielded to the fury of the assault. The soldiers, the + citizens, their wives, their children, all who had not time to escape + through the opposite gate, were involved by the conquerors in a + promiscuous massacre.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the ruin of Amida was the safety of the Roman provinces. As soon as + the first transports of victory had subsided, Sapor was at leisure to + reflect, that to chastise a disobedient city, he had lost the flower of + his troops, and the most favorable season for conquest. Thirty thousand of + his veterans had fallen under the walls of Amida, during the continuance + of a siege, which lasted seventy-three days; and the disappointed monarch + returned to his capital with affected triumph and secret mortification. It + is more than probable, that the inconstancy of his Barbarian allies was + tempted to relinquish a war in which they had encountered such unexpected + difficulties; and that the aged king of the Chionites, satiated with + revenge, turned away with horror from a scene of action where he had been + deprived of the hope of his family and nation. The strength as well as the + spirit of the army with which Sapor took the field in the ensuing spring + was no longer equal to the unbounded views of his ambition. Instead of + aspiring to the conquest of the East, he was obliged to content himself + with the reduction of two fortified cities of Mesopotamia, Singara and + Bezabde; the one situate in the midst of a sandy desert, the other in a + small peninsula, surrounded almost on every side by the deep and rapid + stream of the Tigris. Five Roman legions, of the diminutive size to which + they had been reduced in the age of Constantine, were made prisoners, and + sent into remote captivity on the extreme confines of Persia. After + dismantling the walls of Singara, the conqueror abandoned that solitary + and sequestered place; but he carefully restored the fortifications of + Bezabde, and fixed in that important post a garrison or colony of + veterans; amply supplied with every means of defence, and animated by high + sentiments of honor and fidelity. Towards the close of the campaign, the + arms of Sapor incurred some disgrace by an unsuccessful enterprise against + Virtha, or Tecrit, a strong, or, as it was universally esteemed till the + age of Tamerlane, an impregnable fortress of the independent Arabs.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The defence of the East against the arms of Sapor required and would have + exercised, the abilities of the most consummate general; and it seemed + fortunate for the state, that it was the actual province of the brave + Ursicinus, who alone deserved the confidence of the soldiers and people. + In the hour of danger, Ursicinus was removed from his station by the + intrigues of the eunuchs; and the military command of the East was + bestowed, by the same influence, on Sabinian, a wealthy and subtle + veteran, who had attained the infirmities, without acquiring the + experience, of age. By a second order, which issued from the same jealous + and inconstant councils, Ursicinus was again despatched to the frontier of + Mesopotamia, and condemned to sustain the labors of a war, the honors of + which had been transferred to his unworthy rival. Sabinian fixed his + indolent station under the walls of Edessa; and while he amused himself + with the idle parade of military exercise, and moved to the sound of + flutes in the Pyrrhic dance, the public defence was abandoned to the + boldness and diligence of the former general of the East. But whenever + Ursicinus recommended any vigorous plan of operations; when he proposed, + at the head of a light and active army, to wheel round the foot of the + mountains, to intercept the convoys of the enemy, to harass the wide + extent of the Persian lines, and to relieve the distress of Amida; the + timid and envious commander alleged, that he was restrained by his + positive orders from endangering the safety of the troops. Amida was at + length taken; its bravest defenders, who had escaped the sword of the + Barbarians, died in the Roman camp by the hand of the executioner: and + Ursicinus himself, after supporting the disgrace of a partial inquiry, was + punished for the misconduct of Sabinian by the loss of his military rank. + But Constantius soon experienced the truth of the prediction which honest + indignation had extorted from his injured lieutenant, that as long as such + maxims of government were suffered to prevail, the emperor himself would + find it is no easy task to defend his eastern dominions from the invasion + of a foreign enemy. When he had subdued or pacified the Barbarians of the + Danube, Constantius proceeded by slow marches into the East; and after he + had wept over the smoking ruins of Amida, he formed, with a powerful army, + the siege of Bezabde. The walls were shaken by the reiterated efforts of + the most enormous of the battering-rams; the town was reduced to the last + extremity; but it was still defended by the patient and intrepid valor of + the garrison, till the approach of the rainy season obliged the emperor to + raise the siege, and ingloriously to retreat into his winter quarters at + Antioch. The pride of Constantius, and the ingenuity of his courtiers, + were at a loss to discover any materials for panegyric in the events of + the Persian war; while the glory of his cousin Julian, to whose military + command he had intrusted the provinces of Gaul, was proclaimed to the + world in the simple and concise narrative of his exploits.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the blind fury of civil discord, Constantius had abandoned to the + Barbarians of Germany the countries of Gaul, which still acknowledged the + authority of his rival. A numerous swarm of Franks and Alemanni were + invited to cross the Rhine by presents and promises, by the hopes of + spoil, and by a perpetual grant of all the territories which they should + be able to subdue. But the emperor, who for a temporary service had thus + imprudently provoked the rapacious spirit of the Barbarians, soon + discovered and lamented the difficulty of dismissing these formidable + allies, after they had tasted the richness of the Roman soil. Regardless + of the nice distinction of loyalty and rebellion, these undisciplined + robbers treated as their natural enemies all the subjects of the empire, + who possessed any property which they were desirous of acquiring + Forty-five flourishing cities, Tongres, Cologne, Treves, Worms, Spires, + Strasburgh, &c., besides a far greater number of towns and villages, + were pillaged, and for the most part reduced to ashes. The Barbarians of + Germany, still faithful to the maxims of their ancestors, abhorred the + confinement of walls, to which they applied the odious names of prisons + and sepulchres; and fixing their independent habitations on the banks of + rivers, the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Meuse, they secured themselves + against the danger of a surprise, by a rude and hasty fortification of + large trees, which were felled and thrown across the roads. The Alemanni + were established in the modern countries of Alsace and Lorraine; the + Franks occupied the island of the Batavians, together with an extensive + district of Brabant, which was then known by the appellation of Toxandria, + and may deserve to be considered as the original seat of their Gallic + monarchy. From the sources, to the mouth, of the Rhine, the conquests of + the Germans extended above forty miles to the west of that river, over a + country peopled by colonies of their own name and nation: and the scene of + their devastations was three times more extensive than that of their + conquests. At a still greater distance the open towns of Gaul were + deserted, and the inhabitants of the fortified cities, who trusted to + their strength and vigilance, were obliged to content themselves with such + supplies of corn as they could raise on the vacant land within the + enclosure of their walls. The diminished legions, destitute of pay and + provisions, of arms and discipline, trembled at the approach, and even at + the name, of the Barbarians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch19-p4" id="linkch19-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIX: Constantius Sole Emperor.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Under these melancholy circumstances, an unexperienced youth was appointed + to save and to govern the provinces of Gaul, or rather, as he expressed it + himself, to exhibit the vain image of Imperial greatness. The retired + scholastic education of Julian, in which he had been more conversant with + books than with arms, with the dead than with the living, left him in + profound ignorance of the practical arts of war and government; and when + he awkwardly repeated some military exercise which it was necessary for + him to learn, he exclaimed with a sigh, "O Plato, Plato, what a task for a + philosopher!" Yet even this speculative philosophy, which men of business + are too apt to despise, had filled the mind of Julian with the noblest + precepts and the most shining examples; had animated him with the love of + virtue, the desire of fame, and the contempt of death. The habits of + temperance recommended in the schools, are still more essential in the + severe discipline of a camp. The simple wants of nature regulated the + measure of his food and sleep. Rejecting with disdain the delicacies + provided for his table, he satisfied his appetite with the coarse and + common fare which was allotted to the meanest soldiers. During the rigor + of a Gallic winter, he never suffered a fire in his bed-chamber; and after + a short and interrupted slumber, he frequently rose in the middle of the + night from a carpet spread on the floor, to despatch any urgent business, + to visit his rounds, or to steal a few moments for the prosecution of his + favorite studies. The precepts of eloquence, which he had hitherto + practised on fancied topics of declamation, were more usefully applied to + excite or to assuage the passions of an armed multitude: and although + Julian, from his early habits of conversation and literature, was more + familiarly acquainted with the beauties of the Greek language, he had + attained a competent knowledge of the Latin tongue. Since Julian was not + originally designed for the character of a legislator, or a judge, it is + probable that the civil jurisprudence of the Romans had not engaged any + considerable share of his attention: but he derived from his philosophic + studies an inflexible regard for justice, tempered by a disposition to + clemency; the knowledge of the general principles of equity and evidence, + and the faculty of patiently investigating the most intricate and tedious + questions which could be proposed for his discussion. The measures of + policy, and the operations of war, must submit to the various accidents of + circumstance and character, and the unpractised student will often be + perplexed in the application of the most perfect theory. But in the + acquisition of this important science, Julian was assisted by the active + vigor of his own genius, as well as by the wisdom and experience of + Sallust, and officer of rank, who soon conceived a sincere attachment for + a prince so worthy of his friendship; and whose incorruptible integrity + was adorned by the talent of insinuating the harshest truths without + wounding the delicacy of a royal ear.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Immediately after Julian had received the purple at Milan, he was sent + into Gaul with a feeble retinue of three hundred and sixty soldiers. At + Vienna, where he passed a painful and anxious winter in the hands of those + ministers to whom Constantius had intrusted the direction of his conduct, + the Cæsar was informed of the siege and deliverance of Autun. That + large and ancient city, protected only by a ruined wall and pusillanimous + garrison, was saved by the generous resolution of a few veterans, who + resumed their arms for the defence of their country. In his march from + Autun, through the heart of the Gallic provinces, Julian embraced with + ardor the earliest opportunity of signalizing his courage. At the head of + a small body of archers and heavy cavalry, he preferred the shorter but + the more dangerous of two roads; * and sometimes eluding, and sometimes + resisting, the attacks of the Barbarians, who were masters of the field, + he arrived with honor and safety at the camp near Rheims, where the Roman + troops had been ordered to assemble. The aspect of their young prince + revived the drooping spirits of the soldiers, and they marched from Rheims + in search of the enemy, with a confidence which had almost proved fatal to + them. The Alemanni, familiarized to the knowledge of the country, secretly + collected their scattered forces, and seizing the opportunity of a dark + and rainy day, poured with unexpected fury on the rear-guard of the + Romans. Before the inevitable disorder could be remedied, two legions were + destroyed; and Julian was taught by experience that caution and vigilance + are the most important lessons of the art of war. In a second and more + successful action, * he recovered and established his military fame; but + as the agility of the Barbarians saved them from the pursuit, his victory + was neither bloody nor decisive. He advanced, however, to the banks of the + Rhine, surveyed the ruins of Cologne, convinced himself of the + difficulties of the war, and retreated on the approach of winter, + discontented with the court, with his army, and with his own success. The + power of the enemy was yet unbroken; and the Cæsar had no sooner + separated his troops, and fixed his own quarters at Sens, in the centre of + Gaul, than he was surrounded and besieged, by a numerous host of Germans. + Reduced, in this extremity, to the resources of his own mind, he displayed + a prudent intrepidity, which compensated for all the deficiencies of the + place and garrison; and the Barbarians, at the end of thirty days, were + obliged to retire with disappointed rage.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The conscious pride of Julian, who was indebted only to his sword for this + signal deliverance, was imbittered by the reflection, that he was + abandoned, betrayed, and perhaps devoted to destruction, by those who were + bound to assist him, by every tie of honor and fidelity. Marcellus, + master-general of the cavalry in Gaul, interpreting too strictly the + jealous orders of the court, beheld with supine indifference the distress + of Julian, and had restrained the troops under his command from marching + to the relief of Sens. If the Cæsar had dissembled in silence so + dangerous an insult, his person and authority would have been exposed to + the contempt of the world; and if an action so criminal had been suffered + to pass with impunity, the emperor would have confirmed the suspicions, + which received a very specious color from his past conduct towards the + princes of the Flavian family. Marcellus was recalled, and gently + dismissed from his office. In his room Severus was appointed general of + the cavalry; an experienced soldier, of approved courage and fidelity, who + could advise with respect, and execute with zeal; and who submitted, + without reluctance to the supreme command which Julian, by the interest of + his patroness Eusebia, at length obtained over the armies of Gaul. A very + judicious plan of operations was adopted for the approaching campaign. + Julian himself, at the head of the remains of the veteran bands, and of + some new levies which he had been permitted to form, boldly penetrated + into the centre of the German cantonments, and carefully reestablished the + fortifications of Saverne, in an advantageous post, which would either + check the incursions, or intercept the retreat, of the enemy. At the same + time, Barbatio, general of the infantry, advanced from Milan with an army + of thirty thousand men, and passing the mountains, prepared to throw a + bridge over the Rhine, in the neighborhood of Basil. It was reasonable to + expect that the Alemanni, pressed on either side by the Roman arms, would + soon be forced to evacuate the provinces of Gaul, and to hasten to the + defence of their native country. But the hopes of the campaign were + defeated by the incapacity, or the envy, or the secret instructions, of + Barbatio; who acted as if he had been the enemy of the Cæsar, and + the secret ally of the Barbarians. The negligence with which he permitted + a troop of pillagers freely to pass, and to return almost before the gates + of his camp, may be imputed to his want of abilities; but the treasonable + act of burning a number of boats, and a superfluous stock of provisions, + which would have been of the most essential service to the army of Gaul, + was an evidence of his hostile and criminal intentions. The Germans + despised an enemy who appeared destitute either of power or of inclination + to offend them; and the ignominious retreat of Barbatio deprived Julian of + the expected support; and left him to extricate himself from a hazardous + situation, where he could neither remain with safety, nor retire with + honor.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As soon as they were delivered from the fears of invasion, the Alemanni + prepared to chastise the Roman youth, who presumed to dispute the + possession of that country, which they claimed as their own by the right + of conquest and of treaties. They employed three days, and as many nights, + in transporting over the Rhine their military powers. The fierce + Chnodomar, shaking the ponderous javelin which he had victoriously wielded + against the brother of Magnentius, led the van of the Barbarians, and + moderated by his experience the martial ardor which his example inspired. + He was followed by six other kings, by ten princes of regal extraction, by + a long train of high-spirited nobles, and by thirty-five thousand of the + bravest warriors of the tribes of Germany. The confidence derived from the + view of their own strength, was increased by the intelligence which they + received from a deserter, that the Cæsar, with a feeble army of + thirteen thousand men, occupied a post about one-and-twenty miles from + their camp of Strasburgh. With this inadequate force, Julian resolved to + seek and to encounter the Barbarian host; and the chance of a general + action was preferred to the tedious and uncertain operation of separately + engaging the dispersed parties of the Alemanni. The Romans marched in + close order, and in two columns; the cavalry on the right, the infantry on + the left; and the day was so far spent when they appeared in sight of the + enemy, that Julian was desirous of deferring the battle till the next + morning, and of allowing his troops to recruit their exhausted strength by + the necessary refreshments of sleep and food. Yielding, however, with some + reluctance, to the clamors of the soldiers, and even to the opinion of his + council, he exhorted them to justify by their valor the eager impatience, + which, in case of a defeat, would be universally branded with the epithets + of rashness and presumption. The trumpets sounded, the military shout was + heard through the field, and the two armies rushed with equal fury to the + charge. The Cæsar, who conducted in person his right wing, depended + on the dexterity of his archers, and the weight of his cuirassiers. But + his ranks were instantly broken by an irregular mixture of light horse and + of light infantry, and he had the mortification of beholding the flight of + six hundred of his most renowned cuirassiers. The fugitives were stopped + and rallied by the presence and authority of Julian, who, careless of his + own safety, threw himself before them, and urging every motive of shame + and honor, led them back against the victorious enemy. The conflict + between the two lines of infantry was obstinate and bloody. The Germans + possessed the superiority of strength and stature, the Romans that of + discipline and temper; and as the Barbarians, who served under the + standard of the empire, united the respective advantages of both parties, + their strenuous efforts, guided by a skilful leader, at length determined + the event of the day. The Romans lost four tribunes, and two hundred and + forty-three soldiers, in this memorable battle of Strasburgh, so glorious + to the Cæsar, and so salutary to the afflicted provinces of Gaul. + Six thousand of the Alemanni were slain in the field, without including + those who were drowned in the Rhine, or transfixed with darts while they + attempted to swim across the river. Chnodomar himself was surrounded and + taken prisoner, with three of his brave companions, who had devoted + themselves to follow in life or death the fate of their chieftain. Julian + received him with military pomp in the council of his officers; and + expressing a generous pity for the fallen state, dissembled his inward + contempt for the abject humiliation, of his captive. Instead of exhibiting + the vanquished king of the Alemanni, as a grateful spectacle to the cities + of Gaul, he respectfully laid at the feet of the emperor this splendid + trophy of his victory. Chnodomar experienced an honorable treatment: but + the impatient Barbarian could not long survive his defeat, his + confinement, and his exile.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After Julian had repulsed the Alemanni from the provinces of the Upper + Rhine, he turned his arms against the Franks, who were seated nearer to + the ocean, on the confines of Gaul and Germany; and who, from their + numbers, and still more from their intrepid valor, had ever been esteemed + the most formidable of the Barbarians. Although they were strongly + actuated by the allurements of rapine, they professed a disinterested love + of war; which they considered as the supreme honor and felicity of human + nature; and their minds and bodies were so completely hardened by + perpetual action, that, according to the lively expression of an orator, + the snows of winter were as pleasant to them as the flowers of spring. In + the month of December, which followed the battle of Strasburgh, Julian + attacked a body of six hundred Franks, who had thrown themselves into two + castles on the Meuse. In the midst of that severe season they sustained, + with inflexible constancy, a siege of fifty-four days; till at length, + exhausted by hunger, and satisfied that the vigilance of the enemy, in + breaking the ice of the river, left them no hopes of escape, the Franks + consented, for the first time, to dispense with the ancient law which + commanded them to conquer or to die. The Cæsar immediately sent his + captives to the court of Constantius, who, accepting them as a valuable + present, rejoiced in the opportunity of adding so many heroes to the + choicest troops of his domestic guards. The obstinate resistance of this + handful of Franks apprised Julian of the difficulties of the expedition + which he meditated for the ensuing spring, against the whole body of the + nation. His rapid diligence surprised and astonished the active + Barbarians. Ordering his soldiers to provide themselves with biscuit for + twenty days, he suddenly pitched his camp near Tongres, while the enemy + still supposed him in his winter quarters of Paris, expecting the slow + arrival of his convoys from Aquitain. Without allowing the Franks to unite + or deliberate, he skilfully spread his legions from Cologne to the ocean; + and by the terror, as well as by the success, of his arms, soon reduced + the suppliant tribes to implore the clemency, and to obey the commands, of + their conqueror. The Chamavians submissively retired to their former + habitations beyond the Rhine; but the Salians were permitted to possess + their new establishment of Toxandria, as the subjects and auxiliaries of + the Roman empire. The treaty was ratified by solemn oaths; and perpetual + inspectors were appointed to reside among the Franks, with the authority + of enforcing the strict observance of the conditions. An incident is + related, interesting enough in itself, and by no means repugnant to the + character of Julian, who ingeniously contrived both the plot and the + catastrophe of the tragedy. When the Chamavians sued for peace, he + required the son of their king, as the only hostage on whom he could rely. + A mournful silence, interrupted by tears and groans, declared the sad + perplexity of the Barbarians; and their aged chief lamented in pathetic + language, that his private loss was now imbittered by a sense of public + calamity. While the Chamavians lay prostrate at the foot of his throne, + the royal captive, whom they believed to have been slain, unexpectedly + appeared before their eyes; and as soon as the tumult of joy was hushed + into attention, the Cæsar addressed the assembly in the following + terms: "Behold the son, the prince, whom you wept. You had lost him by + your fault. God and the Romans have restored him to you. I shall still + preserve and educate the youth, rather as a monument of my own virtue, + than as a pledge of your sincerity. Should you presume to violate the + faith which you have sworn, the arms of the republic will avenge the + perfidy, not on the innocent, but on the guilty." The Barbarians withdrew + from his presence, impressed with the warmest sentiments of gratitude and + admiration.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It was not enough for Julian to have delivered the provinces of Gaul from + the Barbarians of Germany. He aspired to emulate the glory of the first + and most illustrious of the emperors; after whose example, he composed his + own commentaries of the Gallic war. Cæsar has related, with + conscious pride, the manner in which he <strong><em>twice</em></strong> + passed the Rhine. Julian could boast, that before he assumed the title of + Augustus, he had carried the Roman eagles beyond that great river in + <strong><em>three</em></strong> successful expeditions. The consternation + of the Germans, after the battle of Strasburgh, encouraged him to the + first attempt; and the reluctance of the troops soon yielded to the + persuasive eloquence of a leader, who shared the fatigues and dangers + which he imposed on the meanest of the soldiers. The villages on either + side of the Meyn, which were plentifully stored with corn and cattle, felt + the ravages of an invading army. The principal houses, constructed with + some imitation of Roman elegance, were consumed by the flames; and the Cæsar + boldly advanced about ten miles, till his progress was stopped by a dark + and impenetrable forest, undermined by subterraneous passages, which + threatened with secret snares and ambush every step of the assailants. The + ground was already covered with snow; and Julian, after repairing an + ancient castle which had been erected by Trajan, granted a truce of ten + months to the submissive Barbarians. At the expiration of the truce, + Julian undertook a second expedition beyond the Rhine, to humble the pride + of Surmar and Hortaire, two of the kings of the Alemanni, who had been + present at the battle of Strasburgh. They promised to restore all the + Roman captives who yet remained alive; and as the Cæsar had procured + an exact account from the cities and villages of Gaul, of the inhabitants + whom they had lost, he detected every attempt to deceive him, with a + degree of readiness and accuracy, which almost established the belief of + his supernatural knowledge. His third expedition was still more splendid + and important than the two former. The Germans had collected their + military powers, and moved along the opposite banks of the river, with a + design of destroying the bridge, and of preventing the passage of the + Romans. But this judicious plan of defence was disconcerted by a skilful + diversion. Three hundred light-armed and active soldiers were detached in + forty small boats, to fall down the stream in silence, and to land at some + distance from the posts of the enemy. They executed their orders with so + much boldness and celerity, that they had almost surprised the Barbarian + chiefs, who returned in the fearless confidence of intoxication from one + of their nocturnal festivals. Without repeating the uniform and disgusting + tale of slaughter and devastation, it is sufficient to observe, that + Julian dictated his own conditions of peace to six of the haughtiest kings + of the Alemanni, three of whom were permitted to view the severe + discipline and martial pomp of a Roman camp. Followed by twenty thousand + captives, whom he had rescued from the chains of the Barbarians, the Cæsar + repassed the Rhine, after terminating a war, the success of which has been + compared to the ancient glories of the Punic and Cimbric victories.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As soon as the valor and conduct of Julian had secured an interval of + peace, he applied himself to a work more congenial to his humane and + philosophic temper. The cities of Gaul, which had suffered from the + inroads of the Barbarians, he diligently repaired; and seven important + posts, between Mentz and the mouth of the Rhine, are particularly + mentioned, as having been rebuilt and fortified by the order of Julian. + The vanquished Germans had submitted to the just but humiliating condition + of preparing and conveying the necessary materials. The active zeal of + Julian urged the prosecution of the work; and such was the spirit which he + had diffused among the troops, that the auxiliaries themselves, waiving + their exemption from any duties of fatigue, contended in the most servile + labors with the diligence of the Roman soldiers. It was incumbent on the Cæsar + to provide for the subsistence, as well as for the safety, of the + inhabitants and of the garrisons. The desertion of the former, and the + mutiny of the latter, must have been the fatal and inevitable consequences + of famine. The tillage of the provinces of Gaul had been interrupted by + the calamities of war; but the scanty harvests of the continent were + supplied, by his paternal care, from the plenty of the adjacent island. + Six hundred large barks, framed in the forest of the Ardennes, made + several voyages to the coast of Britain; and returning from thence, laden + with corn, sailed up the Rhine, and distributed their cargoes to the + several towns and fortresses along the banks of the river. The arms of + Julian had restored a free and secure navigation, which Constantius had + offered to purchase at the expense of his dignity, and of a tributary + present of two thousand pounds of silver. The emperor parsimoniously + refused to his soldiers the sums which he granted with a lavish and + trembling hand to the Barbarians. The dexterity, as well as the firmness, + of Julian was put to a severe trial, when he took the field with a + discontented army, which had already served two campaigns, without + receiving any regular pay or any extraordinary donative.<br /> + </p> + <p> + A tender regard for the peace and happiness of his subjects was the ruling + principle which directed, or seemed to direct, the administration of + Julian. He devoted the leisure of his winter quarters to the offices of + civil government; and affected to assume, with more pleasure, the + character of a magistrate than that of a general. Before he took the + field, he devolved on the provincial governors most of the public and + private causes which had been referred to his tribunal; but, on his + return, he carefully revised their proceedings, mitigated the rigor of the + law, and pronounced a second judgment on the judges themselves. Superior + to the last temptation of virtuous minds, an indiscreet and intemperate + zeal for justice, he restrained, with calmness and dignity, the warmth of + an advocate, who prosecuted, for extortion, the president of the + Narbonnese province. "Who will ever be found guilty," exclaimed the + vehement Delphidius, "if it be enough to deny?" "And who," replied Julian, + "will ever be innocent, if it be sufficient to affirm?" In the general + administration of peace and war, the interest of the sovereign is commonly + the same as that of his people; but Constantius would have thought himself + deeply injured, if the virtues of Julian had defrauded him of any part of + the tribute which he extorted from an oppressed and exhausted country. The + prince who was invested with the ensigns of royalty, might sometimes + presume to correct the rapacious insolence of his inferior agents, to + expose their corrupt arts, and to introduce an equal and easier mode of + collection. But the management of the finances was more safely intrusted + to Florentius, prætorian præfect of Gaul, an effeminate + tyrant, incapable of pity or remorse: and the haughty minister complained + of the most decent and gentle opposition, while Julian himself was rather + inclined to censure the weakness of his own behavior. The Cæsar had + rejected, with abhorrence, a mandate for the levy of an extraordinary tax; + a new superindiction, which the præfect had offered for his + signature; and the faithful picture of the public misery, by which he had + been obliged to justify his refusal, offended the court of Constantius. We + may enjoy the pleasure of reading the sentiments of Julian, as he + expresses them with warmth and freedom in a letter to one of his most + intimate friends. After stating his own conduct, he proceeds in the + following terms: "Was it possible for the disciple of Plato and Aristotle + to act otherwise than I have done? Could I abandon the unhappy subjects + intrusted to my care? Was I not called upon to defend them from the + repeated injuries of these unfeeling robbers? A tribune who deserts his + post is punished with death, and deprived of the honors of burial. With + what justice could I pronounce <strong><em>his</em></strong> sentence, if, + in the hour of danger, I myself neglected a duty far more sacred and far + more important? God has placed me in this elevated post; his providence + will guard and support me. Should I be condemned to suffer, I shall derive + comfort from the testimony of a pure and upright conscience. Would to + Heaven that I still possessed a counsellor like Sallust! If they think + proper to send me a successor, I shall submit without reluctance; and had + much rather improve the short opportunity of doing good, than enjoy a long + and lasting impunity of evil." The precarious and dependent situation of + Julian displayed his virtues and concealed his defects. The young hero who + supported, in Gaul, the throne of Constantius, was not permitted to reform + the vices of the government; but he had courage to alleviate or to pity + the distress of the people. Unless he had been able to revive the martial + spirit of the Romans, or to introduce the arts of industry and refinement + among their savage enemies, he could not entertain any rational hopes of + securing the public tranquillity, either by the peace or conquest of + Germany. Yet the victories of Julian suspended, for a short time, the + inroads of the Barbarians, and delayed the ruin of the Western Empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + His salutary influence restored the cities of Gaul, which had been so long + exposed to the evils of civil discord, Barbarian war, and domestic + tyranny; and the spirit of industry was revived with the hopes of + enjoyment. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, again flourished under + the protection of the laws; and the <strong><em>curi</em></strong>, or + civil corporations, were again filled with useful and respectable members: + the youth were no longer apprehensive of marriage; and married persons + were no longer apprehensive of posterity: the public and private festivals + were celebrated with customary pomp; and the frequent and secure + intercourse of the provinces displayed the image of national prosperity. A + mind like that of Julian must have felt the general happiness of which he + was the author; but he viewed, with particular satisfaction and + complacency, the city of Paris; the seat of his winter residence, and the + object even of his partial affection. That splendid capital, which now + embraces an ample territory on either side of the Seine, was originally + confined to the small island in the midst of the river, from whence the + inhabitants derived a supply of pure and salubrious water. The river + bathed the foot of the walls; and the town was accessible only by two + wooden bridges. A forest overspread the northern side of the Seine, but on + the south, the ground, which now bears the name of the University, was + insensibly covered with houses, and adorned with a palace and + amphitheatre, baths, an aqueduct, and a field of Mars for the exercise of + the Roman troops. The severity of the climate was tempered by the + neighborhood of the ocean; and with some precautions, which experience had + taught, the vine and fig-tree were successfully cultivated. But in + remarkable winters, the Seine was deeply frozen; and the huge pieces of + ice that floated down the stream, might be compared, by an Asiatic, to the + blocks of white marble which were extracted from the quarries of Phrygia. + The licentiousness and corruption of Antioch recalled to the memory of + Julian the severe and simple manners of his beloved Lutetia; where the + amusements of the theatre were unknown or despised. He indignantly + contrasted the effeminate Syrians with the brave and honest simplicity of + the Gauls, and almost forgave the intemperance, which was the only stain + of the Celtic character. If Julian could now revisit the capital of + France, he might converse with men of science and genius, capable of + understanding and of instructing a disciple of the Greeks; he might excuse + the lively and graceful follies of a nation, whose martial spirit has + never been enervated by the indulgence of luxury; and he must applaud the + perfection of that inestimable art, which softens and refines and + embellishes the intercourse of social life.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch20-p1" id="linkch20-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Motives, Progress, And Effects Of The Conversion Of +Constantine.—Legal Establishment And Constitution Of The +Christian Or Catholic Church.<br /> +</pre> + <p> + The public establishment of Christianity may be considered as one of those + important and domestic revolutions which excite the most lively curiosity, + and afford the most valuable instruction. The victories and the civil + policy of Constantine no longer influence the state of Europe; but a + considerable portion of the globe still retains the impression which it + received from the conversion of that monarch; and the ecclesiastical + institutions of his reign are still connected, by an indissoluble chain, + with the opinions, the passions, and the interests of the present + generation.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the consideration of a subject which may be examined with impartiality, + but cannot be viewed with indifference, a difficulty immediately arises of + a very unexpected nature; that of ascertaining the real and precise date + of the conversion of Constantine. The eloquent Lactantius, in the midst of + his court, seems impatient to proclaim to the world the glorious example + of the sovereign of Gaul; who, in the first moments of his reign, + acknowledged and adored the majesty of the true and only God. The learned + Eusebius has ascribed the faith of Constantine to the miraculous sign + which was displayed in the heavens whilst he meditated and prepared the + Italian expedition. The historian Zosimus maliciously asserts, that the + emperor had imbrued his hands in the blood of his eldest son, before he + publicly renounced the gods of Rome and of his ancestors. The perplexity + produced by these discordant authorities is derived from the behavior of + Constantine himself. According to the strictness of ecclesiastical + language, the first of the <strong><em>Christian</em></strong> emperors + was unworthy of that name, till the moment of his death; since it was only + during his last illness that he received, as a catechumen, the imposition + of hands, and was afterwards admitted, by the initiatory rites of baptism, + into the number of the faithful. The Christianity of Constantine must be + allowed in a much more vague and qualified sense; and the nicest accuracy + is required in tracing the slow and almost imperceptible gradations by + which the monarch declared himself the protector, and at length the + proselyte, of the church. It was an arduous task to eradicate the habits + and prejudices of his education, to acknowledge the divine power of + Christ, and to understand that the truth of his revelation was + incompatible with the worship of the gods. The obstacles which he had + probably experienced in his own mind, instructed him to proceed with + caution in the momentous change of a national religion; and he insensibly + discovered his new opinions, as far as he could enforce them with safety + and with effect. During the whole course of his reign, the stream of + Christianity flowed with a gentle, though accelerated, motion: but its + general direction was sometimes checked, and sometimes diverted, by the + accidental circumstances of the times, and by the prudence, or possibly by + the caprice, of the monarch. His ministers were permitted to signify the + intentions of their master in the various language which was best adapted + to their respective principles; and he artfully balanced the hopes and + fears of his subjects, by publishing in the same year two edicts; the + first of which enjoined the solemn observance of Sunday, and the second + directed the regular consultation of the Aruspices. While this important + revolution yet remained in suspense, the Christians and the Pagans watched + the conduct of their sovereign with the same anxiety, but with very + opposite sentiments. The former were prompted by every motive of zeal, as + well as vanity, to exaggerate the marks of his favor, and the evidences of + his faith. The latter, till their just apprehensions were changed into + despair and resentment, attempted to conceal from the world, and from + themselves, that the gods of Rome could no longer reckon the emperor in + the number of their votaries. The same passions and prejudices have + engaged the partial writers of the times to connect the public profession + of Christianity with the most glorious or the most ignominious æra + of the reign of Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Whatever symptoms of Christian piety might transpire in the discourses or + actions of Constantine, he persevered till he was near forty years of age + in the practice of the established religion; and the same conduct which in + the court of Nicomedia might be imputed to his fear, could be ascribed + only to the inclination or policy of the sovereign of Gaul. His liberality + restored and enriched the temples of the gods; the medals which issued + from his Imperial mint are impressed with the figures and attributes of + Jupiter and Apollo, of Mars and Hercules; and his filial piety increased + the council of Olympus by the solemn apotheosis of his father Constantius. + But the devotion of Constantine was more peculiarly directed to the genius + of the Sun, the Apollo of Greek and Roman mythology; and he was pleased to + be represented with the symbols of the God of Light and Poetry. The + unerring shafts of that deity, the brightness of his eyes, his laurel + wreath, immortal beauty, and elegant accomplishments, seem to point him + out as the patron of a young hero. The altars of Apollo were crowned with + the votive offerings of Constantine; and the credulous multitude were + taught to believe, that the emperor was permitted to behold with mortal + eyes the visible majesty of their tutelar deity; and that, either walking + or in a vision, he was blessed with the auspicious omens of a long and + victorious reign. The Sun was universally celebrated as the invincible + guide and protector of Constantine; and the Pagans might reasonably expect + that the insulted god would pursue with unrelenting vengeance the impiety + of his ungrateful favorite.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As long as Constantine exercised a limited sovereignty over the provinces + of Gaul, his Christian subjects were protected by the authority, and + perhaps by the laws, of a prince, who wisely left to the gods the care of + vindicating their own honor. If we may credit the assertion of Constantine + himself, he had been an indignant spectator of the savage cruelties which + were inflicted, by the hands of Roman soldiers, on those citizens whose + religion was their only crime. In the East and in the West, he had seen + the different effects of severity and indulgence; and as the former was + rendered still more odious by the example of Galerius, his implacable + enemy, the latter was recommended to his imitation by the authority and + advice of a dying father. The son of Constantius immediately suspended or + repealed the edicts of persecution, and granted the free exercise of their + religious ceremonies to all those who had already professed themselves + members of the church. They were soon encouraged to depend on the favor as + well as on the justice of their sovereign, who had imbibed a secret and + sincere reverence for the name of Christ, and for the God of the + Christians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + About five months after the conquest of Italy, the emperor made a solemn + and authentic declaration of his sentiments by the celebrated edict of + Milan, which restored peace to the Catholic church. In the personal + interview of the two western princes, Constantine, by the ascendant of + genius and power, obtained the ready concurrence of his colleague, + Licinius; the union of their names and authority disarmed the fury of + Maximin; and after the death of the tyrant of the East, the edict of Milan + was received as a general and fundamental law of the Roman world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The wisdom of the emperors provided for the restitution of all the civil + and religious rights of which the Christians had been so unjustly + deprived. It was enacted that the places of worship, and public lands, + which had been confiscated, should be restored to the church, without + dispute, without delay, and without expense; and this severe injunction + was accompanied with a gracious promise, that if any of the purchasers had + paid a fair and adequate price, they should be indemnified from the + Imperial treasury. The salutary regulations which guard the future + tranquillity of the faithful are framed on the principles of enlarged and + equal toleration; and such an equality must have been interpreted by a + recent sect as an advantageous and honorable distinction. The two emperors + proclaim to the world, that they have granted a free and absolute power to + the Christians, and to all others, of following the religion which each + individual thinks proper to prefer, to which he has addicted his mind, and + which he may deem the best adapted to his own use. They carefully explain + every ambiguous word, remove every exception, and exact from the governors + of the provinces a strict obedience to the true and simple meaning of an + edict, which was designed to establish and secure, without any limitation, + the claims of religious liberty. They condescend to assign two weighty + reasons which have induced them to allow this universal toleration: the + humane intention of consulting the peace and happiness of their people; + and the pious hope, that, by such a conduct, they shall appease and + propitiate the Deity, whose seat is in heaven. They gratefully acknowledge + the many signal proofs which they have received of the divine favor; and + they trust that the same Providence will forever continue to protect the + prosperity of the prince and people. From these vague and indefinite + expressions of piety, three suppositions may be deduced, of a different, + but not of an incompatible nature. The mind of Constantine might fluctuate + between the Pagan and the Christian religions. According to the loose and + complying notions of Polytheism, he might acknowledge the God of the + Christians as <strong><em>one</em></strong> of the <strong><em>many</em></strong> + deities who compose the hierarchy of heaven. Or perhaps he might embrace + the philosophic and pleasing idea, that, notwithstanding the variety of + names, of rites, and of opinions, all the sects, and all the nations of + mankind, are united in the worship of the common Father and Creator of the + universe.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the counsels of princes are more frequently influenced by views of + temporal advantage, than by considerations of abstract and speculative + truth. The partial and increasing favor of Constantine may naturally be + referred to the esteem which he entertained for the moral character of the + Christians; and to a persuasion, that the propagation of the gospel would + inculcate the practice of private and public virtue. Whatever latitude an + absolute monarch may assume in his own conduct, whatever indulgence he may + claim for his own passions, it is undoubtedly his interest that all his + subjects should respect the natural and civil obligations of society. But + the operation of the wisest laws is imperfect and precarious. They seldom + inspire virtue, they cannot always restrain vice. Their power is + insufficient to prohibit all that they condemn, nor can they always punish + the actions which they prohibit. The legislators of antiquity had summoned + to their aid the powers of education and of opinion. But every principle + which had once maintained the vigor and purity of Rome and Sparta, was + long since extinguished in a declining and despotic empire. Philosophy + still exercised her temperate sway over the human mind, but the cause of + virtue derived very feeble support from the influence of the Pagan + superstition. Under these discouraging circumstances, a prudent magistrate + might observe with pleasure the progress of a religion which diffused + among the people a pure, benevolent, and universal system of ethics, + adapted to every duty and every condition of life; recommended as the will + and reason of the supreme Deity, and enforced by the sanction of eternal + rewards or punishments. The experience of Greek and Roman history could + not inform the world how far the system of national manners might be + reformed and improved by the precepts of a divine revelation; and + Constantine might listen with some confidence to the flattering, and + indeed reasonable, assurances of Lactantius. The eloquent apologist seemed + firmly to expect, and almost ventured to promise, <strong><em>that</em></strong> + the establishment of Christianity would restore the innocence and felicity + of the primitive age; <strong><em>that</em></strong> the worship of the + true God would extinguish war and dissension among those who mutually + considered themselves as the children of a common parent; <strong><em>that</em></strong> + every impure desire, every angry or selfish passion, would be restrained + by the knowledge of the gospel; and <strong><em>that</em></strong> the + magistrates might sheath the sword of justice among a people who would be + universally actuated by the sentiments of truth and piety, of equity and + moderation, of harmony and universal love.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The passive and unresisting obedience, which bows under the yoke of + authority, or even of oppression, must have appeared, in the eyes of an + absolute monarch, the most conspicuous and useful of the evangelic + virtues. The primitive Christians derived the institution of civil + government, not from the consent of the people, but from the decrees of + Heaven. The reigning emperor, though he had usurped the sceptre by treason + and murder, immediately assumed the sacred character of vicegerent of the + Deity. To the Deity alone he was accountable for the abuse of his power; + and his subjects were indissolubly bound, by their oath of fidelity, to a + tyrant, who had violated every law of nature and society. The humble + Christians were sent into the world as sheep among wolves; and since they + were not permitted to employ force even in the defence of their religion, + they should be still more criminal if they were tempted to shed the blood + of their fellow-creatures in disputing the vain privileges, or the sordid + possessions, of this transitory life. Faithful to the doctrine of the + apostle, who in the reign of Nero had preached the duty of unconditional + submission, the Christians of the three first centuries preserved their + conscience pure and innocent of the guilt of secret conspiracy, or open + rebellion. While they experienced the rigor of persecution, they were + never provoked either to meet their tyrants in the field, or indignantly + to withdraw themselves into some remote and sequestered corner of the + globe. The Protestants of France, of Germany, and of Britain, who asserted + with such intrepid courage their civil and religious freedom, have been + insulted by the invidious comparison between the conduct of the primitive + and of the reformed Christians. Perhaps, instead of censure, some applause + may be due to the superior sense and spirit of our ancestors, who had + convinced themselves that religion cannot abolish the unalienable rights + of human nature. Perhaps the patience of the primitive church may be + ascribed to its weakness, as well as to its virtue. A sect of unwarlike + plebeians, without leaders, without arms, without fortifications, must + have encountered inevitable destruction in a rash and fruitless resistance + to the master of the Roman legions. But the Christians, when they + deprecated the wrath of Diocletian, or solicited the favor of Constantine, + could allege, with truth and confidence, that they held the principle of + passive obedience, and that, in the space of three centuries, their + conduct had always been conformable to their principles. They might add, + that the throne of the emperors would be established on a fixed and + permanent basis, if all their subjects, embracing the Christian doctrine, + should learn to suffer and to obey.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the general order of Providence, princes and tyrants are considered as + the ministers of Heaven, appointed to rule or to chastise the nations of + the earth. But sacred history affords many illustrious examples of the + more immediate interposition of the Deity in the government of his chosen + people. The sceptre and the sword were committed to the hands of Moses, of + Joshua, of Gideon, of David, of the Maccabees; the virtues of those heroes + were the motive or the effect of the divine favor, the success of their + arms was destined to achieve the deliverance or the triumph of the church. + If the judges of Isræl were occasional and temporary magistrates, + the kings of Judah derived from the royal unction of their great ancestor + an hereditary and indefeasible right, which could not be forfeited by + their own vices, nor recalled by the caprice of their subjects. The same + extraordinary providence, which was no longer confined to the Jewish + people, might elect Constantine and his family as the protectors of the + Christian world; and the devout Lactantius announces, in a prophetic tone, + the future glories of his long and universal reign. Galerius and Maximin, + Maxentius and Licinius, were the rivals who shared with the favorite of + heaven the provinces of the empire. The tragic deaths of Galerius and + Maximin soon gratified the resentment, and fulfilled the sanguine + expectations, of the Christians. The success of Constantine against + Maxentius and Licinius removed the two formidable competitors who still + opposed the triumph of the second David, and his cause might seem to claim + the peculiar interposition of Providence. The character of the Roman + tyrant disgraced the purple and human nature; and though the Christians + might enjoy his precarious favor, they were exposed, with the rest of his + subjects, to the effects of his wanton and capricious cruelty. The conduct + of Licinius soon betrayed the reluctance with which he had consented to + the wise and humane regulations of the edict of Milan. The convocation of + provincial synods was prohibited in his dominions; his Christian officers + were ignominiously dismissed; and if he avoided the guilt, or rather + danger, of a general persecution, his partial oppressions were rendered + still more odious by the violation of a solemn and voluntary engagement. + While the East, according to the lively expression of Eusebius, was + involved in the shades of infernal darkness, the auspicious rays of + celestial light warmed and illuminated the provinces of the West. The + piety of Constantine was admitted as an unexceptionable proof of the + justice of his arms; and his use of victory confirmed the opinion of the + Christians, that their hero was inspired, and conducted, by the Lord of + Hosts. The conquest of Italy produced a general edict of toleration; and + as soon as the defeat of Licinius had invested Constantine with the sole + dominion of the Roman world, he immediately, by circular letters, exhorted + all his subjects to imitate, without delay, the example of their + sovereign, and to embrace the divine truth of Christianity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch20-p2" id="linkch20-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The assurance that the elevation of Constantine was intimately connected + with the designs of Providence, instilled into the minds of the Christians + two opinions, which, by very different means, assisted the accomplishment + of the prophecy. Their warm and active loyalty exhausted in his favor + every resource of human industry; and they confidently expected that their + strenuous efforts would be seconded by some divine and miraculous aid. The + enemies of Constantine have imputed to interested motives the alliance + which he insensibly contracted with the Catholic church, and which + apparently contributed to the success of his ambition. In the beginning of + the fourth century, the Christians still bore a very inadequate proportion + to the inhabitants of the empire; but among a degenerate people, who + viewed the change of masters with the indifference of slaves, the spirit + and union of a religious party might assist the popular leader, to whose + service, from a principle of conscience, they had devoted their lives and + fortunes. The example of his father had instructed Constantine to esteem + and to reward the merit of the Christians; and in the distribution of + public offices, he had the advantage of strengthening his government, by + the choice of ministers or generals, in whose fidelity he could repose a + just and unreserved confidence. By the influence of these dignified + missionaries, the proselytes of the new faith must have multiplied in the + court and army; the Barbarians of Germany, who filled the ranks of the + legions, were of a careless temper, which acquiesced without resistance in + the religion of their commander; and when they passed the Alps, it may + fairly be presumed, that a great number of the soldiers had already + consecrated their swords to the service of Christ and of Constantine. The + habits of mankind and the interests of religion gradually abated the + horror of war and bloodshed, which had so long prevailed among the + Christians; and in the councils which were assembled under the gracious + protection of Constantine, the authority of the bishops was seasonably + employed to ratify the obligation of the military oath, and to inflict the + penalty of excommunication on those soldiers who threw away their arms + during the peace of the church. While Constantine, in his own dominions, + increased the number and zeal of his faithful adherents, he could depend + on the support of a powerful faction in those provinces which were still + possessed or usurped by his rivals. A secret disaffection was diffused + among the Christian subjects of Maxentius and Licinius; and the + resentment, which the latter did not attempt to conceal, served only to + engage them still more deeply in the interest of his competitor. The + regular correspondence which connected the bishops of the most distant + provinces, enabled them freely to communicate their wishes and their + designs, and to transmit without danger any useful intelligence, or any + pious contributions, which might promote the service of Constantine, who + publicly declared that he had taken up arms for the deliverance of the + church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The enthusiasm which inspired the troops, and perhaps the emperor himself, + had sharpened their swords while it satisfied their conscience. They + marched to battle with the full assurance, that the same God, who had + formerly opened a passage to the Isrælites through the waters of + Jordan, and had thrown down the walls of Jericho at the sound of the + trumpets of Joshua, would display his visible majesty and power in the + victory of Constantine. The evidence of ecclesiastical history is prepared + to affirm, that their expectations were justified by the conspicuous + miracle to which the conversion of the first Christian emperor has been + almost unanimously ascribed. The real or imaginary cause of so important + an event, deserves and demands the attention of posterity; and I shall + endeavor to form a just estimate of the famous vision of Constantine, by a + distinct consideration of the <strong><em>standard</em></strong>, the + <strong><em>dream</em></strong>, and the <strong><em>celestial sign</em></strong>; + by separating the historical, the natural, and the marvellous parts of + this extraordinary story, which, in the composition of a specious + argument, have been artfully confounded in one splendid and brittle mass.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. An instrument of the tortures which were inflicted only on slaves and + strangers, became on object of horror in the eyes of a Roman citizen; and + the ideas of guilt, of pain, and of ignominy, were closely united with the + idea of the cross. The piety, rather than the humanity, of Constantine + soon abolished in his dominions the punishment which the Savior of mankind + had condescended to suffer; but the emperor had already learned to despise + the prejudices of his education, and of his people, before he could erect + in the midst of Rome his own statue, bearing a cross in its right hand; + with an inscription which referred the victory of his arms, and the + deliverance of Rome, to the virtue of that salutary sign, the true symbol + of force and courage. The same symbol sanctified the arms of the soldiers + of Constantine; the cross glittered on their helmet, was engraved on their + shields, was interwoven into their banners; and the consecrated emblems + which adorned the person of the emperor himself, were distinguished only + by richer materials and more exquisite workmanship. But the principal + standard which displayed the triumph of the cross was styled the <strong><em>Labarum</em></strong>, + an obscure, though celebrated name, which has been vainly derived from + almost all the languages of the world. It is described as a long pike + intersected by a transversal beam. The silken veil, which hung down from + the beam, was curiously inwrought with the images of the reigning monarch + and his children. The summit of the pike supported a crown of gold which + enclosed the mysterious monogram, at once expressive of the figure of the + cross, and the initial letters, of the name of Christ. The safety of the + labarum was intrusted to fifty guards, of approved valor and fidelity; + their station was marked by honors and emoluments; and some fortunate + accidents soon introduced an opinion, that as long as the guards of the + labarum were engaged in the execution of their office, they were secure + and invulnerable amidst the darts of the enemy. In the second civil war, + Licinius felt and dreaded the power of this consecrated banner, the sight + of which, in the distress of battle, animated the soldiers of Constantine + with an invincible enthusiasm, and scattered terror and dismay through the + ranks of the adverse legions. The Christian emperors, who respected the + example of Constantine, displayed in all their military expeditions the + standard of the cross; but when the degenerate successors of Theodosius + had ceased to appear in person at the head of their armies, the labarum + was deposited as a venerable but useless relic in the palace of + Constantinople. Its honors are still preserved on the medals of the + Flavian family. Their grateful devotion has placed the monogram of Christ + in the midst of the ensigns of Rome. The solemn epithets of, safety of the + republic, glory of the army, restoration of public happiness, are equally + applied to the religious and military trophies; and there is still extant + a medal of the emperor Constantius, where the standard of the labarum is + accompanied with these memorable words, By This Sign Thou Shalt Conquer.<br /> + </p> + <p> + II. In all occasions of danger and distress, it was the practice of the + primitive Christians to fortify their minds and bodies by the sign of the + cross, which they used, in all their ecclesiastical rites, in all the + daily occurrences of life, as an infallible preservative against every + species of spiritual or temporal evil. The authority of the church might + alone have had sufficient weight to justify the devotion of Constantine, + who in the same prudent and gradual progress acknowledged the truth, and + assumed the symbol, of Christianity. But the testimony of a contemporary + writer, who in a formal treatise has avenged the cause of religion, + bestows on the piety of the emperor a more awful and sublime character. He + affirms, with the most perfect confidence, that in the night which + preceded the last battle against Maxentius, Constantine was admonished in + a dream * to inscribe the shields of his soldiers with the <strong><em>celestial + sign of God</em></strong>, the sacred monogram of the name of Christ; that + he executed the commands of Heaven, and that his valor and obedience were + rewarded by the decisive victory of the Milvian Bridge. Some + considerations might perhaps incline a sceptical mind to suspect the + judgment or the veracity of the rhetorician, whose pen, either from zeal + or interest, was devoted to the cause of the prevailing faction. He + appears to have published his deaths of the persecutors at Nicomedia about + three years after the Roman victory; but the interval of a thousand miles, + and a thousand days, will allow an ample latitude for the invention of + declaimers, the credulity of party, and the tacit approbation of the + emperor himself who might listen without indignation to a marvellous tale, + which exalted his fame, and promoted his designs. In favor of Licinius, + who still dissembled his animosity to the Christians, the same author has + provided a similar vision, of a form of prayer, which was communicated by + an angel, and repeated by the whole army before they engaged the legions + of the tyrant Maximin. The frequent repetition of miracles serves to + provoke, where it does not subdue, the reason of mankind; but if the dream + of Constantine is separately considered, it may be naturally explained + either by the policy or the enthusiasm of the emperor. Whilst his anxiety + for the approaching day, which must decide the fate of the empire, was + suspended by a short and interrupted slumber, the venerable form of + Christ, and the well-known symbol of his religion, might forcibly offer + themselves to the active fancy of a prince who reverenced the name, and + had perhaps secretly implored the power, of the God of the Christians. As + readily might a consummate statesman indulge himself in the use of one of + those military stratagems, one of those pious frauds, which Philip and + Sertorius had employed with such art and effect. The præternatural + origin of dreams was universally admitted by the nations of antiquity, and + a considerable part of the Gallic army was already prepared to place their + confidence in the salutary sign of the Christian religion. The secret + vision of Constantine could be disproved only by the event; and the + intrepid hero who had passed the Alps and the Apennine, might view with + careless despair the consequences of a defeat under the walls of Rome. The + senate and people, exulting in their own deliverance from an odious + tyrant, acknowledged that the victory of Constantine surpassed the powers + of man, without daring to insinuate that it had been obtained by the + protection of the <strong><em>Gods</em></strong>. The triumphal arch, + which was erected about three years after the event, proclaims, in + ambiguous language, that by the greatness of his own mind, and by an + <strong><em>instinct</em></strong> or impulse of the Divinity, he had + saved and avenged the Roman republic. The Pagan orator, who had seized an + earlier opportunity of celebrating the virtues of the conqueror, supposes + that he alone enjoyed a secret and intimate commerce with the Supreme + Being, who delegated the care of mortals to his subordinate deities; and + thus assigns a very plausible reason why the subjects of Constantine + should not presume to embrace the new religion of their sovereign.<br /> + </p> + <p> + III. The philosopher, who with calm suspicion examines the dreams and + omens, the miracles and prodigies, of profane or even of ecclesiastical + history, will probably conclude, that if the eyes of the spectators have + sometimes been deceived by fraud, the understanding of the readers has + much more frequently been insulted by fiction. Every event, or appearance, + or accident, which seems to deviate from the ordinary course of nature, + has been rashly ascribed to the immediate action of the Deity; and the + astonished fancy of the multitude has sometimes given shape and color, + language and motion, to the fleeting but uncommon meteors of the air. + Nazarius and Eusebius are the two most celebrated orators, who, in studied + panegyrics, have labored to exalt the glory of Constantine. Nine years + after the Roman victory, Nazarius describes an army of divine warriors, + who seemed to fall from the sky: he marks their beauty, their spirit, + their gigantic forms, the stream of light which beamed from their + celestial armor, their patience in suffering themselves to be heard, as + well as seen, by mortals; and their declaration that they were sent, that + they flew, to the assistance of the great Constantine. For the truth of + this prodigy, the Pagan orator appeals to the whole Gallic nation, in + whose presence he was then speaking; and seems to hope that the ancient + apparitions would now obtain credit from this recent and public event. The + Christian fable of Eusebius, which, in the space of twenty-six years, + might arise from the original dream, is cast in a much more correct and + elegant mould. In one of the marches of Constantine, he is reported to + have seen with his own eyes the luminous trophy of the cross, placed above + the meridian sun and inscribed with the following words: By This Conquer. + This amazing object in the sky astonished the whole army, as well as the + emperor himself, who was yet undetermined in the choice of a religion: but + his astonishment was converted into faith by the vision of the ensuing + night. Christ appeared before his eyes; and displaying the same celestial + sign of the cross, he directed Constantine to frame a similar standard, + and to march, with an assurance of victory, against Maxentius and all his + enemies. The learned bishop of Cæsarea appears to be sensible, that + the recent discovery of this marvellous anecdote would excite some + surprise and distrust among the most pious of his readers. Yet, instead of + ascertaining the precise circumstances of time and place, which always + serve to detect falsehood or establish truth; instead of collecting and + recording the evidence of so many living witnesses who must have been + spectators of this stupendous miracle; Eusebius contents himself with + alleging a very singular testimony; that of the deceased Constantine, who, + many years after the event, in the freedom of conversation, had related to + him this extraordinary incident of his own life, and had attested the + truth of it by a solemn oath. The prudence and gratitude of the learned + prelate forbade him to suspect the veracity of his victorious master; but + he plainly intimates, that in a fact of such a nature, he should have + refused his assent to any meaner authority. This motive of credibility + could not survive the power of the Flavian family; and the celestial sign, + which the Infidels might afterwards deride, was disregarded by the + Christians of the age which immediately followed the conversion of + Constantine. But the Catholic church, both of the East and of the West, + has adopted a prodigy which favors, or seems to favor, the popular worship + of the cross. The vision of Constantine maintained an honorable place in + the legend of superstition, till the bold and sagacious spirit of + criticism presumed to depreciate the triumph, and to arraign the truth, of + the first Christian emperor.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The Protestant and philosophic readers of the present age will incline to + believe, that in the account of his own conversion, Constantine attested a + wilful falsehood by a solemn and deliberate perjury. They may not hesitate + to pronounce, that in the choice of a religion, his mind was determined + only by a sense of interest; and that (according to the expression of a + profane poet ) he used the altars of the church as a convenient footstool + to the throne of the empire. A conclusion so harsh and so absolute is not, + however, warranted by our knowledge of human nature, of Constantine, or of + Christianity. In an age of religious fervor, the most artful statesmen are + observed to feel some part of the enthusiasm which they inspire, and the + most orthodox saints assume the dangerous privilege of defending the cause + of truth by the arms of deceit and falsehood. Personal interest is often + the standard of our belief, as well as of our practice; and the same + motives of temporal advantage which might influence the public conduct and + professions of Constantine, would insensibly dispose his mind to embrace a + religion so propitious to his fame and fortunes. His vanity was gratified + by the flattering assurance, that <strong><em>he</em></strong> had been + chosen by Heaven to reign over the earth; success had justified his divine + title to the throne, and that title was founded on the truth of the + Christian revelation. As real virtue is sometimes excited by undeserved + applause, the specious piety of Constantine, if at first it was only + specious, might gradually, by the influence of praise, of habit, and of + example, be matured into serious faith and fervent devotion. The bishops + and teachers of the new sect, whose dress and manners had not qualified + them for the residence of a court, were admitted to the Imperial table; + they accompanied the monarch in his expeditions; and the ascendant which + one of them, an Egyptian or a Spaniard, acquired over his mind, was + imputed by the Pagans to the effect of magic. Lactantius, who has adorned + the precepts of the gospel with the eloquence of Cicero, and Eusebius, who + has consecrated the learning and philosophy of the Greeks to the service + of religion, were both received into the friendship and familiarity of + their sovereign; and those able masters of controversy could patiently + watch the soft and yielding moments of persuasion, and dexterously apply + the arguments which were the best adapted to his character and + understanding. Whatever advantages might be derived from the acquisition + of an Imperial proselyte, he was distinguished by the splendor of his + purple, rather than by the superiority of wisdom, or virtue, from the many + thousands of his subjects who had embraced the doctrines of Christianity. + Nor can it be deemed incredible, that the mind of an unlettered soldier + should have yielded to the weight of evidence, which, in a more + enlightened age, has satisfied or subdued the reason of a Grotius, a + Pascal, or a Locke. In the midst of the incessant labors of his great + office, this soldier employed, or affected to employ, the hours of the + night in the diligent study of the Scriptures, and the composition of + theological discourses; which he afterwards pronounced in the presence of + a numerous and applauding audience. In a very long discourse, which is + still extant, the royal preacher expatiates on the various proofs still + extant, the royal preacher expatiates on the various proofs of religion; + but he dwells with peculiar complacency on the Sibylline verses, and the + fourth eclogue of Virgil. Forty years before the birth of Christ, the + Mantuan bard, as if inspired by the celestial muse of Isaiah, had + celebrated, with all the pomp of oriental metaphor, the return of the + Virgin, the fall of the serpent, the approaching birth of a godlike child, + the offspring of the great Jupiter, who should expiate the guilt of human + kind, and govern the peaceful universe with the virtues of his father; the + rise and appearance of a heavenly race, primitive nation throughout the + world; and the gradual restoration of the innocence and felicity of the + golden age. The poet was perhaps unconscious of the secret sense and + object of these sublime predictions, which have been so unworthily applied + to the infant son of a consul, or a triumvir; but if a more splendid, and + indeed specious interpretation of the fourth eclogue contributed to the + conversion of the first Christian emperor, Virgil may deserve to be ranked + among the most successful missionaries of the gospel.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch20-p3" id="linkch20-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The awful mysteries of the Christian faith and worship were concealed from + the eyes of strangers, and even of catechumens, with an affected secrecy, + which served to excite their wonder and curiosity. But the severe rules of + discipline which the prudence of the bishops had instituted, were relaxed + by the same prudence in favor of an Imperial proselyte, whom it was so + important to allure, by every gentle condescension, into the pale of the + church; and Constantine was permitted, at least by a tacit dispensation, + to enjoy <strong><em>most</em></strong> of the privileges, before he had + contracted <strong><em>any</em></strong> of the obligations, of a + Christian. Instead of retiring from the congregation, when the voice of + the deacon dismissed the profane multitude, he prayed with the faithful, + disputed with the bishops, preached on the most sublime and intricate + subjects of theology, celebrated with sacred rites the vigil of Easter, + and publicly declared himself, not only a partaker, but, in some measure, + a priest and hierophant of the Christian mysteries. The pride of + Constantine might assume, and his services had deserved, some + extraordinary distinction: and ill-timed rigor might have blasted the + unripened fruits of his conversion; and if the doors of the church had + been strictly closed against a prince who had deserted the altars of the + gods, the master of the empire would have been left destitute of any form + of religious worship. In his last visit to Rome, he piously disclaimed and + insulted the superstition of his ancestors, by refusing to lead the + military procession of the equestrian order, and to offer the public vows + to the Jupiter of the Capitoline Hill. Many years before his baptism and + death, Constantine had proclaimed to the world, that neither his person + nor his image should ever more be seen within the walls of an idolatrous + temple; while he distributed through the provinces a variety of medals and + pictures, which represented the emperor in an humble and suppliant posture + of Christian devotion.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The pride of Constantine, who refused the privileges of a catechumen, + cannot easily be explained or excused; but the delay of his baptism may be + justified by the maxims and the practice of ecclesiastical antiquity. The + sacrament of baptism was regularly administered by the bishop himself, + with his assistant clergy, in the cathedral church of the diocese, during + the fifty days between the solemn festivals of Easter and Pentecost; and + this holy term admitted a numerous band of infants and adult persons into + the bosom of the church. The discretion of parents often suspended the + baptism of their children till they could understand the obligations which + they contracted: the severity of ancient bishops exacted from the new + converts a novitiate of two or three years; and the catechumens + themselves, from different motives of a temporal or a spiritual nature, + were seldom impatient to assume the character of perfect and initiated + Christians. The sacrament of baptism was supposed to contain a full and + absolute expiation of sin; and the soul was instantly restored to its + original purity, and entitled to the promise of eternal salvation. Among + the proselytes of Christianity, there are many who judged it imprudent to + precipitate a salutary rite, which could not be repeated; to throw away an + inestimable privilege, which could never be recovered. By the delay of + their baptism, they could venture freely to indulge their passions in the + enjoyments of this world, while they still retained in their own hands the + means of a sure and easy absolution. The sublime theory of the gospel had + made a much fainter impression on the heart than on the understanding of + Constantine himself. He pursued the great object of his ambition through + the dark and bloody paths of war and policy; and, after the victory, he + abandoned himself, without moderation, to the abuse of his fortune. + Instead of asserting his just superiority above the imperfect heroism and + profane philosophy of Trajan and the Antonines, the mature age of + Constantine forfeited the reputation which he had acquired in his youth. + As he gradually advanced in the knowledge of truth, he proportionally + declined in the practice of virtue; and the same year of his reign in + which he convened the council of Nice, was polluted by the execution, or + rather murder, of his eldest son. This date is alone sufficient to refute + the ignorant and malicious suggestions of Zosimus, who affirms, that, + after the death of Crispus, the remorse of his father accepted from the + ministers of Christianity the expiation which he had vainly solicited from + the Pagan pontiffs. At the time of the death of Crispus, the emperor could + no longer hesitate in the choice of a religion; he could no longer be + ignorant that the church was possessed of an infallible remedy, though he + chose to defer the application of it till the approach of death had + removed the temptation and danger of a relapse. The bishops whom he + summoned, in his last illness, to the palace of Nicomedia, were edified by + the fervor with which he requested and received the sacrament of baptism, + by the solemn protestation that the remainder of his life should be worthy + of a disciple of Christ, and by his humble refusal to wear the Imperial + purple after he had been clothed in the white garment of a Neophyte. The + example and reputation of Constantine seemed to countenance the delay of + baptism. Future tyrants were encouraged to believe, that the innocent + blood which they might shed in a long reign would instantly be washed away + in the waters of regeneration; and the abuse of religion dangerously + undermined the foundations of moral virtue.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The gratitude of the church has exalted the virtues and excused the + failings of a generous patron, who seated Christianity on the throne of + the Roman world; and the Greeks, who celebrate the festival of the + Imperial saint, seldom mention the name of Constantine without adding the + title of <strong><em>equal to the Apostles</em></strong>. Such a + comparison, if it allude to the character of those divine missionaries, + must be imputed to the extravagance of impious flattery. But if the + parallel be confined to the extent and number of their evangelic victories + the success of Constantine might perhaps equal that of the Apostles + themselves. By the edicts of toleration, he removed the temporal + disadvantages which had hitherto retarded the progress of Christianity; + and its active and numerous ministers received a free permission, a + liberal encouragement, to recommend the salutary truths of revelation by + every argument which could affect the reason or piety of mankind. The + exact balance of the two religions continued but a moment; and the + piercing eye of ambition and avarice soon discovered, that the profession + of Christianity might contribute to the interest of the present, as well + as of a future life. The hopes of wealth and honors, the example of an + emperor, his exhortations, his irresistible smiles, diffused conviction + among the venal and obsequious crowds which usually fill the apartments of + a palace. The cities which signalized a forward zeal by the voluntary + destruction of their temples, were distinguished by municipal privileges, + and rewarded with popular donatives; and the new capital of the East + gloried in the singular advantage that Constantinople was never profaned + by the worship of idols. As the lower ranks of society are governed by + imitation, the conversion of those who possessed any eminence of birth, of + power, or of riches, was soon followed by dependent multitudes. The + salvation of the common people was purchased at an easy rate, if it be + true that, in one year, twelve thousand men were baptized at Rome, besides + a proportionable number of women and children, and that a white garment, + with twenty pieces of gold, had been promised by the emperor to every + convert. The powerful influence of Constantine was not circumscribed by + the narrow limits of his life, or of his dominions. The education which he + bestowed on his sons and nephews secured to the empire a race of princes, + whose faith was still more lively and sincere, as they imbibed, in their + earliest infancy, the spirit, or at least the doctrine, of Christianity. + War and commerce had spread the knowledge of the gospel beyond the + confines of the Roman provinces; and the Barbarians, who had disdained it as + a humble and proscribed sect, soon learned to esteem a religion which had + been so lately embraced by the greatest monarch, and the most civilized + nation, of the globe. The Goths and Germans, who enlisted under the + standard of Rome, revered the cross which glittered at the head of the + legions, and their fierce countrymen received at the same time the lessons + of faith and of humanity. The kings of Iberia and Armenia * worshipped the + god of their protector; and their subjects, who have invariably preserved + the name of Christians, soon formed a sacred and perpetual connection with + their Roman brethren. The Christians of Persia were suspected, in time of + war, of preferring their religion to their country; but as long as peace + subsisted between the two empires, the persecuting spirit of the Magi was + effectually restrained by the interposition of Constantine. The rays of + the gospel illuminated the coast of India. The colonies of Jews, who had + penetrated into Arabia and Ethiopia, opposed the progress of Christianity; + but the labor of the missionaries was in some measure facilitated by a + previous knowledge of the Mosaic revelation; and Abyssinia still reveres + the memory of Frumentius, * who, in the time of Constantine, devoted his + life to the conversion of those sequestered regions. Under the reign of + his son Constantius, Theophilus, who was himself of Indian extraction, was + invested with the double character of ambassador and bishop. He embarked + on the Red Sea with two hundred horses of the purest breed of Cappadocia, + which were sent by the emperor to the prince of the Sabæans, or + Homerites. Theophilus was intrusted with many other useful or curious + presents, which might raise the admiration, and conciliate the friendship, + of the Barbarians; and he successfully employed several years in a + pastoral visit to the churches of the torrid zone.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The irresistible power of the Roman emperors was displayed in the + important and dangerous change of the national religion. The terrors of a + military force silenced the faint and unsupported murmurs of the Pagans, + and there was reason to expect, that the cheerful submission of the + Christian clergy, as well as people, would be the result of conscience and + gratitude. It was long since established, as a fundamental maxim of the + Roman constitution, that every rank of citizens was alike subject to the + laws, and that the care of religion was the right as well as duty of the + civil magistrate. Constantine and his successors could not easily persuade + themselves that they had forfeited, by their conversion, any branch of the + Imperial prerogatives, or that they were incapable of giving laws to a + religion which they had protected and embraced. The emperors still + continued to exercise a supreme jurisdiction over the ecclesiastical + order, and the sixteenth book of the Theodosian code represents, under a + variety of titles, the authority which they assumed in the government of + the Catholic church.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the distinction of the spiritual and temporal powers, which had never + been imposed on the free spirit of Greece and Rome, was introduced and + confirmed by the legal establishment of Christianity. The office of + supreme pontiff, which, from the time of Numa to that of Augustus, had + always been exercised by one of the most eminent of the senators, was at + length united to the Imperial dignity. The first magistrate of the state, + as often as he was prompted by superstition or policy, performed with his + own hands the sacerdotal functions; nor was there any order of priests, + either at Rome or in the provinces, who claimed a more sacred character + among men, or a more intimate communication with the gods. But in the + Christian church, which intrusts the service of the altar to a perpetual + succession of consecrated ministers, the monarch, whose spiritual rank is + less honorable than that of the meanest deacon, was seated below the rails + of the sanctuary, and confounded with the rest of the faithful multitude. + The emperor might be saluted as the father of his people, but he owed a + filial duty and reverence to the fathers of the church; and the same marks + of respect, which Constantine had paid to the persons of saints and + confessors, were soon exacted by the pride of the episcopal order. A + secret conflict between the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions + embarrassed the operation of the Roman government; and a pious emperor was + alarmed by the guilt and danger of touching with a profane hand the ark of + the covenant. The separation of men into the two orders of the clergy and + of the laity was, indeed, familiar to many nations of antiquity; and the + priests of India, of Persia, of Assyria, of Judea, of Æthiopia, of + Egypt, and of Gaul, derived from a celestial origin the temporal power and + possessions which they had acquired. These venerable institutions had + gradually assimilated themselves to the manners and government of their + respective countries; but the opposition or contempt of the civil power + served to cement the discipline of the primitive church. The Christians + had been obliged to elect their own magistrates, to raise and distribute a + peculiar revenue, and to regulate the internal policy of their republic by + a code of laws, which were ratified by the consent of the people and the + practice of three hundred years. When Constantine embraced the faith of + the Christians, he seemed to contract a perpetual alliance with a distinct + and independent society; and the privileges granted or confirmed by that + emperor, or by his successors, were accepted, not as the precarious favors + of the court, but as the just and inalienable rights of the ecclesiastical + order.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The Catholic church was administered by the spiritual and legal + jurisdiction of eighteen hundred bishops; of whom one thousand were seated + in the Greek, and eight hundred in the Latin, provinces of the empire. The + extent and boundaries of their respective dioceses had been variously and + accidentally decided by the zeal and success of the first missionaries, by + the wishes of the people, and by the propagation of the gospel. Episcopal + churches were closely planted along the banks of the Nile, on the + sea-coast of Africa, in the proconsular Asia, and through the southern + provinces of Italy. The bishops of Gaul and Spain, of Thrace and Pontus, + reigned over an ample territory, and delegated their rural suffragans to + execute the subordinate duties of the pastoral office. A Christian diocese + might be spread over a province, or reduced to a village; but all the + bishops possessed an equal and indelible character: they all derived the + same powers and privileges from the apostles, from the people, and from + the laws. While the <strong><em>civil</em></strong> and <strong><em>military</em></strong> + professions were separated by the policy of Constantine, a new and + perpetual order of <strong><em>ecclesiastical</em></strong> ministers, + always respectable, sometimes dangerous, was established in the church and + state. The important review of their station and attributes may be + distributed under the following heads: I. Popular Election. II. Ordination + of the Clergy. III. Property. IV. Civil Jurisdiction. V. Spiritual + censures. VI. Exercise of public oratory. VII. Privilege of legislative + assemblies.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. The freedom of election subsisted long after the legal establishment of + Christianity; and the subjects of Rome enjoyed in the church the privilege + which they had lost in the republic, of choosing the magistrates whom they + were bound to obey. As soon as a bishop had closed his eyes, the + metropolitan issued a commission to one of his suffragans to administer + the vacant see, and prepare, within a limited time, the future election. + The right of voting was vested in the inferior clergy, who were best + qualified to judge of the merit of the candidates; in the senators or + nobles of the city, all those who were distinguished by their rank or + property; and finally in the whole body of the people, who, on the + appointed day, flocked in multitudes from the most remote parts of the + diocese, and sometimes silenced by their tumultuous acclamations, the + voice of reason and the laws of discipline. These acclamations might + accidentally fix on the head of the most deserving competitor; of some + ancient presbyter, some holy monk, or some layman, conspicuous for his + zeal and piety. But the episcopal chair was solicited, especially in the + great and opulent cities of the empire, as a temporal rather than as a + spiritual dignity. The interested views, the selfish and angry passions, + the arts of perfidy and dissimulation, the secret corruption, the open and + even bloody violence which had formerly disgraced the freedom of election + in the commonwealths of Greece and Rome, too often influenced the choice + of the successors of the apostles. While one of the candidates boasted the + honors of his family, a second allured his judges by the delicacies of a + plentiful table, and a third, more guilty than his rivals, offered to + share the plunder of the church among the accomplices of his sacrilegious + hopes. The civil as well as ecclesiastical laws attempted to exclude the + populace from this solemn and important transaction. The canons of ancient + discipline, by requiring several episcopal qualifications, of age, + station, &c., restrained, in some measure, the indiscriminate caprice + of the electors. The authority of the provincial bishops, who were + assembled in the vacant church to consecrate the choice of the people, was + interposed to moderate their passions and to correct their mistakes. The + bishops could refuse to ordain an unworthy candidate, and the rage of + contending factions sometimes accepted their impartial mediation. The + submission, or the resistance, of the clergy and people, on various + occasions, afforded different precedents, which were insensibly converted + into positive laws and provincial customs; but it was every where + admitted, as a fundamental maxim of religious policy, that no bishop could + be imposed on an orthodox church, without the consent of its members. The + emperors, as the guardians of the public peace, and as the first citizens + of Rome and Constantinople, might effectually declare their wishes in the + choice of a primate; but those absolute monarchs respected the freedom of + ecclesiastical elections; and while they distributed and resumed the + honors of the state and army, they allowed eighteen hundred perpetual + magistrates to receive their important offices from the free suffrages of + the people. It was agreeable to the dictates of justice, that these + magistrates should not desert an honorable station from which they could + not be removed; but the wisdom of councils endeavored, without much + success, to enforce the residence, and to prevent the translation, of + bishops. The discipline of the West was indeed less relaxed than that of + the East; but the same passions which made those regulations necessary, + rendered them ineffectual. The reproaches which angry prelates have so + vehemently urged against each other, serve only to expose their common + guilt, and their mutual indiscretion.<br /> + </p> + <p> + II. The bishops alone possessed the faculty of spiritual generation: and + this extraordinary privilege might compensate, in some degree, for the + painful celibacy which was imposed as a virtue, as a duty, and at length + as a positive obligation. The religions of antiquity, which established a + separate order of priests, dedicated a holy race, a tribe or family, to + the perpetual service of the gods. Such institutions were founded for + possession, rather than conquest. The children of the priests enjoyed, + with proud and indolent security, their sacred inheritance; and the fiery + spirit of enthusiasm was abated by the cares, the pleasures, and the + endearments of domestic life. But the Christian sanctuary was open to + every ambitious candidate, who aspired to its heavenly promises or + temporal possessions. This office of priests, like that of soldiers or + magistrates, was strenuously exercised by those men, whose temper and + abilities had prompted them to embrace the ecclesiastical profession, or + who had been selected by a discerning bishop, as the best qualified to + promote the glory and interest of the church. The bishops (till the abuse + was restrained by the prudence of the laws) might constrain the reluctant, + and protect the distressed; and the imposition of hands forever bestowed + some of the most valuable privileges of civil society. The whole body of + the Catholic clergy, more numerous perhaps than the legions, was exempted + * by the emperors from all service, private or public, all municipal + offices, and all personal taxes and contributions, which pressed on their + fellow-citizens with intolerable weight; and the duties of their holy + profession were accepted as a full discharge of their obligations to the + republic. Each bishop acquired an absolute and indefeasible right to the + perpetual obedience of the clerk whom he ordained: the clergy of each + episcopal church, with its dependent parishes, formed a regular and + permanent society; and the cathedrals of Constantinople and Carthage + maintained their peculiar establishment of five hundred ecclesiastical + ministers. Their ranks and numbers were insensibly multiplied by the + superstition of the times, which introduced into the church the splendid + ceremonies of a Jewish or Pagan temple; and a long train of priests, + deacons, sub-deacons, acolythes, exorcists, readers, singers, and + doorkeepers, contributed, in their respective stations, to swell the pomp + and harmony of religious worship. The clerical name and privileges were + extended to many pious fraternities, who devoutly supported the + ecclesiastical throne. Six hundred <strong><em>parabolani</em></strong>, + or adventurers, visited the sick at Alexandria; eleven hundred <strong><em>copiat</em></strong>, + or grave-diggers, buried the dead at Constantinople; and the swarms of + monks, who arose from the Nile, overspread and darkened the face of the + Christian world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch20-p4" id="linkch20-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XX: Conversion Of Constantine.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + III. The edict of Milan secured the revenue as well as the peace of the + church. The Christians not only recovered the lands and houses of which + they had been stripped by the persecuting laws of Diocletian, but they + acquired a perfect title to all the possessions which they had hitherto + enjoyed by the connivance of the magistrate. As soon as Christianity + became the religion of the emperor and the empire, the national clergy + might claim a decent and honorable maintenance; and the payment of an + annual tax might have delivered the people from the more oppressive + tribute, which superstition imposes on her votaries. But as the wants and + expenses of the church increased with her prosperity, the ecclesiastical + order was still supported and enriched by the voluntary oblations of the + faithful. Eight years after the edict of Milan, Constantine granted to all + his subjects the free and universal permission of bequeathing their + fortunes to the holy Catholic church; and their devout liberality, which + during their lives was checked by luxury or avarice, flowed with a profuse + stream at the hour of their death. The wealthy Christians were encouraged + by the example of their sovereign. An absolute monarch, who is rich + without patrimony, may be charitable without merit; and Constantine too + easily believed that he should purchase the favor of Heaven, if he + maintained the idle at the expense of the industrious; and distributed + among the saints the wealth of the republic. The same messenger who + carried over to Africa the head of Maxentius, might be intrusted with an + epistle to Cæcilian, bishop of Carthage. The emperor acquaints him, + that the treasurers of the province are directed to pay into his hands the + sum of three thousand <strong><em>folles</em></strong>, or eighteen + thousand pounds sterling, and to obey his further requisitions for the + relief of the churches of Africa, Numidia, and Mauritania. The liberality + of Constantine increased in a just proportion to his faith, and to his + vices. He assigned in each city a regular allowance of corn, to supply the + fund of ecclesiastical charity; and the persons of both sexes who embraced + the monastic life became the peculiar favorites of their sovereign. The + Christian temples of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constantinople &c., + displayed the ostentatious piety of a prince, ambitious in a declining age + to equal the perfect labors of antiquity. The form of these religious + edifices was simple and oblong; though they might sometimes swell into the + shape of a dome, and sometimes branch into the figure of a cross. The + timbers were framed for the most part of cedars of Libanus; the roof was + covered with tiles, perhaps of gilt brass; and the walls, the columns, the + pavement, were encrusted with variegated marbles. The most precious + ornaments of gold and silver, of silk and gems, were profusely dedicated + to the service of the altar; and this specious magnificence was supported + on the solid and perpetual basis of landed property. In the space of two + centuries, from the reign of Constantine to that of Justinian, the + eighteen hundred churches of the empire were enriched by the frequent and + unalienable gifts of the prince and people. An annual income of six + hundred pounds sterling may be reasonably assigned to the bishops, who + were placed at an equal distance between riches and poverty, but the + standard of their wealth insensibly rose with the dignity and opulence of + the cities which they governed. An authentic but imperfect rent-roll + specifies some houses, shops, gardens, and farms, which belonged to the + three <strong><em>Basilic</em></strong> of Rome, St. Peter, St. Paul, and + St. John Lateran, in the provinces of Italy, Africa, and the East. They + produce, besides a reserved rent of oil, linen, paper, aromatics, &c., + a clear annual revenue of twenty-two thousand pieces of gold, or twelve + thousand pounds sterling. In the age of Constantine and Justinian, the + bishops no longer possessed, perhaps they no longer deserved, the + unsuspecting confidence of their clergy and people. The ecclesiastical + revenues of each diocese were divided into four parts for the respective + uses of the bishop himself, of his inferior clergy, of the poor, and of + the public worship; and the abuse of this sacred trust was strictly and + repeatedly checked. The patrimony of the church was still subject to all + the public compositions of the state. The clergy of Rome, Alexandria, + Thessalonica, &c., might solicit and obtain some partial exemptions; + but the premature attempt of the great council of Rimini, which aspired to + universal freedom, was successfully resisted by the son of Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + IV. The Latin clergy, who erected their tribunal on the ruins of the civil + and common law, have modestly accepted, as the gift of Constantine, the + independent jurisdiction, which was the fruit of time, of accident, and of + their own industry. But the liberality of the Christian emperors had + actually endowed them with some legal prerogatives, which secured and + dignified the sacerdotal character. <strong>1</strong>. Under a despotic + government, the bishops alone enjoyed and asserted the inestimable + privilege of being tried only by their <strong><em>peers</em></strong>; + and even in a capital accusation, a synod of their brethren were the sole + judges of their guilt or innocence. Such a tribunal, unless it was + inflamed by personal resentment or religious discord, might be favorable, + or even partial, to the sacerdotal order: but Constantine was satisfied, + that secret impunity would be less pernicious than public scandal: and the + Nicene council was edited by his public declaration, that if he surprised + a bishop in the act of adultery, he should cast his Imperial mantle over + the episcopal sinner. <strong>2</strong>. The domestic jurisdiction of the + bishops was at once a privilege and a restraint of the ecclesiastical + order, whose civil causes were decently withdrawn from the cognizance of a + secular judge. Their venial offences were not exposed to the shame of a + public trial or punishment; and the gentle correction which the tenderness + of youth may endure from its parents or instructors, was inflicted by the + temperate severity of the bishops. But if the clergy were guilty of any + crime which could not be sufficiently expiated by their degradation from + an honorable and beneficial profession, the Roman magistrate drew the + sword of justice, without any regard to ecclesiastical immunities. <strong>3</strong>. + The arbitration of the bishops was ratified by a positive law; and the + judges were instructed to execute, without appeal or delay, the episcopal + decrees, whose validity had hitherto depended on the consent of the + parties. The conversion of the magistrates themselves, and of the whole + empire, might gradually remove the fears and scruples of the Christians. + But they still resorted to the tribunal of the bishops, whose abilities + and integrity they esteemed; and the venerable Austin enjoyed the + satisfaction of complaining that his spiritual functions were perpetually + interrupted by the invidious labor of deciding the claim or the possession + of silver and gold, of lands and cattle. <strong>4</strong>. The ancient + privilege of sanctuary was transferred to the Christian temples, and + extended, by the liberal piety of the younger Theodosius, to the precincts + of consecrated ground. The fugitive, and even guilty, suppliants were + permitted to implore either the justice, or the mercy, of the Deity and + his ministers. The rash violence of despotism was suspended by the mild + interposition of the church; and the lives or fortunes of the most eminent + subjects might be protected by the mediation of the bishop.<br /> + </p> + <p> + V. The bishop was the perpetual censor of the morals of his people The + discipline of penance was digested into a system of canonical + jurisprudence, which accurately defined the duty of private or public + confession, the rules of evidence, the degrees of guilt, and the measure + of punishment. It was impossible to execute this spiritual censure, if the + Christian pontiff, who punished the obscure sins of the multitude, + respected the conspicuous vices and destructive crimes of the magistrate: + but it was impossible to arraign the conduct of the magistrate, without, + controlling the administration of civil government. Some considerations of + religion, or loyalty, or fear, protected the sacred persons of the + emperors from the zeal or resentment of the bishops; but they boldly + censured and excommunicated the subordinate tyrants, who were not invested + with the majesty of the purple. St. Athanasius excommunicated one of the + ministers of Egypt; and the interdict which he pronounced, of fire and + water, was solemnly transmitted to the churches of Cappadocia. Under the + reign of the younger Theodosius, the polite and eloquent Synesius, one of + the descendants of Hercules, filled the episcopal seat of Ptolemais, near + the ruins of ancient Cyrene, and the philosophic bishop supported with + dignity the character which he had assumed with reluctance. He vanquished + the monster of Libya, the president Andronicus, who abused the authority + of a venal office, invented new modes of rapine and torture, and + aggravated the guilt of oppression by that of sacrilege. After a fruitless + attempt to reclaim the haughty magistrate by mild and religious + admonition, Synesius proceeds to inflict the last sentence of + ecclesiastical justice, which devotes Andronicus, with his associates and + their <strong><em>families</em></strong>, to the abhorrence of earth and + heaven. The impenitent sinners, more cruel than Phalaris or Sennacherib, + more destructive than war, pestilence, or a cloud of locusts, are deprived + of the name and privileges of Christians, of the participation of the + sacraments, and of the hope of Paradise. The bishop exhorts the clergy, + the magistrates, and the people, to renounce all society with the enemies + of Christ; to exclude them from their houses and tables; and to refuse + them the common offices of life, and the decent rites of burial. The + church of Ptolemais, obscure and contemptible as she may appear, addresses + this declaration to all her sister churches of the world; and the profane + who reject her decrees, will be involved in the guilt and punishment of + Andronicus and his impious followers. These spiritual terrors were + enforced by a dexterous application to the Byzantine court; the trembling + president implored the mercy of the church; and the descendants of + Hercules enjoyed the satisfaction of raising a prostrate tyrant from the + ground. Such principles and such examples insensibly prepared the triumph + of the Roman pontiffs, who have trampled on the necks of kings.<br /> + </p> + <p> + VI. Every popular government has experienced the effects of rude or + artificial eloquence. The coldest nature is animated, the firmest reason + is moved, by the rapid communication of the prevailing impulse; and each + hearer is affected by his own passions, and by those of the surrounding + multitude. The ruin of civil liberty had silenced the demagogues of + Athens, and the tribunes of Rome; the custom of preaching which seems to + constitute a considerable part of Christian devotion, had not been + introduced into the temples of antiquity; and the ears of monarchs were + never invaded by the harsh sound of popular eloquence, till the pulpits of + the empire were filled with sacred orators, who possessed some advantages + unknown to their profane predecessors. The arguments and rhetoric of the + tribune were instantly opposed with equal arms, by skilful and resolute + antagonists; and the cause of truth and reason might derive an accidental + support from the conflict of hostile passions. The bishop, or some + distinguished presbyter, to whom he cautiously delegated the powers of + preaching, harangued, without the danger of interruption or reply, a + submissive multitude, whose minds had been prepared and subdued by the + awful ceremonies of religion. Such was the strict subordination of the + Catholic church, that the same concerted sounds might issue at once from a + hundred pulpits of Italy or Egypt, if they were <strong><em>tuned</em></strong> + by the master hand of the Roman or Alexandrian primate. The design of this + institution was laudable, but the fruits were not always salutary. The + preachers recommended the practice of the social duties; but they exalted + the perfection of monastic virtue, which is painful to the individual, and + useless to mankind. Their charitable exhortations betrayed a secret wish + that the clergy might be permitted to manage the wealth of the faithful, + for the benefit of the poor. The most sublime representations of the + attributes and laws of the Deity were sullied by an idle mixture of + metaphysical subtleties, puerile rites, and fictitious miracles: and they + expatiated, with the most fervent zeal, on the religious merit of hating + the adversaries, and obeying the ministers of the church. When the public + peace was distracted by heresy and schism, the sacred orators sounded the + trumpet of discord, and, perhaps, of sedition. The understandings of their + congregations were perplexed by mystery, their passions were inflamed by + invectives; and they rushed from the Christian temples of Antioch or + Alexandria, prepared either to suffer or to inflict martyrdom. The + corruption of taste and language is strongly marked in the vehement + declamations of the Latin bishops; but the compositions of Gregory and + Chrysostom have been compared with the most splendid models of Attic, or + at least of Asiatic, eloquence.<br /> + </p> + <p> + VII. The representatives of the Christian republic were regularly + assembled in the spring and autumn of each year; and these synods diffused + the spirit of ecclesiastical discipline and legislation through the + hundred and twenty provinces of the Roman world. The archbishop or + metropolitan was empowered, by the laws, to summon the suffragan bishops + of his province; to revise their conduct, to vindicate their rights, to + declare their faith, and to examine the merits of the candidates who were + elected by the clergy and people to supply the vacancies of the episcopal + college. The primates of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, and + afterwards Constantinople, who exercised a more ample jurisdiction, + convened the numerous assembly of their dependent bishops. But the + convocation of great and extraordinary synods was the prerogative of the + emperor alone. Whenever the emergencies of the church required this + decisive measure, he despatched a peremptory summons to the bishops, or + the deputies of each province, with an order for the use of post-horses, + and a competent allowance for the expenses of their journey. At an early + period, when Constantine was the protector, rather than the proselyte, of + Christianity, he referred the African controversy to the council of Arles; + in which the bishops of York of Treves, of Milan, and of Carthage, met as + friends and brethren, to debate in their native tongue on the common + interest of the Latin or Western church. Eleven years afterwards, a more + numerous and celebrated assembly was convened at Nice in Bithynia, to + extinguish, by their final sentence, the subtle disputes which had arisen + in Egypt on the subject of the Trinity. Three hundred and eighteen bishops + obeyed the summons of their indulgent master; the ecclesiastics of every + rank, and sect, and denomination, have been computed at two thousand and + forty-eight persons; the Greeks appeared in person; and the consent of the + Latins was expressed by the legates of the Roman pontiff. The session, + which lasted about two months, was frequently honored by the presence of + the emperor. Leaving his guards at the door, he seated himself (with the + permission of the council) on a low stool in the midst of the hall. + Constantine listened with patience, and spoke with modesty: and while he + influenced the debates, he humbly professed that he was the minister, not + the judge, of the successors of the apostles, who had been established as + priests and as gods upon earth. Such profound reverence of an absolute + monarch towards a feeble and unarmed assembly of his own subjects, can + only be compared to the respect with which the senate had been treated by + the Roman princes who adopted the policy of Augustus. Within the space of + fifty years, a philosophic spectator of the vicissitudes of human affairs + might have contemplated Tacitus in the senate of Rome, and Constantine in + the council of Nice. The fathers of the Capitol and those of the church + had alike degenerated from the virtues of their founders; but as the + bishops were more deeply rooted in the public opinion, they sustained + their dignity with more decent pride, and sometimes opposed with a manly + spirit the wishes of their sovereign. The progress of time and + superstition erased the memory of the weakness, the passion, the + ignorance, which disgraced these ecclesiastical synods; and the Catholic + world has unanimously submitted to the <strong><em>infallible</em></strong> + decrees of the general councils.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch21-p1" id="linkch21-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Persecution Of Heresy.—The Schism Of The Donatists.—The +Arian Controversy.—Athanasius.—Distracted State Of The +Church And Empire Under Constantine And His Sons.—Toleration +Of Paganism. +</pre> + <p> + The grateful applause of the clergy has consecrated the memory of a prince + who indulged their passions and promoted their interest. Constantine gave + them security, wealth, honors, and revenge; and the support of the + orthodox faith was considered as the most sacred and important duty of the + civil magistrate. The edict of Milan, the great charter of toleration, had + confirmed to each individual of the Roman world the privilege of choosing + and professing his own religion. But this inestimable privilege was soon + violated; with the knowledge of truth, the emperor imbibed the maxims of + persecution; and the sects which dissented from the Catholic church were + afflicted and oppressed by the triumph of Christianity. Constantine easily + believed that the Heretics, who presumed to dispute <strong><em>his</em></strong> + opinions, or to oppose <strong><em>his</em></strong> commands, were guilty + of the most absurd and criminal obstinacy; and that a seasonable + application of moderate severities might save those unhappy men from the + danger of an everlasting condemnation. Not a moment was lost in excluding + the ministers and teachers of the separated congregations from any share + of the rewards and immunities which the emperor had so liberally bestowed + on the orthodox clergy. But as the sectaries might still exist under the + cloud of royal disgrace, the conquest of the East was immediately followed + by an edict which announced their total destruction. After a preamble + filled with passion and reproach, Constantine absolutely prohibits the + assemblies of the Heretics, and confiscates their public property to the + use either of the revenue or of the Catholic church. The sects against + whom the Imperial severity was directed, appear to have been the adherents + of Paul of Samosata; the Montanists of Phrygia, who maintained an + enthusiastic succession of prophecy; the Novatians, who sternly rejected + the temporal efficacy of repentance; the Marcionites and Valentinians, + under whose leading banners the various Gnostics of Asia and Egypt had + insensibly rallied; and perhaps the Manichæans, who had recently + imported from Persia a more artful composition of Oriental and Christian + theology. The design of extirpating the name, or at least of restraining + the progress, of these odious Heretics, was prosecuted with vigor and + effect. Some of the penal regulations were copied from the edicts of + Diocletian; and this method of conversion was applauded by the same + bishops who had felt the hand of oppression, and pleaded for the rights of + humanity. Two immaterial circumstances may serve, however, to prove that + the mind of Constantine was not entirely corrupted by the spirit of zeal + and bigotry. Before he condemned the Manichæans and their kindred + sects, he resolved to make an accurate inquiry into the nature of their + religious principles. As if he distrusted the impartiality of his + ecclesiastical counsellors, this delicate commission was intrusted to a + civil magistrate, whose learning and moderation he justly esteemed, and of + whose venal character he was probably ignorant. The emperor was soon + convinced, that he had too hastily proscribed the orthodox faith and the + exemplary morals of the Novatians, who had dissented from the church in + some articles of discipline which were not perhaps essential to salvation. + By a particular edict, he exempted them from the general penalties of the + law; allowed them to build a church at Constantinople, respected the + miracles of their saints, invited their bishop Acesius to the council of + Nice; and gently ridiculed the narrow tenets of his sect by a familiar + jest; which, from the mouth of a sovereign, must have been received with + applause and gratitude.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The complaints and mutual accusations which assailed the throne of + Constantine, as soon as the death of Maxentius had submitted Africa to his + victorious arms, were ill adapted to edify an imperfect proselyte. He + learned, with surprise, that the provinces of that great country, from the + confines of Cyrene to the columns of Hercules, were distracted with + religious discord. The source of the division was derived from a double + election in the church of Carthage; the second, in rank and opulence, of + the ecclesiastical thrones of the West. Cæcilian and Majorinus were + the two rival prelates of Africa; and the death of the latter soon made + room for Donatus, who, by his superior abilities and apparent virtues, was + the firmest support of his party. The advantage which Cæcilian might + claim from the priority of his ordination, was destroyed by the illegal, + or at least indecent, haste, with which it had been performed, without + expecting the arrival of the bishops of Numidia. The authority of these + bishops, who, to the number of seventy, condemned Cæcilian, and + consecrated Majorinus, is again weakened by the infamy of some of their + personal characters; and by the female intrigues, sacrilegious bargains, + and tumultuous proceedings, which are imputed to this Numidian council. + The bishops of the contending factions maintained, with equal ardor and + obstinacy, that their adversaries were degraded, or at least dishonored, + by the odious crime of delivering the Holy Scriptures to the officers of + Diocletian. From their mutual reproaches, as well as from the story of + this dark transaction, it may justly be inferred, that the late + persecution had imbittered the zeal, without reforming the manners, of the + African Christians. That divided church was incapable of affording an + impartial judicature; the controversy was solemnly tried in five + successive tribunals, which were appointed by the emperor; and the whole + proceeding, from the first appeal to the final sentence, lasted above + three years. A severe inquisition, which was taken by the Prætorian + vicar, and the proconsul of Africa, the report of two episcopal visitors + who had been sent to Carthage, the decrees of the councils of Rome and of + Arles, and the supreme judgment of Constantine himself in his sacred + consistory, were all favorable to the cause of Cæcilian; and he was + unanimously acknowledged by the civil and ecclesiastical powers, as the + true and lawful primate of Africa. The honors and estates of the church + were attributed to his suffragan bishops, and it was not without + difficulty, that Constantine was satisfied with inflicting the punishment + of exile on the principal leaders of the Donatist faction. As their cause + was examined with attention, perhaps it was determined with justice. + Perhaps their complaint was not without foundation, that the credulity of + the emperor had been abused by the insidious arts of his favorite Osius. + The influence of falsehood and corruption might procure the condemnation + of the innocent, or aggravate the sentence of the guilty. Such an act, + however, of injustice, if it concluded an importunate dispute, might be + numbered among the transient evils of a despotic administration, which are + neither felt nor remembered by posterity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But this incident, so inconsiderable that it scarcely deserves a place in + history, was productive of a memorable schism which afflicted the + provinces of Africa above three hundred years, and was extinguished only + with Christianity itself. The inflexible zeal of freedom and fanaticism + animated the Donatists to refuse obedience to the usurpers, whose election + they disputed, and whose spiritual powers they denied. Excluded from the + civil and religious communion of mankind, they boldly excommunicated the + rest of mankind, who had embraced the impious party of Cæcilian, and + of the Traditors, from which he derived his pretended ordination. They + asserted with confidence, and almost with exultation, that the Apostolical + succession was interrupted; that all the bishops of Europe and Asia were + infected by the contagion of guilt and schism; and that the prerogatives + of the Catholic church were confined to the chosen portion of the African + believers, who alone had preserved inviolate the integrity of their faith + and discipline. This rigid theory was supported by the most uncharitable + conduct. Whenever they acquired a proselyte, even from the distant + provinces of the East, they carefully repeated the sacred rites of baptism + and ordination; as they rejected the validity of those which he had + already received from the hands of heretics or schismatics. Bishops, + virgins, and even spotless infants, were subjected to the disgrace of a + public penance, before they could be admitted to the communion of the + Donatists. If they obtained possession of a church which had been used by + their Catholic adversaries, they purified the unhallowed building with the + same zealous care which a temple of idols might have required. They washed + the pavement, scraped the walls, burnt the altar, which was commonly of + wood, melted the consecrated plate, and cast the Holy Eucharist to the + dogs, with every circumstance of ignominy which could provoke and + perpetuate the animosity of religious factions. Notwithstanding this + irreconcilable aversion, the two parties, who were mixed and separated in + all the cities of Africa, had the same language and manners, the same zeal + and learning, the same faith and worship. Proscribed by the civil and + ecclesiastical powers of the empire, the Donatists still maintained in + some provinces, particularly in Numidia, their superior numbers; and four + hundred bishops acknowledged the jurisdiction of their primate. But the + invincible spirit of the sect sometimes preyed on its own vitals: and the + bosom of their schismatical church was torn by intestine divisions. A + fourth part of the Donatist bishops followed the independent standard of + the Maximianists. The narrow and solitary path which their first leaders + had marked out, continued to deviate from the great society of mankind. + Even the imperceptible sect of the Rogatians could affirm, without a + blush, that when Christ should descend to judge the earth, he would find + his true religion preserved only in a few nameless villages of the Cæsarean + Mauritania.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The schism of the Donatists was confined to Africa: the more diffusive + mischief of the Trinitarian controversy successively penetrated into every + part of the Christian world. The former was an accidental quarrel, + occasioned by the abuse of freedom; the latter was a high and mysterious + argument, derived from the abuse of philosophy. From the age of + Constantine to that of Clovis and Theodoric, the temporal interests both + of the Romans and Barbarians were deeply involved in the theological + disputes of Arianism. The historian may therefore be permitted + respectfully to withdraw the veil of the sanctuary; and to deduce the + progress of reason and faith, of error and passion from the school of + Plato, to the decline and fall of the empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The genius of Plato, informed by his own meditation, or by the traditional + knowledge of the priests of Egypt, had ventured to explore the mysterious + nature of the Deity. When he had elevated his mind to the sublime + contemplation of the first self-existent, necessary cause of the universe, + the Athenian sage was incapable of conceiving how the simple unity of his + essence could admit the infinite variety of distinct and successive ideas + which compose the model of the intellectual world; how a Being purely + incorporeal could execute that perfect model, and mould with a plastic + hand the rude and independent chaos. The vain hope of extricating himself + from these difficulties, which must ever oppress the feeble powers of the + human mind, might induce Plato to consider the divine nature under the + threefold modification—of the first cause, the reason, or <strong><em>Logos</em></strong>, + and the soul or spirit of the universe. His poetical imagination sometimes + fixed and animated these metaphysical abstractions; the three archical on + original principles were represented in the Platonic system as three Gods, + united with each other by a mysterious and ineffable generation; and the + Logos was particularly considered under the more accessible character of + the Son of an Eternal Father, and the Creator and Governor of the world. + Such appear to have been the secret doctrines which were cautiously + whispered in the gardens of the academy; and which, according to the more + recent disciples of Plato, * could not be perfectly understood, till after + an assiduous study of thirty years.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The arms of the Macedonians diffused over Asia and Egypt the language and + learning of Greece; and the theological system of Plato was taught, with + less reserve, and perhaps with some improvements, in the celebrated school + of Alexandria. A numerous colony of Jews had been invited, by the favor of + the Ptolemies, to settle in their new capital. While the bulk of the + nation practised the legal ceremonies, and pursued the lucrative + occupations of commerce, a few Hebrews, of a more liberal spirit, devoted + their lives to religious and philosophical contemplation. They cultivated + with diligence, and embraced with ardor, the theological system of the + Athenian sage. But their national pride would have been mortified by a + fair confession of their former poverty: and they boldly marked, as the + sacred inheritance of their ancestors, the gold and jewels which they had + so lately stolen from their Egyptian masters. One hundred years before the + birth of Christ, a philosophical treatise, which manifestly betrays the + style and sentiments of the school of Plato, was produced by the + Alexandrian Jews, and unanimously received as a genuine and valuable relic + of the inspired Wisdom of Solomon. A similar union of the Mosaic faith and + the Grecian philosophy, distinguishes the works of Philo, which were + composed, for the most part, under the reign of Augustus. The material + soul of the universe might offend the piety of the Hebrews: but they + applied the character of the Logos to the Jehovah of Moses and the + patriarchs; and the Son of God was introduced upon earth under a visible, + and even human appearance, to perform those familiar offices which seem + incompatible with the nature and attributes of the Universal Cause.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch21-p2" id="linkch21-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The eloquence of Plato, the name of Solomon, the authority of the school + of Alexandria, and the consent of the Jews and Greeks, were insufficient + to establish the truth of a mysterious doctrine, which might please, but + could not satisfy, a rational mind. A prophet, or apostle, inspired by the + Deity, can alone exercise a lawful dominion over the faith of mankind: and + the theology of Plato might have been forever confounded with the + philosophical visions of the Academy, the Porch, and the Lycæum, if + the name and divine attributes of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong> had + not been confirmed by the celestial pen of the last and most sublime of + the Evangelists. The Christian Revelation, which was consummated under the + reign of Nerva, disclosed to the world the amazing secret, that the Logos, + who was with God from the beginning, and was God, who had made all things, + and for whom all things had been made, was incarnate in the person of + Jesus of Nazareth; who had been born of a virgin, and suffered death on + the cross. Besides the general design of fixing on a perpetual basis the + divine honors of Christ, the most ancient and respectable of the + ecclesiastical writers have ascribed to the evangelic theologian a + particular intention to confute two opposite heresies, which disturbed the + peace of the primitive church. I. The faith of the Ebionites, perhaps of + the Nazarenes, was gross and imperfect. They revered Jesus as the greatest + of the prophets, endowed with supernatural virtue and power. They ascribed + to his person and to his future reign all the predictions of the Hebrew + oracles which relate to the spiritual and everlasting kingdom of the + promised Messiah. Some of them might confess that he was born of a virgin; + but they obstinately rejected the preceding existence and divine + perfections of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong>, or Son of God, which + are so clearly defined in the Gospel of St. John. About fifty years + afterwards, the Ebionites, whose errors are mentioned by Justin Martyr + with less severity than they seem to deserve, formed a very inconsiderable + portion of the Christian name. II. The Gnostics, who were distinguished by + the epithet of <strong><em>Docetes</em></strong>, deviated into the + contrary extreme; and betrayed the human, while they asserted the divine, + nature of Christ. Educated in the school of Plato, accustomed to the + sublime idea of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong>, they readily + conceived that the brightest <strong><em>Æon</em></strong>, or + <strong><em>Emanation</em></strong> of the Deity, might assume the outward + shape and visible appearances of a mortal; but they vainly pretended, that + the imperfections of matter are incompatible with the purity of a + celestial substance. While the blood of Christ yet smoked on Mount + Calvary, the Docetes invented the impious and extravagant hypothesis, + that, instead of issuing from the womb of the Virgin, he had descended on + the banks of the Jordan in the form of perfect manhood; that he had + imposed on the senses of his enemies, and of his disciples; and that the + ministers of Pilate had wasted their impotent rage on an airy phantom, who + <strong><em>seemed</em></strong> to expire on the cross, and, after three + days, to rise from the dead.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The divine sanction, which the Apostle had bestowed on the fundamental + principle of the theology of Plato, encouraged the learned proselytes of + the second and third centuries to admire and study the writings of the + Athenian sage, who had thus marvellously anticipated one of the most + surprising discoveries of the Christian revelation. The respectable name + of Plato was used by the orthodox, and abused by the heretics, as the + common support of truth and error: the authority of his skilful + commentators, and the science of dialectics, were employed to justify the + remote consequences of his opinions and to supply the discreet silence of + the inspired writers. The same subtle and profound questions concerning + the nature, the generation, the distinction, and the equality of the three + divine persons of the mysterious <strong><em>Triad</em></strong>, or + <strong><em>Trinity</em></strong>, were agitated in the philosophical and + in the Christian schools of Alexandria. An eager spirit of curiosity urged + them to explore the secrets of the abyss; and the pride of the professors, + and of their disciples, was satisfied with the sciences of words. But the + most sagacious of the Christian theologians, the great Athanasius himself, + has candidly confessed, that whenever he forced his understanding to + meditate on the divinity of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong>, his + toilsome and unavailing efforts recoiled on themselves; that the more he + thought, the less he comprehended; and the more he wrote, the less capable + was he of expressing his thoughts. In every step of the inquiry, we are + compelled to feel and acknowledge the immeasurable disproportion between + the size of the object and the capacity of the human mind. We may strive + to abstract the notions of time, of space, and of matter, which so closely + adhere to all the perceptions of our experimental knowledge. But as soon + as we presume to reason of infinite substance, of spiritual generation; as + often as we deduce any positive conclusions from a negative idea, we are + involved in darkness, perplexity, and inevitable contradiction. As these + difficulties arise from the nature of the subject, they oppress, with the + same insuperable weight, the philosophic and the theological disputant; + but we may observe two essential and peculiar circumstances, which + discriminated the doctrines of the Catholic church from the opinions of + the Platonic school.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. A chosen society of philosophers, men of a liberal education and + curious disposition, might silently meditate, and temperately discuss in + the gardens of Athens or the library of Alexandria, the abstruse questions + of metaphysical science. The lofty speculations, which neither convinced + the understanding, nor agitated the passions, of the Platonists + themselves, were carelessly overlooked by the idle, the busy, and even the + studious part of mankind. But after the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong> + had been revealed as the sacred object of the faith, the hope, and the + religious worship of the Christians, the mysterious system was embraced by + a numerous and increasing multitude in every province of the Roman world. + Those persons who, from their age, or sex, or occupations, were the least + qualified to judge, who were the least exercised in the habits of abstract + reasoning, aspired to contemplate the economy of the Divine Nature: and it + is the boast of Tertullian, that a Christian mechanic could readily answer + such questions as had perplexed the wisest of the Grecian sages. Where the + subject lies so far beyond our reach, the difference between the highest + and the lowest of human understandings may indeed be calculated as + infinitely small; yet the degree of weakness may perhaps be measured by + the degree of obstinacy and dogmatic confidence. These speculations, + instead of being treated as the amusement of a vacant hour, became the + most serious business of the present, and the most useful preparation for + a future, life. A theology, which it was incumbent to believe, which it + was impious to doubt, and which it might be dangerous, and even fatal, to + mistake, became the familiar topic of private meditation and popular + discourse. The cold indifference of philosophy was inflamed by the fervent + spirit of devotion; and even the metaphors of common language suggested + the fallacious prejudices of sense and experience. The Christians, who + abhorred the gross and impure generation of the Greek mythology, were + tempted to argue from the familiar analogy of the filial and paternal + relations. The character of <strong><em>Son</em></strong> seemed to imply + a perpetual subordination to the voluntary author of his existence; but as + the act of generation, in the most spiritual and abstracted sense, must be + supposed to transmit the properties of a common nature, they durst not + presume to circumscribe the powers or the duration of the Son of an + eternal and omnipotent Father. Fourscore years after the death of Christ, + the Christians of Bithynia, declared before the tribunal of Pliny, that + they invoked him as a god: and his divine honors have been perpetuated in + every age and country, by the various sects who assume the name of his + disciples. Their tender reverence for the memory of Christ, and their + horror for the profane worship of any created being, would have engaged + them to assert the equal and absolute divinity of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong>, + if their rapid ascent towards the throne of heaven had not been + imperceptibly checked by the apprehension of violating the unity and sole + supremacy of the great Father of Christ and of the Universe. The suspense + and fluctuation produced in the minds of the Christians by these opposite + tendencies, may be observed in the writings of the theologians who + flourished after the end of the apostolic age, and before the origin of + the Arian controversy. Their suffrage is claimed, with equal confidence, + by the orthodox and by the heretical parties; and the most inquisitive + critics have fairly allowed, that if they had the good fortune of + possessing the Catholic verity, they have delivered their conceptions in + loose, inaccurate, and sometimes contradictory language.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch21-p3" id="linkch21-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + II. The devotion of individuals was the first circumstance which + distinguished the Christians from the Platonists: the second was the + authority of the church. The disciples of philosophy asserted the rights + of intellectual freedom, and their respect for the sentiments of their + teachers was a liberal and voluntary tribute, which they offered to + superior reason. But the Christians formed a numerous and disciplined + society; and the jurisdiction of their laws and magistrates was strictly + exercised over the minds of the faithful. The loose wanderings of the + imagination were gradually confined by creeds and confessions; the freedom + of private judgment submitted to the public wisdom of synods; the + authority of a theologian was determined by his ecclesiastical rank; and + the episcopal successors of the apostles inflicted the censures of the + church on those who deviated from the orthodox belief. But in an age of + religious controversy, every act of oppression adds new force to the + elastic vigor of the mind; and the zeal or obstinacy of a spiritual rebel + was sometimes stimulated by secret motives of ambition or avarice. A + metaphysical argument became the cause or pretence of political contests; + the subtleties of the Platonic school were used as the badges of popular + factions, and the distance which separated their respective tenets were + enlarged or magnified by the acrimony of dispute. As long as the dark + heresies of Praxeas and Sabellius labored to confound the <strong><em>Father</em></strong> + with the <strong><em>Son</em></strong>, the orthodox party might be + excused if they adhered more strictly and more earnestly to the <strong><em>distinction</em></strong>, + than to the <strong><em>equality</em></strong>, of the divine persons. But + as soon as the heat of controversy had subsided, and the progress of the + Sabellians was no longer an object of terror to the churches of Rome, of + Africa, or of Egypt, the tide of theological opinion began to flow with a + gentle but steady motion towards the contrary extreme; and the most + orthodox doctors allowed themselves the use of the terms and definitions + which had been censured in the mouth of the sectaries. After the edict of + toleration had restored peace and leisure to the Christians, the + Trinitarian controversy was revived in the ancient seat of Platonism, the + learned, the opulent, the tumultuous city of Alexandria; and the flame of + religious discord was rapidly communicated from the schools to the clergy, + the people, the province, and the East. The abstruse question of the + eternity of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong> was agitated in + ecclesiastic conferences and popular sermons; and the heterodox opinions + of Arius were soon made public by his own zeal, and by that of his + adversaries. His most implacable adversaries have acknowledged the + learning and blameless life of that eminent presbyter, who, in a former + election, had declared, and perhaps generously declined, his pretensions + to the episcopal throne. His competitor Alexander assumed the office of + his judge. The important cause was argued before him; and if at first he + seemed to hesitate, he at length pronounced his final sentence, as an + absolute rule of faith. The undaunted presbyter, who presumed to resist + the authority of his angry bishop, was separated from the community of the + church. But the pride of Arius was supported by the applause of a numerous + party. He reckoned among his immediate followers two bishops of Egypt, + seven presbyters, twelve deacons, and (what may appear almost incredible) + seven hundred virgins. A large majority of the bishops of Asia appeared to + support or favor his cause; and their measures were conducted by Eusebius + of Cæsarea, the most learned of the Christian prelates; and by + Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had acquired the reputation of a statesman + without forfeiting that of a saint. Synods in Palestine and Bithynia were + opposed to the synods of Egypt. The attention of the prince and people was + attracted by this theological dispute; and the decision, at the end of six + years, was referred to the supreme authority of the general council of + Nice.<br /> + </p> + <p> + When the mysteries of the Christian faith were dangerously exposed to + public debate, it might be observed, that the human understanding was + capable of forming three district, though imperfect systems, concerning + the nature of the Divine Trinity; and it was pronounced, that none of + these systems, in a pure and absolute sense, were exempt from heresy and + error. I. According to the first hypothesis, which was maintained by Arius + and his disciples, the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong> was a dependent and + spontaneous production, created from nothing by the will of the father. + The Son, by whom all things were made, had been begotten before all + worlds, and the longest of the astronomical periods could be compared only + as a fleeting moment to the extent of his duration; yet this duration was + not infinite, and there <strong><em>had</em></strong> been a time which + preceded the ineffable generation of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong>. + On this only-begotten Son, the Almighty Father had transfused his ample + spirit, and impressed the effulgence of his glory. Visible image of + invisible perfection, he saw, at an immeasurable distance beneath his + feet, the thrones of the brightest archangels; yet he shone only with a + reflected light, and, like the sons of the Romans emperors, who were + invested with the titles of Cæsar or Augustus, he governed the + universe in obedience to the will of his Father and Monarch. II. In the + second hypothesis, the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong> possessed all the + inherent, incommunicable perfections, which religion and philosophy + appropriate to the Supreme God. Three distinct and infinite minds or + substances, three coëqual and coëternal beings, composed the + Divine Essence; and it would have implied contradiction, that any of them + should not have existed, or that they should ever cease to exist. The + advocates of a system which seemed to establish three independent Deities, + attempted to preserve the unity of the First Cause, so conspicuous in the + design and order of the world, by the perpetual concord of their + administration, and the essential agreement of their will. A faint + resemblance of this unity of action may be discovered in the societies of + men, and even of animals. The causes which disturb their harmony, proceed + only from the imperfection and inequality of their faculties; but the + omnipotence which is guided by infinite wisdom and goodness, cannot fail + of choosing the same means for the accomplishment of the same ends. III. + Three beings, who, by the self-derived necessity of their existence, + possess all the divine attributes in the most perfect degree; who are + eternal in duration, infinite in space, and intimately present to each + other, and to the whole universe; irresistibly force themselves on the + astonished mind, as one and the same being, who, in the economy of grace, + as well as in that of nature, may manifest himself under different forms, + and be considered under different aspects. By this hypothesis, a real + substantial trinity is refined into a trinity of names, and abstract + modifications, that subsist only in the mind which conceives them. The + <strong><em>Logos</em></strong> is no longer a person, but an attribute; + and it is only in a figurative sense that the epithet of Son can be + applied to the eternal reason, which was with God from the beginning, and + by <strong><em>which</em></strong>, not by <strong><em>whom</em></strong>, + all things were made. The incarnation of the <strong><em>Logos</em></strong> + is reduced to a mere inspiration of the Divine Wisdom, which filled the + soul, and directed all the actions, of the man Jesus. Thus, after + revolving around the theological circle, we are surprised to find that the + Sabellian ends where the Ebionite had begun; and that the incomprehensible + mystery which excites our adoration, eludes our inquiry.<br /> + </p> + <p> + If the bishops of the council of Nice had been permitted to follow the + unbiased dictates of their conscience, Arius and his associates could + scarcely have flattered themselves with the hopes of obtaining a majority + of votes, in favor of an hypothesis so directly averse to the two most + popular opinions of the Catholic world. The Arians soon perceived the + danger of their situation, and prudently assumed those modest virtues, + which, in the fury of civil and religious dissensions, are seldom + practised, or even praised, except by the weaker party. They recommended + the exercise of Christian charity and moderation; urged the + incomprehensible nature of the controversy, disclaimed the use of any + terms or definitions which could not be found in the Scriptures; and + offered, by very liberal concessions, to satisfy their adversaries without + renouncing the integrity of their own principles. The victorious faction + received all their proposals with haughty suspicion; and anxiously sought + for some irreconcilable mark of distinction, the rejection of which might + involve the Arians in the guilt and consequences of heresy. A letter was + publicly read, and ignominiously torn, in which their patron, Eusebius of + Nicomedia, ingenuously confessed, that the admission of the Homoousion, or + Consubstantial, a word already familiar to the Platonists, was + incompatible with the principles of their theological system. The + fortunate opportunity was eagerly embraced by the bishops, who governed + the resolutions of the synod; and, according to the lively expression of + Ambrose, they used the sword, which heresy itself had drawn from the + scabbard, to cut off the head of the hated monster. The consubstantiality + of the Father and the Son was established by the council of Nice, and has + been unanimously received as a fundamental article of the Christian faith, + by the consent of the Greek, the Latin, the Oriental, and the Protestant + churches. But if the same word had not served to stigmatize the heretics, + and to unite the Catholics, it would have been inadequate to the purpose + of the majority, by whom it was introduced into the orthodox creed. This + majority was divided into two parties, distinguished by a contrary + tendency to the sentiments of the Tritheists and of the Sabellians. But as + those opposite extremes seemed to overthrow the foundations either of + natural or revealed religion, they mutually agreed to qualify the rigor of + their principles; and to disavow the just, but invidious, consequences, + which might be urged by their antagonists. The interest of the common + cause inclined them to join their numbers, and to conceal their + differences; their animosity was softened by the healing counsels of + toleration, and their disputes were suspended by the use of the mysterious + <strong><em>Homoousion</em></strong>, which either party was free to + interpret according to their peculiar tenets. The Sabellian sense, which, + about fifty years before, had obliged the council of Antioch to prohibit + this celebrated term, had endeared it to those theologians who entertained + a secret but partial affection for a nominal Trinity. But the more + fashionable saints of the Arian times, the intrepid Athanasius, the + learned Gregory Nazianzen, and the other pillars of the church, who + supported with ability and success the Nicene doctrine, appeared to + consider the expression of <strong><em>substance</em></strong> as if it + had been synonymous with that of <strong><em>nature</em></strong>; and + they ventured to illustrate their meaning, by affirming that three men, as + they belong to the same common species, are consubstantial, or homoousian + to each other. This pure and distinct equality was tempered, on the one + hand, by the internal connection, and spiritual penetration which + indissolubly unites the divine persons; and, on the other, by the + preeminence of the Father, which was acknowledged as far as it is + compatible with the independence of the Son. Within these limits, the + almost invisible and tremulous ball of orthodoxy was allowed securely to + vibrate. On either side, beyond this consecrated ground, the heretics and + the dæmons lurked in ambush to surprise and devour the unhappy + wanderer. But as the degrees of theological hatred depend on the spirit of + the war, rather than on the importance of the controversy, the heretics + who degraded, were treated with more severity than those who annihilated, + the person of the Son. The life of Athanasius was consumed in + irreconcilable opposition to the impious madness of the <strong><em>Arians</em></strong>; + but he defended above twenty years the Sabellianism of Marcellus of + Ancyra; and when at last he was compelled to withdraw himself from his + communion, he continued to mention, with an ambiguous smile, the venial + errors of his respectable friend.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The authority of a general council, to which the Arians themselves had + been compelled to submit, inscribed on the banners of the orthodox party + the mysterious characters of the word <strong><em>Homoousion</em></strong>, + which essentially contributed, notwithstanding some obscure disputes, some + nocturnal combats, to maintain and perpetuate the uniformity of faith, or + at least of language. The Consubstantialists, who by their success have + deserved and obtained the title of Catholics, gloried in the simplicity + and steadiness of their own creed, and insulted the repeated variations of + their adversaries, who were destitute of any certain rule of faith. The + sincerity or the cunning of the Arian chiefs, the fear of the laws or of + the people, their reverence for Christ, their hatred of Athanasius, all + the causes, human and divine, that influence and disturb the counsels of a + theological faction, introduced among the sectaries a spirit of discord + and inconstancy, which, in the course of a few years, erected eighteen + different models of religion, and avenged the violated dignity of the + church. The zealous Hilary, who, from the peculiar hardships of his + situation, was inclined to extenuate rather than to aggravate the errors + of the Oriental clergy, declares, that in the wide extent of the ten + provinces of Asia, to which he had been banished, there could be found + very few prelates who had preserved the knowledge of the true God. The + oppression which he had felt, the disorders of which he was the spectator + and the victim, appeased, during a short interval, the angry passions of + his soul; and in the following passage, of which I shall transcribe a few + lines, the bishop of Poitiers unwarily deviates into the style of a + Christian philosopher. "It is a thing," says Hilary, "equally deplorable + and dangerous, that there are as many creeds as opinions among men, as + many doctrines as inclinations, and as many sources of blasphemy as there + are faults among us; because we make creeds arbitrarily, and explain them + as arbitrarily. The Homoousion is rejected, and received, and explained + away by successive synods. The partial or total resemblance of the Father + and of the Son is a subject of dispute for these unhappy times. Every + year, nay, every moon, we make new creeds to describe invisible mysteries. + We repent of what we have done, we defend those who repent, we + anathematize those whom we defended. We condemn either the doctrine of + others in ourselves, or our own in that of others; and reciprocally + tearing one another to pieces, we have been the cause of each other's + ruin."<br /> + </p> + <p> + It will not be expected, it would not perhaps be endured, that I should + swell this theological digression, by a minute examination of the eighteen + creeds, the authors of which, for the most part, disclaimed the odious + name of their parent Arius. It is amusing enough to delineate the form, + and to trace the vegetation, of a singular plant; but the tedious detail + of leaves without flowers, and of branches without fruit, would soon + exhaust the patience, and disappoint the curiosity, of the laborious + student. One question, which gradually arose from the Arian controversy, + may, however, be noticed, as it served to produce and discriminate the + three sects, who were united only by their common aversion to the + Homoousion of the Nicene synod. <strong>1</strong>. If they were asked + whether the Son was like unto the Father, the question was resolutely + answered in the negative, by the heretics who adhered to the principles of + Arius, or indeed to those of philosophy; which seem to establish an + infinite difference between the Creator and the most excellent of his + creatures. This obvious consequence was maintained by Ætius, on whom + the zeal of his adversaries bestowed the surname of the Atheist. His + restless and aspiring spirit urged him to try almost every profession of + human life. He was successively a slave, or at least a husbandman, a + travelling tinker, a goldsmith, a physician, a schoolmaster, a theologian, + and at last the apostle of a new church, which was propagated by the + abilities of his disciple Eunomius. Armed with texts of Scripture, and + with captious syllogisms from the logic of Aristotle, the subtle Ætius + had acquired the fame of an invincible disputant, whom it was impossible + either to silence or to convince. Such talents engaged the friendship of + the Arian bishops, till they were forced to renounce, and even to + persecute, a dangerous ally, who, by the accuracy of his reasoning, had + prejudiced their cause in the popular opinion, and offended the piety of + their most devoted followers. <strong>2</strong>. The omnipotence of the + Creator suggested a specious and respectful solution of the <strong><em>likeness</em></strong> + of the Father and the Son; and faith might humbly receive what reason + could not presume to deny, that the Supreme God might communicate his + infinite perfections, and create a being similar only to himself. These + Arians were powerfully supported by the weight and abilities of their + leaders, who had succeeded to the management of the Eusebian interest, and + who occupied the principal thrones of the East. They detested, perhaps + with some affectation, the impiety of Ætius; they professed to + believe, either without reserve, or according to the Scriptures, that the + Son was different from all <strong><em>other</em></strong> creatures, and + similar only to the Father. But they denied, the he was either of the + same, or of a similar substance; sometimes boldly justifying their + dissent, and sometimes objecting to the use of the word substance, which + seems to imply an adequate, or at least, a distinct, notion of the nature + of the Deity. <strong>3</strong>. The sect which deserted the doctrine of + a similar substance, was the most numerous, at least in the provinces of + Asia; and when the leaders of both parties were assembled in the council + of Seleucia, <strong><em>their</em></strong> opinion would have prevailed + by a majority of one hundred and five to forty-three bishops. The Greek + word, which was chosen to express this mysterious resemblance, bears so + close an affinity to the orthodox symbol, that the profane of every age + have derided the furious contests which the difference of a single + diphthong excited between the Homoousians and the Homoiousians. As it + frequently happens, that the sounds and characters which approach the + nearest to each other accidentally represent the most opposite ideas, the + observation would be itself ridiculous, if it were possible to mark any + real and sensible distinction between the doctrine of the Semi-Arians, as + they were improperly styled, and that of the Catholics themselves. The + bishop of Poitiers, who in his Phrygian exile very wisely aimed at a + coalition of parties, endeavors to prove that by a pious and faithful + interpretation, the <strong><em>Homoiousion</em></strong> may be reduced + to a consubstantial sense. Yet he confesses that the word has a dark and + suspicious aspect; and, as if darkness were congenial to theological + disputes, the Semi-Arians, who advanced to the doors of the church, + assailed them with the most unrelenting fury.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The provinces of Egypt and Asia, which cultivated the language and manners + of the Greeks, had deeply imbibed the venom of the Arian controversy. The + familiar study of the Platonic system, a vain and argumentative + disposition, a copious and flexible idiom, supplied the clergy and people + of the East with an inexhaustible flow of words and distinctions; and, in + the midst of their fierce contentions, they easily forgot the doubt which + is recommended by philosophy, and the submission which is enjoined by + religion. The inhabitants of the West were of a less inquisitive spirit; + their passions were not so forcibly moved by invisible objects, their + minds were less frequently exercised by the habits of dispute; and such + was the happy ignorance of the Gallican church, that Hilary himself, above + thirty years after the first general council, was still a stranger to the + Nicene creed. The Latins had received the rays of divine knowledge through + the dark and doubtful medium of a translation. The poverty and + stubbornness of their native tongue was not always capable of affording + just equivalents for the Greek terms, for the technical words of the + Platonic philosophy, which had been consecrated, by the gospel or by the + church, to express the mysteries of the Christian faith; and a verbal + defect might introduce into the Latin theology a long train of error or + perplexity. But as the western provincials had the good fortune of + deriving their religion from an orthodox source, they preserved with + steadiness the doctrine which they had accepted with docility; and when + the Arian pestilence approached their frontiers, they were supplied with + the seasonable preservative of the Homoousion, by the paternal care of the + Roman pontiff. Their sentiments and their temper were displayed in the + memorable synod of Rimini, which surpassed in numbers the council of Nice, + since it was composed of above four hundred bishops of Italy, Africa, + Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum. From the first debates it appeared, + that only fourscore prelates adhered to the party, though <strong><em>they</em></strong> + affected to anathematize the name and memory, of Arius. But this + inferiority was compensated by the advantages of skill, of experience, and + of discipline; and the minority was conducted by Valens and Ursacius, two + bishops of Illyricum, who had spent their lives in the intrigues of courts + and councils, and who had been trained under the Eusebian banner in the + religious wars of the East. By their arguments and negotiations, they + embarrassed, they confounded, they at last deceived, the honest simplicity + of the Latin bishops; who suffered the palladium of the faith to be + extorted from their hand by fraud and importunity, rather than by open + violence. The council of Rimini was not allowed to separate, till the + members had imprudently subscribed a captious creed, in which some + expressions, susceptible of an heretical sense, were inserted in the room + of the Homoousion. It was on this occasion, that, according to Jerom, the + world was surprised to find itself Arian. But the bishops of the Latin + provinces had no sooner reached their respective dioceses, than they + discovered their mistake, and repented of their weakness. The ignominious + capitulation was rejected with disdain and abhorrence; and the Homoousian + standard, which had been shaken but not overthrown, was more firmly + replanted in all the churches of the West.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch21-p4" id="linkch21-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Such was the rise and progress, and such were the natural revolutions of + those theological disputes, which disturbed the peace of Christianity + under the reigns of Constantine and of his sons. But as those princes + presumed to extend their despotism over the faith, as well as over the + lives and fortunes, of their subjects, the weight of their suffrage + sometimes inclined the ecclesiastical balance: and the prerogatives of the + King of Heaven were settled, or changed, or modified, in the cabinet of an + earthly monarch.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The unhappy spirit of discord which pervaded the provinces of the East, + interrupted the triumph of Constantine; but the emperor continued for some + time to view, with cool and careless indifference, the object of the + dispute. As he was yet ignorant of the difficulty of appeasing the + quarrels of theologians, he addressed to the contending parties, to + Alexander and to Arius, a moderating epistle; which may be ascribed, with + far greater reason, to the untutored sense of a soldier and statesman, + than to the dictates of any of his episcopal counsellors. He attributes + the origin of the whole controversy to a trifling and subtle question, + concerning an incomprehensible point of law, which was foolishly asked by + the bishop, and imprudently resolved by the presbyter. He laments that the + Christian people, who had the same God, the same religion, and the same + worship, should be divided by such inconsiderable distinctions; and he + seriously recommends to the clergy of Alexandria the example of the Greek + philosophers; who could maintain their arguments without losing their + temper, and assert their freedom without violating their friendship. The + indifference and contempt of the sovereign would have been, perhaps, the + most effectual method of silencing the dispute, if the popular current had + been less rapid and impetuous, and if Constantine himself, in the midst of + faction and fanaticism, could have preserved the calm possession of his + own mind. But his ecclesiastical ministers soon contrived to seduce the + impartiality of the magistrate, and to awaken the zeal of the proselyte. + He was provoked by the insults which had been offered to his statues; he + was alarmed by the real, as well as the imaginary magnitude of the + spreading mischief; and he extinguished the hope of peace and toleration, + from the moment that he assembled three hundred bishops within the walls + of the same palace. The presence of the monarch swelled the importance of + the debate; his attention multiplied the arguments; and he exposed his + person with a patient intrepidity, which animated the valor of the + combatants. Notwithstanding the applause which has been bestowed on the + eloquence and sagacity of Constantine, a Roman general, whose religion + might be still a subject of doubt, and whose mind had not been enlightened + either by study or by inspiration, was indifferently qualified to discuss, + in the Greek language, a metaphysical question, or an article of faith. + But the credit of his favorite Osius, who appears to have presided in the + council of Nice, might dispose the emperor in favor of the orthodox party; + and a well-timed insinuation, that the same Eusebius of Nicomedia, who now + protected the heretic, had lately assisted the tyrant, might exasperate + him against their adversaries. The Nicene creed was ratified by + Constantine; and his firm declaration, that those who resisted the divine + judgment of the synod, must prepare themselves for an immediate exile, + annihilated the murmurs of a feeble opposition; which, from seventeen, was + almost instantly reduced to two, protesting bishops. Eusebius of Cæsarea + yielded a reluctant and ambiguous consent to the Homoousion; and the + wavering conduct of the Nicomedian Eusebius served only to delay, about + three months, his disgrace and exile. The impious Arius was banished into + one of the remote provinces of Illyricum; his person and disciples were + branded by law with the odious name of Porphyrians; his writings were + condemned to the flames, and a capital punishment was denounced against + those in whose possession they should be found. The emperor had now + imbibed the spirit of controversy, and the angry, sarcastic style of his + edicts was designed to inspire his subjects with the hatred which he had + conceived against the enemies of Christ.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But, as if the conduct of the emperor had been guided by passion instead + of principle, three years from the council of Nice were scarcely elapsed + before he discovered some symptoms of mercy, and even of indulgence, + towards the proscribed sect, which was secretly protected by his favorite + sister. The exiles were recalled, and Eusebius, who gradually resumed his + influence over the mind of Constantine, was restored to the episcopal + throne, from which he had been ignominiously degraded. Arius himself was + treated by the whole court with the respect which would have been due to + an innocent and oppressed man. His faith was approved by the synod of + Jerusalem; and the emperor seemed impatient to repair his injustice, by + issuing an absolute command, that he should be solemnly admitted to the + communion in the cathedral of Constantinople. On the same day, which had + been fixed for the triumph of Arius, he expired; and the strange and + horrid circumstances of his death might excite a suspicion, that the + orthodox saints had contributed more efficaciously than by their prayers, + to deliver the church from the most formidable of her enemies. The three + principal leaders of the Catholics, Athanasius of Alexandria, Eustathius + of Antioch, and Paul of Constantinople were deposed on various false + accusations, by the sentence of numerous councils; and were afterwards + banished into distant provinces by the first of the Christian emperors, + who, in the last moments of his life, received the rites of baptism from + the Arian bishop of Nicomedia. The ecclesiastical government of + Constantine cannot be justified from the reproach of levity and weakness. + But the credulous monarch, unskilled in the stratagems of theological + warfare, might be deceived by the modest and specious professions of the + heretics, whose sentiments he never perfectly understood; and while he + protected Arius, and persecuted Athanasius, he still considered the + council of Nice as the bulwark of the Christian faith, and the peculiar + glory of his own reign.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sons of Constantine must have been admitted from their childhood into + the rank of catechumens; but they imitated, in the delay of their baptism, + the example of their father. Like him they presumed to pronounce their + judgment on mysteries into which they had never been regularly initiated; + and the fate of the Trinitarian controversy depended, in a great measure, + on the sentiments of Constantius; who inherited the provinces of the East, + and acquired the possession of the whole empire. The Arian presbyter or + bishop, who had secreted for his use the testament of the deceased + emperor, improved the fortunate occasion which had introduced him to the + familiarity of a prince, whose public counsels were always swayed by his + domestic favorites. The eunuchs and slaves diffused the spiritual poison + through the palace, and the dangerous infection was communicated by the + female attendants to the guards, and by the empress to her unsuspicious + husband. The partiality which Constantius always expressed towards the + Eusebian faction, was insensibly fortified by the dexterous management of + their leaders; and his victory over the tyrant Magnentius increased his + inclination, as well as ability, to employ the arms of power in the cause + of Arianism. While the two armies were engaged in the plains of Mursa, and + the fate of the two rivals depended on the chance of war, the son of + Constantine passed the anxious moments in a church of the martyrs under + the walls of the city. His spiritual comforter, Valens, the Arian bishop + of the diocese, employed the most artful precautions to obtain such early + intelligence as might secure either his favor or his escape. A secret + chain of swift and trusty messengers informed him of the vicissitudes of + the battle; and while the courtiers stood trembling round their affrighted + master, Valens assured him that the Gallic legions gave way; and + insinuated with some presence of mind, that the glorious event had been + revealed to him by an angel. The grateful emperor ascribed his success to + the merits and intercession of the bishop of Mursa, whose faith had + deserved the public and miraculous approbation of Heaven. The Arians, who + considered as their own the victory of Constantius, preferred his glory to + that of his father. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, immediately composed the + description of a celestial cross, encircled with a splendid rainbow; which + during the festival of Pentecost, about the third hour of the day, had + appeared over the Mount of Olives, to the edification of the devout + pilgrims, and the people of the holy city. The size of the meteor was + gradually magnified; and the Arian historian has ventured to affirm, that + it was conspicuous to the two armies in the plains of Pannonia; and that + the tyrant, who is purposely represented as an idolater, fled before the + auspicious sign of orthodox Christianity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sentiments of a judicious stranger, who has impartially considered the + progress of civil or ecclesiastical discord, are always entitled to our + notice; and a short passage of Ammianus, who served in the armies, and + studied the character of Constantius, is perhaps of more value than many + pages of theological invectives. "The Christian religion, which, in + itself," says that moderate historian, "is plain and simple, <strong><em>he</em></strong> + confounded by the dotage of superstition. Instead of reconciling the + parties by the weight of his authority, he cherished and promulgated, by + verbal disputes, the differences which his vain curiosity had excited. The + highways were covered with troops of bishops galloping from every side to + the assemblies, which they call synods; and while they labored to reduce + the whole sect to their own particular opinions, the public establishment + of the posts was almost ruined by their hasty and repeated journeys." Our + more intimate knowledge of the ecclesiastical transactions of the reign of + Constantius would furnish an ample commentary on this remarkable passage, + which justifies the rational apprehensions of Athanasius, that the + restless activity of the clergy, who wandered round the empire in search + of the true faith, would excite the contempt and laughter of the + unbelieving world. As soon as the emperor was relieved from the terrors of + the civil war, he devoted the leisure of his winter quarters at Arles, + Milan, Sirmium, and Constantinople, to the amusement or toils of + controversy: the sword of the magistrate, and even of the tyrant, was + unsheathed, to enforce the reasons of the theologian; and as he opposed + the orthodox faith of Nice, it is readily confessed that his incapacity + and ignorance were equal to his presumption. The eunuchs, the women, and + the bishops, who governed the vain and feeble mind of the emperor, had + inspired him with an insuperable dislike to the Homoousion; but his timid + conscience was alarmed by the impiety of Ætius. The guilt of that + atheist was aggravated by the suspicious favor of the unfortunate Gallus; + and even the death of the Imperial ministers, who had been massacred at + Antioch, were imputed to the suggestions of that dangerous sophist. The + mind of Constantius, which could neither be moderated by reason, nor fixed + by faith, was blindly impelled to either side of the dark and empty abyss, + by his horror of the opposite extreme; he alternately embraced and + condemned the sentiments, he successively banished and recalled the + leaders, of the Arian and Semi-Arian factions. During the season of public + business or festivity, he employed whole days, and even nights, in + selecting the words, and weighing the syllables, which composed his + fluctuating creeds. The subject of his meditations still pursued and + occupied his slumbers: the incoherent dreams of the emperor were received + as celestial visions, and he accepted with complacency the lofty title of + bishop of bishops, from those ecclesiastics who forgot the interest of + their order for the gratification of their passions. The design of + establishing a uniformity of doctrine, which had engaged him to convene so + many synods in Gaul, Italy, Illyricum, and Asia, was repeatedly baffled by + his own levity, by the divisions of the Arians, and by the resistance of + the Catholics; and he resolved, as the last and decisive effort, + imperiously to dictate the decrees of a general council. The destructive + earthquake of Nicomedia, the difficulty of finding a convenient place, and + perhaps some secret motives of policy, produced an alteration in the + summons. The bishops of the East were directed to meet at Seleucia, in + Isauria; while those of the West held their deliberations at Rimini, on + the coast of the Hadriatic; and instead of two or three deputies from each + province, the whole episcopal body was ordered to march. The Eastern + council, after consuming four days in fierce and unavailing debate, + separated without any definitive conclusion. The council of the West was + protracted till the seventh month. Taurus, the Prætorian præfect + was instructed not to dismiss the prelates till they should all be united + in the same opinion; and his efforts were supported by the power of + banishing fifteen of the most refractory, and a promise of the consulship + if he achieved so difficult an adventure. His prayers and threats, the + authority of the sovereign, the sophistry of Valens and Ursacius, the + distress of cold and hunger, and the tedious melancholy of a hopeless + exile, at length extorted the reluctant consent of the bishops of Rimini. + The deputies of the East and of the West attended the emperor in the + palace of Constantinople, and he enjoyed the satisfaction of imposing on + the world a profession of faith which established the likeness, without + expressing the <strong><em>consubstantiality</em></strong>, of the Son of + God. But the triumph of Arianism had been preceded by the removal of the + orthodox clergy, whom it was impossible either to intimidate or to + corrupt; and the reign of Constantius was disgraced by the unjust and + ineffectual persecution of the great Athanasius.<br /> + </p> + <p> + We have seldom an opportunity of observing, either in active or + speculative life, what effect may be produced, or what obstacles may be + surmounted, by the force of a single mind, when it is inflexibly applied + to the pursuit of a single object. The immortal name of Athanasius will + never be separated from the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, to whose + defence he consecrated every moment and every faculty of his being. + Educated in the family of Alexander, he had vigorously opposed the early + progress of the Arian heresy: he exercised the important functions of + secretary under the aged prelate; and the fathers of the Nicene council + beheld with surprise and respect the rising virtues of the young deacon. + In a time of public danger, the dull claims of age and of rank are + sometimes superseded; and within five months after his return from Nice, + the deacon Athanasius was seated on the archiepiscopal throne of Egypt. He + filled that eminent station above forty-six years, and his long + administration was spent in a perpetual combat against the powers of + Arianism. Five times was Athanasius expelled from his throne; twenty years + he passed as an exile or a fugitive: and almost every province of the + Roman empire was successively witness to his merit, and his sufferings in + the cause of the Homoousion, which he considered as the sole pleasure and + business, as the duty, and as the glory of his life. Amidst the storms of + persecution, the archbishop of Alexandria was patient of labor, jealous of + fame, careless of safety; and although his mind was tainted by the + contagion of fanaticism, Athanasius displayed a superiority of character + and abilities, which would have qualified him, far better than the + degenerate sons of Constantine, for the government of a great monarchy. + His learning was much less profound and extensive than that of Eusebius of + Cæsarea, and his rude eloquence could not be compared with the + polished oratory of Gregory of Basil; but whenever the primate of Egypt + was called upon to justify his sentiments, or his conduct, his + unpremeditated style, either of speaking or writing, was clear, forcible, + and persuasive. He has always been revered, in the orthodox school, as one + of the most accurate masters of the Christian theology; and he was + supposed to possess two profane sciences, less adapted to the episcopal + character, the knowledge of jurisprudence, and that of divination. Some + fortunate conjectures of future events, which impartial reasoners might + ascribe to the experience and judgment of Athanasius, were attributed by + his friends to heavenly inspiration, and imputed by his enemies to + infernal magic.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But as Athanasius was continually engaged with the prejudices and passions + of every order of men, from the monk to the emperor, the knowledge of + human nature was his first and most important science. He preserved a + distinct and unbroken view of a scene which was incessantly shifting; and + never failed to improve those decisive moments which are irrecoverably + past before they are perceived by a common eye. The archbishop of + Alexandria was capable of distinguishing how far he might boldly command, + and where he must dexterously insinuate; how long he might contend with + power, and when he must withdraw from persecution; and while he directed + the thunders of the church against heresy and rebellion, he could assume, + in the bosom of his own party, the flexible and indulgent temper of a + prudent leader. The election of Athanasius has not escaped the reproach of + irregularity and precipitation; but the propriety of his behavior + conciliated the affections both of the clergy and of the people. The + Alexandrians were impatient to rise in arms for the defence of an eloquent + and liberal pastor. In his distress he always derived support, or at least + consolation, from the faithful attachment of his parochial clergy; and the + hundred bishops of Egypt adhered, with unshaken zeal, to the cause of + Athanasius. In the modest equipage which pride and policy would affect, he + frequently performed the episcopal visitation of his provinces, from the + mouth of the Nile to the confines of Æthiopia; familiarly conversing + with the meanest of the populace, and humbly saluting the saints and + hermits of the desert. Nor was it only in ecclesiastical assemblies, among + men whose education and manners were similar to his own, that Athanasius + displayed the ascendancy of his genius. He appeared with easy and + respectful firmness in the courts of princes; and in the various turns of + his prosperous and adverse fortune he never lost the confidence of his + friends, or the esteem of his enemies.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In his youth, the primate of Egypt resisted the great Constantine, who had + repeatedly signified his will, that Arius should be restored to the + Catholic communion. The emperor respected, and might forgive, this + inflexible resolution; and the faction who considered Athanasius as their + most formidable enemy, was constrained to dissemble their hatred, and + silently to prepare an indirect and distant assault. They scattered rumors + and suspicions, represented the archbishop as a proud and oppressive + tyrant, and boldly accused him of violating the treaty which had been + ratified in the Nicene council, with the schismatic followers of Meletius. + Athanasius had openly disapproved that ignominious peace, and the emperor + was disposed to believe that he had abused his ecclesiastical and civil + power, to prosecute those odious sectaries: that he had sacrilegiously + broken a chalice in one of their churches of Mareotis; that he had whipped + or imprisoned six of their bishops; and that Arsenius, a seventh bishop of + the same party, had been murdered, or at least mutilated, by the cruel + hand of the primate. These charges, which affected his honor and his life, + were referred by Constantine to his brother Dalmatius the censor, who + resided at Antioch; the synods of Cæsarea and Tyre were successively + convened; and the bishops of the East were instructed to judge the cause + of Athanasius, before they proceeded to consecrate the new church of the + Resurrection at Jerusalem. The primate might be conscious of his + innocence; but he was sensible that the same implacable spirit which had + dictated the accusation, would direct the proceeding, and pronounce the + sentence. He prudently declined the tribunal of his enemies; despised the + summons of the synod of Cæsarea; and, after a long and artful delay, + submitted to the peremptory commands of the emperor, who threatened to + punish his criminal disobedience if he refused to appear in the council of + Tyre. Before Athanasius, at the head of fifty Egyptian prelates, sailed + from Alexandria, he had wisely secured the alliance of the Meletians; and + Arsenius himself, his imaginary victim, and his secret friend, was + privately concealed in his train. The synod of Tyre was conducted by + Eusebius of Cæsarea, with more passion, and with less art, than his + learning and experience might promise; his numerous faction repeated the + names of homicide and tyrant; and their clamors were encouraged by the + seeming patience of Athanasius, who expected the decisive moment to + produce Arsenius alive and unhurt in the midst of the assembly. The nature + of the other charges did not admit of such clear and satisfactory replies; + yet the archbishop was able to prove, that in the village, where he was + accused of breaking a consecrated chalice, neither church nor altar nor + chalice could really exist. The Arians, who had secretly determined the + guilt and condemnation of their enemy, attempted, however, to disguise + their injustice by the imitation of judicial forms: the synod appointed an + episcopal commission of six delegates to collect evidence on the spot; and + this measure which was vigorously opposed by the Egyptian bishops, opened + new scenes of violence and perjury. After the return of the deputies from + Alexandria, the majority of the council pronounced the final sentence of + degradation and exile against the primate of Egypt. The decree, expressed + in the fiercest language of malice and revenge, was communicated to the + emperor and the Catholic church; and the bishops immediately resumed a + mild and devout aspect, such as became their holy pilgrimage to the + Sepulchre of Christ.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch21-p5" id="linkch21-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + But the injustice of these ecclesiastical judges had not been countenanced + by the submission, or even by the presence, of Athanasius. He resolved to + make a bold and dangerous experiment, whether the throne was inaccessible + to the voice of truth; and before the final sentence could be pronounced + at Tyre, the intrepid primate threw himself into a bark which was ready to + hoist sail for the Imperial city. The request of a formal audience might + have been opposed or eluded; but Athanasius concealed his arrival, watched + the moment of Constantine's return from an adjacent villa, and boldly + encountered his angry sovereign as he passed on horseback through the + principal street of Constantinople. So strange an apparition excited his + surprise and indignation; and the guards were ordered to remove the + importunate suitor; but his resentment was subdued by involuntary respect; + and the haughty spirit of the emperor was awed by the courage and + eloquence of a bishop, who implored his justice and awakened his + conscience. Constantine listened to the complaints of Athanasius with + impartial and even gracious attention; the members of the synod of Tyre + were summoned to justify their proceedings; and the arts of the Eusebian + faction would have been confounded, if they had not aggravated the guilt + of the primate, by the dexterous supposition of an unpardonable offence; a + criminal design to intercept and detain the corn-fleet of Alexandria, + which supplied the subsistence of the new capital. The emperor was + satisfied that the peace of Egypt would be secured by the absence of a + popular leader; but he refused to fill the vacancy of the archiepiscopal + throne; and the sentence, which, after long hesitation, he pronounced, was + that of a jealous ostracism, rather than of an ignominious exile. In the + remote province of Gaul, but in the hospitable court of Treves, Athanasius + passed about twenty eight months. The death of the emperor changed the + face of public affairs and, amidst the general indulgence of a young + reign, the primate was restored to his country by an honorable edict of + the younger Constantine, who expressed a deep sense of the innocence and + merit of his venerable guest.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The death of that prince exposed Athanasius to a second persecution; and + the feeble Constantius, the sovereign of the East, soon became the secret + accomplice of the Eusebians. Ninety bishops of that sect or faction + assembled at Antioch, under the specious pretence of dedicating the + cathedral. They composed an ambiguous creed, which is faintly tinged with + the colors of Semi-Arianism, and twenty-five canons, which still regulate + the discipline of the orthodox Greeks. It was decided, with some + appearance of equity, that a bishop, deprived by a synod, should not + resume his episcopal functions till he had been absolved by the judgment + of an equal synod; the law was immediately applied to the case of + Athanasius; the council of Antioch pronounced, or rather confirmed, his + degradation: a stranger, named Gregory, was seated on his throne; and + Philagrius, the præfect of Egypt, was instructed to support the new + primate with the civil and military powers of the province. Oppressed by + the conspiracy of the Asiatic prelates, Athanasius withdrew from + Alexandria, and passed three years as an exile and a suppliant on the holy + threshold of the Vatican. By the assiduous study of the Latin language, he + soon qualified himself to negotiate with the western clergy; his decent + flattery swayed and directed the haughty Julius; the Roman pontiff was + persuaded to consider his appeal as the peculiar interest of the Apostolic + see: and his innocence was unanimously declared in a council of fifty + bishops of Italy. At the end of three years, the primate was summoned to + the court of Milan by the emperor Constans, who, in the indulgence of + unlawful pleasures, still professed a lively regard for the orthodox + faith. The cause of truth and justice was promoted by the influence of + gold, and the ministers of Constans advised their sovereign to require the + convocation of an ecclesiastical assembly, which might act as the + representatives of the Catholic church. Ninety-four bishops of the West, + seventy-six bishops of the East, encountered each other at Sardica, on the + verge of the two empires, but in the dominions of the protector of + Athanasius. Their debates soon degenerated into hostile altercations; the + Asiatics, apprehensive for their personal safety, retired to Philippopolis + in Thrace; and the rival synods reciprocally hurled their spiritual + thunders against their enemies, whom they piously condemned as the enemies + of the true God. Their decrees were published and ratified in their + respective provinces: and Athanasius, who in the West was revered as a + saint, was exposed as a criminal to the abhorrence of the East. The + council of Sardica reveals the first symptoms of discord and schism + between the Greek and Latin churches which were separated by the + accidental difference of faith, and the permanent distinction of language.<br /> + </p> + <p> + During his second exile in the West, Athanasius was frequently admitted to + the Imperial presence; at Capua, Lodi, Milan, Verona, Padua, Aquileia, and + Treves. The bishop of the diocese usually assisted at these interviews; + the master of the offices stood before the veil or curtain of the sacred + apartment; and the uniform moderation of the primate might be attested by + these respectable witnesses, to whose evidence he solemnly appeals. + Prudence would undoubtedly suggest the mild and respectful tone that + became a subject and a bishop. In these familiar conferences with the + sovereign of the West, Athanasius might lament the error of Constantius, + but he boldly arraigned the guilt of his eunuchs and his Arian prelates; + deplored the distress and danger of the Catholic church; and excited + Constans to emulate the zeal and glory of his father. The emperor declared + his resolution of employing the troops and treasures of Europe in the + orthodox cause; and signified, by a concise and peremptory epistle to his + brother Constantius, that unless he consented to the immediate restoration + of Athanasius, he himself, with a fleet and army, would seat the + archbishop on the throne of Alexandria. But this religious war, so + horrible to nature, was prevented by the timely compliance of Constantius; + and the emperor of the East condescended to solicit a reconciliation with + a subject whom he had injured. Athanasius waited with decent pride, till + he had received three successive epistles full of the strongest assurances + of the protection, the favor, and the esteem of his sovereign; who invited + him to resume his episcopal seat, and who added the humiliating precaution + of engaging his principal ministers to attest the sincerity of his + intentions. They were manifested in a still more public manner, by the + strict orders which were despatched into Egypt to recall the adherents of + Athanasius, to restore their privileges, to proclaim their innocence, and + to erase from the public registers the illegal proceedings which had been + obtained during the prevalence of the Eusebian faction. After every + satisfaction and security had been given, which justice or even delicacy + could require, the primate proceeded, by slow journeys, through the + provinces of Thrace, Asia, and Syria; and his progress was marked by the + abject homage of the Oriental bishops, who excited his contempt without + deceiving his penetration. At Antioch he saw the emperor Constantius; + sustained, with modest firmness, the embraces and protestations of his + master, and eluded the proposal of allowing the Arians a single church at + Alexandria, by claiming, in the other cities of the empire, a similar + toleration for his own party; a reply which might have appeared just and + moderate in the mouth of an independent prince. The entrance of the + archbishop into his capital was a triumphal procession; absence and + persecution had endeared him to the Alexandrians; his authority, which he + exercised with rigor, was more firmly established; and his fame was + diffused from Æthiopia to Britain, over the whole extent of the + Christian world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the subject who has reduced his prince to the necessity of + dissembling, can never expect a sincere and lasting forgiveness; and the + tragic fate of Constans soon deprived Athanasius of a powerful and + generous protector. The civil war between the assassin and the only + surviving brother of Constans, which afflicted the empire above three + years, secured an interval of repose to the Catholic church; and the two + contending parties were desirous to conciliate the friendship of a bishop, + who, by the weight of his personal authority, might determine the + fluctuating resolutions of an important province. He gave audience to the + ambassadors of the tyrant, with whom he was afterwards accused of holding + a secret correspondence; and the emperor Constantius repeatedly assured + his dearest father, the most reverend Athanasius, that, notwithstanding + the malicious rumors which were circulated by their common enemies, he had + inherited the sentiments, as well as the throne, of his deceased brother. + Gratitude and humanity would have disposed the primate of Egypt to deplore + the untimely fate of Constans, and to abhor the guilt of Magnentius; but + as he clearly understood that the apprehensions of Constantius were his + only safeguard, the fervor of his prayers for the success of the righteous + cause might perhaps be somewhat abated. The ruin of Athanasius was no + longer contrived by the obscure malice of a few bigoted or angry bishops, + who abused the authority of a credulous monarch. The monarch himself + avowed the resolution, which he had so long suppressed, of avenging his + private injuries; and the first winter after his victory, which he passed + at Arles, was employed against an enemy more odious to him than the + vanquished tyrant of Gaul.<br /> + </p> + <p> + If the emperor had capriciously decreed the death of the most eminent and + virtuous citizen of the republic, the cruel order would have been executed + without hesitation, by the ministers of open violence or of specious + injustice. The caution, the delay, the difficulty with which he proceeded + in the condemnation and punishment of a popular bishop, discovered to the + world that the privileges of the church had already revived a sense of + order and freedom in the Roman government. The sentence which was + pronounced in the synod of Tyre, and subscribed by a large majority of the + Eastern bishops, had never been expressly repealed; and as Athanasius had + been once degraded from his episcopal dignity by the judgment of his + brethren, every subsequent act might be considered as irregular, and even + criminal. But the memory of the firm and effectual support which the + primate of Egypt had derived from the attachment of the Western church, + engaged Constantius to suspend the execution of the sentence till he had + obtained the concurrence of the Latin bishops. Two years were consumed in + ecclesiastical negotiations; and the important cause between the emperor + and one of his subjects was solemnly debated, first in the synod of Arles, + and afterwards in the great council of Milan, which consisted of above + three hundred bishops. Their integrity was gradually undermined by the + arguments of the Arians, the dexterity of the eunuchs, and the pressing + solicitations of a prince who gratified his revenge at the expense of his + dignity, and exposed his own passions, whilst he influenced those of the + clergy. Corruption, the most infallible symptom of constitutional liberty, + was successfully practised; honors, gifts, and immunities were offered and + accepted as the price of an episcopal vote; and the condemnation of the + Alexandrian primate was artfully represented as the only measure which + could restore the peace and union of the Catholic church. The friends of + Athanasius were not, however, wanting to their leader, or to their cause. + With a manly spirit, which the sanctity of their character rendered less + dangerous, they maintained, in public debate, and in private conference + with the emperor, the eternal obligation of religion and justice. They + declared, that neither the hope of his favor, nor the fear of his + displeasure, should prevail on them to join in the condemnation of an + absent, an innocent, a respectable brother. They affirmed, with apparent + reason, that the illegal and obsolete decrees of the council of Tyre had + long since been tacitly abolished by the Imperial edicts, the honorable + reestablishment of the archbishop of Alexandria, and the silence or + recantation of his most clamorous adversaries. They alleged, that his + innocence had been attested by the unanimous bishops of Egypt, and had + been acknowledged in the councils of Rome and Sardica, by the impartial + judgment of the Latin church. They deplored the hard condition of + Athanasius, who, after enjoying so many years his seat, his reputation, + and the seeming confidence of his sovereign, was again called upon to + confute the most groundless and extravagant accusations. Their language + was specious; their conduct was honorable: but in this long and obstinate + contest, which fixed the eyes of the whole empire on a single bishop, the + ecclesiastical factions were prepared to sacrifice truth and justice to + the more interesting object of defending or removing the intrepid champion + of the Nicene faith. The Arians still thought it prudent to disguise, in + ambiguous language, their real sentiments and designs; but the orthodox + bishops, armed with the favor of the people, and the decrees of a general + council, insisted on every occasion, and particularly at Milan, that their + adversaries should purge themselves from the suspicion of heresy, before + they presumed to arraign the conduct of the great Athanasius.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the voice of reason (if reason was indeed on the side of Athanasius) + was silenced by the clamors of a factious or venal majority; and the + councils of Arles and Milan were not dissolved, till the archbishop of + Alexandria had been solemnly condemned and deposed by the judgment of the + Western, as well as of the Eastern, church. The bishops who had opposed, + were required to subscribe, the sentence, and to unite in religious + communion with the suspected leaders of the adverse party. A formulary of + consent was transmitted by the messengers of state to the absent bishops: + and all those who refused to submit their private opinion to the public + and inspired wisdom of the councils of Arles and Milan, were immediately + banished by the emperor, who affected to execute the decrees of the + Catholic church. Among those prelates who led the honorable band of + confessors and exiles, Liberius of Rome, Osius of Cordova, Paulinus of + Treves, Dionysius of Milan, Eusebius of Vercellæ, Lucifer of + Cagliari and Hilary of Poitiers, may deserve to be particularly + distinguished. The eminent station of Liberius, who governed the capital + of the empire; the personal merit and long experience of the venerable + Osius, who was revered as the favorite of the great Constantine, and the + father of the Nicene faith, placed those prelates at the head of the Latin + church: and their example, either of submission or resistance, would + probable be imitated by the episcopal crowd. But the repeated attempts of + the emperor to seduce or to intimidate the bishops of Rome and Cordova, + were for some time ineffectual. The Spaniard declared himself ready to + suffer under Constantius, as he had suffered threescore years before under + his grandfather Maximian. The Roman, in the presence of his sovereign, + asserted the innocence of Athanasius and his own freedom. When he was + banished to Beræa in Thrace, he sent back a large sum which had been + offered for the accommodation of his journey; and insulted the court of + Milan by the haughty remark, that the emperor and his eunuchs might want + that gold to pay their soldiers and their bishops. The resolution of + Liberius and Osius was at length subdued by the hardships of exile and + confinement. The Roman pontiff purchased his return by some criminal + compliances; and afterwards expiated his guilt by a seasonable repentance. + Persuasion and violence were employed to extort the reluctant signature of + the decrepit bishop of Cordova, whose strength was broken, and whose + faculties were perhaps impaired by the weight of a hundred years; and the + insolent triumph of the Arians provoked some of the orthodox party to + treat with inhuman severity the character, or rather the memory, of an + unfortunate old man, to whose former services Christianity itself was so + deeply indebted.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The fall of Liberius and Osius reflected a brighter lustre on the firmness + of those bishops who still adhered, with unshaken fidelity, to the cause + of Athanasius and religious truth. The ingenious malice of their enemies + had deprived them of the benefit of mutual comfort and advice, separated + those illustrious exiles into distant provinces, and carefully selected + the most inhospitable spots of a great empire. Yet they soon experienced + that the deserts of Libya, and the most barbarous tracts of Cappadocia, + were less inhospitable than the residence of those cities in which an + Arian bishop could satiate, without restraint, the exquisite rancor of + theological hatred. Their consolation was derived from the consciousness + of rectitude and independence, from the applause, the visits, the letters, + and the liberal alms of their adherents, and from the satisfaction which + they soon enjoyed of observing the intestine divisions of the adversaries + of the Nicene faith. Such was the nice and capricious taste of the emperor + Constantius; and so easily was he offended by the slightest deviation from + his imaginary standard of Christian truth, that he persecuted, with equal + zeal, those who defended the <strong><em>consubstantiality</em></strong>, + those who asserted the <strong><em>similar</em></strong> <strong><em>substance</em></strong>, + and those who denied the <strong><em>likeness</em></strong> of the Son of + God. Three bishops, degraded and banished for those adverse opinions, + might possibly meet in the same place of exile; and, according to the + difference of their temper, might either pity or insult the blind + enthusiasm of their antagonists, whose present sufferings would never be + compensated by future happiness.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The disgrace and exile of the orthodox bishops of the West were designed + as so many preparatory steps to the ruin of Athanasius himself. + Six-and-twenty months had elapsed, during which the Imperial court + secretly labored, by the most insidious arts, to remove him from + Alexandria, and to withdraw the allowance which supplied his popular + liberality. But when the primate of Egypt, deserted and proscribed by the + Latin church, was left destitute of any foreign support, Constantius + despatched two of his secretaries with a verbal commission to announce and + execute the order of his banishment. As the justice of the sentence was + publicly avowed by the whole party, the only motive which could restrain + Constantius from giving his messengers the sanction of a written mandate, + must be imputed to his doubt of the event; and to a sense of the danger to + which he might expose the second city, and the most fertile province, of + the empire, if the people should persist in the resolution of defending, + by force of arms, the innocence of their spiritual father. Such extreme + caution afforded Athanasius a specious pretence respectfully to dispute + the truth of an order, which he could not reconcile, either with the + equity, or with the former declarations, of his gracious master. The civil + powers of Egypt found themselves inadequate to the task of persuading or + compelling the primate to abdicate his episcopal throne; and they were + obliged to conclude a treaty with the popular leaders of Alexandria, by + which it was stipulated, that all proceedings and all hostilities should + be suspended till the emperor's pleasure had been more distinctly + ascertained. By this seeming moderation, the Catholics were deceived into + a false and fatal security; while the legions of the Upper Egypt, and of + Libya, advanced, by secret orders and hasty marches, to besiege, or rather + to surprise, a capital habituated to sedition, and inflamed by religious + zeal. The position of Alexandria, between the sea and the Lake Mareotis, + facilitated the approach and landing of the troops; who were introduced + into the heart of the city, before any effectual measures could be taken + either to shut the gates or to occupy the important posts of defence. At + the hour of midnight, twenty-three days after the signature of the treaty, + Syrianus, duke of Egypt, at the head of five thousand soldiers, armed and + prepared for an assault, unexpectedly invested the church of St. Theonas, + where the archbishop, with a part of his clergy and people, performed + their nocturnal devotions. The doors of the sacred edifice yielded to the + impetuosity of the attack, which was accompanied with every horrid + circumstance of tumult and bloodshed; but, as the bodies of the slain, and + the fragments of military weapons, remained the next day an + unexceptionable evidence in the possession of the Catholics, the + enterprise of Syrianus may be considered as a successful irruption rather + than as an absolute conquest. The other churches of the city were profaned + by similar outrages; and, during at least four months, Alexandria was + exposed to the insults of a licentious army, stimulated by the + ecclesiastics of a hostile faction. Many of the faithful were killed; who + may deserve the name of martyrs, if their deaths were neither provoked nor + revenged; bishops and presbyters were treated with cruel ignominy; + consecrated virgins were stripped naked, scourged and violated; the houses + of wealthy citizens were plundered; and, under the mask of religious zeal, + lust, avarice, and private resentment were gratified with impunity, and + even with applause. The Pagans of Alexandria, who still formed a numerous + and discontented party, were easily persuaded to desert a bishop whom they + feared and esteemed. The hopes of some peculiar favors, and the + apprehension of being involved in the general penalties of rebellion, + engaged them to promise their support to the destined successor of + Athanasius, the famous George of Cappadocia. The usurper, after receiving + the consecration of an Arian synod, was placed on the episcopal throne by + the arms of Sebastian, who had been appointed Count of Egypt for the + execution of that important design. In the use, as well as in the + acquisition, of power, the tyrant, George disregarded the laws of + religion, of justice, and of humanity; and the same scenes of violence and + scandal which had been exhibited in the capital, were repeated in more + than ninety episcopal cities of Egypt. Encouraged by success, Constantius + ventured to approve the conduct of his minister. By a public and + passionate epistle, the emperor congratulates the deliverance of + Alexandria from a popular tyrant, who deluded his blind votaries by the + magic of his eloquence; expatiates on the virtues and piety of the most + reverend George, the elected bishop; and aspires, as the patron and + benefactor of the city to surpass the fame of Alexander himself. But he + solemnly declares his unalterable resolution to pursue with fire and sword + the seditious adherents of the wicked Athanasius, who, by flying from + justice, has confessed his guilt, and escaped the ignominious death which + he had so often deserved.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /><br /> <br /> <a name="linkch21-p6" id="linkch21-p6"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + Athanasius had indeed escaped from the most imminent dangers; and the + adventures of that extraordinary man deserve and fix our attention. On the + memorable night when the church of St. Theonas was invested by the troops + of Syrianus, the archbishop, seated on his throne, expected, with calm and + intrepid dignity, the approach of death. While the public devotion was + interrupted by shouts of rage and cries of terror, he animated his + trembling congregation to express their religious confidence, by chanting + one of the psalms of David which celebrates the triumph of the God of Isræl + over the haughty and impious tyrant of Egypt. The doors were at length + burst open: a cloud of arrows was discharged among the people; the + soldiers, with drawn swords, rushed forwards into the sanctuary; and the + dreadful gleam of their arms was reflected by the holy luminaries which + burnt round the altar. Athanasius still rejected the pious importunity of + the monks and presbyters, who were attached to his person; and nobly + refused to desert his episcopal station, till he had dismissed in safety + the last of the congregation. The darkness and tumult of the night favored + the retreat of the archbishop; and though he was oppressed by the waves of + an agitated multitude, though he was thrown to the ground, and left + without sense or motion, he still recovered his undaunted courage, and + eluded the eager search of the soldiers, who were instructed by their + Arian guides, that the head of Athanasius would be the most acceptable + present to the emperor. From that moment the primate of Egypt disappeared + from the eyes of his enemies, and remained above six years concealed in + impenetrable obscurity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The despotic power of his implacable enemy filled the whole extent of the + Roman world; and the exasperated monarch had endeavored, by a very + pressing epistle to the Christian princes of Ethiopia, * to exclude + Athanasius from the most remote and sequestered regions of the earth. + Counts, præfects, tribunes, whole armies, were successively employed + to pursue a bishop and a fugitive; the vigilance of the civil and military + powers was excited by the Imperial edicts; liberal rewards were promised + to the man who should produce Athanasius, either alive or dead; and the + most severe penalties were denounced against those who should dare to + protect the public enemy. But the deserts of Thebais were now peopled by a + race of wild, yet submissive fanatics, who preferred the commands of their + abbot to the laws of their sovereign. The numerous disciples of Antony and + Pachomius received the fugitive primate as their father, admired the + patience and humility with which he conformed to their strictest + institutions, collected every word which dropped from his lips as the + genuine effusions of inspired wisdom; and persuaded themselves that their + prayers, their fasts, and their vigils, were less meritorious than the + zeal which they expressed, and the dangers which they braved, in the + defence of truth and innocence. The monasteries of Egypt were seated in + lonely and desolate places, on the summit of mountains, or in the islands + of the Nile; and the sacred horn or trumpet of Tabenne was the well-known + signal which assembled several thousand robust and determined monks, who, + for the most part, had been the peasants of the adjacent country. When + their dark retreats were invaded by a military force, which it was + impossible to resist, they silently stretched out their necks to the + executioner; and supported their national character, that tortures could + never wrest from an Egyptian the confession of a secret which he was + resolved not to disclose. The archbishop of Alexandria, for whose safety + they eagerly devoted their lives, was lost among a uniform and + well-disciplined multitude; and on the nearer approach of danger, he was + swiftly removed, by their officious hands, from one place of concealment + to another, till he reached the formidable deserts, which the gloomy and + credulous temper of superstition had peopled with dæmons and savage + monsters. The retirement of Athanasius, which ended only with the life of + Constantius, was spent, for the most part, in the society of the monks, + who faithfully served him as guards, as secretaries, and as messengers; + but the importance of maintaining a more intimate connection with the + Catholic party tempted him, whenever the diligence of the pursuit was + abated, to emerge from the desert, to introduce himself into Alexandria, + and to trust his person to the discretion of his friends and adherents. + His various adventures might have furnished the subject of a very + entertaining romance. He was once secreted in a dry cistern, which he had + scarcely left before he was betrayed by the treachery of a female slave; + and he was once concealed in a still more extraordinary asylum, the house + of a virgin, only twenty years of age, and who was celebrated in the whole + city for her exquisite beauty. At the hour of midnight, as she related the + story many years afterwards, she was surprised by the appearance of the + archbishop in a loose undress, who, advancing with hasty steps, conjured + her to afford him the protection which he had been directed by a celestial + vision to seek under her hospitable roof. The pious maid accepted and + preserved the sacred pledge which was intrusted to her prudence and + courage. Without imparting the secret to any one, she instantly conducted + Athanasius into her most secret chamber, and watched over his safety with + the tenderness of a friend and the assiduity of a servant. As long as the + danger continued, she regularly supplied him with books and provisions, + washed his feet, managed his correspondence, and dexterously concealed + from the eye of suspicion this familiar and solitary intercourse between a + saint whose character required the most unblemished chastity, and a female + whose charms might excite the most dangerous emotions. During the six + years of persecution and exile, Athanasius repeated his visits to his fair + and faithful companion; and the formal declaration, that he <strong><em>saw</em></strong> + the councils of Rimini and Seleucia, forces us to believe that he was + secretly present at the time and place of their convocation. The advantage + of personally negotiating with his friends, and of observing and improving + the divisions of his enemies, might justify, in a prudent statesman, so + bold and dangerous an enterprise: and Alexandria was connected by trade + and navigation with every seaport of the Mediterranean. From the depth of + his inaccessible retreat the intrepid primate waged an incessant and + offensive war against the protector of the Arians; and his seasonable + writings, which were diligently circulated and eagerly perused, + contributed to unite and animate the orthodox party. In his public + apologies, which he addressed to the emperor himself, he sometimes + affected the praise of moderation; whilst at the same time, in secret and + vehement invectives, he exposed Constantius as a weak and wicked prince, + the executioner of his family, the tyrant of the republic, and the + Antichrist of the church. In the height of his prosperity, the victorious + monarch, who had chastised the rashness of Gallus, and suppressed the + revolt of Sylvanus, who had taken the diadem from the head of Vetranio, + and vanquished in the field the legions of Magnentius, received from an + invisible hand a wound, which he could neither heal nor revenge; and the + son of Constantine was the first of the Christian princes who experienced + the strength of those principles, which, in the cause of religion, could + resist the most violent exertions of the civil power.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The persecution of Athanasius, and of so many respectable bishops, who + suffered for the truth of their opinions, or at least for the integrity of + their conscience, was a just subject of indignation and discontent to all + Christians, except those who were blindly devoted to the Arian faction. + The people regretted the loss of their faithful pastors, whose banishment + was usually followed by the intrusion of a stranger into the episcopal + chair; and loudly complained, that the right of election was violated, and + that they were condemned to obey a mercenary usurper, whose person was + unknown, and whose principles were suspected. The Catholics might prove to + the world, that they were not involved in the guilt and heresy of their + ecclesiastical governor, by publicly testifying their dissent, or by + totally separating themselves from his communion. The first of these + methods was invented at Antioch, and practised with such success, that it + was soon diffused over the Christian world. The doxology or sacred hymn, + which celebrates the <strong><em>glory</em></strong> of the Trinity, is + susceptible of very nice, but material, inflections; and the substance of + an orthodox, or an heretical, creed, may be expressed by the difference of + a disjunctive, or a copulative, particle. Alternate responses, and a more + regular psalmody, were introduced into the public service by Flavianus and + Diodorus, two devout and active laymen, who were attached to the Nicene + faith. Under their conduct a swarm of monks issued from the adjacent + desert, bands of well-disciplined singers were stationed in the cathedral + of Antioch, the Glory to the Father, And the Son, And the Holy Ghost, was + triumphantly chanted by a full chorus of voices; and the Catholics + insulted, by the purity of their doctrine, the Arian prelate, who had + usurped the throne of the venerable Eustathius. The same zeal which + inspired their songs prompted the more scrupulous members of the orthodox + party to form separate assemblies, which were governed by the presbyters, + till the death of their exiled bishop allowed the election and + consecration of a new episcopal pastor. The revolutions of the court + multiplied the number of pretenders; and the same city was often disputed, + under the reign of Constantius, by two, or three, or even four, bishops, + who exercised their spiritual jurisdiction over their respective + followers, and alternately lost and regained the temporal possessions of + the church. The abuse of Christianity introduced into the Roman government + new causes of tyranny and sedition; the bands of civil society were torn + asunder by the fury of religious factions; and the obscure citizen, who + might calmly have surveyed the elevation and fall of successive emperors, + imagined and experienced, that his own life and fortune were connected + with the interests of a popular ecclesiastic. The example of the two + capitals, Rome and Constantinople, may serve to represent the state of the + empire, and the temper of mankind, under the reign of the sons of + Constantine.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. The Roman pontiff, as long as he maintained his station and his + principles, was guarded by the warm attachment of a great people; and + could reject with scorn the prayers, the menaces, and the oblations of an + heretical prince. When the eunuchs had secretly pronounced the exile of + Liberius, the well-grounded apprehension of a tumult engaged them to use + the utmost precautions in the execution of the sentence. The capital was + invested on every side, and the præfect was commanded to seize the + person of the bishop, either by stratagem or by open force. The order was + obeyed, and Liberius, with the greatest difficulty, at the hour of + midnight, was swiftly conveyed beyond the reach of the Roman people, + before their consternation was turned into rage. As soon as they were + informed of his banishment into Thrace, a general assembly was convened, + and the clergy of Rome bound themselves, by a public and solemn oath, + never to desert their bishop, never to acknowledge the usurper Fælix; + who, by the influence of the eunuchs, had been irregularly chosen and + consecrated within the walls of a profane palace. At the end of two years, + their pious obstinacy subsisted entire and unshaken; and when Constantius + visited Rome, he was assailed by the importunate solicitations of a + people, who had preserved, as the last remnant of their ancient freedom, + the right of treating their sovereign with familiar insolence. The wives + of many of the senators and most honorable citizens, after pressing their + husbands to intercede in favor of Liberius, were advised to undertake a + commission, which in their hands would be less dangerous, and might prove + more successful. The emperor received with politeness these female + deputies, whose wealth and dignity were displayed in the magnificence of + their dress and ornaments: he admired their inflexible resolution of + following their beloved pastor to the most distant regions of the earth; + and consented that the two bishops, Liberius and Fælix, should + govern in peace their respective congregations. But the ideas of + toleration were so repugnant to the practice, and even to the sentiments, + of those times, that when the answer of Constantius was publicly read in + the Circus of Rome, so reasonable a project of accommodation was rejected + with contempt and ridicule. The eager vehemence which animated the + spectators in the decisive moment of a horse-race, was now directed + towards a different object; and the Circus resounded with the shout of + thousands, who repeatedly exclaimed, "One God, One Christ, One Bishop!" + The zeal of the Roman people in the cause of Liberius was not confined to + words alone; and the dangerous and bloody sedition which they excited soon + after the departure of Constantius determined that prince to accept the + submission of the exiled prelate, and to restore him to the undivided + dominion of the capital. After some ineffectual resistance, his rival was + expelled from the city by the permission of the emperor and the power of + the opposite faction; the adherents of Fælix were inhumanly murdered + in the streets, in the public places, in the baths, and even in the + churches; and the face of Rome, upon the return of a Christian bishop, + renewed the horrid image of the massacres of Marius, and the proscriptions + of Sylla.<br /> + </p> + <p> + II. Notwithstanding the rapid increase of Christians under the reign of + the Flavian family, Rome, Alexandria, and the other great cities of the + empire, still contained a strong and powerful faction of Infidels, who + envied the prosperity, and who ridiculed, even in their theatres, the + theological disputes of the church. Constantinople alone enjoyed the + advantage of being born and educated in the bosom of the faith. The + capital of the East had never been polluted by the worship of idols; and + the whole body of the people had deeply imbibed the opinions, the virtues, + and the passions, which distinguished the Christians of that age from the + rest of mankind. After the death of Alexander, the episcopal throne was + disputed by Paul and Macedonius. By their zeal and abilities they both + deserved the eminent station to which they aspired; and if the moral + character of Macedonius was less exceptionable, his competitor had the + advantage of a prior election and a more orthodox doctrine. His firm + attachment to the Nicene creed, which has given Paul a place in the + calendar among saints and martyrs, exposed him to the resentment of the + Arians. In the space of fourteen years he was five times driven from his + throne; to which he was more frequently restored by the violence of the + people, than by the permission of the prince; and the power of Macedonius + could be secured only by the death of his rival. The unfortunate Paul was + dragged in chains from the sandy deserts of Mesopotamia to the most + desolate places of Mount Taurus, confined in a dark and narrow dungeon, + left six days without food, and at length strangled, by the order of + Philip, one of the principal ministers of the emperor Constantius. The + first blood which stained the new capital was spilt in this ecclesiastical + contest; and many persons were slain on both sides, in the furious and + obstinate seditions of the people. The commission of enforcing a sentence + of banishment against Paul had been intrusted to Hermogenes, the + master-general of the cavalry; but the execution of it was fatal to + himself. The Catholics rose in the defence of their bishop; the palace of + Hermogenes was consumed; the first military officer of the empire was + dragged by the heels through the streets of Constantinople, and, after he + expired, his lifeless corpse was exposed to their wanton insults. The fate + of Hermogenes instructed Philip, the Prætorian præfect, to act + with more precaution on a similar occasion. In the most gentle and + honorable terms, he required the attendance of Paul in the baths of + Zeuxippus, which had a private communication with the palace and the sea. + A vessel, which lay ready at the garden stairs, immediately hoisted sail; + and, while the people were still ignorant of the meditated sacrilege, + their bishop was already embarked on his voyage to Thessalonica. They soon + beheld, with surprise and indignation, the gates of the palace thrown + open, and the usurper Macedonius seated by the side of the præfect + on a lofty chariot, which was surrounded by troops of guards with drawn + swords. The military procession advanced towards the cathedral; the Arians + and the Catholics eagerly rushed to occupy that important post; and three + thousand one hundred and fifty persons lost their lives in the confusion + of the tumult. Macedonius, who was supported by a regular force, obtained + a decisive victory; but his reign was disturbed by clamor and sedition; + and the causes which appeared the least connected with the subject of + dispute, were sufficient to nourish and to kindle the flame of civil + discord. As the chapel in which the body of the great Constantine had been + deposited was in a ruinous condition, the bishop transported those + venerable remains into the church of St. Acacius. This prudent and even + pious measure was represented as a wicked profanation by the whole party + which adhered to the Homoousian doctrine. The factions immediately flew to + arms, the consecrated ground was used as their field of battle; and one of + the ecclesiastical historians has observed, as a real fact, not as a + figure of rhetoric, that the well before the church overflowed with a + stream of blood, which filled the porticos and the adjacent courts. The + writer who should impute these tumults solely to a religious principle, + would betray a very imperfect knowledge of human nature; yet it must be + confessed that the motive which misled the sincerity of zeal, and the + pretence which disguised the licentiousness of passion, suppressed the + remorse which, in another cause, would have succeeded to the rage of the + Christians at Constantinople.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch21-p7" id="linkch21-p7"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXI: Persecution Of Heresy, State Of The Church.—Part VII. + </h2> + <p> + The cruel and arbitrary disposition of Constantius, which did not always + require the provocations of guilt and resistance, was justly exasperated + by the tumults of his capital, and the criminal behavior of a faction, + which opposed the authority and religion of their sovereign. The ordinary + punishments of death, exile, and confiscation, were inflicted with partial + vigor; and the Greeks still revere the holy memory of two clerks, a + reader, and a sub-deacon, who were accused of the murder of Hermogenes, + and beheaded at the gates of Constantinople. By an edict of Constantius + against the Catholics which has not been judged worthy of a place in the + Theodosian code, those who refused to communicate with the Arian bishops, + and particularly with Macedonius, were deprived of the immunities of + ecclesiastics, and of the rights of Christians; they were compelled to + relinquish the possession of the churches; and were strictly prohibited + from holding their assemblies within the walls of the city. The execution + of this unjust law, in the provinces of Thrace and Asia Minor, was + committed to the zeal of Macedonius; the civil and military powers were + directed to obey his commands; and the cruelties exercised by this + Semi-Arian tyrant in the support of the <strong><em>Homoiousion</em></strong>, + exceeded the commission, and disgraced the reign, of Constantius. The + sacraments of the church were administered to the reluctant victims, who + denied the vocation, and abhorred the principles, of Macedonius. The rites + of baptism were conferred on women and children, who, for that purpose, + had been torn from the arms of their friends and parents; the mouths of + the communicants were held open by a wooden engine, while the consecrated + bread was forced down their throat; the breasts of tender virgins were + either burnt with red-hot egg-shells, or inhumanly compressed between + sharp and heavy boards. The Novatians of Constantinople and the adjacent + country, by their firm attachment to the Homoousian standard, deserved to + be confounded with the Catholics themselves. Macedonius was informed, that + a large district of Paphlagonia was almost entirely inhabited by those + sectaries. He resolved either to convert or to extirpate them; and as he + distrusted, on this occasion, the efficacy of an ecclesiastical mission, + he commanded a body of four thousand legionaries to march against the + rebels, and to reduce the territory of Mantinium under his spiritual + dominion. The Novatian peasants, animated by despair and religious fury, + boldly encountered the invaders of their country; and though many of the + Paphlagonians were slain, the Roman legions were vanquished by an + irregular multitude, armed only with scythes and axes; and, except a few + who escaped by an ignominious flight, four thousand soldiers were left + dead on the field of battle. The successor of Constantius has expressed, + in a concise but lively manner, some of the theological calamities which + afflicted the empire, and more especially the East, in the reign of a + prince who was the slave of his own passions, and of those of his eunuchs: + "Many were imprisoned, and persecuted, and driven into exile. Whole troops + of those who are styled heretics, were massacred, particularly at Cyzicus, + and at Samosata. In Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Galatia, and in many other + provinces, towns and villages were laid waste, and utterly destroyed."<br /> + </p> + <p> + While the flames of the Arian controversy consumed the vitals of the + empire, the African provinces were infested by their peculiar enemies, the + savage fanatics, who, under the name of <strong><em>Circumcellions</em></strong>, + formed the strength and scandal of the Donatist party. The severe + execution of the laws of Constantine had excited a spirit of discontent + and resistance, the strenuous efforts of his son Constans, to restore the + unity of the church, exasperated the sentiments of mutual hatred, which + had first occasioned the separation; and the methods of force and + corruption employed by the two Imperial commissioners, Paul and Macarius, + furnished the schismatics with a specious contrast between the maxims of + the apostles and the conduct of their pretended successors. The peasants + who inhabited the villages of Numidia and Mauritania, were a ferocious + race, who had been imperfectly reduced under the authority of the Roman + laws; who were imperfectly converted to the Christian faith; but who were + actuated by a blind and furious enthusiasm in the cause of their Donatist + teachers. They indignantly supported the exile of their bishops, the + demolition of their churches, and the interruption of their secret + assemblies. The violence of the officers of justice, who were usually + sustained by a military guard, was sometimes repelled with equal violence; + and the blood of some popular ecclesiastics, which had been shed in the + quarrel, inflamed their rude followers with an eager desire of revenging + the death of these holy martyrs. By their own cruelty and rashness, the + ministers of persecution sometimes provoked their fate; and the guilt of + an accidental tumult precipitated the criminals into despair and + rebellion. Driven from their native villages, the Donatist peasants + assembled in formidable gangs on the edge of the Getulian desert; and + readily exchanged the habits of labor for a life of idleness and rapine, + which was consecrated by the name of religion, and faintly condemned by + the doctors of the sect. The leaders of the Circumcellions assumed the + title of captains of the saints; their principal weapon, as they were + indifferently provided with swords and spears, was a huge and weighty + club, which they termed an <strong><em>Israelite</em></strong>; and the + well-known sound of "Praise be to God," which they used as their cry of + war, diffused consternation over the unarmed provinces of Africa. At first + their depredations were colored by the plea of necessity; but they soon + exceeded the measure of subsistence, indulged without control their + intemperance and avarice, burnt the villages which they had pillaged, and + reigned the licentious tyrants of the open country. The occupations of + husbandry, and the administration of justice, were interrupted; and as the + Circumcellions pretended to restore the primitive equality of mankind, and + to reform the abuses of civil society, they opened a secure asylum for the + slaves and debtors, who flocked in crowds to their holy standard. When + they were not resisted, they usually contented themselves with plunder, + but the slightest opposition provoked them to acts of violence and murder; + and some Catholic priests, who had imprudently signalized their zeal, were + tortured by the fanatics with the most refined and wanton barbarity. The + spirit of the Circumcellions was not always exerted against their + defenceless enemies; they engaged, and sometimes defeated, the troops of + the province; and in the bloody action of Bagai, they attacked in the open + field, but with unsuccessful valor, an advanced guard of the Imperial + cavalry. The Donatists who were taken in arms, received, and they soon + deserved, the same treatment which might have been shown to the wild + beasts of the desert. The captives died, without a murmur, either by the + sword, the axe, or the fire; and the measures of retaliation were + multiplied in a rapid proportion, which aggravated the horrors of + rebellion, and excluded the hope of mutual forgiveness. In the beginning + of the present century, the example of the Circumcellions has been renewed + in the persecution, the boldness, the crimes, and the enthusiasm of the + Camisards; and if the fanatics of Languedoc surpassed those of Numidia, by + their military achievements, the Africans maintained their fierce + independence with more resolution and perseverance.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Such disorders are the natural effects of religious tyranny, but the rage + of the Donatists was inflamed by a frenzy of a very extraordinary kind; + and which, if it really prevailed among them in so extravagant a degree, + cannot surely be paralleled in any country or in any age. Many of these + fanatics were possessed with the horror of life, and the desire of + martyrdom; and they deemed it of little moment by what means, or by what + hands, they perished, if their conduct was sanctified by the intention of + devoting themselves to the glory of the true faith, and the hope of + eternal happiness. Sometimes they rudely disturbed the festivals, and + profaned the temples of Paganism, with the design of exciting the most + zealous of the idolaters to revenge the insulted honor of their gods. They + sometimes forced their way into the courts of justice, and compelled the + affrighted judge to give orders for their immediate execution. They + frequently stopped travellers on the public highways, and obliged them to + inflict the stroke of martyrdom, by the promise of a reward, if they + consented, and by the threat of instant death, if they refused to grant so + very singular a favor. When they were disappointed of every other + resource, they announced the day on which, in the presence of their + friends and brethren, they should cast themselves headlong from some lofty + rock; and many precipices were shown, which had acquired fame by the + number of religious suicides. In the actions of these desperate + enthusiasts, who were admired by one party as the martyrs of God, and + abhorred by the other as the victims of Satan, an impartial philosopher + may discover the influence and the last abuse of that inflexible spirit + which was originally derived from the character and principles of the + Jewish nation.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The simple narrative of the intestine divisions, which distracted the + peace, and dishonored the triumph, of the church, will confirm the remark + of a Pagan historian, and justify the complaint of a venerable bishop. The + experience of Ammianus had convinced him, that the enmity of the + Christians towards each other, surpassed the fury of savage beasts against + man; and Gregory Nazianzen most pathetically laments, that the kingdom of + heaven was converted, by discord, into the image of chaos, of a nocturnal + tempest, and of hell itself. The fierce and partial writers of the times, + ascribing <strong><em>all</em></strong> virtue to themselves, and imputing + <strong><em>all</em></strong> guilt to their adversaries, have painted the + battle of the angels and dæmons. Our calmer reason will reject such + pure and perfect monsters of vice or sanctity, and will impute an equal, + or at least an indiscriminate, measure of good and evil to the hostile + sectaries, who assumed and bestowed the appellations of orthodox and + heretics. They had been educated in the same religion and the same civil + society. Their hopes and fears in the present, or in a future life, were + balanced in the same proportion. On either side, the error might be + innocent, the faith sincere, the practice meritorious or corrupt. Their + passions were excited by similar objects; and they might alternately abuse + the favor of the court, or of the people. The metaphysical opinions of the + Athanasians and the Arians could not influence their moral character; and + they were alike actuated by the intolerant spirit which has been extracted + from the pure and simple maxims of the gospel.<br /> + </p> + <p> + A modern writer, who, with a just confidence, has prefixed to his own + history the honorable epithets of political and philosophical, accuses the + timid prudence of Montesquieu, for neglecting to enumerate, among the + causes of the decline of the empire, a law of Constantine, by which the + exercise of the Pagan worship was absolutely suppressed, and a + considerable part of his subjects was left destitute of priests, of + temples, and of any public religion. The zeal of the philosophic historian + for the rights of mankind, has induced him to acquiesce in the ambiguous + testimony of those ecclesiastics, who have too lightly ascribed to their + favorite hero the <strong><em>merit</em></strong> of a general + persecution. Instead of alleging this imaginary law, which would have + blazed in the front of the Imperial codes, we may safely appeal to the + original epistle, which Constantine addressed to the followers of the + ancient religion; at a time when he no longer disguised his conversion, + nor dreaded the rivals of his throne. He invites and exhorts, in the most + pressing terms, the subjects of the Roman empire to imitate the example of + their master; but he declares, that those who still refuse to open their + eyes to the celestial light, may freely enjoy their temples and their + fancied gods. A report, that the ceremonies of paganism were suppressed, + is formally contradicted by the emperor himself, who wisely assigns, as + the principle of his moderation, the invincible force of habit, of + prejudice, and of superstition. Without violating the sanctity of his + promise, without alarming the fears of the Pagans, the artful monarch + advanced, by slow and cautious steps, to undermine the irregular and + decayed fabric of polytheism. The partial acts of severity which he + occasionally exercised, though they were secretly promoted by a Christian + zeal, were colored by the fairest pretences of justice and the public + good; and while Constantine designed to ruin the foundations, he seemed to + reform the abuses, of the ancient religion. After the example of the + wisest of his predecessors, he condemned, under the most rigorous + penalties, the occult and impious arts of divination; which excited the + vain hopes, and sometimes the criminal attempts, of those who were + discontented with their present condition. An ignominious silence was + imposed on the oracles, which had been publicly convicted of fraud and + falsehood; the effeminate priests of the Nile were abolished; and + Constantine discharged the duties of a Roman censor, when he gave orders + for the demolition of several temples of Phoenicia; in which every mode of + prostitution was devoutly practised in the face of day, and to the honor + of Venus. The Imperial city of Constantinople was, in some measure, raised + at the expense, and was adorned with the spoils, of the opulent temples of + Greece and Asia; the sacred property was confiscated; the statues of gods + and heroes were transported, with rude familiarity, among a people who + considered them as objects, not of adoration, but of curiosity; the gold + and silver were restored to circulation; and the magistrates, the bishops, + and the eunuchs, improved the fortunate occasion of gratifying, at once, + their zeal, their avarice, and their resentment. But these depredations + were confined to a small part of the Roman world; and the provinces had + been long since accustomed to endure the same sacrilegious rapine, from + the tyranny of princes and proconsuls, who could not be suspected of any + design to subvert the established religion.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sons of Constantine trod in the footsteps of their father, with more + zeal, and with less discretion. The pretences of rapine and oppression + were insensibly multiplied; every indulgence was shown to the illegal + behavior of the Christians; every doubt was explained to the disadvantage + of Paganism; and the demolition of the temples was celebrated as one of + the auspicious events of the reign of Constans and Constantius. The name + of Constantius is prefixed to a concise law, which might have superseded + the necessity of any future prohibitions. "It is our pleasure, that in all + places, and in all cities, the temples be immediately shut, and carefully + guarded, that none may have the power of offending. It is likewise our + pleasure, that all our subjects should abstain from sacrifices. If any one + should be guilty of such an act, let him feel the sword of vengeance, and + after his execution, let his property be confiscated to the public use. We + denounce the same penalties against the governors of the provinces, if + they neglect to punish the criminals." But there is the strongest reason + to believe, that this formidable edict was either composed without being + published, or was published without being executed. The evidence of facts, + and the monuments which are still extant of brass and marble, continue to + prove the public exercise of the Pagan worship during the whole reign of + the sons of Constantine. In the East, as well as in the West, in cities, + as well as in the country, a great number of temples were respected, or at + least were spared; and the devout multitude still enjoyed the luxury of + sacrifices, of festivals, and of processions, by the permission, or by the + connivance, of the civil government. About four years after the supposed + date of this bloody edict, Constantius visited the temples of Rome; and + the decency of his behavior is recommended by a pagan orator as an example + worthy of the imitation of succeeding princes. "That emperor," says + Symmachus, "suffered the privileges of the vestal virgins to remain + inviolate; he bestowed the sacerdotal dignities on the nobles of Rome, + granted the customary allowance to defray the expenses of the public rites + and sacrifices; and, though he had embraced a different religion, he never + attempted to deprive the empire of the sacred worship of antiquity." The + senate still presumed to consecrate, by solemn decrees, the divine memory + of their sovereigns; and Constantine himself was associated, after his + death, to those gods whom he had renounced and insulted during his life. + The title, the ensigns, the prerogatives, of sovereign pontiff, which had + been instituted by Numa, and assumed by Augustus, were accepted, without + hesitation, by seven Christian emperors; who were invested with a more + absolute authority over the religion which they had deserted, than over + that which they professed.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of <strong><em>Paganism</em></strong>; + and the holy war against the infidels was less vigorously prosecuted by + princes and bishops, who were more immediately alarmed by the guilt and + danger of domestic rebellion. The extirpation of <strong><em>idolatry</em></strong> + might have been justified by the established principles of intolerance: + but the hostile sects, which alternately reigned in the Imperial court + were mutually apprehensive of alienating, and perhaps exasperating, the + minds of a powerful, though declining faction. Every motive of authority + and fashion, of interest and reason, now militated on the side of + Christianity; but two or three generations elapsed, before their + victorious influence was universally felt. The religion which had so long + and so lately been established in the Roman empire was still revered by a + numerous people, less attached indeed to speculative opinion, than to + ancient custom. The honors of the state and army were indifferently + bestowed on all the subjects of Constantine and Constantius; and a + considerable portion of knowledge and wealth and valor was still engaged + in the service of polytheism. The superstition of the senator and of the + peasant, of the poet and the philosopher, was derived from very different + causes, but they met with equal devotion in the temples of the gods. Their + zeal was insensibly provoked by the insulting triumph of a proscribed + sect; and their hopes were revived by the well-grounded confidence, that + the presumptive heir of the empire, a young and valiant hero, who had + delivered Gaul from the arms of the Barbarians, had secretly embraced the + religion of his ancestors.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch22-p1" id="linkch22-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part I + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Julian Is Declared Emperor By The Legions Of Gaul.—His +March And Success.—The Death Of Constantius.—Civil +Administration Of Julian. +</pre> + <p> + While the Romans languished under the ignominious tyranny of eunuchs and + bishops, the praises of Julian were repeated with transport in every part + of the empire, except in the palace of Constantius. The barbarians of + Germany had felt, and still dreaded, the arms of the young Cæsar; + his soldiers were the companions of his victory; the grateful provincials + enjoyed the blessings of his reign; but the favorites, who had opposed his + elevation, were offended by his virtues; and they justly considered the + friend of the people as the enemy of the court. As long as the fame of + Julian was doubtful, the buffoons of the palace, who were skilled in the + language of satire, tried the efficacy of those arts which they had so + often practised with success. They easily discovered, that his simplicity + was not exempt from affectation: the ridiculous epithets of a hairy + savage, of an ape invested with the purple, were applied to the dress and + person of the philosophic warrior; and his modest despatches were + stigmatized as the vain and elaborate fictions of a loquacious Greek, a + speculative soldier, who had studied the art of war amidst the groves of + the academy. The voice of malicious folly was at length silenced by the + shouts of victory; the conqueror of the Franks and Alemanni could no + longer be painted as an object of contempt; and the monarch himself was + meanly ambitious of stealing from his lieutenant the honorable reward of + his labors. In the letters crowned with laurel, which, according to + ancient custom, were addressed to the provinces, the name of Julian was + omitted. "Constantius had made his dispositions in person; <strong><em>he</em></strong> + had signalized his valor in the foremost ranks; <strong><em>his</em></strong> + military conduct had secured the victory; and the captive king of the + barbarians was presented to <strong><em>him</em></strong> on the field of + battle," from which he was at that time distant about forty days' journey. + So extravagant a fable was incapable, however, of deceiving the public + credulity, or even of satisfying the pride of the emperor himself. + Secretly conscious that the applause and favor of the Romans accompanied + the rising fortunes of Julian, his discontented mind was prepared to + receive the subtle poison of those artful sycophants, who colored their + mischievous designs with the fairest appearances of truth and candor. + Instead of depreciating the merits of Julian, they acknowledged, and even + exaggerated, his popular fame, superior talents, and important services. + But they darkly insinuated, that the virtues of the Cæsar might + instantly be converted into the most dangerous crimes, if the inconstant + multitude should prefer their inclinations to their duty; or if the + general of a victorious army should be tempted from his allegiance by the + hopes of revenge and independent greatness. The personal fears of + Constantius were interpreted by his council as a laudable anxiety for the + public safety; whilst in private, and perhaps in his own breast, he + disguised, under the less odious appellation of fear, the sentiments of + hatred and envy, which he had secretly conceived for the inimitable + virtues of Julian.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The apparent tranquillity of Gaul, and the imminent danger of the eastern + provinces, offered a specious pretence for the design which was artfully + concerted by the Imperial ministers. They resolved to disarm the Cæsar; + to recall those faithful troops who guarded his person and dignity; and to + employ, in a distant war against the Persian monarch, the hardy veterans + who had vanquished, on the banks of the Rhine, the fiercest nations of + Germany. While Julian used the laborious hours of his winter quarters at + Paris in the administration of power, which, in his hands, was the + exercise of virtue, he was surprised by the hasty arrival of a tribune and + a notary, with positive orders, from the emperor, which <strong><em>they</em></strong> + were directed to execute, and <strong><em>he</em></strong> was commanded + not to oppose. Constantius signified his pleasure, that four entire + legions, the Celtæ, and Petulants, the Heruli, and the Batavians, + should be separated from the standard of Julian, under which they had + acquired their fame and discipline; that in each of the remaining bands + three hundred of the bravest youths should be selected; and that this + numerous detachment, the strength of the Gallic army, should instantly + begin their march, and exert their utmost diligence to arrive, before the + opening of the campaign, on the frontiers of Persia. The Cæsar + foresaw and lamented the consequences of this fatal mandate. Most of the + auxiliaries, who engaged their voluntary service, had stipulated, that + they should never be obliged to pass the Alps. The public faith of Rome, + and the personal honor of Julian, had been pledged for the observance of + this condition. Such an act of treachery and oppression would destroy the + confidence, and excite the resentment, of the independent warriors of + Germany, who considered truth as the noblest of their virtues, and freedom + as the most valuable of their possessions. The legionaries, who enjoyed + the title and privileges of Romans, were enlisted for the general defence + of the republic; but those mercenary troops heard with cold indifference + the antiquated names of the republic and of Rome. Attached, either from + birth or long habit, to the climate and manners of Gaul, they loved and + admired Julian; they despised, and perhaps hated, the emperor; they + dreaded the laborious march, the Persian arrows, and the burning deserts + of Asia. They claimed as their own the country which they had saved; and + excused their want of spirit, by pleading the sacred and more immediate + duty of protecting their families and friends. The apprehensions of the + Gauls were derived from the knowledge of the impending and inevitable + danger. As soon as the provinces were exhausted of their military + strength, the Germans would violate a treaty which had been imposed on + their fears; and notwithstanding the abilities and valor of Julian, the + general of a nominal army, to whom the public calamities would be imputed, + must find himself, after a vain resistance, either a prisoner in the camp + of the barbarians, or a criminal in the palace of Constantius. If Julian + complied with the orders which he had received, he subscribed his own + destruction, and that of a people who deserved his affection. But a + positive refusal was an act of rebellion, and a declaration of war. The + inexorable jealousy of the emperor, the peremptory, and perhaps insidious, + nature of his commands, left not any room for a fair apology, or candid + interpretation; and the dependent station of the Cæsar scarcely + allowed him to pause or to deliberate. Solitude increased the perplexity + of Julian; he could no longer apply to the faithful counsels of Sallust, + who had been removed from his office by the judicious malice of the + eunuchs: he could not even enforce his representations by the concurrence + of the ministers, who would have been afraid or ashamed to approve the + ruin of Gaul. The moment had been chosen, when Lupicinus, the general of + the cavalry, was despatched into Britain, to repulse the inroads of the + Scots and Picts; and Florentius was occupied at Vienna by the assessment + of the tribute. The latter, a crafty and corrupt statesman, declining to + assume a responsible part on this dangerous occasion, eluded the pressing + and repeated invitations of Julian, who represented to him, that in every + important measure, the presence of the præfect was indispensable in + the council of the prince. In the mean while the Cæsar was oppressed + by the rude and importunate solicitations of the Imperial messengers, who + presumed to suggest, that if he expected the return of his ministers, he + would charge himself with the guilt of the delay, and reserve for them the + merit of the execution. Unable to resist, unwilling to comply, Julian + expressed, in the most serious terms, his wish, and even his intention, of + resigning the purple, which he could not preserve with honor, but which he + could not abdicate with safety.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After a painful conflict, Julian was compelled to acknowledge, that + obedience was the virtue of the most eminent subject, and that the + sovereign alone was entitled to judge of the public welfare. He issued the + necessary orders for carrying into execution the commands of Constantius; + a part of the troops began their march for the Alps; and the detachments + from the several garrisons moved towards their respective places of + assembly. They advanced with difficulty through the trembling and + affrighted crowds of provincials, who attempted to excite their pity by + silent despair, or loud lamentations, while the wives of the soldiers, + holding their infants in their arms, accused the desertion of their + husbands, in the mixed language of grief, of tenderness, and of + indignation. This scene of general distress afflicted the humanity of the + Cæsar; he granted a sufficient number of post-wagons to transport + the wives and families of the soldiers, endeavored to alleviate the + hardships which he was constrained to inflict, and increased, by the most + laudable arts, his own popularity, and the discontent of the exiled + troops. The grief of an armed multitude is soon converted into rage; their + licentious murmurs, which every hour were communicated from tent to tent + with more boldness and effect, prepared their minds for the most daring + acts of sedition; and by the connivance of their tribunes, a seasonable + libel was secretly dispersed, which painted in lively colors the disgrace + of the Cæsar, the oppression of the Gallic army, and the feeble + vices of the tyrant of Asia. The servants of Constantius were astonished + and alarmed by the progress of this dangerous spirit. They pressed the Cæsar + to hasten the departure of the troops; but they imprudently rejected the + honest and judicious advice of Julian; who proposed that they should not + march through Paris, and suggested the danger and temptation of a last + interview.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As soon as the approach of the troops was announced, the Cæsar went + out to meet them, and ascended his tribunal, which had been erected in a + plain before the gates of the city. After distinguishing the officers and + soldiers, who by their rank or merit deserved a peculiar attention, Julian + addressed himself in a studied oration to the surrounding multitude: he + celebrated their exploits with grateful applause; encouraged them to + accept, with alacrity, the honor of serving under the eye of a powerful + and liberal monarch; and admonished them, that the commands of Augustus + required an instant and cheerful obedience. The soldiers, who were + apprehensive of offending their general by an indecent clamor, or of + belying their sentiments by false and venal acclamations, maintained an + obstinate silence; and after a short pause, were dismissed to their + quarters. The principal officers were entertained by the Cæsar, who + professed, in the warmest language of friendship, his desire and his + inability to reward, according to their deserts, the brave companions of + his victories. They retired from the feast, full of grief and perplexity; + and lamented the hardship of their fate, which tore them from their + beloved general and their native country. The only expedient which could + prevent their separation was boldly agitated and approved; the popular + resentment was insensibly moulded into a regular conspiracy; their just + reasons of complaint were heightened by passion, and their passions were + inflamed by wine; as, on the eve of their departure, the troops were + indulged in licentious festivity. At the hour of midnight, the impetuous + multitude, with swords, and bows, and torches in their hands, rushed into + the suburbs; encompassed the palace; and, careless of future dangers, + pronounced the fatal and irrevocable words, Julian Augustus! The prince, + whose anxious suspense was interrupted by their disorderly acclamations, + secured the doors against their intrusion; and as long as it was in his + power, secluded his person and dignity from the accidents of a nocturnal + tumult. At the dawn of day, the soldiers, whose zeal was irritated by + opposition, forcibly entered the palace, seized, with respectful violence, + the object of their choice, guarded Julian with drawn swords through the + streets of Paris, placed him on the tribunal, and with repeated shouts + saluted him as their emperor. Prudence, as well as loyalty, inculcated the + propriety of resisting their treasonable designs; and of preparing, for + his oppressed virtue, the excuse of violence. Addressing himself by turns + to the multitude and to individuals, he sometimes implored their mercy, + and sometimes expressed his indignation; conjured them not to sully the + fame of their immortal victories; and ventured to promise, that if they + would immediately return to their allegiance, he would undertake to obtain + from the emperor not only a free and gracious pardon, but even the + revocation of the orders which had excited their resentment. But the + soldiers, who were conscious of their guilt, chose rather to depend on the + gratitude of Julian, than on the clemency of the emperor. Their zeal was + insensibly turned into impatience, and their impatience into rage. The + inflexible Cæsar sustained, till the third hour of the day, their + prayers, their reproaches, and their menaces; nor did he yield, till he + had been repeatedly assured, that if he wished to live, he must consent to + reign. He was exalted on a shield in the presence, and amidst the + unanimous acclamations, of the troops; a rich military collar, which was + offered by chance, supplied the want of a diadem; the ceremony was + concluded by the promise of a moderate donative; and the new emperor, + overwhelmed with real or affected grief retired into the most secret + recesses of his apartment.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The grief of Julian could proceed only from his innocence; out his + innocence must appear extremely doubtful in the eyes of those who have + learned to suspect the motives and the professions of princes. His lively + and active mind was susceptible of the various impressions of hope and + fear, of gratitude and revenge, of duty and of ambition, of the love of + fame, and of the fear of reproach. But it is impossible for us to + calculate the respective weight and operation of these sentiments; or to + ascertain the principles of action which might escape the observation, + while they guided, or rather impelled, the steps of Julian himself. The + discontent of the troops was produced by the malice of his enemies; their + tumult was the natural effect of interest and of passion; and if Julian + had tried to conceal a deep design under the appearances of chance, he + must have employed the most consummate artifice without necessity, and + probably without success. He solemnly declares, in the presence of + Jupiter, of the Sun, of Mars, of Minerva, and of all the other deities, + that till the close of the evening which preceded his elevation, he was + utterly ignorant of the designs of the soldiers; and it may seem + ungenerous to distrust the honor of a hero and the truth of a philosopher. + Yet the superstitious confidence that Constantius was the enemy, and that + he himself was the favorite, of the gods, might prompt him to desire, to + solicit, and even to hasten the auspicious moment of his reign, which was + predestined to restore the ancient religion of mankind. When Julian had + received the intelligence of the conspiracy, he resigned himself to a + short slumber; and afterwards related to his friends that he had seen the + genius of the empire waiting with some impatience at his door, pressing + for admittance, and reproaching his want of spirit and ambition. + Astonished and perplexed, he addressed his prayers to the great Jupiter, + who immediately signified, by a clear and manifest omen, that he should + submit to the will of heaven and of the army. The conduct which disclaims + the ordinary maxims of reason, excites our suspicion and eludes our + inquiry. Whenever the spirit of fanaticism, at once so credulous and so + crafty, has insinuated itself into a noble mind, it insensibly corrodes + the vital principles of virtue and veracity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + To moderate the zeal of his party, to protect the persons of his enemies, + to defeat and to despise the secret enterprises which were formed against + his life and dignity, were the cares which employed the first days of the + reign of the new emperor. Although he was firmly resolved to maintain the + station which he had assumed, he was still desirous of saving his country + from the calamities of civil war, of declining a contest with the superior + forces of Constantius, and of preserving his own character from the + reproach of perfidy and ingratitude. Adorned with the ensigns of military + and imperial pomp, Julian showed himself in the field of Mars to the + soldiers, who glowed with ardent enthusiasm in the cause of their pupil, + their leader, and their friend. He recapitulated their victories, lamented + their sufferings, applauded their resolution, animated their hopes, and + checked their impetuosity; nor did he dismiss the assembly, till he had + obtained a solemn promise from the troops, that if the emperor of the East + would subscribe an equitable treaty, they would renounce any views of + conquest, and satisfy themselves with the tranquil possession of the + Gallic provinces. On this foundation he composed, in his own name, and in + that of the army, a specious and moderate epistle, which was delivered to + Pentadius, his master of the offices, and to his chamberlain Eutherius; + two ambassadors whom he appointed to receive the answer, and observe the + dispositions of Constantius. This epistle is inscribed with the modest + appellation of Cæsar; but Julian solicits in a peremptory, though + respectful, manner, the confirmation of the title of Augustus. He + acknowledges the irregularity of his own election, while he justifies, in + some measure, the resentment and violence of the troops which had extorted + his reluctant consent. He allows the supremacy of his brother Constantius; + and engages to send him an annual present of Spanish horses, to recruit + his army with a select number of barbarian youths, and to accept from his + choice a Prætorian præfect of approved discretion and + fidelity. But he reserves for himself the nomination of his other civil + and military officers, with the troops, the revenue, and the sovereignty + of the provinces beyond the Alps. He admonishes the emperor to consult the + dictates of justice; to distrust the arts of those venal flatterers, who + subsist only by the discord of princes; and to embrace the offer of a fair + and honorable treaty, equally advantageous to the republic and to the + house of Constantine. In this negotiation Julian claimed no more than he + already possessed. The delegated authority which he had long exercised + over the provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, was still obeyed under a + name more independent and august. The soldiers and the people rejoiced in + a revolution which was not stained even with the blood of the guilty. + Florentius was a fugitive; Lupicinus a prisoner. The persons who were + disaffected to the new government were disarmed and secured; and the + vacant offices were distributed, according to the recommendation of merit, + by a prince who despised the intrigues of the palace, and the clamors of + the soldiers.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The negotiations of peace were accompanied and supported by the most + vigorous preparations for war. The army, which Julian held in readiness + for immediate action, was recruited and augmented by the disorders of the + times. The cruel persecutions of the faction of Magnentius had filled Gaul + with numerous bands of outlaws and robbers. They cheerfully accepted the + offer of a general pardon from a prince whom they could trust, submitted + to the restraints of military discipline, and retained only their + implacable hatred to the person and government of Constantius. As soon as + the season of the year permitted Julian to take the field, he appeared at + the head of his legions; threw a bridge over the Rhine in the neighborhood + of Cleves; and prepared to chastise the perfidy of the Attuarii, a tribe + of Franks, who presumed that they might ravage, with impunity, the + frontiers of a divided empire. The difficulty, as well as glory, of this + enterprise, consisted in a laborious march; and Julian had conquered, as + soon as he could penetrate into a country, which former princes had + considered as inaccessible. After he had given peace to the Barbarians, + the emperor carefully visited the fortifications along the Rhine from + Cleves to Basil; surveyed, with peculiar attention, the territories which + he had recovered from the hands of the Alemanni, passed through Besançon, + which had severely suffered from their fury, and fixed his headquarters at + Vienna for the ensuing winter. The barrier of Gaul was improved and + strengthened with additional fortifications; and Julian entertained some + hopes that the Germans, whom he had so often vanquished, might, in his + absence, be restrained by the terror of his name. Vadomair was the only + prince of the Alemanni whom he esteemed or feared and while the subtle + Barbarian affected to observe the faith of treaties, the progress of his + arms threatened the state with an unseasonable and dangerous war. The + policy of Julian condescended to surprise the prince of the Alemanni by + his own arts: and Vadomair, who, in the character of a friend, had + incautiously accepted an invitation from the Roman governors, was seized + in the midst of the entertainment, and sent away prisoner into the heart + of Spain. Before the Barbarians were recovered from their amazement, the + emperor appeared in arms on the banks of the Rhine, and, once more + crossing the river, renewed the deep impressions of terror and respect + which had been already made by four preceding expeditions.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch22-p2" id="linkch22-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The ambassadors of Julian had been instructed to execute, with the utmost + diligence, their important commission. But, in their passage through Italy + and Illyricum, they were detained by the tedious and affected delays of + the provincial governors; they were conducted by slow journeys from + Constantinople to Cæsarea in Cappadocia; and when at length they + were admitted to the presence of Constantius, they found that he had + already conceived, from the despatches of his own officers, the most + unfavorable opinion of the conduct of Julian, and of the Gallic army. The + letters were heard with impatience; the trembling messengers were + dismissed with indignation and contempt; and the looks, gestures, the + furious language of the monarch, expressed the disorder of his soul. The + domestic connection, which might have reconciled the brother and the + husband of Helena, was recently dissolved by the death of that princess, + whose pregnancy had been several times fruitless, and was at last fatal to + herself. The empress Eusebia had preserved, to the last moment of her + life, the warm, and even jealous, affection which she had conceived for + Julian; and her mild influence might have moderated the resentment of a + prince, who, since her death, was abandoned to his own passions, and to + the arts of his eunuchs. But the terror of a foreign invasion obliged him + to suspend the punishment of a private enemy: he continued his march + towards the confines of Persia, and thought it sufficient to signify the + conditions which might entitle Julian and his guilty followers to the + clemency of their offended sovereign. He required, that the presumptuous Cæsar + should expressly renounce the appellation and rank of Augustus, which he + had accepted from the rebels; that he should descend to his former station + of a limited and dependent minister; that he should vest the powers of the + state and army in the hands of those officers who were appointed by the + Imperial court; and that he should trust his safety to the assurances of + pardon, which were announced by Epictetus, a Gallic bishop, and one of the + Arian favorites of Constantius. Several months were ineffectually consumed + in a treaty which was negotiated at the distance of three thousand miles + between Paris and Antioch; and, as soon as Julian perceived that his + modest and respectful behavior served only to irritate the pride of an + implacable adversary, he boldly resolved to commit his life and fortune to + the chance of a civil war. He gave a public and military audience to the + quæstor Leonas: the haughty epistle of Constantius was read to the + attentive multitude; and Julian protested, with the most flattering + deference, that he was ready to resign the title of Augustus, if he could + obtain the consent of those whom he acknowledged as the authors of his + elevation. The faint proposal was impetuously silenced; and the + acclamations of "Julian Augustus, continue to reign, by the authority of + the army, of the people, of the republic which you have saved," thundered + at once from every part of the field, and terrified the pale ambassador of + Constantius. A part of the letter was afterwards read, in which the + emperor arraigned the ingratitude of Julian, whom he had invested with the + honors of the purple; whom he had educated with so much care and + tenderness; whom he had preserved in his infancy, when he was left a + helpless orphan. "An orphan!" interrupted Julian, who justified his cause + by indulging his passions: "does the assassin of my family reproach me + that I was left an orphan? He urges me to revenge those injuries which I + have long studied to forget." The assembly was dismissed; and Leonas, who, + with some difficulty, had been protected from the popular fury, was sent + back to his master with an epistle, in which Julian expressed, in a strain + of the most vehement eloquence, the sentiments of contempt, of hatred, and + of resentment, which had been suppressed and imbittered by the + dissimulation of twenty years. After this message, which might be + considered as a signal of irreconcilable war, Julian, who, some weeks + before, had celebrated the Christian festival of the Epiphany, made a + public declaration that he committed the care of his safety to the + Immortal Gods; and thus publicly renounced the religion as well as the + friendship of Constantius.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The situation of Julian required a vigorous and immediate resolution. He + had discovered, from intercepted letters, that his adversary, sacrificing + the interest of the state to that of the monarch, had again excited the + Barbarians to invade the provinces of the West. The position of two + magazines, one of them collected on the banks of the Lake of Constance, + the other formed at the foot of the Cottian Alps, seemed to indicate the + march of two armies; and the size of those magazines, each of which + consisted of six hundred thousand quarters of wheat, or rather flour, was + a threatening evidence of the strength and numbers of the enemy who + prepared to surround him. But the Imperial legions were still in their + distant quarters of Asia; the Danube was feebly guarded; and if Julian + could occupy, by a sudden incursion, the important provinces of Illyricum, + he might expect that a people of soldiers would resort to his standard, + and that the rich mines of gold and silver would contribute to the + expenses of the civil war. He proposed this bold enterprise to the + assembly of the soldiers; inspired them with a just confidence in their + general, and in themselves; and exhorted them to maintain their reputation + of being terrible to the enemy, moderate to their fellow-citizens, and + obedient to their officers. His spirited discourse was received with the + loudest acclamations, and the same troops which had taken up arms against + Constantius, when he summoned them to leave Gaul, now declared with + alacrity, that they would follow Julian to the farthest extremities of + Europe or Asia. The oath of fidelity was administered; and the soldiers, + clashing their shields, and pointing their drawn swords to their throats, + devoted themselves, with horrid imprecations, to the service of a leader + whom they celebrated as the deliverer of Gaul and the conqueror of the + Germans. This solemn engagement, which seemed to be dictated by affection + rather than by duty, was singly opposed by Nebridius, who had been + admitted to the office of Prætorian præfect. That faithful + minister, alone and unassisted, asserted the rights of Constantius, in the + midst of an armed and angry multitude, to whose fury he had almost fallen + an honorable, but useless sacrifice. After losing one of his hands by the + stroke of a sword, he embraced the knees of the prince whom he had + offended. Julian covered the præfect with his Imperial mantle, and, + protecting him from the zeal of his followers, dismissed him to his own + house, with less respect than was perhaps due to the virtue of an enemy. + The high office of Nebridius was bestowed on Sallust; and the provinces of + Gaul, which were now delivered from the intolerable oppression of taxes, + enjoyed the mild and equitable administration of the friend of Julian, who + was permitted to practise those virtues which he had instilled into the + mind of his pupil.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The hopes of Julian depended much less on the number of his troops, than + on the celerity of his motions. In the execution of a daring enterprise, + he availed himself of every precaution, as far as prudence could suggest; + and where prudence could no longer accompany his steps, he trusted the + event to valor and to fortune. In the neighborhood of Basil he assembled + and divided his army. One body, which consisted of ten thousand men, was + directed under the command of Nevitta, general of the cavalry, to advance + through the midland parts of Rhætia and Noricum. A similar division + of troops, under the orders of Jovius and Jovinus, prepared to follow the + oblique course of the highways, through the Alps, and the northern + confines of Italy. The instructions to the generals were conceived with + energy and precision: to hasten their march in close and compact columns, + which, according to the disposition of the ground, might readily be + changed into any order of battle; to secure themselves against the + surprises of the night by strong posts and vigilant guards; to prevent + resistance by their unexpected arrival; to elude examination by their + sudden departure; to spread the opinion of their strength, and the terror + of his name; and to join their sovereign under the walls of Sirmium. For + himself Julian had reserved a more difficult and extraordinary part. He + selected three thousand brave and active volunteers, resolved, like their + leader, to cast behind them every hope of a retreat; at the head of this + faithful band, he fearlessly plunged into the recesses of the Marcian, or + Black Forest, which conceals the sources of the Danube; and, for many + days, the fate of Julian was unknown to the world. The secrecy of his + march, his diligence, and vigor, surmounted every obstacle; he forced his + way over mountains and morasses, occupied the bridges or swam the rivers, + pursued his direct course, without reflecting whether he traversed the + territory of the Romans or of the Barbarians, and at length emerged, + between Ratisbon and Vienna, at the place where he designed to embark his + troops on the Danube. By a well-concerted stratagem, he seized a fleet of + light brigantines, as it lay at anchor; secured a apply of coarse + provisions sufficient to satisfy the indelicate, and voracious, appetite + of a Gallic army; and boldly committed himself to the stream of the + Danube. The labors of the mariners, who plied their oars with incessant + diligence, and the steady continuance of a favorable wind, carried his + fleet above seven hundred miles in eleven days; and he had already + disembarked his troops at Bononia, * only nineteen miles from Sirmium, + before his enemies could receive any certain intelligence that he had left + the banks of the Rhine. In the course of this long and rapid navigation, + the mind of Julian was fixed on the object of his enterprise; and though + he accepted the deputations of some cities, which hastened to claim the + merit of an early submission, he passed before the hostile stations, which + were placed along the river, without indulging the temptation of + signalizing a useless and ill-timed valor. The banks of the Danube were + crowded on either side with spectators, who gazed on the military pomp, + anticipated the importance of the event, and diffused through the adjacent + country the fame of a young hero, who advanced with more than mortal speed + at the head of the innumerable forces of the West. Lucilian, who, with the + rank of general of the cavalry, commanded the military powers of + Illyricum, was alarmed and perplexed by the doubtful reports, which he + could neither reject nor believe. He had taken some slow and irresolute + measures for the purpose of collecting his troops, when he was surprised + by Dagalaiphus, an active officer, whom Julian, as soon as he landed at + Bononia, had pushed forwards with some light infantry. The captive + general, uncertain of his life or death, was hastily thrown upon a horse, + and conducted to the presence of Julian; who kindly raised him from the + ground, and dispelled the terror and amazement which seemed to stupefy his + faculties. But Lucilian had no sooner recovered his spirits, than he + betrayed his want of discretion, by presuming to admonish his conqueror + that he had rashly ventured, with a handful of men, to expose his person + in the midst of his enemies. "Reserve for your master Constantius these + timid remonstrances," replied Julian, with a smile of contempt: "when I + gave you my purple to kiss, I received you not as a counsellor, but as a + suppliant." Conscious that success alone could justify his attempt, and + that boldness only could command success, he instantly advanced, at the + head of three thousand soldiers, to attack the strongest and most populous + city of the Illyrian provinces. As he entered the long suburb of Sirmium, + he was received by the joyful acclamations of the army and people; who, + crowned with flowers, and holding lighted tapers in their hands, conducted + their acknowledged sovereign to his Imperial residence. Two days were + devoted to the public joy, which was celebrated by the games of the + circus; but, early on the morning of the third day, Julian marched to + occupy the narrow pass of Succi, in the defiles of Mount Hæmus; + which, almost in the midway between Sirmium and Constantinople, separates + the provinces of Thrace and Dacia, by an abrupt descent towards the + former, and a gentle declivity on the side of the latter. The defence of + this important post was intrusted to the brave Nevitta; who, as well as + the generals of the Italian division, successfully executed the plan of + the march and junction which their master had so ably conceived.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The homage which Julian obtained, from the fears or the inclination of the + people, extended far beyond the immediate effect of his arms. The præfectures + of Italy and Illyricum were administered by Taurus and Florentius, who + united that important office with the vain honors of the consulship; and + as those magistrates had retired with precipitation to the court of Asia, + Julian, who could not always restrain the levity of his temper, + stigmatized their flight by adding, in all the Acts of the Year, the + epithet of <strong><em>fugitive</em></strong> to the names of the two + consuls. The provinces which had been deserted by their first magistrates + acknowledged the authority of an emperor, who, conciliating the qualities + of a soldier with those of a philosopher, was equally admired in the camps + of the Danube and in the cities of Greece. From his palace, or, more + properly, from his head-quarters of Sirmium and Naissus, he distributed to + the principal cities of the empire, a labored apology for his own conduct; + published the secret despatches of Constantius; and solicited the judgment + of mankind between two competitors, the one of whom had expelled, and the + other had invited, the Barbarians. Julian, whose mind was deeply wounded + by the reproach of ingratitude, aspired to maintain, by argument as well + as by arms, the superior merits of his cause; and to excel, not only in + the arts of war, but in those of composition. His epistle to the senate + and people of Athens seems to have been dictated by an elegant enthusiasm; + which prompted him to submit his actions and his motives to the degenerate + Athenians of his own times, with the same humble deference as if he had + been pleading, in the days of Aristides, before the tribunal of the + Areopagus. His application to the senate of Rome, which was still + permitted to bestow the titles of Imperial power, was agreeable to the + forms of the expiring republic. An assembly was summoned by Tertullus, præfect + of the city; the epistle of Julian was read; and, as he appeared to be + master of Italy his claims were admitted without a dissenting voice. His + oblique censure of the innovations of Constantine, and his passionate + invective against the vices of Constantius, were heard with less + satisfaction; and the senate, as if Julian had been present, unanimously + exclaimed, "Respect, we beseech you, the author of your own fortune." An + artful expression, which, according to the chance of war, might be + differently explained; as a manly reproof of the ingratitude of the + usurper, or as a flattering confession, that a single act of such benefit + to the state ought to atone for all the failings of Constantius.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The intelligence of the march and rapid progress of Julian was speedily + transmitted to his rival, who, by the retreat of Sapor, had obtained some + respite from the Persian war. Disguising the anguish of his soul under the + semblance of contempt, Constantius professed his intention of returning + into Europe, and of giving chase to Julian; for he never spoke of his + military expedition in any other light than that of a hunting party. In + the camp of Hierapolis, in Syria, he communicated this design to his army; + slightly mentioned the guilt and rashness of the Cæsar; and ventured + to assure them, that if the mutineers of Gaul presumed to meet them in the + field, they would be unable to sustain the fire of their eyes, and the + irresistible weight of their shout of onset. The speech of the emperor was + received with military applause, and Theodotus, the president of the + council of Hierapolis, requested, with tears of adulation, that his city + might be adorned with the head of the vanquished rebel. A chosen + detachment was despatched away in post-wagons, to secure, if it were yet + possible, the pass of Succi; the recruits, the horses, the arms, and the + magazines, which had been prepared against Sapor, were appropriated to the + service of the civil war; and the domestic victories of Constantius + inspired his partisans with the most sanguine assurances of success. The + notary Gaudentius had occupied in his name the provinces of Africa; the + subsistence of Rome was intercepted; and the distress of Julian was + increased by an unexpected event, which might have been productive of + fatal consequences. Julian had received the submission of two legions and + a cohort of archers, who were stationed at Sirmium; but he suspected, with + reason, the fidelity of those troops which had been distinguished by the + emperor; and it was thought expedient, under the pretence of the exposed + state of the Gallic frontier, to dismiss them from the most important + scene of action. They advanced, with reluctance, as far as the confines of + Italy; but as they dreaded the length of the way, and the savage + fierceness of the Germans, they resolved, by the instigation of one of + their tribunes, to halt at Aquileia, and to erect the banners of + Constantius on the walls of that impregnable city. The vigilance of Julian + perceived at once the extent of the mischief, and the necessity of + applying an immediate remedy. By his order, Jovinus led back a part of the + army into Italy; and the siege of Aquileia was formed with diligence, and + prosecuted with vigor. But the legionaries, who seemed to have rejected + the yoke of discipline, conducted the defence of the place with skill and + perseverance; invited the rest of Italy to imitate the example of their + courage and loyalty; and threatened the retreat of Julian, if he should be + forced to yield to the superior numbers of the armies of the East.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the humanity of Julian was preserved from the cruel alternative which + he pathetically laments, of destroying or of being himself destroyed: and + the seasonable death of Constantius delivered the Roman empire from the + calamities of civil war. The approach of winter could not detain the + monarch at Antioch; and his favorites durst not oppose his impatient + desire of revenge. A slight fever, which was perhaps occasioned by the + agitation of his spirits, was increased by the fatigues of the journey; + and Constantius was obliged to halt at the little town of Mopsucrene, + twelve miles beyond Tarsus, where he expired, after a short illness, in + the forty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his reign. His + genuine character, which was composed of pride and weakness, of + superstition and cruelty, has been fully displayed in the preceding + narrative of civil and ecclesiastical events. The long abuse of power + rendered him a considerable object in the eyes of his contemporaries; but + as personal merit can alone deserve the notice of posterity, the last of + the sons of Constantine may be dismissed from the world, with the remark, + that he inherited the defects, without the abilities, of his father. + Before Constantius expired, he is said to have named Julian for his + successor; nor does it seem improbable, that his anxious concern for the + fate of a young and tender wife, whom he left with child, may have + prevailed, in his last moments, over the harsher passions of hatred and + revenge. Eusebius, and his guilty associates, made a faint attempt to + prolong the reign of the eunuchs, by the election of another emperor; but + their intrigues were rejected with disdain, by an army which now abhorred + the thought of civil discord; and two officers of rank were instantly + despatched, to assure Julian, that every sword in the empire would be + drawn for his service. The military designs of that prince, who had formed + three different attacks against Thrace, were prevented by this fortunate + event. Without shedding the blood of his fellow-citizens, he escaped the + dangers of a doubtful conflict, and acquired the advantages of a complete + victory. Impatient to visit the place of his birth, and the new capital of + the empire, he advanced from Naissus through the mountains of Hæmus, + and the cities of Thrace. When he reached Heraclea, at the distance of + sixty miles, all Constantinople was poured forth to receive him; and he + made his triumphal entry amidst the dutiful acclamations of the soldiers, + the people, and the senate. An innumerable multitude pressed around him + with eager respect and were perhaps disappointed when they beheld the + small stature and simple garb of a hero, whose unexperienced youth had + vanquished the Barbarians of Germany, and who had now traversed, in a + successful career, the whole continent of Europe, from the shores of the + Atlantic to those of the Bosphorus. A few days afterwards, when the + remains of the deceased emperor were landed in the harbor, the subjects of + Julian applauded the real or affected humanity of their sovereign. On + foot, without his diadem, and clothed in a mourning habit, he accompanied + the funeral as far as the church of the Holy Apostles, where the body was + deposited: and if these marks of respect may be interpreted as a selfish + tribute to the birth and dignity of his Imperial kinsman, the tears of + Julian professed to the world that he had forgot the injuries, and + remembered only the obligations, which he had received from Constantius. + As soon as the legions of Aquileia were assured of the death of the + emperor, they opened the gates of the city, and, by the sacrifice of their + guilty leaders, obtained an easy pardon from the prudence or lenity of + Julian; who, in the thirty-second year of his age, acquired the undisputed + possession of the Roman empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch22-p3" id="linkch22-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + Philosophy had instructed Julian to compare the advantages of action and + retirement; but the elevation of his birth, and the accidents of his life, + never allowed him the freedom of choice. He might perhaps sincerely have + preferred the groves of the academy, and the society of Athens; but he was + constrained, at first by the will, and afterwards by the injustice, of + Constantius, to expose his person and fame to the dangers of Imperial + greatness; and to make himself accountable to the world, and to posterity, + for the happiness of millions. Julian recollected with terror the + observation of his master Plato, that the government of our flocks and + herds is always committed to beings of a superior species; and that the + conduct of nations requires and deserves the celestial powers of the gods + or of the genii. From this principle he justly concluded, that the man who + presumes to reign, should aspire to the perfection of the divine nature; + that he should purify his soul from her mortal and terrestrial part; that + he should extinguish his appetites, enlighten his understanding, regulate + his passions, and subdue the wild beast, which, according to the lively + metaphor of Aristotle, seldom fails to ascend the throne of a despot. The + throne of Julian, which the death of Constantius fixed on an independent + basis, was the seat of reason, of virtue, and perhaps of vanity. He + despised the honors, renounced the pleasures, and discharged with + incessant diligence the duties, of his exalted station; and there were few + among his subjects who would have consented to relieve him from the weight + of the diadem, had they been obliged to submit their time and their + actions to the rigorous laws which that philosophic emperor imposed on + himself. One of his most intimate friends, who had often shared the frugal + simplicity of his table, has remarked, that his light and sparing diet + (which was usually of the vegetable kind) left his mind and body always + free and active, for the various and important business of an author, a + pontiff, a magistrate, a general, and a prince. In one and the same day, + he gave audience to several ambassadors, and wrote, or dictated, a great + number of letters to his generals, his civil magistrates, his private + friends, and the different cities of his dominions. He listened to the + memorials which had been received, considered the subject of the + petitions, and signified his intentions more rapidly than they could be + taken in short-hand by the diligence of his secretaries. He possessed such + flexibility of thought, and such firmness of attention, that he could + employ his hand to write, his ear to listen, and his voice to dictate; and + pursue at once three several trains of ideas without hesitation, and + without error. While his ministers reposed, the prince flew with agility + from one labor to another, and, after a hasty dinner, retired into his + library, till the public business, which he had appointed for the evening, + summoned him to interrupt the prosecution of his studies. The supper of + the emperor was still less substantial than the former meal; his sleep was + never clouded by the fumes of indigestion; and except in the short + interval of a marriage, which was the effect of policy rather than love, + the chaste Julian never shared his bed with a female companion. He was + soon awakened by the entrance of fresh secretaries, who had slept the + preceding day; and his servants were obliged to wait alternately while + their indefatigable master allowed himself scarcely any other refreshment + than the change of occupation. The predecessors of Julian, his uncle, his + brother, and his cousin, indulged their puerile taste for the games of the + Circus, under the specious pretence of complying with the inclinations of + the people; and they frequently remained the greatest part of the day as + idle spectators, and as a part of the splendid spectacle, till the + ordinary round of twenty-four races was completely finished. On solemn + festivals, Julian, who felt and professed an unfashionable dislike to + these frivolous amusements, condescended to appear in the Circus; and + after bestowing a careless glance at five or six of the races, he hastily + withdrew with the impatience of a philosopher, who considered every moment + as lost that was not devoted to the advantage of the public or the + improvement of his own mind. By this avarice of time, he seemed to + protract the short duration of his reign; and if the dates were less + securely ascertained, we should refuse to believe, that only sixteen + months elapsed between the death of Constantius and the departure of his + successor for the Persian war. The actions of Julian can only be preserved + by the care of the historian; but the portion of his voluminous writings, + which is still extant, remains as a monument of the application, as well + as of the genius, of the emperor. The Misopogon, the Cæsars, several + of his orations, and his elaborate work against the Christian religion, + were composed in the long nights of the two winters, the former of which + he passed at Constantinople, and the latter at Antioch.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The reformation of the Imperial court was one of the first and most + necessary acts of the government of Julian. Soon after his entrance into + the palace of Constantinople, he had occasion for the service of a barber. + An officer, magnificently dressed, immediately presented himself. "It is a + barber," exclaimed the prince, with affected surprise, "that I want, and + not a receiver-general of the finances." He questioned the man concerning + the profits of his employment and was informed, that besides a large + salary, and some valuable perquisites, he enjoyed a daily allowance for + twenty servants, and as many horses. A thousand barbers, a thousand + cup-bearers, a thousand cooks, were distributed in the several offices of + luxury; and the number of eunuchs could be compared only with the insects + of a summer's day. The monarch who resigned to his subjects the + superiority of merit and virtue, was distinguished by the oppressive + magnificence of his dress, his table, his buildings, and his train. The + stately palaces erected by Constantine and his sons, were decorated with + many colored marbles, and ornaments of massy gold. The most exquisite + dainties were procured, to gratify their pride, rather than their taste; + birds of the most distant climates, fish from the most remote seas, fruits + out of their natural season, winter roses, and summer snows. The domestic + crowd of the palace surpassed the expense of the legions; yet the smallest + part of this costly multitude was subservient to the use, or even to the + splendor, of the throne. The monarch was disgraced, and the people was + injured, by the creation and sale of an infinite number of obscure, and + even titular employments; and the most worthless of mankind might purchase + the privilege of being maintained, without the necessity of labor, from + the public revenue. The waste of an enormous household, the increase of + fees and perquisites, which were soon claimed as a lawful debt, and the + bribes which they extorted from those who feared their enmity, or + solicited their favor, suddenly enriched these haughty menials. They + abused their fortune, without considering their past, or their future, + condition; and their rapine and venality could be equalled only by the + extravagance of their dissipations. Their silken robes were embroidered + with gold, their tables were served with delicacy and profusion; the + houses which they built for their own use, would have covered the farm of + an ancient consul; and the most honorable citizens were obliged to + dismount from their horses, and respectfully to salute a eunuch whom they + met on the public highway. The luxury of the palace excited the contempt + and indignation of Julian, who usually slept on the ground, who yielded + with reluctance to the indispensable calls of nature; and who placed his + vanity, not in emulating, but in despising, the pomp of royalty.<br /> + </p> + <p> + By the total extirpation of a mischief which was magnified even beyond its + real extent, he was impatient to relieve the distress, and to appease the + murmurs of the people; who support with less uneasiness the weight of + taxes, if they are convinced that the fruits of their industry are + appropriated to the service of the state. But in the execution of this + salutary work, Julian is accused of proceeding with too much haste and + inconsiderate severity. By a single edict, he reduced the palace of + Constantinople to an immense desert, and dismissed with ignominy the whole + train of slaves and dependants, without providing any just, or at least + benevolent, exceptions, for the age, the services, or the poverty, of the + faithful domestics of the Imperial family. Such indeed was the temper of + Julian, who seldom recollected the fundamental maxim of Aristotle, that + true virtue is placed at an equal distance between the opposite vices. The + splendid and effeminate dress of the Asiatics, the curls and paint, the + collars and bracelets, which had appeared so ridiculous in the person of + Constantine, were consistently rejected by his philosophic successor. But + with the fopperies, Julian affected to renounce the decencies of dress; + and seemed to value himself for his neglect of the laws of cleanliness. In + a satirical performance, which was designed for the public eye, the + emperor descants with pleasure, and even with pride, on the length of his + nails, and the inky blackness of his hands; protests, that although the + greatest part of his body was covered with hair, the use of the razor was + confined to his head alone; and celebrates, with visible complacency, the + shaggy and <strong><em>populous</em></strong> beard, which he fondly + cherished, after the example of the philosophers of Greece. Had Julian + consulted the simple dictates of reason, the first magistrate of the + Romans would have scorned the affectation of Diogenes, as well as that of + Darius.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the work of public reformation would have remained imperfect, if + Julian had only corrected the abuses, without punishing the crimes, of his + predecessor's reign. "We are now delivered," says he, in a familiar letter + to one of his intimate friends, "we are now surprisingly delivered from + the voracious jaws of the Hydra. I do not mean to apply the epithet to my + brother Constantius. He is no more; may the earth lie light on his head! + But his artful and cruel favorites studied to deceive and exasperate a + prince, whose natural mildness cannot be praised without some efforts of + adulation. It is not, however, my intention, that even those men should be + oppressed: they are accused, and they shall enjoy the benefit of a fair + and impartial trial." To conduct this inquiry, Julian named six judges of + the highest rank in the state and army; and as he wished to escape the + reproach of condemning his personal enemies, he fixed this extraordinary + tribunal at Chalcedon, on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus; and + transferred to the commissioners an absolute power to pronounce and + execute their final sentence, without delay, and without appeal. The + office of president was exercised by the venerable præfect of the + East, a second Sallust, whose virtues conciliated the esteem of Greek + sophists, and of Christian bishops. He was assisted by the eloquent + Mamertinus, one of the consuls elect, whose merit is loudly celebrated by + the doubtful evidence of his own applause. But the civil wisdom of two + magistrates was overbalanced by the ferocious violence of four generals, + Nevitta, Agilo, Jovinus, and Arbetio. Arbetio, whom the public would have + seen with less surprise at the bar than on the bench, was supposed to + possess the secret of the commission; the armed and angry leaders of the + Jovian and Herculian bands encompassed the tribunal; and the judges were + alternately swayed by the laws of justice, and by the clamors of faction.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The chamberlain Eusebius, who had so long abused the favor of Constantius, + expiated, by an ignominious death, the insolence, the corruption, and + cruelty of his servile reign. The executions of Paul and Apodemius (the + former of whom was burnt alive) were accepted as an inadequate atonement + by the widows and orphans of so many hundred Romans, whom those legal + tyrants had betrayed and murdered. But justice herself (if we may use the + pathetic expression of Ammianus ) appeared to weep over the fate of + Ursulus, the treasurer of the empire; and his blood accused the + ingratitude of Julian, whose distress had been seasonably relieved by the + intrepid liberality of that honest minister. The rage of the soldiers, + whom he had provoked by his indiscretion, was the cause and the excuse of + his death; and the emperor, deeply wounded by his own reproaches and those + of the public, offered some consolation to the family of Ursulus, by the + restitution of his confiscated fortunes. Before the end of the year in + which they had been adorned with the ensigns of the prefecture and + consulship, Taurus and Florentius were reduced to implore the clemency of + the inexorable tribunal of Chalcedon. The former was banished to Vercellæ + in Italy, and a sentence of death was pronounced against the latter. A + wise prince should have rewarded the crime of Taurus: the faithful + minister, when he was no longer able to oppose the progress of a rebel, + had taken refuge in the court of his benefactor and his lawful sovereign. + But the guilt of Florentius justified the severity of the judges; and his + escape served to display the magnanimity of Julian, who nobly checked the + interested diligence of an informer, and refused to learn what place + concealed the wretched fugitive from his just resentment. Some months + after the tribunal of Chalcedon had been dissolved, the prætorian + vicegerent of Africa, the notary Gaudentius, and Artemius duke of Egypt, + were executed at Antioch. Artemius had reigned the cruel and corrupt + tyrant of a great province; Gaudentius had long practised the arts of + calumny against the innocent, the virtuous, and even the person of Julian + himself. Yet the circumstances of their trial and condemnation were so + unskillfully managed, that these wicked men obtained, in the public + opinion, the glory of suffering for the obstinate loyalty with which they + had supported the cause of Constantius. The rest of his servants were + protected by a general act of oblivion; and they were left to enjoy with + impunity the bribes which they had accepted, either to defend the + oppressed, or to oppress the friendless. This measure, which, on the + soundest principles of policy, may deserve our approbation, was executed + in a manner which seemed to degrade the majesty of the throne. Julian was + tormented by the importunities of a multitude, particularly of Egyptians, + who loudly redemanded the gifts which they had imprudently or illegally + bestowed; he foresaw the endless prosecution of vexatious suits; and he + engaged a promise, which ought always to have been sacred, that if they + would repair to Chalcedon, he would meet them in person, to hear and + determine their complaints. But as soon as they were landed, he issued an + absolute order, which prohibited the watermen from transporting any + Egyptian to Constantinople; and thus detained his disappointed clients on + the Asiatic shore till, their patience and money being utterly exhausted, + they were obliged to return with indignant murmurs to their native + country.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch22-p4" id="linkch22-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXII: Julian Declared Emperor.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The numerous army of spies, of agents, and informers enlisted by + Constantius to secure the repose of one man, and to interrupt that of + millions, was immediately disbanded by his generous successor. Julian was + slow in his suspicions, and gentle in his punishments; and his contempt of + treason was the result of judgment, of vanity, and of courage. Conscious + of superior merit, he was persuaded that few among his subjects would dare + to meet him in the field, to attempt his life, or even to seat themselves + on his vacant throne. The philosopher could excuse the hasty sallies of + discontent; and the hero could despise the ambitious projects which + surpassed the fortune or the abilities of the rash conspirators. A citizen + of Ancyra had prepared for his own use a purple garment; and this + indiscreet action, which, under the reign of Constantius, would have been + considered as a capital offence, was reported to Julian by the officious + importunity of a private enemy. The monarch, after making some inquiry + into the rank and character of his rival, despatched the informer with a + present of a pair of purple slippers, to complete the magnificence of his + Imperial habit. A more dangerous conspiracy was formed by ten of the + domestic guards, who had resolved to assassinate Julian in the field of + exercise near Antioch. Their intemperance revealed their guilt; and they + were conducted in chains to the presence of their injured sovereign, who, + after a lively representation of the wickedness and folly of their + enterprise, instead of a death of torture, which they deserved and + expected, pronounced a sentence of exile against the two principal + offenders. The only instance in which Julian seemed to depart from his + accustomed clemency, was the execution of a rash youth, who, with a feeble + hand, had aspired to seize the reins of empire. But that youth was the son + of Marcellus, the general of cavalry, who, in the first campaign of the + Gallic war, had deserted the standard of the Cæsar and the republic. + Without appearing to indulge his personal resentment, Julian might easily + confound the crime of the son and of the father; but he was reconciled by + the distress of Marcellus, and the liberality of the emperor endeavored to + heal the wound which had been inflicted by the hand of justice.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Julian was not insensible of the advantages of freedom. From his studies + he had imbibed the spirit of ancient sages and heroes; his life and + fortunes had depended on the caprice of a tyrant; and when he ascended the + throne, his pride was sometimes mortified by the reflection, that the + slaves who would not dare to censure his defects were not worthy to + applaud his virtues. He sincerely abhorred the system of Oriental + despotism, which Diocletian, Constantine, and the patient habits of + fourscore years, had established in the empire. A motive of superstition + prevented the execution of the design, which Julian had frequently + meditated, of relieving his head from the weight of a costly diadem; but + he absolutely refused the title of <strong><em>Dominus</em></strong>, or + <strong><em>Lord</em></strong>, a word which was grown so familiar to the + ears of the Romans, that they no longer remembered its servile and + humiliating origin. The office, or rather the name, of consul, was + cherished by a prince who contemplated with reverence the ruins of the + republic; and the same behavior which had been assumed by the prudence of + Augustus was adopted by Julian from choice and inclination. On the calends + of January, at break of day, the new consuls, Mamertinus and Nevitta, + hastened to the palace to salute the emperor. As soon as he was informed + of their approach, he leaped from his throne, eagerly advanced to meet + them, and compelled the blushing magistrates to receive the demonstrations + of his affected humility. From the palace they proceeded to the senate. + The emperor, on foot, marched before their litters; and the gazing + multitude admired the image of ancient times, or secretly blamed a + conduct, which, in their eyes, degraded the majesty of the purple. But the + behavior of Julian was uniformly supported. During the games of the + Circus, he had, imprudently or designedly, performed the manumission of a + slave in the presence of the consul. The moment he was reminded that he + had trespassed on the jurisdiction of <strong><em>another</em></strong> + magistrate, he condemned himself to pay a fine of ten pounds of gold; and + embraced this public occasion of declaring to the world, that he was + subject, like the rest of his fellow-citizens, to the laws, and even to + the forms, of the republic. The spirit of his administration, and his + regard for the place of his nativity, induced Julian to confer on the + senate of Constantinople the same honors, privileges, and authority, which + were still enjoyed by the senate of ancient Rome. A legal fiction was + introduced, and gradually established, that one half of the national + council had migrated into the East; and the despotic successors of Julian, + accepting the title of Senators, acknowledged themselves the members of a + respectable body, which was permitted to represent the majesty of the + Roman name. From Constantinople, the attention of the monarch was extended + to the municipal senates of the provinces. He abolished, by repeated + edicts, the unjust and pernicious exemptions which had withdrawn so many + idle citizens from the services of their country; and by imposing an equal + distribution of public duties, he restored the strength, the splendor, or, + according to the glowing expression of Libanius, the soul of the expiring + cities of his empire. The venerable age of Greece excited the most tender + compassion in the mind of Julian, which kindled into rapture when he + recollected the gods, the heroes, and the men superior to heroes and to + gods, who have bequeathed to the latest posterity the monuments of their + genius, or the example of their virtues. He relieved the distress, and + restored the beauty, of the cities of Epirus and Peloponnesus. Athens + acknowledged him for her benefactor; Argos, for her deliverer. The pride + of Corinth, again rising from her ruins with the honors of a Roman colony, + exacted a tribute from the adjacent republics, for the purpose of + defraying the games of the Isthmus, which were celebrated in the + amphitheatre with the hunting of bears and panthers. From this tribute the + cities of Elis, of Delphi, and of Argos, which had inherited from their + remote ancestors the sacred office of perpetuating the Olympic, the + Pythian, and the Nemean games, claimed a just exemption. The immunity of + Elis and Delphi was respected by the Corinthians; but the poverty of Argos + tempted the insolence of oppression; and the feeble complaints of its + deputies were silenced by the decree of a provincial magistrate, who seems + to have consulted only the interest of the capital in which he resided. + Seven years after this sentence, Julian allowed the cause to be referred + to a superior tribunal; and his eloquence was interposed, most probably + with success, in the defence of a city, which had been the royal seat of + Agamemnon, and had given to Macedonia a race of kings and conquerors.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The laborious administration of military and civil affairs, which were + multiplied in proportion to the extent of the empire, exercised the + abilities of Julian; but he frequently assumed the two characters of + Orator and of Judge, which are almost unknown to the modern sovereigns of + Europe. The arts of persuasion, so diligently cultivated by the first Cæsars, + were neglected by the military ignorance and Asiatic pride of their + successors; and if they condescended to harangue the soldiers, whom they + feared, they treated with silent disdain the senators, whom they despised. + The assemblies of the senate, which Constantius had avoided, were + considered by Julian as the place where he could exhibit, with the most + propriety, the maxims of a republican, and the talents of a rhetorician. + He alternately practised, as in a school of declamation, the several modes + of praise, of censure, of exhortation; and his friend Libanius has + remarked, that the study of Homer taught him to imitate the simple, + concise style of Menelaus, the copiousness of Nestor, whose words + descended like the flakes of a winter's snow, or the pathetic and forcible + eloquence of Ulysses. The functions of a judge, which are sometimes + incompatible with those of a prince, were exercised by Julian, not only as + a duty, but as an amusement; and although he might have trusted the + integrity and discernment of his Prætorian præfects, he often + placed himself by their side on the seat of judgment. The acute + penetration of his mind was agreeably occupied in detecting and defeating + the chicanery of the advocates, who labored to disguise the truths of + facts, and to pervert the sense of the laws. He sometimes forgot the + gravity of his station, asked indiscreet or unseasonable questions, and + betrayed, by the loudness of his voice, and the agitation of his body, the + earnest vehemence with which he maintained his opinion against the judges, + the advocates, and their clients. But his knowledge of his own temper + prompted him to encourage, and even to solicit, the reproof of his friends + and ministers; and whenever they ventured to oppose the irregular sallies + of his passions, the spectators could observe the shame, as well as the + gratitude, of their monarch. The decrees of Julian were almost always + founded on the principles of justice; and he had the firmness to resist + the two most dangerous temptations, which assault the tribunal of a + sovereign, under the specious forms of compassion and equity. He decided + the merits of the cause without weighing the circumstances of the parties; + and the poor, whom he wished to relieve, were condemned to satisfy the + just demands of a wealthy and noble adversary. He carefully distinguished + the judge from the legislator; and though he meditated a necessary + reformation of the Roman jurisprudence, he pronounced sentence according + to the strict and literal interpretation of those laws, which the + magistrates were bound to execute, and the subjects to obey.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The generality of princes, if they were stripped of their purple, and cast + naked into the world, would immediately sink to the lowest rank of + society, without a hope of emerging from their obscurity. But the personal + merit of Julian was, in some measure, independent of his fortune. Whatever + had been his choice of life, by the force of intrepid courage, lively wit, + and intense application, he would have obtained, or at least he would have + deserved, the highest honors of his profession; and Julian might have + raised himself to the rank of minister, or general, of the state in which + he was born a private citizen. If the jealous caprice of power had + disappointed his expectations, if he had prudently declined the paths of + greatness, the employment of the same talents in studious solitude would + have placed beyond the reach of kings his present happiness and his + immortal fame. When we inspect, with minute, or perhaps malevolent + attention, the portrait of Julian, something seems wanting to the grace + and perfection of the whole figure. His genius was less powerful and + sublime than that of Cæsar; nor did he possess the consummate + prudence of Augustus. The virtues of Trajan appear more steady and + natural, and the philosophy of Marcus is more simple and consistent. Yet + Julian sustained adversity with firmness, and prosperity with moderation. + After an interval of one hundred and twenty years from the death of + Alexander Severus, the Romans beheld an emperor who made no distinction + between his duties and his pleasures; who labored to relieve the distress, + and to revive the spirit, of his subjects; and who endeavored always to + connect authority with merit, and happiness with virtue. Even faction, and + religious faction, was constrained to acknowledge the superiority of his + genius, in peace as well as in war, and to confess, with a sigh, that the + apostate Julian was a lover of his country, and that he deserved the + empire of the world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch23-p1" id="linkch23-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Religion Of Julian.—Universal Toleration.—He +Attempts To Restore And Reform The Pagan Worship—To Rebuild +The Temple Of Jerusalem—His Artful Persecution Of The +Christians.—Mutual Zeal And Injustice. +</pre> + <p> + The character of Apostate has injured the reputation of Julian; and the + enthusiasm which clouded his virtues has exaggerated the real and apparent + magnitude of his faults. Our partial ignorance may represent him as a + philosophic monarch, who studied to protect, with an equal hand, the + religious factions of the empire; and to allay the theological fever which + had inflamed the minds of the people, from the edicts of Diocletian to the + exile of Athanasius. A more accurate view of the character and conduct of + Julian will remove this favorable prepossession for a prince who did not + escape the general contagion of the times. We enjoy the singular advantage + of comparing the pictures which have been delineated by his fondest + admirers and his implacable enemies. The actions of Julian are faithfully + related by a judicious and candid historian, the impartial spectator of + his life and death. The unanimous evidence of his contemporaries is + confirmed by the public and private declarations of the emperor himself; + and his various writings express the uniform tenor of his religious + sentiments, which policy would have prompted him to dissemble rather than + to affect. A devout and sincere attachment for the gods of Athens and Rome + constituted the ruling passion of Julian; the powers of an enlightened + understanding were betrayed and corrupted by the influence of + superstitious prejudice; and the phantoms which existed only in the mind + of the emperor had a real and pernicious effect on the government of the + empire. The vehement zeal of the Christians, who despised the worship, and + overturned the altars of those fabulous deities, engaged their votary in a + state of irreconcilable hostility with a very numerous party of his + subjects; and he was sometimes tempted by the desire of victory, or the + shame of a repulse, to violate the laws of prudence, and even of justice. + The triumph of the party, which he deserted and opposed, has fixed a stain + of infamy on the name of Julian; and the unsuccessful apostate has been + overwhelmed with a torrent of pious invectives, of which the signal was + given by the sonorous trumpet of Gregory Nazianzen. The interesting nature + of the events which were crowded into the short reign of this active + emperor, deserve a just and circumstantial narrative. His motives, his + counsels, and his actions, as far as they are connected with the history + of religion, will be the subject of the present chapter.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The cause of his strange and fatal apostasy may be derived from the early + period of his life, when he was left an orphan in the hands of the + murderers of his family. The names of Christ and of Constantius, the ideas + of slavery and of religion, were soon associated in a youthful + imagination, which was susceptible of the most lively impressions. The + care of his infancy was intrusted to Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, who + was related to him on the side of his mother; and till Julian reached the + twentieth year of his age, he received from his Christian preceptors the + education, not of a hero, but of a saint. The emperor, less jealous of a + heavenly than of an earthly crown, contented himself with the imperfect + character of a catechumen, while he bestowed the advantages of baptism on + the nephews of Constantine. They were even admitted to the inferior + offices of the ecclesiastical order; and Julian publicly read the Holy + Scriptures in the church of Nicomedia. The study of religion, which they + assiduously cultivated, appeared to produce the fairest fruits of faith + and devotion. They prayed, they fasted, they distributed alms to the poor, + gifts to the clergy, and oblations to the tombs of the martyrs; and the + splendid monument of St. Mamas, at Cæsarea, was erected, or at least + was undertaken, by the joint labor of Gallus and Julian. They respectfully + conversed with the bishops, who were eminent for superior sanctity, and + solicited the benediction of the monks and hermits, who had introduced + into Cappadocia the voluntary hardships of the ascetic life. As the two + princes advanced towards the years of manhood, they discovered, in their + religious sentiments, the difference of their characters. The dull and + obstinate understanding of Gallus embraced, with implicit zeal, the + doctrines of Christianity; which never influenced his conduct, or + moderated his passions. The mild disposition of the younger brother was + less repugnant to the precepts of the gospel; and his active curiosity + might have been gratified by a theological system, which explains the + mysterious essence of the Deity, and opens the boundless prospect of + invisible and future worlds. But the independent spirit of Julian refused + to yield the passive and unresisting obedience which was required, in the + name of religion, by the haughty ministers of the church. Their + speculative opinions were imposed as positive laws, and guarded by the + terrors of eternal punishments; but while they prescribed the rigid + formulary of the thoughts, the words, and the actions of the young prince; + whilst they silenced his objections, and severely checked the freedom of + his inquiries, they secretly provoked his impatient genius to disclaim the + authority of his ecclesiastical guides. He was educated in the Lesser + Asia, amidst the scandals of the Arian controversy. The fierce contests of + the Eastern bishops, the incessant alterations of their creeds, and the + profane motives which appeared to actuate their conduct, insensibly + strengthened the prejudice of Julian, that they neither understood nor + believed the religion for which they so fiercely contended. Instead of + listening to the proofs of Christianity with that favorable attention + which adds weight to the most respectable evidence, he heard with + suspicion, and disputed with obstinacy and acuteness, the doctrines for + which he already entertained an invincible aversion. Whenever the young + princes were directed to compose declamations on the subject of the + prevailing controversies, Julian always declared himself the advocate of + Paganism; under the specious excuse that, in the defence of the weaker + cause, his learning and ingenuity might be more advantageously exercised + and displayed.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As soon as Gallus was invested with the honors of the purple, Julian was + permitted to breathe the air of freedom, of literature, and of Paganism. + The crowd of sophists, who were attracted by the taste and liberality of + their royal pupil, had formed a strict alliance between the learning and + the religion of Greece; and the poems of Homer, instead of being admired + as the original productions of human genius, were seriously ascribed to + the heavenly inspiration of Apollo and the muses. The deities of Olympus, + as they are painted by the immortal bard, imprint themselves on the minds + which are the least addicted to superstitious credulity. Our familiar + knowledge of their names and characters, their forms and attributes, + <strong><em>seems</em></strong> to bestow on those airy beings a real and + substantial existence; and the pleasing enchantment produces an imperfect + and momentary assent of the imagination to those fables, which are the + most repugnant to our reason and experience. In the age of Julian, every + circumstance contributed to prolong and fortify the illusion; the + magnificent temples of Greece and Asia; the works of those artists who had + expressed, in painting or in sculpture, the divine conceptions of the + poet; the pomp of festivals and sacrifices; the successful arts of + divination; the popular traditions of oracles and prodigies; and the + ancient practice of two thousand years. The weakness of polytheism was, in + some measure, excused by the moderation of its claims; and the devotion of + the Pagans was not incompatible with the most licentious scepticism. + Instead of an indivisible and regular system, which occupies the whole + extent of the believing mind, the mythology of the Greeks was composed of + a thousand loose and flexible parts, and the servant of the gods was at + liberty to define the degree and measure of his religious faith. The creed + which Julian adopted for his own use was of the largest dimensions; and, + by strange contradiction, he disdained the salutary yoke of the gospel, + whilst he made a voluntary offering of his reason on the altars of Jupiter + and Apollo. One of the orations of Julian is consecrated to the honor of + Cybele, the mother of the gods, who required from her effeminate priests + the bloody sacrifice, so rashly performed by the madness of the Phrygian + boy. The pious emperor condescends to relate, without a blush, and without + a smile, the voyage of the goddess from the shores of Pergamus to the + mouth of the Tyber, and the stupendous miracle, which convinced the senate + and people of Rome that the lump of clay, which their ambassadors had + transported over the seas, was endowed with life, and sentiment, and + divine power. For the truth of this prodigy he appeals to the public + monuments of the city; and censures, with some acrimony, the sickly and + affected taste of those men, who impertinently derided the sacred + traditions of their ancestors.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the devout philosopher, who sincerely embraced, and warmly encouraged, + the superstition of the people, reserved for himself the privilege of a + liberal interpretation; and silently withdrew from the foot of the altars + into the sanctuary of the temple. The extravagance of the Grecian + mythology proclaimed, with a clear and audible voice, that the pious + inquirer, instead of being scandalized or satisfied with the literal + sense, should diligently explore the occult wisdom, which had been + disguised, by the prudence of antiquity, under the mask of folly and of + fable. The philosophers of the Platonic school, Plotinus, Porphyry, and + the divine Iamblichus, were admired as the most skilful masters of this + allegorical science, which labored to soften and harmonize the deformed + features of Paganism. Julian himself, who was directed in the mysterious + pursuit by Ædesius, the venerable successor of Iamblichus, aspired + to the possession of a treasure, which he esteemed, if we may credit his + solemn asseverations, far above the empire of the world. It was indeed a + treasure, which derived its value only from opinion; and every artist who + flattered himself that he had extracted the precious ore from the + surrounding dross, claimed an equal right of stamping the name and figure + the most agreeable to his peculiar fancy. The fable of Atys and Cybele had + been already explained by Porphyry; but his labors served only to animate + the pious industry of Julian, who invented and published his own allegory + of that ancient and mystic tale. This freedom of interpretation, which + might gratify the pride of the Platonists, exposed the vanity of their + art. Without a tedious detail, the modern reader could not form a just + idea of the strange allusions, the forced etymologies, the solemn + trifling, and the impenetrable obscurity of these sages, who professed to + reveal the system of the universe. As the traditions of Pagan mythology + were variously related, the sacred interpreters were at liberty to select + the most convenient circumstances; and as they translated an arbitrary + cipher, they could extract from <strong><em>any</em></strong> fable + <strong><em>any</em></strong> sense which was adapted to their favorite + system of religion and philosophy. The lascivious form of a naked Venus + was tortured into the discovery of some moral precept, or some physical + truth; and the castration of Atys explained the revolution of the sun + between the tropics, or the separation of the human soul from vice and + error.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The theological system of Julian appears to have contained the sublime and + important principles of natural religion. But as the faith, which is not + founded on revelation, must remain destitute of any firm assurance, the + disciple of Plato imprudently relapsed into the habits of vulgar + superstition; and the popular and philosophic notion of the Deity seems to + have been confounded in the practice, the writings, and even in the mind + of Julian. The pious emperor acknowledged and adored the Eternal Cause of + the universe, to whom he ascribed all the perfections of an infinite + nature, invisible to the eyes and inaccessible to the understanding, of + feeble mortals. The Supreme God had created, or rather, in the Platonic + language, had generated, the gradual succession of dependent spirits, of + gods, of dæmons, of heroes, and of men; and every being which + derived its existence immediately from the First Cause, received the + inherent gift of immortality. That so precious an advantage might not be + lavished upon unworthy objects, the Creator had intrusted to the skill and + power of the inferior gods the office of forming the human body, and of + arranging the beautiful harmony of the animal, the vegetable, and the + mineral kingdoms. To the conduct of these divine ministers he delegated + the temporal government of this lower world; but their imperfect + administration is not exempt from discord or error. The earth and its + inhabitants are divided among them, and the characters of Mars or Minerva, + of Mercury or Venus, may be distinctly traced in the laws and manners of + their peculiar votaries. As long as our immortal souls are confined in a + mortal prison, it is our interest, as well as our duty, to solicit the + favor, and to deprecate the wrath, of the powers of heaven; whose pride is + gratified by the devotion of mankind; and whose grosser parts may be + supposed to derive some nourishment from the fumes of sacrifice. The + inferior gods might sometimes condescend to animate the statues, and to + inhabit the temples, which were dedicated to their honor. They might + occasionally visit the earth, but the heavens were the proper throne and + symbol of their glory. The invariable order of the sun, moon, and stars, + was hastily admitted by Julian, as a proof of their <strong><em>eternal</em></strong> + duration; and their eternity was a sufficient evidence that they were the + workmanship, not of an inferior deity, but of the Omnipotent King. In the + system of Platonists, the visible was a type of the invisible world. The + celestial bodies, as they were informed by a divine spirit, might be + considered as the objects the most worthy of religious worship. The Sun, + whose genial influence pervades and sustains the universe, justly claimed + the adoration of mankind, as the bright representative of the Logos, the + lively, the rational, the beneficent image of the intellectual Father.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In every age, the absence of genuine inspiration is supplied by the strong + illusions of enthusiasm, and the mimic arts of imposture. If, in the time + of Julian, these arts had been practised only by the pagan priests, for + the support of an expiring cause, some indulgence might perhaps be allowed + to the interest and habits of the sacerdotal character. But it may appear + a subject of surprise and scandal, that the philosophers themselves should + have contributed to abuse the superstitious credulity of mankind, and that + the Grecian mysteries should have been supported by the magic or theurgy + of the modern Platonists. They arrogantly pretended to control the order + of nature, to explore the secrets of futurity, to command the service of + the inferior dæmons, to enjoy the view and conversation of the + superior gods, and by disengaging the soul from her material bands, to + reunite that immortal particle with the Infinite and Divine Spirit.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The devout and fearless curiosity of Julian tempted the philosophers with + the hopes of an easy conquest; which, from the situation of their young + proselyte, might be productive of the most important consequences. Julian + imbibed the first rudiments of the Platonic doctrines from the mouth of + Ædesius, who had fixed at Pergamus his wandering and persecuted + school. But as the declining strength of that venerable sage was unequal + to the ardor, the diligence, the rapid conception of his pupil, two of his + most learned disciples, Chrysanthes and Eusebius, supplied, at his own + desire, the place of their aged master. These philosophers seem to have + prepared and distributed their respective parts; and they artfully + contrived, by dark hints and affected disputes, to excite the impatient + hopes of the <strong><em>aspirant</em></strong>, till they delivered him + into the hands of their associate, Maximus, the boldest and most skilful + master of the Theurgic science. By his hands, Julian was secretly + initiated at Ephesus, in the twentieth year of his age. His residence at + Athens confirmed this unnatural alliance of philosophy and superstition. + He obtained the privilege of a solemn initiation into the mysteries of + Eleusis, which, amidst the general decay of the Grecian worship, still + retained some vestiges of their primæval sanctity; and such was the + zeal of Julian, that he afterwards invited the Eleusinian pontiff to the + court of Gaul, for the sole purpose of consummating, by mystic rites and + sacrifices, the great work of his sanctification. As these ceremonies were + performed in the depth of caverns, and in the silence of the night, and as + the inviolable secret of the mysteries was preserved by the discretion of + the initiated, I shall not presume to describe the horrid sounds, and + fiery apparitions, which were presented to the senses, or the imagination, + of the credulous aspirant, till the visions of comfort and knowledge broke + upon him in a blaze of celestial light. In the caverns of Ephesus and + Eleusis, the mind of Julian was penetrated with sincere, deep, and + unalterable enthusiasm; though he might sometimes exhibit the vicissitudes + of pious fraud and hypocrisy, which may be observed, or at least + suspected, in the characters of the most conscientious fanatics. From that + moment he consecrated his life to the service of the gods; and while the + occupations of war, of government, and of study, seemed to claim the whole + measure of his time, a stated portion of the hours of the night was + invariably reserved for the exercise of private devotion. The temperance + which adorned the severe manners of the soldier and the philosopher was + connected with some strict and frivolous rules of religious abstinence; + and it was in honor of Pan or Mercury, of Hecate or Isis, that Julian, on + particular days, denied himself the use of some particular food, which + might have been offensive to his tutelar deities. By these voluntary + fasts, he prepared his senses and his understanding for the frequent and + familiar visits with which he was honored by the celestial powers. + Notwithstanding the modest silence of Julian himself, we may learn from + his faithful friend, the orator Libanius, that he lived in a perpetual + intercourse with the gods and goddesses; that they descended upon earth to + enjoy the conversation of their favorite hero; that they gently + interrupted his slumbers by touching his hand or his hair; that they + warned him of every impending danger, and conducted him, by their + infallible wisdom, in every action of his life; and that he had acquired + such an intimate knowledge of his heavenly guests, as readily to + distinguish the voice of Jupiter from that of Minerva, and the form of + Apollo from the figure of Hercules. These sleeping or waking visions, the + ordinary effects of abstinence and fanaticism, would almost degrade the + emperor to the level of an Egyptian monk. But the useless lives of Antony + or Pachomius were consumed in these vain occupations. Julian could break + from the dream of superstition to arm himself for battle; and after + vanquishing in the field the enemies of Rome, he calmly retired into his + tent, to dictate the wise and salutary laws of an empire, or to indulge + his genius in the elegant pursuits of literature and philosophy.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The important secret of the apostasy of Julian was intrusted to the + fidelity of the <strong><em>initiated</em></strong>, with whom he was + united by the sacred ties of friendship and religion. The pleasing rumor + was cautiously circulated among the adherents of the ancient worship; and + his future greatness became the object of the hopes, the prayers, and the + predictions of the Pagans, in every province of the empire. From the zeal + and virtues of their royal proselyte, they fondly expected the cure of + every evil, and the restoration of every blessing; and instead of + disapproving of the ardor of their pious wishes, Julian ingenuously + confessed, that he was ambitious to attain a situation in which he might + be useful to his country and to his religion. But this religion was viewed + with a hostile eye by the successor of Constantine, whose capricious + passions alternately saved and threatened the life of Julian. The arts of + magic and divination were strictly prohibited under a despotic government, + which condescended to fear them; and if the Pagans were reluctantly + indulged in the exercise of their superstition, the rank of Julian would + have excepted him from the general toleration. The apostate soon became + the presumptive heir of the monarchy, and his death could alone have + appeased the just apprehensions of the Christians. But the young prince, + who aspired to the glory of a hero rather than of a martyr, consulted his + safety by dissembling his religion; and the easy temper of polytheism + permitted him to join in the public worship of a sect which he inwardly + despised. Libanius has considered the hypocrisy of his friend as a + subject, not of censure, but of praise. "As the statues of the gods," says + that orator, "which have been defiled with filth, are again placed in a + magnificent temple, so the beauty of truth was seated in the mind of + Julian, after it had been purified from the errors and follies of his + education. His sentiments were changed; but as it would have been + dangerous to have avowed his sentiments, his conduct still continued the + same. Very different from the ass in Æsop, who disguised himself + with a lion's hide, our lion was obliged to conceal himself under the skin + of an ass; and, while he embraced the dictates of reason, to obey the laws + of prudence and necessity." The dissimulation of Julian lasted about ten + years, from his secret initiation at Ephesus to the beginning of the civil + war; when he declared himself at once the implacable enemy of Christ and + of Constantius. This state of constraint might contribute to strengthen + his devotion; and as soon as he had satisfied the obligation of assisting, + on solemn festivals, at the assemblies of the Christians, Julian returned, + with the impatience of a lover, to burn his free and voluntary incense on + the domestic chapels of Jupiter and Mercury. But as every act of + dissimulation must be painful to an ingenuous spirit, the profession of + Christianity increased the aversion of Julian for a religion which + oppressed the freedom of his mind, and compelled him to hold a conduct + repugnant to the noblest attributes of human nature, sincerity and + courage.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch23-p2" id="linkch23-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The inclination of Julian might prefer the gods of Homer, and of the + Scipios, to the new faith, which his uncle had established in the Roman + empire; and in which he himself had been sanctified by the sacrament of + baptism. But, as a philosopher, it was incumbent on him to justify his + dissent from Christianity, which was supported by the number of its + converts, by the chain of prophecy, the splendor of miracles, and the + weight of evidence. The elaborate work, which he composed amidst the + preparations of the Persian war, contained the substance of those + arguments which he had long revolved in his mind. Some fragments have been + transcribed and preserved, by his adversary, the vehement Cyril of + Alexandria; and they exhibit a very singular mixture of wit and learning, + of sophistry and fanaticism. The elegance of the style and the rank of the + author, recommended his writings to the public attention; and in the + impious list of the enemies of Christianity, the celebrated name of + Porphyry was effaced by the superior merit or reputation of Julian. The + minds of the faithful were either seduced, or scandalized, or alarmed; and + the pagans, who sometimes presumed to engage in the unequal dispute, + derived, from the popular work of their Imperial missionary, an + inexhaustible supply of fallacious objections. But in the assiduous + prosecution of these theological studies, the emperor of the Romans + imbibed the illiberal prejudices and passions of a polemic divine. He + contracted an irrevocable obligation to maintain and propagate his + religious opinions; and whilst he secretly applauded the strength and + dexterity with which he wielded the weapons of controversy, he was tempted + to distrust the sincerity, or to despise the understandings, of his + antagonists, who could obstinately resist the force of reason and + eloquence.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The Christians, who beheld with horror and indignation the apostasy of + Julian, had much more to fear from his power than from his arguments. The + pagans, who were conscious of his fervent zeal, expected, perhaps with + impatience, that the flames of persecution should be immediately kindled + against the enemies of the gods; and that the ingenious malice of Julian + would invent some cruel refinements of death and torture which had been + unknown to the rude and inexperienced fury of his predecessors. But the + hopes, as well as the fears, of the religious factions were apparently + disappointed, by the prudent humanity of a prince, who was careful of his + own fame, of the public peace, and of the rights of mankind. Instructed by + history and reflection, Julian was persuaded, that if the diseases of the + body may sometimes be cured by salutary violence, neither steel nor fire + can eradicate the erroneous opinions of the mind. The reluctant victim may + be dragged to the foot of the altar; but the heart still abhors and + disclaims the sacrilegious act of the hand. Religious obstinacy is + hardened and exasperated by oppression; and, as soon as the persecution + subsides, those who have yielded are restored as penitents, and those who + have resisted are honored as saints and martyrs. If Julian adopted the + unsuccessful cruelty of Diocletian and his colleagues, he was sensible + that he should stain his memory with the name of a tyrant, and add new + glories to the Catholic church, which had derived strength and increase + from the severity of the pagan magistrates. Actuated by these motives, and + apprehensive of disturbing the repose of an unsettled reign, Julian + surprised the world by an edict, which was not unworthy of a statesman, or + a philosopher. He extended to all the inhabitants of the Roman world the + benefits of a free and equal toleration; and the only hardship which he + inflicted on the Christians, was to deprive them of the power of + tormenting their fellow-subjects, whom they stigmatized with the odious + titles of idolaters and heretics. The pagans received a gracious + permission, or rather an express order, to open All their temples; and + they were at once delivered from the oppressive laws, and arbitrary + vexations, which they had sustained under the reign of Constantine, and of + his sons. At the same time the bishops and clergy, who had been banished + by the Arian monarch, were recalled from exile, and restored to their + respective churches; the Donatists, the Novatians, the Macedonians, the + Eunomians, and those who, with a more prosperous fortune, adhered to the + doctrine of the Council of Nice. Julian, who understood and derided their + theological disputes, invited to the palace the leaders of the hostile + sects, that he might enjoy the agreeable spectacle of their furious + encounters. The clamor of controversy sometimes provoked the emperor to + exclaim, "Hear me! the Franks have heard me, and the Alemanni;" but he + soon discovered that he was now engaged with more obstinate and implacable + enemies; and though he exerted the powers of oratory to persuade them to + live in concord, or at least in peace, he was perfectly satisfied, before + he dismissed them from his presence, that he had nothing to dread from the + union of the Christians. The impartial Ammianus has ascribed this affected + clemency to the desire of fomenting the intestine divisions of the church, + and the insidious design of undermining the foundations of Christianity, + was inseparably connected with the zeal which Julian professed, to restore + the ancient religion of the empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As soon as he ascended the throne, he assumed, according to the custom of + his predecessors, the character of supreme pontiff; not only as the most + honorable title of Imperial greatness, but as a sacred and important + office; the duties of which he was resolved to execute with pious + diligence. As the business of the state prevented the emperor from joining + every day in the public devotion of his subjects, he dedicated a domestic + chapel to his tutelar deity the Sun; his gardens were filled with statues + and altars of the gods; and each apartment of the palace displaced the + appearance of a magnificent temple. Every morning he saluted the parent of + light with a sacrifice; the blood of another victim was shed at the moment + when the Sun sunk below the horizon; and the Moon, the Stars, and the + Genii of the night received their respective and seasonable honors from + the indefatigable devotion of Julian. On solemn festivals, he regularly + visited the temple of the god or goddess to whom the day was peculiarly + consecrated, and endeavored to excite the religion of the magistrates and + people by the example of his own zeal. Instead of maintaining the lofty + state of a monarch, distinguished by the splendor of his purple, and + encompassed by the golden shields of his guards, Julian solicited, with + respectful eagerness, the meanest offices which contributed to the worship + of the gods. Amidst the sacred but licentious crowd of priests, of + inferior ministers, and of female dancers, who were dedicated to the + service of the temple, it was the business of the emperor to bring the + wood, to blow the fire, to handle the knife, to slaughter the victim, and, + thrusting his bloody hands into the bowels of the expiring animal, to draw + forth the heart or liver, and to read, with the consummate skill of an + haruspex, imaginary signs of future events. The wisest of the Pagans + censured this extravagant superstition, which affected to despise the + restraints of prudence and decency. Under the reign of a prince, who + practised the rigid maxims of economy, the expense of religious worship + consumed a very large portion of the revenue; a constant supply of the + scarcest and most beautiful birds was transported from distant climates, + to bleed on the altars of the gods; a hundred oxen were frequently + sacrificed by Julian on one and the same day; and it soon became a popular + jest, that if he should return with conquest from the Persian war, the + breed of horned cattle must infallibly be extinguished. Yet this expense + may appear inconsiderable, when it is compared with the splendid presents + which were offered either by the hand, or by order, of the emperor, to all + the celebrated places of devotion in the Roman world; and with the sums + allotted to repair and decorate the ancient temples, which had suffered + the silent decay of time, or the recent injuries of Christian rapine. + Encouraged by the example, the exhortations, the liberality, of their + pious sovereign, the cities and families resumed the practice of their + neglected ceremonies. "Every part of the world," exclaims Libanius, with + devout transport, "displayed the triumph of religion; and the grateful + prospect of flaming altars, bleeding victims, the smoke of incense, and a + solemn train of priests and prophets, without fear and without danger. The + sound of prayer and of music was heard on the tops of the highest + mountains; and the same ox afforded a sacrifice for the gods, and a supper + for their joyous votaries."<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the genius and power of Julian were unequal to the enterprise of + restoring a religion which was destitute of theological principles, of + moral precepts, and of ecclesiastical discipline; which rapidly hastened + to decay and dissolution, and was not susceptible of any solid or + consistent reformation. The jurisdiction of the supreme pontiff, more + especially after that office had been united with the Imperial dignity, + comprehended the whole extent of the Roman empire. Julian named for his + vicars, in the several provinces, the priests and philosophers whom he + esteemed the best qualified to cooperate in the execution of his great + design; and his pastoral letters, if we may use that name, still represent + a very curious sketch of his wishes and intentions. He directs, that in + every city the sacerdotal order should be composed, without any + distinction of birth and fortune, of those persons who were the most + conspicuous for the love of the gods, and of men. "If they are guilty," + continues he, "of any scandalous offence, they should be censured or + degraded by the superior pontiff; but as long as they retain their rank, + they are entitled to the respect of the magistrates and people. Their + humility may be shown in the plainness of their domestic garb; their + dignity, in the pomp of holy vestments. When they are summoned in their + turn to officiate before the altar, they ought not, during the appointed + number of days, to depart from the precincts of the temple; nor should a + single day be suffered to elapse, without the prayers and the sacrifice, + which they are obliged to offer for the prosperity of the state, and of + individuals. The exercise of their sacred functions requires an immaculate + purity, both of mind and body; and even when they are dismissed from the + temple to the occupations of common life, it is incumbent on them to excel + in decency and virtue the rest of their fellow-citizens. The priest of the + gods should never be seen in theatres or taverns. His conversation should + be chaste, his diet temperate, his friends of honorable reputation; and if + he sometimes visits the Forum or the Palace, he should appear only as the + advocate of those who have vainly solicited either justice or mercy. His + studies should be suited to the sanctity of his profession. Licentious + tales, or comedies, or satires, must be banished from his library, which + ought solely to consist of historical or philosophical writings; of + history, which is founded in truth, and of philosophy, which is connected + with religion. The impious opinions of the Epicureans and sceptics deserve + his abhorrence and contempt; but he should diligently study the systems of + Pythagoras, of Plato, and of the Stoics, which unanimously teach that + there <strong><em>are</em></strong> gods; that the world is governed by + their providence; that their goodness is the source of every temporal + blessing; and that they have prepared for the human soul a future state of + reward or punishment." The Imperial pontiff inculcates, in the most + persuasive language, the duties of benevolence and hospitality; exhorts + his inferior clergy to recommend the universal practice of those virtues; + promises to assist their indigence from the public treasury; and declares + his resolution of establishing hospitals in every city, where the poor + should be received without any invidious distinction of country or of + religion. Julian beheld with envy the wise and humane regulations of the + church; and he very frankly confesses his intention to deprive the + Christians of the applause, as well as advantage, which they had acquired + by the exclusive practice of charity and beneficence. The same spirit of + imitation might dispose the emperor to adopt several ecclesiastical + institutions, the use and importance of which were approved by the success + of his enemies. But if these imaginary plans of reformation had been + realized, the forced and imperfect copy would have been less beneficial to + Paganism, than honorable to Christianity. The Gentiles, who peaceably + followed the customs of their ancestors, were rather surprised than + pleased with the introduction of foreign manners; and in the short period + of his reign, Julian had frequent occasions to complain of the want of + fervor of his own party.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The enthusiasm of Julian prompted him to embrace the friends of Jupiter as + his personal friends and brethren; and though he partially overlooked the + merit of Christian constancy, he admired and rewarded the noble + perseverance of those Gentiles who had preferred the favor of the gods to + that of the emperor. If they cultivated the literature, as well as the + religion, of the Greeks, they acquired an additional claim to the + friendship of Julian, who ranked the Muses in the number of his tutelar + deities. In the religion which he had adopted, piety and learning were + almost synonymous; and a crowd of poets, of rhetoricians, and of + philosophers, hastened to the Imperial court, to occupy the vacant places + of the bishops, who had seduced the credulity of Constantius. His + successor esteemed the ties of common initiation as far more sacred than + those of consanguinity; he chose his favorites among the sages, who were + deeply skilled in the occult sciences of magic and divination; and every + impostor, who pretended to reveal the secrets of futurity, was assured of + enjoying the present hour in honor and affluence. Among the philosophers, + Maximus obtained the most eminent rank in the friendship of his royal + disciple, who communicated, with unreserved confidence, his actions, his + sentiments, and his religious designs, during the anxious suspense of the + civil war. As soon as Julian had taken possession of the palace of + Constantinople, he despatched an honorable and pressing invitation to + Maximus, who then resided at Sardes in Lydia, with Chrysanthius, the + associate of his art and studies. The prudent and superstitious + Chrysanthius refused to undertake a journey which showed itself, according + to the rules of divination, with the most threatening and malignant + aspect: but his companion, whose fanaticism was of a bolder cast, + persisted in his interrogations, till he had extorted from the gods a + seeming consent to his own wishes, and those of the emperor. The journey + of Maximus through the cities of Asia displayed the triumph of philosophic + vanity; and the magistrates vied with each other in the honorable + reception which they prepared for the friend of their sovereign. Julian + was pronouncing an oration before the senate, when he was informed of the + arrival of Maximus. The emperor immediately interrupted his discourse, + advanced to meet him, and after a tender embrace, conducted him by the + hand into the midst of the assembly; where he publicly acknowledged the + benefits which he had derived from the instructions of the philosopher. + Maximus, who soon acquired the confidence, and influenced the councils of + Julian, was insensibly corrupted by the temptations of a court. His dress + became more splendid, his demeanor more lofty, and he was exposed, under a + succeeding reign, to a disgraceful inquiry into the means by which the + disciple of Plato had accumulated, in the short duration of his favor, a + very scandalous proportion of wealth. Of the other philosophers and + sophists, who were invited to the Imperial residence by the choice of + Julian, or by the success of Maximus, few were able to preserve their + innocence or their reputation. The liberal gifts of money, lands, and + houses, were insufficient to satiate their rapacious avarice; and the + indignation of the people was justly excited by the remembrance of their + abject poverty and disinterested professions. The penetration of Julian + could not always be deceived: but he was unwilling to despise the + characters of those men whose talents deserved his esteem: he desired to + escape the double reproach of imprudence and inconstancy; and he was + apprehensive of degrading, in the eyes of the profane, the honor of + letters and of religion.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The favor of Julian was almost equally divided between the Pagans, who had + firmly adhered to the worship of their ancestors, and the Christians, who + prudently embraced the religion of their sovereign. The acquisition of new + proselytes gratified the ruling passions of his soul, superstition and + vanity; and he was heard to declare, with the enthusiasm of a missionary, + that if he could render each individual richer than Midas, and every city + greater than Babylon, he should not esteem himself the benefactor of + mankind, unless, at the same time, he could reclaim his subjects from + their impious revolt against the immortal gods. A prince who had studied + human nature, and who possessed the treasures of the Roman empire, could + adapt his arguments, his promises, and his rewards, to every order of + Christians; and the merit of a seasonable conversion was allowed to supply + the defects of a candidate, or even to expiate the guilt of a criminal. As + the army is the most forcible engine of absolute power, Julian applied + himself, with peculiar diligence, to corrupt the religion of his troops, + without whose hearty concurrence every measure must be dangerous and + unsuccessful; and the natural temper of soldiers made this conquest as + easy as it was important. The legions of Gaul devoted themselves to the + faith, as well as to the fortunes, of their victorious leader; and even + before the death of Constantius, he had the satisfaction of announcing to + his friends, that they assisted with fervent devotion, and voracious + appetite, at the sacrifices, which were repeatedly offered in his camp, of + whole hecatombs of fat oxen. The armies of the East, which had been + trained under the standard of the cross, and of Constantius, required a + more artful and expensive mode of persuasion. On the days of solemn and + public festivals, the emperor received the homage, and rewarded the merit, + of the troops. His throne of state was encircled with the military ensigns + of Rome and the republic; the holy name of Christ was erased from the + Labarum; and the symbols of war, of majesty, and of pagan superstition, + were so dexterously blended, that the faithful subject incurred the guilt + of idolatry, when he respectfully saluted the person or image of his + sovereign. The soldiers passed successively in review; and each of them, + before he received from the hand of Julian a liberal donative, + proportioned to his rank and services, was required to cast a few grains + of incense into the flame which burnt upon the altar. Some Christian + confessors might resist, and others might repent; but the far greater + number, allured by the prospect of gold, and awed by the presence of the + emperor, contracted the criminal engagement; and their future perseverance + in the worship of the gods was enforced by every consideration of duty and + of interest. By the frequent repetition of these arts, and at the expense + of sums which would have purchased the service of half the nations of + Scythia, Julian gradually acquired for his troops the imaginary protection + of the gods, and for himself the firm and effectual support of the Roman + legions. It is indeed more than probable, that the restoration and + encouragement of Paganism revealed a multitude of pretended Christians, + who, from motives of temporal advantage, had acquiesced in the religion of + the former reign; and who afterwards returned, with the same flexibility + of conscience, to the faith which was professed by the successors of + Julian.<br /> + </p> + <p> + While the devout monarch incessantly labored to restore and propagate the + religion of his ancestors, he embraced the extraordinary design of + rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem. In a public epistle to the nation or + community of the Jews, dispersed through the provinces, he pities their + misfortunes, condemns their oppressors, praises their constancy, declares + himself their gracious protector, and expresses a pious hope, that after + his return from the Persian war, he may be permitted to pay his grateful + vows to the Almighty in his holy city of Jerusalem. The blind + superstition, and abject slavery, of those unfortunate exiles, must excite + the contempt of a philosophic emperor; but they deserved the friendship of + Julian, by their implacable hatred of the Christian name. The barren + synagogue abhorred and envied the fecundity of the rebellious church; the + power of the Jews was not equal to their malice; but their gravest rabbis + approved the private murder of an apostate; and their seditious clamors + had often awakened the indolence of the Pagan magistrates. Under the reign + of Constantine, the Jews became the subjects of their revolted children + nor was it long before they experienced the bitterness of domestic + tyranny. The civil immunities which had been granted, or confirmed, by + Severus, were gradually repealed by the Christian princes; and a rash + tumult, excited by the Jews of Palestine, seemed to justify the lucrative + modes of oppression which were invented by the bishops and eunuchs of the + court of Constantius. The Jewish patriarch, who was still permitted to + exercise a precarious jurisdiction, held his residence at Tiberias; and + the neighboring cities of Palestine were filled with the remains of a + people who fondly adhered to the promised land. But the edict of Hadrian + was renewed and enforced; and they viewed from afar the walls of the holy + city, which were profaned in their eyes by the triumph of the cross and + the devotion of the Christians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch23-p3" id="linkch23-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + In the midst of a rocky and barren country, the walls of Jerusalem + enclosed the two mountains of Sion and Acra, within an oval figure of + about three English miles. Towards the south, the upper town, and the + fortress of David, were erected on the lofty ascent of Mount Sion: on the + north side, the buildings of the lower town covered the spacious summit of + Mount Acra; and a part of the hill, distinguished by the name of Moriah, + and levelled by human industry, was crowned with the stately temple of the + Jewish nation. After the final destruction of the temple by the arms of + Titus and Hadrian, a ploughshare was drawn over the consecrated ground, as + a sign of perpetual interdiction. Sion was deserted; and the vacant space + of the lower city was filled with the public and private edifices of the + Ælian colony, which spread themselves over the adjacent hill of + Calvary. The holy places were polluted with mountains of idolatry; and, + either from design or accident, a chapel was dedicated to Venus, on the + spot which had been sanctified by the death and resurrection of Christ. * + Almost three hundred years after those stupendous events, the profane + chapel of Venus was demolished by the order of Constantine; and the + removal of the earth and stones revealed the holy sepulchre to the eyes of + mankind. A magnificent church was erected on that mystic ground, by the + first Christian emperor; and the effects of his pious munificence were + extended to every spot which had been consecrated by the footstep of + patriarchs, of prophets, and of the Son of God.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The passionate desire of contemplating the original monuments of their + redemption attracted to Jerusalem a successive crowd of pilgrims, from the + shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and the most distant countries of the East; + and their piety was authorized by the example of the empress Helena, who + appears to have united the credulity of age with the warm feelings of a + recent conversion. Sages and heroes, who have visited the memorable scenes + of ancient wisdom or glory, have confessed the inspiration of the genius + of the place; and the Christian who knelt before the holy sepulchre, + ascribed his lively faith, and his fervent devotion, to the more immediate + influence of the Divine Spirit. The zeal, perhaps the avarice, of the + clergy of Jerusalem, cherished and multiplied these beneficial visits. + They fixed, by unquestionable tradition, the scene of each memorable + event. They exhibited the instruments which had been used in the passion + of Christ; the nails and the lance that had pierced his hands, his feet, + and his side; the crown of thorns that was planted on his head; the pillar + at which he was scourged; and, above all, they showed the cross on which + he suffered, and which was dug out of the earth in the reign of those + princes, who inserted the symbol of Christianity in the banners of the + Roman legions. Such miracles as seemed necessary to account for its + extraordinary preservation, and seasonable discovery, were gradually + propagated without opposition. The custody of the <strong><em>true cross</em></strong>, + which on Easter Sunday was solemnly exposed to the people, was intrusted + to the bishop of Jerusalem; and he alone might gratify the curious + devotion of the pilgrims, by the gift of small pieces, which they encased + in gold or gems, and carried away in triumph to their respective + countries. But as this gainful branch of commerce must soon have been + annihilated, it was found convenient to suppose, that the marvelous wood + possessed a secret power of vegetation; and that its substance, though + continually diminished, still remained entire and unimpaired. It might + perhaps have been expected, that the influence of the place and the belief + of a perpetual miracle, should have produced some salutary effects on the + morals, as well as on the faith, of the people. Yet the most respectable + of the ecclesiastical writers have been obliged to confess, not only that + the streets of Jerusalem were filled with the incessant tumult of business + and pleasure, but that every species of vice—adultery, theft, + idolatry, poisoning, murder—was familiar to the inhabitants of the + holy city. The wealth and preeminence of the church of Jerusalem excited + the ambition of Arian, as well as orthodox, candidates; and the virtues of + Cyril, who, since his death, has been honored with the title of Saint, + were displayed in the exercise, rather than in the acquisition, of his + episcopal dignity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The vain and ambitious mind of Julian might aspire to restore the ancient + glory of the temple of Jerusalem. As the Christians were firmly persuaded + that a sentence of everlasting destruction had been pronounced against the + whole fabric of the Mosaic law, the Imperial sophist would have converted + the success of his undertaking into a specious argument against the faith + of prophecy, and the truth of revelation. He was displeased with the + spiritual worship of the synagogue; but he approved the institutions of + Moses, who had not disdained to adopt many of the rites and ceremonies of + Egypt. The local and national deity of the Jews was sincerely adored by a + polytheist, who desired only to multiply the number of the gods; and such + was the appetite of Julian for bloody sacrifice, that his emulation might + be excited by the piety of Solomon, who had offered, at the feast of the + dedication, twenty-two thousand oxen, and one hundred and twenty thousand + sheep. These considerations might influence his designs; but the prospect + of an immediate and important advantage would not suffer the impatient + monarch to expect the remote and uncertain event of the Persian war. He + resolved to erect, without delay, on the commanding eminence of Moriah, a + stately temple, which might eclipse the splendor of the church of the + resurrection on the adjacent hill of Calvary; to establish an order of + priests, whose interested zeal would detect the arts, and resist the + ambition, of their Christian rivals; and to invite a numerous colony of + Jews, whose stern fanaticism would be always prepared to second, and even + to anticipate, the hostile measures of the Pagan government. Among the + friends of the emperor (if the names of emperor, and of friend, are not + incompatible) the first place was assigned, by Julian himself, to the + virtuous and learned Alypius. The humanity of Alypius was tempered by + severe justice and manly fortitude; and while he exercised his abilities + in the civil administration of Britain, he imitated, in his poetical + compositions, the harmony and softness of the odes of Sappho. This + minister, to whom Julian communicated, without reserve, his most careless + levities, and his most serious counsels, received an extraordinary + commission to restore, in its pristine beauty, the temple of Jerusalem; + and the diligence of Alypius required and obtained the strenuous support + of the governor of Palestine. At the call of their great deliverer, the + Jews, from all the provinces of the empire, assembled on the holy mountain + of their fathers; and their insolent triumph alarmed and exasperated the + Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem. The desire of rebuilding the temple + has in every age been the ruling passion of the children of Isræl. + In this propitious moment the men forgot their avarice, and the women + their delicacy; spades and pickaxes of silver were provided by the vanity + of the rich, and the rubbish was transported in mantles of silk and + purple. Every purse was opened in liberal contributions, every hand + claimed a share in the pious labor, and the commands of a great monarch + were executed by the enthusiasm of a whole people.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Yet, on this occasion, the joint efforts of power and enthusiasm were + unsuccessful; and the ground of the Jewish temple, which is now covered by + a Mahometan mosque, still continued to exhibit the same edifying spectacle + of ruin and desolation. Perhaps the absence and death of the emperor, and + the new maxims of a Christian reign, might explain the interruption of an + arduous work, which was attempted only in the last six months of the life + of Julian. But the Christians entertained a natural and pious expectation, + that, in this memorable contest, the honor of religion would be vindicated + by some signal miracle. An earthquake, a whirlwind, and a fiery eruption, + which overturned and scattered the new foundations of the temple, are + attested, with some variations, by contemporary and respectable evidence. + This public event is described by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, in an epistle + to the emperor Theodosius, which must provoke the severe animadversion of + the Jews; by the eloquent Chrysostom, who might appeal to the memory of + the elder part of his congregation at Antioch; and by Gregory Nazianzen, + who published his account of the miracle before the expiration of the same + year. The last of these writers has boldly declared, that this + preternatural event was not disputed by the infidels; and his assertion, + strange as it may seem is confirmed by the unexceptionable testimony of + Ammianus Marcellinus. The philosophic soldier, who loved the virtues, + without adopting the prejudices, of his master, has recorded, in his + judicious and candid history of his own times, the extraordinary obstacles + which interrupted the restoration of the temple of Jerusalem. "Whilst + Alypius, assisted by the governor of the province, urged, with vigor and + diligence, the execution of the work, horrible balls of fire breaking out + near the foundations, with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the + place, from time to time, inaccessible to the scorched and blasted + workmen; and the victorious element continuing in this manner obstinately + and resolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a distance, the + undertaking was abandoned." * Such authority should satisfy a believing, + and must astonish an incredulous, mind. Yet a philosopher may still + require the original evidence of impartial and intelligent spectators. At + this important crisis, any singular accident of nature would assume the + appearance, and produce the effects of a real prodigy. This glorious + deliverance would be speedily improved and magnified by the pious art of + the clergy of Jerusalem, and the active credulity of the Christian world + and, at the distance of twenty years, a Roman historian, careless of + theological disputes, might adorn his work with the specious and splendid + miracle.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch23-p4" id="linkch23-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The restoration of the Jewish temple was secretly connected with the ruin + of the Christian church. Julian still continued to maintain the freedom of + religious worship, without distinguishing whether this universal + toleration proceeded from his justice or his clemency. He affected to pity + the unhappy Christians, who were mistaken in the most important object of + their lives; but his pity was degraded by contempt, his contempt was + embittered by hatred; and the sentiments of Julian were expressed in a + style of sarcastic wit, which inflicts a deep and deadly wound, whenever + it issues from the mouth of a sovereign. As he was sensible that the + Christians gloried in the name of their Redeemer, he countenanced, and + perhaps enjoined, the use of the less honorable appellation of Galilæans. + He declared, that by the folly of the Galilæans, whom he describes + as a sect of fanatics, contemptible to men, and odious to the gods, the + empire had been reduced to the brink of destruction; and he insinuates in + a public edict, that a frantic patient might sometimes be cured by + salutary violence. An ungenerous distinction was admitted into the mind + and counsels of Julian, that, according to the difference of their + religious sentiments, one part of his subjects deserved his favor and + friendship, while the other was entitled only to the common benefits that + his justice could not refuse to an obedient people. According to a + principle, pregnant with mischief and oppression, the emperor transferred + to the pontiffs of his own religion the management of the liberal + allowances from the public revenue, which had been granted to the church by + the piety of Constantine and his sons. The proud system of clerical honors + and immunities, which had been constructed with so much art and labor, was + levelled to the ground; the hopes of testamentary donations were + intercepted by the rigor of the laws; and the priests of the Christian + sect were confounded with the last and most ignominious class of the + people. Such of these regulations as appeared necessary to check the + ambition and avarice of the ecclesiastics, were soon afterwards imitated + by the wisdom of an orthodox prince. The peculiar distinctions which + policy has bestowed, or superstition has lavished, on the sacerdotal + order, must be confined to those priests who profess the religion of the + state. But the will of the legislator was not exempt from prejudice and + passion; and it was the object of the insidious policy of Julian, to + deprive the Christians of all the temporal honors and advantages which + rendered them respectable in the eyes of the world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + A just and severe censure has been inflicted on the law which prohibited + the Christians from teaching the arts of grammar and rhetoric. The motives + alleged by the emperor to justify this partial and oppressive measure, + might command, during his lifetime, the silence of slaves and the applause + of flatterers. Julian abuses the ambiguous meaning of a word which might + be indifferently applied to the language and the religion of the Greeks: + he contemptuously observes, that the men who exalt the merit of implicit + faith are unfit to claim or to enjoy the advantages of science; and he + vainly contends, that if they refuse to adore the gods of Homer and + Demosthenes, they ought to content themselves with expounding Luke and + Matthew in the church of the Galilæans. In all the cities of the + Roman world, the education of the youth was intrusted to masters of + grammar and rhetoric; who were elected by the magistrates, maintained at + the public expense, and distinguished by many lucrative and honorable + privileges. The edict of Julian appears to have included the physicians, + and professors of all the liberal arts; and the emperor, who reserved to + himself the approbation of the candidates, was authorized by the laws to + corrupt, or to punish, the religious constancy of the most learned of the + Christians. As soon as the resignation of the more obstinate teachers had + established the unrivalled dominion of the Pagan sophists, Julian invited + the rising generation to resort with freedom to the public schools, in a + just confidence, that their tender minds would receive the impressions of + literature and idolatry. If the greatest part of the Christian youth + should be deterred by their own scruples, or by those of their parents, + from accepting this dangerous mode of instruction, they must, at the same + time, relinquish the benefits of a liberal education. Julian had reason to + expect that, in the space of a few years, the church would relapse into + its primæval simplicity, and that the theologians, who possessed an + adequate share of the learning and eloquence of the age, would be + succeeded by a generation of blind and ignorant fanatics, incapable of + defending the truth of their own principles, or of exposing the various + follies of Polytheism.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It was undoubtedly the wish and design of Julian to deprive the Christians + of the advantages of wealth, of knowledge, and of power; but the injustice + of excluding them from all offices of trust and profit seems to have been + the result of his general policy, rather than the immediate consequence of + any positive law. Superior merit might deserve and obtain, some + extraordinary exceptions; but the greater part of the Christian officers + were gradually removed from their employments in the state, the army, and + the provinces. The hopes of future candidates were extinguished by the + declared partiality of a prince, who maliciously reminded them, that it + was unlawful for a Christian to use the sword, either of justice, or of + war; and who studiously guarded the camp and the tribunals with the + ensigns of idolatry. The powers of government were intrusted to the + pagans, who professed an ardent zeal for the religion of their ancestors; + and as the choice of the emperor was often directed by the rules of + divination, the favorites whom he preferred as the most agreeable to the + gods, did not always obtain the approbation of mankind. Under the + administration of their enemies, the Christians had much to suffer, and + more to apprehend. The temper of Julian was averse to cruelty; and the + care of his reputation, which was exposed to the eyes of the universe, + restrained the philosophic monarch from violating the laws of justice and + toleration, which he himself had so recently established. But the + provincial ministers of his authority were placed in a less conspicuous + station. In the exercise of arbitrary power, they consulted the wishes, + rather than the commands, of their sovereign; and ventured to exercise a + secret and vexatious tyranny against the sectaries, on whom they were not + permitted to confer the honors of martyrdom. The emperor, who dissembled + as long as possible his knowledge of the injustice that was exercised in + his name, expressed his real sense of the conduct of his officers, by + gentle reproofs and substantial rewards.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The most effectual instrument of oppression, with which they were armed, + was the law that obliged the Christians to make full and ample + satisfaction for the temples which they had destroyed under the preceding + reign. The zeal of the triumphant church had not always expected the + sanction of the public authority; and the bishops, who were secure of + impunity, had often marched at the head of their congregation, to attack + and demolish the fortresses of the prince of darkness. The consecrated + lands, which had increased the patrimony of the sovereign or of the + clergy, were clearly defined, and easily restored. But on these lands, and + on the ruins of Pagan superstition, the Christians had frequently erected + their own religious edifices: and as it was necessary to remove the church + before the temple could be rebuilt, the justice and piety of the emperor + were applauded by one party, while the other deplored and execrated his + sacrilegious violence. After the ground was cleared, the restitution of + those stately structures which had been levelled with the dust, and of the + precious ornaments which had been converted to Christian uses, swelled + into a very large account of damages and debt. The authors of the injury + had neither the ability nor the inclination to discharge this accumulated + demand: and the impartial wisdom of a legislator would have been displayed + in balancing the adverse claims and complaints, by an equitable and + temperate arbitration. But the whole empire, and particularly the East, + was thrown into confusion by the rash edicts of Julian; and the Pagan + magistrates, inflamed by zeal and revenge, abused the rigorous privilege + of the Roman law, which substitutes, in the place of his inadequate + property, the person of the insolvent debtor. Under the preceding reign, + Mark, bishop of Arethusa, had labored in the conversion of his people with + arms more effectual than those of persuasion. The magistrates required the + full value of a temple which had been destroyed by his intolerant zeal: + but as they were satisfied of his poverty, they desired only to bend his + inflexible spirit to the promise of the slightest compensation. They + apprehended the aged prelate, they inhumanly scourged him, they tore his + beard; and his naked body, anointed with honey, was suspended, in a net, + between heaven and earth, and exposed to the stings of insects and the + rays of a Syrian sun. From this lofty station, Mark still persisted to + glory in his crime, and to insult the impotent rage of his persecutors. He + was at length rescued from their hands, and dismissed to enjoy the honor + of his divine triumph. The Arians celebrated the virtue of their pious + confessor; the Catholics ambitiously claimed his alliance; and the Pagans, + who might be susceptible of shame or remorse, were deterred from the + repetition of such unavailing cruelty. Julian spared his life: but if the + bishop of Arethusa had saved the infancy of Julian, posterity will condemn + the ingratitude, instead of praising the clemency, of the emperor.<br /> + </p> + <p> + At the distance of five miles from Antioch, the Macedonian kings of Syria + had consecrated to Apollo one of the most elegant places of devotion in + the Pagan world. A magnificent temple rose in honor of the god of light; + and his colossal figure almost filled the capacious sanctuary, which was + enriched with gold and gems, and adorned by the skill of the Grecian + artists. The deity was represented in a bending attitude, with a golden + cup in his hand, pouring out a libation on the earth; as if he supplicated + the venerable mother to give to his arms the cold and beauteous Daphne: + for the spot was ennobled by fiction; and the fancy of the Syrian poets + had transported the amorous tale from the banks of the Peneus to those of + the Orontes. The ancient rites of Greece were imitated by the royal colony + of Antioch. A stream of prophecy, which rivalled the truth and reputation + of the Delphic oracle, flowed from the <strong><em>Castalian</em></strong> + fountain of Daphne. In the adjacent fields a stadium was built by a + special privilege, which had been purchased from Elis; the Olympic games + were celebrated at the expense of the city; and a revenue of thirty + thousand pounds sterling was annually applied to the public pleasures. The + perpetual resort of pilgrims and spectators insensibly formed, in the + neighborhood of the temple, the stately and populous village of Daphne, + which emulated the splendor, without acquiring the title, of a provincial + city. The temple and the village were deeply bosomed in a thick grove of + laurels and cypresses, which reached as far as a circumference of ten + miles, and formed in the most sultry summers a cool and impenetrable + shade. A thousand streams of the purest water, issuing from every hill, + preserved the verdure of the earth, and the temperature of the air; the + senses were gratified with harmonious sounds and aromatic odors; and the + peaceful grove was consecrated to health and joy, to luxury and love. The + vigorous youth pursued, like Apollo, the object of his desires; and the + blushing maid was warned, by the fate of Daphne, to shun the folly of + unseasonable coyness. The soldier and the philosopher wisely avoided the + temptation of this sensual paradise: where pleasure, assuming the + character of religion, imperceptibly dissolved the firmness of manly + virtue. But the groves of Daphne continued for many ages to enjoy the + veneration of natives and strangers; the privileges of the holy ground + were enlarged by the munificence of succeeding emperors; and every + generation added new ornaments to the splendor of the temple.<br /> + </p> + <p> + When Julian, on the day of the annual festival, hastened to adore the + Apollo of Daphne, his devotion was raised to the highest pitch of + eagerness and impatience. His lively imagination anticipated the grateful + pomp of victims, of libations and of incense; a long procession of youths + and virgins, clothed in white robes, the symbol of their innocence; and + the tumultuous concourse of an innumerable people. But the zeal of Antioch + was diverted, since the reign of Christianity, into a different channel. + Instead of hecatombs of fat oxen sacrificed by the tribes of a wealthy + city to their tutelar deity the emperor complains that he found only a + single goose, provided at the expense of a priest, the pale and solitary + inhabitant of this decayed temple. The altar was deserted, the oracle had + been reduced to silence, and the holy ground was profaned by the + introduction of Christian and funereal rites. After Babylas (a bishop of + Antioch, who died in prison in the persecution of Decius) had rested near + a century in his grave, his body, by the order of Cæsar Gallus, was + transported into the midst of the grove of Daphne. A magnificent church + was erected over his remains; a portion of the sacred lands was usurped + for the maintenance of the clergy, and for the burial of the Christians at + Antioch, who were ambitious of lying at the feet of their bishop; and the + priests of Apollo retired, with their affrighted and indignant votaries. + As soon as another revolution seemed to restore the fortune of Paganism, + the church of St. Babylas was demolished, and new buildings were added to + the mouldering edifice which had been raised by the piety of Syrian kings. + But the first and most serious care of Julian was to deliver his oppressed + deity from the odious presence of the dead and living Christians, who had + so effectually suppressed the voice of fraud or enthusiasm. The scene of + infection was purified, according to the forms of ancient rituals; the + bodies were decently removed; and the ministers of the church were + permitted to convey the remains of St. Babylas to their former habitation + within the walls of Antioch. The modest behavior which might have assuaged + the jealousy of a hostile government was neglected, on this occasion, by + the zeal of the Christians. The lofty car, that transported the relics of + Babylas, was followed, and accompanied, and received, by an innumerable + multitude; who chanted, with thundering acclamations, the Psalms of David + the most expressive of their contempt for idols and idolaters. The return + of the saint was a triumph; and the triumph was an insult on the religion + of the emperor, who exerted his pride to dissemble his resentment. During + the night which terminated this indiscreet procession, the temple of + Daphne was in flames; the statue of Apollo was consumed; and the walls of + the edifice were left a naked and awful monument of ruin. The Christians + of Antioch asserted, with religious confidence, that the powerful + intercession of St. Babylas had pointed the lightnings of heaven against + the devoted roof: but as Julian was reduced to the alternative of + believing either a crime or a miracle, he chose, without hesitation, + without evidence, but with some color of probability, to impute the fire + of Daphne to the revenge of the Galilæans. Their offence, had it + been sufficiently proved, might have justified the retaliation, which was + immediately executed by the order of Julian, of shutting the doors, and + confiscating the wealth, of the cathedral of Antioch. To discover the + criminals who were guilty of the tumult, of the fire, or of secreting the + riches of the church, several of the ecclesiastics were tortured; and a + Presbyter, of the name of Theodoret, was beheaded by the sentence of the + Count of the East. But this hasty act was blamed by the emperor; who + lamented, with real or affected concern, that the imprudent zeal of his + ministers would tarnish his reign with the disgrace of persecution.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a name="linkch23-p5" id="linkch23-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIII: Reign Of Julian.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The zeal of the ministers of Julian was instantly checked by the frown of + their sovereign; but when the father of his country declares himself the + leader of a faction, the license of popular fury cannot easily be + restrained, nor consistently punished. Julian, in a public composition, + applauds the devotion and loyalty of the holy cities of Syria, whose pious + inhabitants had destroyed, at the first signal, the sepulchres of the + Galilæans; and faintly complains, that they had revenged the + injuries of the gods with less moderation than he should have recommended. + This imperfect and reluctant confession may appear to confirm the + ecclesiastical narratives; that in the cities of Gaza, Ascalon, Cæsarea, + Heliopolis, &c., the Pagans abused, without prudence or remorse, the + moment of their prosperity. That the unhappy objects of their cruelty were + released from torture only by death; and as their mangled bodies were + dragged through the streets, they were pierced (such was the universal + rage) by the spits of cooks, and the distaffs of enraged women; and that + the entrails of Christian priests and virgins, after they had been tasted + by those bloody fanatics, were mixed with barley, and contemptuously + thrown to the unclean animals of the city. Such scenes of religious + madness exhibit the most contemptible and odious picture of human nature; + but the massacre of Alexandria attracts still more attention, from the + certainty of the fact, the rank of the victims, and the splendor of the + capital of Egypt.<br /> + </p> + <p> + George, from his parents or his education, surnamed the Cappadocian, was + born at Epiphania in Cilicia, in a fuller's shop. From this obscure and + servile origin he raised himself by the talents of a parasite; and the + patrons, whom he assiduously flattered, procured for their worthless + dependent a lucrative commission, or contract, to supply the army with + bacon. His employment was mean; he rendered it infamous. He accumulated + wealth by the basest arts of fraud and corruption; but his malversations + were so notorious, that George was compelled to escape from the pursuits + of justice. After this disgrace, in which he appears to have saved his + fortune at the expense of his honor, he embraced, with real or affected + zeal, the profession of Arianism. From the love, or the ostentation, of + learning, he collected a valuable library of history rhetoric, philosophy, + and theology, and the choice of the prevailing faction promoted George of + Cappadocia to the throne of Athanasius. The entrance of the new archbishop + was that of a Barbarian conqueror; and each moment of his reign was + polluted by cruelty and avarice. The Catholics of Alexandria and Egypt + were abandoned to a tyrant, qualified, by nature and education, to + exercise the office of persecution; but he oppressed with an impartial + hand the various inhabitants of his extensive diocese. The primate of + Egypt assumed the pomp and insolence of his lofty station; but he still + betrayed the vices of his base and servile extraction. The merchants of + Alexandria were impoverished by the unjust, and almost universal, + monopoly, which he acquired, of nitre, salt, paper, funerals, &c.: and + the spiritual father of a great people condescended to practise the vile + and pernicious arts of an informer. The Alexandrians could never forget, + nor forgive, the tax, which he suggested, on all the houses of the city; + under an obsolete claim, that the royal founder had conveyed to his + successors, the Ptolemies and the Cæsars, the perpetual property of + the soil. The Pagans, who had been flattered with the hopes of freedom and + toleration, excited his devout avarice; and the rich temples of Alexandria + were either pillaged or insulted by the haughty prince, who exclaimed, in + a loud and threatening tone, "How long will these sepulchres be permitted + to stand?" Under the reign of Constantius, he was expelled by the fury, or + rather by the justice, of the people; and it was not without a violent + struggle, that the civil and military powers of the state could restore + his authority, and gratify his revenge. The messenger who proclaimed at + Alexandria the accession of Julian, announced the downfall of the + archbishop. George, with two of his obsequious ministers, Count Diodorus, + and Dracontius, master of the mint were ignominiously dragged in chains to + the public prison. At the end of twenty-four days, the prison was forced + open by the rage of a superstitious multitude, impatient of the tedious + forms of judicial proceedings. The enemies of gods and men expired under + their cruel insults; the lifeless bodies of the archbishop and his + associates were carried in triumph through the streets on the back of a + camel; * and the inactivity of the Athanasian party was esteemed a shining + example of evangelical patience. The remains of these guilty wretches were + thrown into the sea; and the popular leaders of the tumult declared their + resolution to disappoint the devotion of the Christians, and to intercept + the future honors of these <strong><em>martyrs</em></strong>, who had been + punished, like their predecessors, by the enemies of their religion. The + fears of the Pagans were just, and their precautions ineffectual. The + meritorious death of the archbishop obliterated the memory of his life. + The rival of Athanasius was dear and sacred to the Arians, and the seeming + conversion of those sectaries introduced his worship into the bosom of the + Catholic church. The odious stranger, disguising every circumstance of + time and place, assumed the mask of a martyr, a saint, and a Christian + hero; and the infamous George of Cappadocia has been transformed into the + renowned St. George of England, the patron of arms, of chivalry, and of + the garter.<br /> + </p> + <p> + About the same time that Julian was informed of the tumult of Alexandria, + he received intelligence from Edessa, that the proud and wealthy faction + of the Arians had insulted the weakness of the Valentinians, and committed + such disorders as ought not to be suffered with impunity in a + well-regulated state. Without expecting the slow forms of justice, the + exasperated prince directed his mandate to the magistrates of Edessa, by + which he confiscated the whole property of the church: the money was + distributed among the soldiers; the lands were added to the domain; and + this act of oppression was aggravated by the most ungenerous irony. "I + show myself," says Julian, "the true friend of the Galilæans. Their + <strong><em>admirable</em></strong> law has promised the kingdom of heaven + to the poor; and they will advance with more diligence in the paths of + virtue and salvation, when they are relieved by my assistance from the + load of temporal possessions. Take care," pursued the monarch, in a more + serious tone, "take care how you provoke my patience and humanity. If + these disorders continue, I will revenge on the magistrates the crimes of + the people; and you will have reason to dread, not only confiscation and + exile, but fire and the sword." The tumults of Alexandria were doubtless + of a more bloody and dangerous nature: but a Christian bishop had fallen + by the hands of the Pagans; and the public epistle of Julian affords a + very lively proof of the partial spirit of his administration. His + reproaches to the citizens of Alexandria are mingled with expressions of + esteem and tenderness; and he laments, that, on this occasion, they should + have departed from the gentle and generous manners which attested their + Grecian extraction. He gravely censures the offence which they had + committed against the laws of justice and humanity; but he recapitulates, + with visible complacency, the intolerable provocations which they had so + long endured from the impious tyranny of George of Cappadocia. Julian + admits the principle, that a wise and vigorous government should chastise + the insolence of the people; yet, in consideration of their founder + Alexander, and of Serapis their tutelar deity, he grants a free and + gracious pardon to the guilty city, for which he again feels the affection + of a brother.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After the tumult of Alexandria had subsided, Athanasius, amidst the public + acclamations, seated himself on the throne from whence his unworthy + competitor had been precipitated: and as the zeal of the archbishop was + tempered with discretion, the exercise of his authority tended not to + inflame, but to reconcile, the minds of the people. His pastoral labors + were not confined to the narrow limits of Egypt. The state of the + Christian world was present to his active and capacious mind; and the age, + the merit, the reputation of Athanasius, enabled him to assume, in a + moment of danger, the office of Ecclesiastical Dictator. Three years were + not yet elapsed since the majority of the bishops of the West had + ignorantly, or reluctantly, subscribed the Confession of Rimini. They + repented, they believed, but they dreaded the unseasonable rigor of their + orthodox brethren; and if their pride was stronger than their faith, they + might throw themselves into the arms of the Arians, to escape the + indignity of a public penance, which must degrade them to the condition of + obscure laymen. At the same time the domestic differences concerning the + union and distinction of the divine persons, were agitated with some heat + among the Catholic doctors; and the progress of this metaphysical + controversy seemed to threaten a public and lasting division of the Greek + and Latin churches. By the wisdom of a select synod, to which the name and + presence of Athanasius gave the authority of a general council, the + bishops, who had unwarily deviated into error, were admitted to the + communion of the church, on the easy condition of subscribing the Nicene + Creed; without any formal acknowledgment of their past fault, or any + minute definition of their scholastic opinions. The advice of the primate + of Egypt had already prepared the clergy of Gaul and Spain, of Italy and + Greece, for the reception of this salutary measure; and, notwithstanding + the opposition of some ardent spirits, the fear of the common enemy + promoted the peace and harmony of the Christians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The skill and diligence of the primate of Egypt had improved the season of + tranquillity, before it was interrupted by the hostile edicts of the + emperor. Julian, who despised the Christians, honored Athanasius with his + sincere and peculiar hatred. For his sake alone, he introduced an + arbitrary distinction, repugnant at least to the spirit of his former + declarations. He maintained, that the Galilæans, whom he had + recalled from exile, were not restored, by that general indulgence, to the + possession of their respective churches; and he expressed his + astonishment, that a criminal, who had been repeatedly condemned by the + judgment of the emperors, should dare to insult the majesty of the laws, + and insolently usurp the archiepiscopal throne of Alexandria, without + expecting the orders of his sovereign. As a punishment for the imaginary + offence, he again banished Athanasius from the city; and he was pleased to + suppose, that this act of justice would be highly agreeable to his pious + subjects. The pressing solicitations of the people soon convinced him, + that the majority of the Alexandrians were Christians; and that the + greatest part of the Christians were firmly attached to the cause of their + oppressed primate. But the knowledge of their sentiments, instead of + persuading him to recall his decree, provoked him to extend to all Egypt + the term of the exile of Athanasius. The zeal of the multitude rendered + Julian still more inexorable: he was alarmed by the danger of leaving at + the head of a tumultuous city, a daring and popular leader; and the + language of his resentment discovers the opinion which he entertained of + the courage and abilities of Athanasius. The execution of the sentence was + still delayed, by the caution or negligence of Ecdicius, præfect of + Egypt, who was at length awakened from his lethargy by a severe reprimand. + "Though you neglect," says Julian, "to write to me on any other subject, + at least it is your duty to inform me of your conduct towards Athanasius, + the enemy of the gods. My intentions have been long since communicated to + you. I swear by the great Serapis, that unless, on the calends of + December, Athanasius has departed from Alexandria, nay, from Egypt, the + officers of your government shall pay a fine of one hundred pounds of + gold. You know my temper: I am slow to condemn, but I am still slower to + forgive." This epistle was enforced by a short postscript, written with + the emperor's own hand. "The contempt that is shown for all the gods fills + me with grief and indignation. There is nothing that I should see, nothing + that I should hear, with more pleasure, than the expulsion of Athanasius + from all Egypt. The abominable wretch! Under my reign, the baptism of + several Grecian ladies of the highest rank has been the effect of his + persecutions." The death of Athanasius was not <strong><em>expressly</em></strong> + commanded; but the præfect of Egypt understood that it was safer for + him to exceed, than to neglect, the orders of an irritated master. The + archbishop prudently retired to the monasteries of the Desert; eluded, + with his usual dexterity, the snares of the enemy; and lived to triumph + over the ashes of a prince, who, in words of formidable import, had + declared his wish that the whole venom of the Galilæan school were + contained in the single person of Athanasius.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I have endeavored faithfully to represent the artful system by which + Julian proposed to obtain the effects, without incurring the guilt, or + reproach, of persecution. But if the deadly spirit of fanaticism perverted + the heart and understanding of a virtuous prince, it must, at the same + time, be confessed that the <strong><em>real</em></strong> sufferings of + the Christians were inflamed and magnified by human passions and religious + enthusiasm. The meekness and resignation which had distinguished the + primitive disciples of the gospel, was the object of the applause, rather + than of the imitation of their successors. The Christians, who had now + possessed above forty years the civil and ecclesiastical government of the + empire, had contracted the insolent vices of prosperity, and the habit of + believing that the saints alone were entitled to reign over the earth. As + soon as the enmity of Julian deprived the clergy of the privileges which + had been conferred by the favor of Constantine, they complained of the + most cruel oppression; and the free toleration of idolaters and heretics + was a subject of grief and scandal to the orthodox party. The acts of + violence, which were no longer countenanced by the magistrates, were still + committed by the zeal of the people. At Pessinus, the altar of Cybele was + overturned almost in the presence of the emperor; and in the city of Cæsarea + in Cappadocia, the temple of Fortune, the sole place of worship which had + been left to the Pagans, was destroyed by the rage of a popular tumult. On + these occasions, a prince, who felt for the honor of the gods, was not + disposed to interrupt the course of justice; and his mind was still more + deeply exasperated, when he found that the fanatics, who had deserved and + suffered the punishment of incendiaries, were rewarded with the honors of + martyrdom. The Christian subjects of Julian were assured of the hostile + designs of their sovereign; and, to their jealous apprehension, every + circumstance of his government might afford some grounds of discontent and + suspicion. In the ordinary administration of the laws, the Christians, who + formed so large a part of the people, must frequently be condemned: but + their indulgent brethren, without examining the merits of the cause, + presumed their innocence, allowed their claims, and imputed the severity + of their judge to the partial malice of religious persecution. These + present hardships, intolerable as they might appear, were represented as a + slight prelude of the impending calamities. The Christians considered + Julian as a cruel and crafty tyrant; who suspended the execution of his + revenge till he should return victorious from the Persian war. They + expected, that as soon as he had triumphed over the foreign enemies of + Rome, he would lay aside the irksome mask of dissimulation; that the + amphitheatre would stream with the blood of hermits and bishops; and that + the Christians who still persevered in the profession of the faith, would + be deprived of the common benefits of nature and society. Every calumny + that could wound the reputation of the Apostate, was credulously embraced + by the fears and hatred of his adversaries; and their indiscreet clamors + provoked the temper of a sovereign, whom it was their duty to respect, and + their interest to flatter. They still protested, that prayers and tears + were their only weapons against the impious tyrant, whose head they + devoted to the justice of offended Heaven. But they insinuated, with + sullen resolution, that their submission was no longer the effect of + weakness; and that, in the imperfect state of human virtue, the patience, + which is founded on principle, may be exhausted by persecution. It is + impossible to determine how far the zeal of Julian would have prevailed + over his good sense and humanity; but if we seriously reflect on the + strength and spirit of the church, we shall be convinced, that before the + emperor could have extinguished the religion of Christ, he must have + involved his country in the horrors of a civil war.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch24-p1" id="linkch24-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Residence Of Julian At Antioch.—His Successful Expedition +Against The Persians.—Passage Of The Tigris—The Retreat And +Death Of Julian.—Election Of Jovian.—He Saves The Roman +Army By A Disgraceful Treaty. +</pre> + <p> + The philosophical fable which Julian composed under the name of the Cæsars, + is one of the most agreeable and instructive productions of ancient wit. + During the freedom and equality of the days of the Saturnalia, Romulus + prepared a feast for the deities of Olympus, who had adopted him as a + worthy associate, and for the Roman princes, who had reigned over his + martial people, and the vanquished nations of the earth. The immortals + were placed in just order on their thrones of state, and the table of the + Cæsars was spread below the Moon in the upper region of the air. The + tyrants, who would have disgraced the society of gods and men, were thrown + headlong, by the inexorable Nemesis, into the Tartarean abyss. The rest of + the Cæsars successively advanced to their seats; and as they passed, + the vices, the defects, the blemishes of their respective characters, were + maliciously noticed by old Silenus, a laughing moralist, who disguised the + wisdom of a philosopher under the mask of a Bacchanal. As soon as the + feast was ended, the voice of Mercury proclaimed the will of Jupiter, that + a celestial crown should be the reward of superior merit. Julius Cæsar, + Augustus, Trajan, and Marcus Antoninus, were selected as the most + illustrious candidates; the effeminate Constantine was not excluded from + this honorable competition, and the great Alexander was invited to dispute + the prize of glory with the Roman heroes. Each of the candidates was + allowed to display the merit of his own exploits; but, in the judgment of + the gods, the modest silence of Marcus pleaded more powerfully than the + elaborate orations of his haughty rivals. When the judges of this awful + contest proceeded to examine the heart, and to scrutinize the springs of + action, the superiority of the Imperial Stoic appeared still more decisive + and conspicuous. Alexander and Cæsar, Augustus, Trajan, and + Constantine, acknowledged, with a blush, that fame, or power, or pleasure + had been the important object of <strong><em>their</em></strong> labors: + but the gods themselves beheld, with reverence and love, a virtuous + mortal, who had practised on the throne the lessons of philosophy; and + who, in a state of human imperfection, had aspired to imitate the moral + attributes of the Deity. The value of this agreeable composition (the Cæsars + of Julian) is enhanced by the rank of the author. A prince, who + delineates, with freedom, the vices and virtues of his predecessors, + subscribes, in every line, the censure or approbation of his own conduct.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the cool moments of reflection, Julian preferred the useful and + benevolent virtues of Antoninus; but his ambitious spirit was inflamed by + the glory of Alexander; and he solicited, with equal ardor, the esteem of + the wise, and the applause of the multitude. In the season of life when + the powers of the mind and body enjoy the most active vigor, the emperor + who was instructed by the experience, and animated by the success, of the + German war, resolved to signalize his reign by some more splendid and + memorable achievement. The ambassadors of the East, from the continent of + India, and the Isle of Ceylon, had respectfully saluted the Roman purple. + The nations of the West esteemed and dreaded the personal virtues of + Julian, both in peace and war. He despised the trophies of a Gothic + victory, and was satisfied that the rapacious Barbarians of the Danube + would be restrained from any future violation of the faith of treaties by + the terror of his name, and the additional fortifications with which he + strengthened the Thracian and Illyrian frontiers. The successor of Cyrus + and Artaxerxes was the only rival whom he deemed worthy of his arms; and + he resolved, by the final conquest of Persia, to chastise the naughty + nation which had so long resisted and insulted the majesty of Rome. As + soon as the Persian monarch was informed that the throne of Constantius + was filled by a prince of a very different character, he condescended to + make some artful, or perhaps sincere, overtures towards a negotiation of + peace. But the pride of Sapor was astonished by the firmness of Julian; + who sternly declared, that he would never consent to hold a peaceful + conference among the flames and ruins of the cities of Mesopotamia; and + who added, with a smile of contempt, that it was needless to treat by + ambassadors, as he himself had determined to visit speedily the court of + Persia. The impatience of the emperor urged the diligence of the military + preparations. The generals were named; and Julian, marching from + Constantinople through the provinces of Asia Minor, arrived at Antioch + about eight months after the death of his predecessor. His ardent desire + to march into the heart of Persia, was checked by the indispensable duty + of regulating the state of the empire; by his zeal to revive the worship + of the gods; and by the advice of his wisest friends; who represented the + necessity of allowing the salutary interval of winter quarters, to restore + the exhausted strength of the legions of Gaul, and the discipline and + spirit of the Eastern troops. Julian was persuaded to fix, till the + ensuing spring, his residence at Antioch, among a people maliciously + disposed to deride the haste, and to censure the delays, of their + sovereign.<br /> + </p> + <p> + If Julian had flattered himself, that his personal connection with the + capital of the East would be productive of mutual satisfaction to the + prince and people, he made a very false estimate of his own character, and + of the manners of Antioch. The warmth of the climate disposed the natives + to the most intemperate enjoyment of tranquillity and opulence; and the + lively licentiousness of the Greeks was blended with the hereditary + softness of the Syrians. Fashion was the only law, pleasure the only + pursuit, and the splendor of dress and furniture was the only distinction + of the citizens of Antioch. The arts of luxury were honored; the serious + and manly virtues were the subject of ridicule; and the contempt for + female modesty and reverent age announced the universal corruption of the + capital of the East. The love of spectacles was the taste, or rather + passion, of the Syrians; the most skilful artists were procured from the + adjacent cities; a considerable share of the revenue was devoted to the + public amusements; and the magnificence of the games of the theatre and + circus was considered as the happiness and as the glory of Antioch. The + rustic manners of a prince who disdained such glory, and was insensible of + such happiness, soon disgusted the delicacy of his subjects; and the + effeminate Orientals could neither imitate, nor admire, the severe + simplicity which Julian always maintained, and sometimes affected. The + days of festivity, consecrated, by ancient custom, to the honor of the + gods, were the only occasions in which Julian relaxed his philosophic + severity; and those festivals were the only days in which the Syrians of + Antioch could reject the allurements of pleasure. The majority of the + people supported the glory of the Christian name, which had been first + invented by their ancestors: they contended themselves with disobeying the + moral precepts, but they were scrupulously attached to the speculative + doctrines of their religion. The church of Antioch was distracted by + heresy and schism; but the Arians and the Athanasians, the followers of + Meletius and those of Paulinus, were actuated by the same pious hatred of + their common adversary.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The strongest prejudice was entertained against the character of an + apostate, the enemy and successor of a prince who had engaged the + affections of a very numerous sect; and the removal of St. Babylas excited + an implacable opposition to the person of Julian. His subjects complained, + with superstitious indignation, that famine had pursued the emperor's + steps from Constantinople to Antioch; and the discontent of a hungry + people was exasperated by the injudicious attempt to relieve their + distress. The inclemency of the season had affected the harvests of Syria; + and the price of bread, in the markets of Antioch, had naturally risen in + proportion to the scarcity of corn. But the fair and reasonable proportion + was soon violated by the rapacious arts of monopoly. In this unequal + contest, in which the produce of the land is claimed by one party as his + exclusive property, is used by another as a lucrative object of trade, and + is required by a third for the daily and necessary support of life, all + the profits of the intermediate agents are accumulated on the head of the + defenceless customers. The hardships of their situation were exaggerated + and increased by their own impatience and anxiety; and the apprehension of + a scarcity gradually produced the appearances of a famine. When the + luxurious citizens of Antioch complained of the high price of poultry and + fish, Julian publicly declared, that a frugal city ought to be satisfied + with a regular supply of wine, oil, and bread; but he acknowledged, that + it was the duty of a sovereign to provide for the subsistence of his + people. With this salutary view, the emperor ventured on a very dangerous + and doubtful step, of fixing, by legal authority, the value of corn. He + enacted, that, in a time of scarcity, it should be sold at a price which + had seldom been known in the most plentiful years; and that his own + example might strengthen his laws, he sent into the market four hundred + and twenty-two thousand <strong><em>modii</em></strong>, or measures, + which were drawn by his order from the granaries of Hierapolis, of + Chalcis, and even of Egypt. The consequences might have been foreseen, and + were soon felt. The Imperial wheat was purchased by the rich merchants; + the proprietors of land, or of corn, withheld from the city the accustomed + supply; and the small quantities that appeared in the market were secretly + sold at an advanced and illegal price. Julian still continued to applaud + his own policy, treated the complaints of the people as a vain and + ungrateful murmur, and convinced Antioch that he had inherited the + obstinacy, though not the cruelty, of his brother Gallus. The + remonstrances of the municipal senate served only to exasperate his + inflexible mind. He was persuaded, perhaps with truth, that the senators + of Antioch who possessed lands, or were concerned in trade, had themselves + contributed to the calamities of their country; and he imputed the + disrespectful boldness which they assumed, to the sense, not of public + duty, but of private interest. The whole body, consisting of two hundred + of the most noble and wealthy citizens, were sent, under a guard, from the + palace to the prison; and though they were permitted, before the close of + evening, to return to their respective houses, the emperor himself could + not obtain the forgiveness which he had so easily granted. The same + grievances were still the subject of the same complaints, which were + industriously circulated by the wit and levity of the Syrian Greeks. + During the licentious days of the Saturnalia, the streets of the city + resounded with insolent songs, which derided the laws, the religion, the + personal conduct, and even the <strong><em>beard</em></strong>, of the + emperor; the spirit of Antioch was manifested by the connivance of the + magistrates, and the applause of the multitude. The disciple of Socrates + was too deeply affected by these popular insults; but the monarch, endowed + with a quick sensibility, and possessed of absolute power, refused his + passions the gratification of revenge. A tyrant might have proscribed, + without distinction, the lives and fortunes of the citizens of Antioch; + and the unwarlike Syrians must have patiently submitted to the lust, the + rapaciousness and the cruelty, of the faithful legions of Gaul. A milder + sentence might have deprived the capital of the East of its honors and + privileges; and the courtiers, perhaps the subjects, of Julian, would have + applauded an act of justice, which asserted the dignity of the supreme + magistrate of the republic. But instead of abusing, or exerting, the + authority of the state, to revenge his personal injuries, Julian contented + himself with an inoffensive mode of retaliation, which it would be in the + power of few princes to employ. He had been insulted by satires and + libels; in his turn, he composed, under the title of the <strong><em>Enemy + of the Beard</em></strong>, an ironical confession of his own faults, and + a severe satire on the licentious and effeminate manners of Antioch. This + Imperial reply was publicly exposed before the gates of the palace; and + the Misopogon still remains a singular monument of the resentment, the + wit, the humanity, and the indiscretion of Julian. Though he affected to + laugh, he could not forgive. His contempt was expressed, and his revenge + might be gratified, by the nomination of a governor worthy only of such + subjects; and the emperor, forever renouncing the ungrateful city, + proclaimed his resolution to pass the ensuing winter at Tarsus in Cilicia.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Yet Antioch possessed one citizen, whose genius and virtues might atone, + in the opinion of Julian, for the vice and folly of his country. The + sophist Libanius was born in the capital of the East; he publicly + professed the arts of rhetoric and declamation at Nice, Nicomedia, + Constantinople, Athens, and, during the remainder of his life, at Antioch. + His school was assiduously frequented by the Grecian youth; his disciples, + who sometimes exceeded the number of eighty, celebrated their incomparable + master; and the jealousy of his rivals, who persecuted him from one city + to another, confirmed the favorable opinion which Libanius ostentatiously + displayed of his superior merit. The preceptors of Julian had extorted a + rash but solemn assurance, that he would never attend the lectures of + their adversary: the curiosity of the royal youth was checked and + inflamed: he secretly procured the writings of this dangerous sophist, and + gradually surpassed, in the perfect imitation of his style, the most + laborious of his domestic pupils. When Julian ascended the throne, he + declared his impatience to embrace and reward the Syrian sophist, who had + preserved, in a degenerate age, the Grecian purity of taste, of manners, + and of religion. The emperor's prepossession was increased and justified + by the discreet pride of his favorite. Instead of pressing, with the + foremost of the crowd, into the palace of Constantinople, Libanius calmly + expected his arrival at Antioch; withdrew from court on the first symptoms + of coldness and indifference; required a formal invitation for each visit; + and taught his sovereign an important lesson, that he might command the + obedience of a subject, but that he must deserve the attachment of a + friend. The sophists of every age, despising, or affecting to despise, the + accidental distinctions of birth and fortune, reserve their esteem for the + superior qualities of the mind, with which they themselves are so + plentifully endowed. Julian might disdain the acclamations of a venal + court, who adored the Imperial purple; but he was deeply flattered by the + praise, the admonition, the freedom, and the envy of an independent + philosopher, who refused his favors, loved his person, celebrated his + fame, and protected his memory. The voluminous writings of Libanius still + exist; for the most part, they are the vain and idle compositions of an + orator, who cultivated the science of words; the productions of a recluse + student, whose mind, regardless of his contemporaries, was incessantly + fixed on the Trojan war and the Athenian commonwealth. Yet the sophist of + Antioch sometimes descended from this imaginary elevation; he entertained + a various and elaborate correspondence; he praised the virtues of his own + times; he boldly arraigned the abuse of public and private life; and he + eloquently pleaded the cause of Antioch against the just resentment of + Julian and Theodosius. It is the common calamity of old age, to lose + whatever might have rendered it desirable; but Libanius experienced the + peculiar misfortune of surviving the religion and the sciences, to which + he had consecrated his genius. The friend of Julian was an indignant + spectator of the triumph of Christianity; and his bigotry, which darkened + the prospect of the visible world, did not inspire Libanius with any + lively hopes of celestial glory and happiness.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch24-p2" id="linkch24-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The martial impatience of Julian urged him to take the field in the + beginning of the spring; and he dismissed, with contempt and reproach, the + senate of Antioch, who accompanied the emperor beyond the limits of their + own territory, to which he was resolved never to return. After a laborious + march of two days, he halted on the third at Beræa, or Aleppo, where + he had the mortification of finding a senate almost entirely Christian; + who received with cold and formal demonstrations of respect the eloquent + sermon of the apostle of paganism. The son of one of the most illustrious + citizens of Beræa, who had embraced, either from interest or + conscience, the religion of the emperor, was disinherited by his angry + parent. The father and the son were invited to the Imperial table. Julian, + placing himself between them, attempted, without success, to inculcate the + lesson and example of toleration; supported, with affected calmness, the + indiscreet zeal of the aged Christian, who seemed to forget the sentiments + of nature, and the duty of a subject; and at length, turning towards the + afflicted youth, "Since you have lost a father," said he, "for my sake, it + is incumbent on me to supply his place." The emperor was received in a + manner much more agreeable to his wishes at Batnæ, * a small town + pleasantly seated in a grove of cypresses, about twenty miles from the + city of Hierapolis. The solemn rites of sacrifice were decently prepared + by the inhabitants of Batnæ, who seemed attached to the worship of + their tutelar deities, Apollo and Jupiter; but the serious piety of Julian + was offended by the tumult of their applause; and he too clearly + discerned, that the smoke which arose from their altars was the incense of + flattery, rather than of devotion. The ancient and magnificent temple + which had sanctified, for so many ages, the city of Hierapolis, no longer + subsisted; and the consecrated wealth, which afforded a liberal + maintenance to more than three hundred priests, might hasten its downfall. + Yet Julian enjoyed the satisfaction of embracing a philosopher and a + friend, whose religious firmness had withstood the pressing and repeated + solicitations of Constantius and Gallus, as often as those princes lodged + at his house, in their passage through Hierapolis. In the hurry of + military preparation, and the careless confidence of a familiar + correspondence, the zeal of Julian appears to have been lively and + uniform. He had now undertaken an important and difficult war; and the + anxiety of the event rendered him still more attentive to observe and + register the most trifling presages, from which, according to the rules of + divination, any knowledge of futurity could be derived. He informed + Libanius of his progress as far as Hierapolis, by an elegant epistle, + which displays the facility of his genius, and his tender friendship for + the sophist of Antioch.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Hierapolis, * situate almost on the banks of the Euphrates, had been + appointed for the general rendezvous of the Roman troops, who immediately + passed the great river on a bridge of boats, which was previously + constructed. If the inclinations of Julian had been similar to those of + his predecessor, he might have wasted the active and important season of + the year in the circus of Samosata or in the churches of Edessa. But as + the warlike emperor, instead of Constantius, had chosen Alexander for his + model, he advanced without delay to Carrhæ, a very ancient city of + Mesopotamia, at the distance of fourscore miles from Hierapolis. The + temple of the Moon attracted the devotion of Julian; but the halt of a few + days was principally employed in completing the immense preparations of + the Persian war. The secret of the expedition had hitherto remained in his + own breast; but as Carrhæ is the point of separation of the two + great roads, he could no longer conceal whether it was his design to + attack the dominions of Sapor on the side of the Tigris, or on that of the + Euphrates. The emperor detached an army of thirty thousand men, under the + command of his kinsman Procopius, and of Sebastian, who had been duke of + Egypt. They were ordered to direct their march towards Nisibis, and to + secure the frontier from the desultory incursions of the enemy, before + they attempted the passage of the Tigris. Their subsequent operations were + left to the discretion of the generals; but Julian expected, that after + wasting with fire and sword the fertile districts of Media and Adiabene, + they might arrive under the walls of Ctesiphon at the same time that he + himself, advancing with equal steps along the banks of the Euphrates, + should besiege the capital of the Persian monarchy. The success of this + well-concerted plan depended, in a great measure, on the powerful and + ready assistance of the king of Armenia, who, without exposing the safety + of his own dominions, might detach an army of four thousand horse, and + twenty thousand foot, to the assistance of the Romans. But the feeble + Arsaces Tiranus, king of Armenia, had degenerated still more shamefully + than his father Chosroes, from the manly virtues of the great Tiridates; + and as the pusillanimous monarch was averse to any enterprise of danger + and glory, he could disguise his timid indolence by the more decent + excuses of religion and gratitude. He expressed a pious attachment to the + memory of Constantius, from whose hands he had received in marriage + Olympias, the daughter of the præfect Ablavius; and the alliance of + a female, who had been educated as the destined wife of the emperor + Constans, exalted the dignity of a Barbarian king. Tiranus professed the + Christian religion; he reigned over a nation of Christians; and he was + restrained, by every principle of conscience and interest, from + contributing to the victory, which would consummate the ruin of the + church. The alienated mind of Tiranus was exasperated by the indiscretion + of Julian, who treated the king of Armenia as his slave, and as the enemy + of the gods. The haughty and threatening style of the Imperial mandates + awakened the secret indignation of a prince, who, in the humiliating state + of dependence, was still conscious of his royal descent from the + Arsacides, the lords of the East, and the rivals of the Roman power.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The military dispositions of Julian were skilfully contrived to deceive + the spies and to divert the attention of Sapor. The legions appeared to + direct their march towards Nisibis and the Tigris. On a sudden they + wheeled to the right; traversed the level and naked plain of Carrhæ; + and reached, on the third day, the banks of the Euphrates, where the + strong town of Nicephorium, or Callinicum, had been founded by the + Macedonian kings. From thence the emperor pursued his march, above ninety + miles, along the winding stream of the Euphrates, till, at length, about + one month after his departure from Antioch, he discovered the towers of + Circesium, * the extreme limit of the Roman dominions. The army of Julian, + the most numerous that any of the Cæsars had ever led against + Persia, consisted of sixty-five thousand effective and well-disciplined + soldiers. The veteran bands of cavalry and infantry, of Romans and + Barbarians, had been selected from the different provinces; and a just + preeminence of loyalty and valor was claimed by the hardy Gauls, who + guarded the throne and person of their beloved prince. A formidable body + of Scythian auxiliaries had been transported from another climate, and + almost from another world, to invade a distant country, of whose name and + situation they were ignorant. The love of rapine and war allured to the + Imperial standard several tribes of Saracens, or roving Arabs, whose + service Julian had commanded, while he sternly refused the payment of the + accustomed subsidies. The broad channel of the Euphrates was crowded by a + fleet of eleven hundred ships, destined to attend the motions, and to + satisfy the wants, of the Roman army. The military strength of the fleet + was composed of fifty armed galleys; and these were accompanied by an + equal number of flat-bottomed boats, which might occasionally be connected + into the form of temporary bridges. The rest of the ships, partly + constructed of timber, and partly covered with raw hides, were laden with + an almost inexhaustible supply of arms and engines, of utensils and + provisions. The vigilant humanity of Julian had embarked a very large + magazine of vinegar and biscuit for the use of the soldiers, but he + prohibited the indulgence of wine; and rigorously stopped a long string of + superfluous camels that attempted to follow the rear of the army. The + River Chaboras falls into the Euphrates at Circesium; and as soon as the + trumpet gave the signal of march, the Romans passed the little stream + which separated two mighty and hostile empires. The custom of ancient + discipline required a military oration; and Julian embraced every + opportunity of displaying his eloquence. He animated the impatient and + attentive legions by the example of the inflexible courage and glorious + triumphs of their ancestors. He excited their resentment by a lively + picture of the insolence of the Persians; and he exhorted them to imitate + his firm resolution, either to extirpate that perfidious nation, or to + devote his life in the cause of the republic. The eloquence of Julian was + enforced by a donative of one hundred and thirty pieces of silver to every + soldier; and the bridge of the Chaboras was instantly cut away, to + convince the troops that they must place their hopes of safety in the + success of their arms. Yet the prudence of the emperor induced him to + secure a remote frontier, perpetually exposed to the inroads of the + hostile Arabs. A detachment of four thousand men was left at Circesium, + which completed, to the number of ten thousand, the regular garrison of + that important fortress.<br /> + </p> + <p> + From the moment that the Romans entered the enemy's country, the country + of an active and artful enemy, the order of march was disposed in three + columns. The strength of the infantry, and consequently of the whole army + was placed in the centre, under the peculiar command of their + master-general Victor. On the right, the brave Nevitta led a column of + several legions along the banks of the Euphrates, and almost always in + sight of the fleet. The left flank of the army was protected by the column + of cavalry. Hormisdas and Arinthæus were appointed generals of the + horse; and the singular adventures of Hormisdas are not undeserving of our + notice. He was a Persian prince, of the royal race of the Sassanides, who, + in the troubles of the minority of Sapor, had escaped from prison to the + hospitable court of the great Constantine. Hormisdas at first excited the + compassion, and at length acquired the esteem, of his new masters; his + valor and fidelity raised him to the military honors of the Roman service; + and though a Christian, he might indulge the secret satisfaction of + convincing his ungrateful country, that an oppressed subject may prove the + most dangerous enemy. Such was the disposition of the three principal + columns. The front and flanks of the army were covered by Lucilianus with + a flying detachment of fifteen hundred light-armed soldiers, whose active + vigilance observed the most distant signs, and conveyed the earliest + notice, of any hostile approach. Dagalaiphus, and Secundinus duke of + Osrhoene, conducted the troops of the rear-guard; the baggage securely + proceeded in the intervals of the columns; and the ranks, from a motive + either of use or ostentation, were formed in such open order, that the + whole line of march extended almost ten miles. The ordinary post of Julian + was at the head of the centre column; but as he preferred the duties of a + general to the state of a monarch, he rapidly moved, with a small escort + of light cavalry, to the front, the rear, the flanks, wherever his + presence could animate or protect the march of the Roman army. The country + which they traversed from the Chaboras, to the cultivated lands of + Assyria, may be considered as a part of the desert of Arabia, a dry and + barren waste, which could never be improved by the most powerful arts of + human industry. Julian marched over the same ground which had been trod + above seven hundred years before by the footsteps of the younger Cyrus, + and which is described by one of the companions of his expedition, the + sage and heroic Xenophon. "The country was a plain throughout, as even as + the sea, and full of wormwood; and if any other kind of shrubs or reeds + grew there, they had all an aromatic smell, but no trees could be seen. + Bustards and ostriches, antelopes and wild asses, appeared to be the only + inhabitants of the desert; and the fatigues of the march were alleviated + by the amusements of the chase." The loose sand of the desert was + frequently raised by the wind into clouds of dust; and a great number of + the soldiers of Julian, with their tents, were suddenly thrown to the + ground by the violence of an unexpected hurricane.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sandy plains of Mesopotamia were abandoned to the antelopes and wild + asses of the desert; but a variety of populous towns and villages were + pleasantly situated on the banks of the Euphrates, and in the islands + which are occasionally formed by that river. The city of Annah, or Anatho, + the actual residence of an Arabian emir, is composed of two long streets, + which enclose, within a natural fortification, a small island in the + midst, and two fruitful spots on either side, of the Euphrates. The + warlike inhabitants of Anatho showed a disposition to stop the march of a + Roman emperor; till they were diverted from such fatal presumption by the + mild exhortations of Prince Hormisdas, and the approaching terrors of the + fleet and army. They implored, and experienced, the clemency of Julian, + who transplanted the people to an advantageous settlement, near Chalcis in + Syria, and admitted Pusæus, the governor, to an honorable rank in + his service and friendship. But the impregnable fortress of Thilutha could + scorn the menace of a siege; and the emperor was obliged to content + himself with an insulting promise, that, when he had subdued the interior + provinces of Persia, Thilutha would no longer refuse to grace the triumph + of the emperor. The inhabitants of the open towns, unable to resist, and + unwilling to yield, fled with precipitation; and their houses, filled with + spoil and provisions, were occupied by the soldiers of Julian, who + massacred, without remorse and without punishment, some defenceless women. + During the march, the Surenas, * or Persian general, and Malek Rodosaces, + the renowned emir of the tribe of Gassan, incessantly hovered round the + army; every straggler was intercepted; every detachment was attacked; and + the valiant Hormisdas escaped with some difficulty from their hands. But + the Barbarians were finally repulsed; the country became every day less + favorable to the operations of cavalry; and when the Romans arrived at + Macepracta, they perceived the ruins of the wall, which had been + constructed by the ancient kings of Assyria, to secure their dominions + from the incursions of the Medes. These preliminaries of the expedition of + Julian appear to have employed about fifteen days; and we may compute near + three hundred miles from the fortress of Circesium to the wall of + Macepracta.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The fertile province of Assyria, which stretched beyond the Tigris, as far + as the mountains of Media, extended about four hundred miles from the + ancient wall of Macepracta, to the territory of Basra, where the united + streams of the Euphrates and Tigris discharge themselves into the Persian + Gulf. The whole country might have claimed the peculiar name of + Mesopotamia; as the two rivers, which are never more distant than fifty, + approach, between Bagdad and Babylon, within twenty-five miles, of each + other. A multitude of artificial canals, dug without much labor in a soft + and yielding soil connected the rivers, and intersected the plain of + Assyria. The uses of these artificial canals were various and important. + They served to discharge the superfluous waters from one river into the + other, at the season of their respective inundations. Subdividing + themselves into smaller and smaller branches, they refreshed the dry + lands, and supplied the deficiency of rain. They facilitated the + intercourse of peace and commerce; and, as the dams could be speedily + broke down, they armed the despair of the Assyrians with the means of + opposing a sudden deluge to the progress of an invading army. To the soil + and climate of Assyria, nature had denied some of her choicest gifts, the + vine, the olive, and the fig-tree; * but the food which supports the life + of man, and particularly wheat and barley, were produced with + inexhaustible fertility; and the husbandman, who committed his seed to the + earth, was frequently rewarded with an increase of two, or even of three, + hundred. The face of the country was interspersed with groves of + innumerable palm-trees; and the diligent natives celebrated, either in + verse or prose, the three hundred and sixty uses to which the trunk, the + branches, the leaves, the juice, and the fruit, were skilfully applied. + Several manufactures, especially those of leather and linen, employed the + industry of a numerous people, and afforded valuable materials for foreign + trade; which appears, however, to have been conducted by the hands of + strangers. Babylon had been converted into a royal park; but near the + ruins of the ancient capital, new cities had successively arisen, and the + populousness of the country was displayed in the multitude of towns and + villages, which were built of bricks dried in the sun, and strongly + cemented with bitumen; the natural and peculiar production of the + Babylonian soil. While the successors of Cyrus reigned over Asia, the + province of Syria alone maintained, during a third part of the year, the + luxurious plenty of the table and household of the Great King. Four + considerable villages were assigned for the subsistence of his Indian + dogs; eight hundred stallions, and sixteen thousand mares, were constantly + kept, at the expense of the country, for the royal stables; and as the + daily tribute, which was paid to the satrap, amounted to one English + bushel of silver, we may compute the annual revenue of Assyria at more + than twelve hundred thousand pounds sterling.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch24-p3" id="linkch24-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The fields of Assyria were devoted by Julian to the calamities of war; and + the philosopher retaliated on a guiltless people the acts of rapine and + cruelty which had been committed by their haughty master in the Roman + provinces. The trembling Assyrians summoned the rivers to their + assistance; and completed, with their own hands, the ruin of their + country. The roads were rendered impracticable; a flood of waters was + poured into the camp; and, during several days, the troops of Julian were + obliged to contend with the most discouraging hardships. But every + obstacle was surmounted by the perseverance of the legionaries, who were + inured to toil as well as to danger, and who felt themselves animated by + the spirit of their leader. The damage was gradually repaired; the waters + were restored to their proper channels; whole groves of palm-trees were + cut down, and placed along the broken parts of the road; and the army + passed over the broad and deeper canals, on bridges of floating rafts, + which were supported by the help of bladders. Two cities of Assyria + presumed to resist the arms of a Roman emperor: and they both paid the + severe penalty of their rashness. At the distance of fifty miles from the + royal residence of Ctesiphon, Perisabor, * or Anbar, held the second rank + in the province; a city, large, populous, and well fortified, surrounded + with a double wall, almost encompassed by a branch of the Euphrates, and + defended by the valor of a numerous garrison. The exhortations of + Hormisdas were repulsed with contempt; and the ears of the Persian prince + were wounded by a just reproach, that, unmindful of his royal birth, he + conducted an army of strangers against his king and country. The Assyrians + maintained their loyalty by a skilful, as well as vigorous, defence; till + the lucky stroke of a battering-ram, having opened a large breach, by + shattering one of the angles of the wall, they hastily retired into the + fortifications of the interior citadel. The soldiers of Julian rushed + impetuously into the town, and after the full gratification of every + military appetite, Perisabor was reduced to ashes; and the engines which + assaulted the citadel were planted on the ruins of the smoking houses. The + contest was continued by an incessant and mutual discharge of missile + weapons; and the superiority which the Romans might derive from the + mechanical powers of their balistæ and catapultæ was + counterbalanced by the advantage of the ground on the side of the + besieged. But as soon as an <strong><em>Helepolis</em></strong> had been + constructed, which could engage on equal terms with the loftiest ramparts, + the tremendous aspect of a moving turret, that would leave no hope of + resistance or mercy, terrified the defenders of the citadel into an humble + submission; and the place was surrendered only two days after Julian first + appeared under the walls of Perisabor. Two thousand five hundred persons, + of both sexes, the feeble remnant of a flourishing people, were permitted + to retire; the plentiful magazines of corn, of arms, and of splendid + furniture, were partly distributed among the troops, and partly reserved + for the public service; the useless stores were destroyed by fire or + thrown into the stream of the Euphrates; and the fate of Amida was + revenged by the total ruin of Perisabor.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The city or rather fortress, of Maogamalcha, which was defended by sixteen + large towers, a deep ditch, and two strong and solid walls of brick and + bitumen, appears to have been constructed at the distance of eleven miles, + as the safeguard of the capital of Persia. The emperor, apprehensive of + leaving such an important fortress in his rear, immediately formed the + siege of Maogamalcha; and the Roman army was distributed, for that + purpose, into three divisions. Victor, at the head of the cavalry, and of + a detachment of heavy-armed foot, was ordered to clear the country, as far + as the banks of the Tigris, and the suburbs of Ctesiphon. The conduct of + the attack was assumed by Julian himself, who seemed to place his whole + dependence in the military engines which he erected against the walls; + while he secretly contrived a more efficacious method of introducing his + troops into the heart of the city. Under the direction of Nevitta and + Dagalaiphus, the trenches were opened at a considerable distance, and + gradually prolonged as far as the edge of the ditch. The ditch was + speedily filled with earth; and, by the incessant labor of the troops, a + mine was carried under the foundations of the walls, and sustained, at + sufficient intervals, by props of timber. Three chosen cohorts, advancing + in a single file, silently explored the dark and dangerous passage; till + their intrepid leader whispered back the intelligence, that he was ready + to issue from his confinement into the streets of the hostile city. Julian + checked their ardor, that he might insure their success; and immediately + diverted the attention of the garrison, by the tumult and clamor of a + general assault. The Persians, who, from their walls, contemptuously + beheld the progress of an impotent attack, celebrated with songs of + triumph the glory of Sapor; and ventured to assure the emperor, that he + might ascend the starry mansion of Ormusd, before he could hope to take + the impregnable city of Maogamalcha. The city was already taken. History + has recorded the name of a private soldier the first who ascended from the + mine into a deserted tower. The passage was widened by his companions, who + pressed forwards with impatient valor. Fifteen hundred enemies were + already in the midst of the city. The astonished garrison abandoned the + walls, and their only hope of safety; the gates were instantly burst open; + and the revenge of the soldier, unless it were suspended by lust or + avarice, was satiated by an undistinguishing massacre. The governor, who + had yielded on a promise of mercy, was burnt alive, a few days afterwards, + on a charge of having uttered some disrespectful words against the honor + of Prince Hormisdas. * The fortifications were razed to the ground; and + not a vestige was left, that the city of Maogamalcha had ever existed. The + neighborhood of the capital of Persia was adorned with three stately + palaces, laboriously enriched with every production that could gratify the + luxury and pride of an Eastern monarch. The pleasant situation of the + gardens along the banks of the Tigris, was improved, according to the + Persian taste, by the symmetry of flowers, fountains, and shady walks: and + spacious parks were enclosed for the reception of the bears, lions, and + wild boars, which were maintained at a considerable expense for the + pleasure of the royal chase. The park walls were broken down, the savage + game was abandoned to the darts of the soldiers, and the palaces of Sapor + were reduced to ashes, by the command of the Roman emperor. Julian, on + this occasion, showed himself ignorant, or careless, of the laws of + civility, which the prudence and refinement of polished ages have + established between hostile princes. Yet these wanton ravages need not + excite in our breasts any vehement emotions of pity or resentment. A + simple, naked statue, finished by the hand of a Grecian artist, is of more + genuine value than all these rude and costly monuments of Barbaric labor; + and, if we are more deeply affected by the ruin of a palace than by the + conflagration of a cottage, our humanity must have formed a very erroneous + estimate of the miseries of human life.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Julian was an object of hatred and terror to the Persian and the painters + of that nation represented the invader of their country under the emblem + of a furious lion, who vomited from his mouth a consuming fire. To his + friends and soldiers the philosophic hero appeared in a more amiable + light; and his virtues were never more conspicuously displayed, than in + the last and most active period of his life. He practised, without effort, + and almost without merit, the habitual qualities of temperance and + sobriety. According to the dictates of that artificial wisdom, which + assumes an absolute dominion over the mind and body, he sternly refused + himself the indulgence of the most natural appetites. In the warm climate + of Assyria, which solicited a luxurious people to the gratification of + every sensual desire, a youthful conqueror preserved his chastity pure and + inviolate; nor was Julian ever tempted, even by a motive of curiosity, to + visit his female captives of exquisite beauty, who, instead of resisting + his power, would have disputed with each other the honor of his embraces. + With the same firmness that he resisted the allurements of love, he + sustained the hardships of war. When the Romans marched through the flat + and flooded country, their sovereign, on foot, at the head of his legions, + shared their fatigues and animated their diligence. In every useful labor, + the hand of Julian was prompt and strenuous; and the Imperial purple was + wet and dirty as the coarse garment of the meanest soldier. The two sieges + allowed him some remarkable opportunities of signalizing his personal + valor, which, in the improved state of the military art, can seldom be + exerted by a prudent general. The emperor stood before + the citadel of Perisabor, insensible of his extreme danger, and encouraged + his troops to burst open the gates of iron, till he was almost overwhelmed + under a cloud of missile weapons and huge stones, that were directed + against his person. As he examined the exterior fortifications of + Maogamalcha, two Persians, devoting themselves for their country, suddenly + rushed upon him with drawn cimeters: the emperor dexterously received + their blows on his uplifted shield; and, with a steady and well-aimed + thrust, laid one of his adversaries dead at his feet. The esteem of a + prince who possesses the virtues which he approves, is the noblest + recompense of a deserving subject; and the authority which Julian derived + from his personal merit, enabled him to revive and enforce the rigor of + ancient discipline. He punished with death or ignominy the misbehavior of + three troops of horse, who, in a skirmish with the Surenas, had lost their + honor and one of their standards: and he distinguished with <strong><em>obsidional</em></strong> + crowns the valor of the foremost soldiers, who had ascended into the city + of Maogamalcha. After the siege of Perisabor, the firmness of the emperor + was exercised by the insolent avarice of the army, who loudly complained, + that their services were rewarded by a trifling donative of one hundred + pieces of silver. His just indignation was expressed in the grave and + manly language of a Roman. "Riches are the object of your desires; those + riches are in the hands of the Persians; and the spoils of this fruitful + country are proposed as the prize of your valor and discipline. Believe + me," added Julian, "the Roman republic, which formerly possessed such + immense treasures, is now reduced to want and wretchedness once our + princes have been persuaded, by weak and interested ministers, to purchase + with gold the tranquillity of the Barbarians. The revenue is exhausted; + the cities are ruined; the provinces are dispeopled. For myself, the only + inheritance that I have received from my royal ancestors is a soul + incapable of fear; and as long as I am convinced that every real advantage + is seated in the mind, I shall not blush to acknowledge an honorable + poverty, which, in the days of ancient virtue, was considered as the glory + of Fabricius. That glory, and that virtue, may be your own, if you will + listen to the voice of Heaven and of your leader. But if you will rashly + persist, if you are determined to renew the shameful and mischievous + examples of old seditions, proceed. As it becomes an emperor who has + filled the first rank among men, I am prepared to die, standing; and to + despise a precarious life, which, every hour, may depend on an accidental + fever. If I have been found unworthy of the command, there are now among + you, (I speak it with pride and pleasure,) there are many chiefs whose + merit and experience are equal to the conduct of the most important war. + Such has been the temper of my reign, that I can retire, without regret, + and without apprehension, to the obscurity of a private station." The + modest resolution of Julian was answered by the unanimous applause and + cheerful obedience of the Romans, who declared their confidence of + victory, while they fought under the banners of their heroic prince. Their + courage was kindled by his frequent and familiar asseverations, (for such + wishes were the oaths of Julian,) "So may I reduce the Persians under the + yoke!" "Thus may I restore the strength and splendor of the republic!" The + love of fame was the ardent passion of his soul: but it was not before he + trampled on the ruins of Maogamalcha, that he allowed himself to say, "We + have now provided some materials for the sophist of Antioch."<br /> + </p> + <p> + The successful valor of Julian had triumphed over all the obstacles that + opposed his march to the gates of Ctesiphon. But the reduction, or even + the siege, of the capital of Persia, was still at a distance: nor can the + military conduct of the emperor be clearly apprehended, without a + knowledge of the country which was the theatre of his bold and skilful + operations. Twenty miles to the south of Bagdad, and on the eastern bank + of the Tigris, the curiosity of travellers has observed some ruins of the + palaces of Ctesiphon, which, in the time of Julian, was a great and + populous city. The name and glory of the adjacent Seleucia were forever + extinguished; and the only remaining quarter of that Greek colony had + resumed, with the Assyrian language and manners, the primitive appellation + of Coche. Coche was situate on the western side of the Tigris; but it was + naturally considered as a suburb of Ctesiphon, with which we may suppose + it to have been connected by a permanent bridge of boats. The united parts + contribute to form the common epithet of Al Modain, the cities, which the + Orientals have bestowed on the winter residence of the Sassinades; and the + whole circumference of the Persian capital was strongly fortified by the + waters of the river, by lofty walls, and by impracticable morasses. Near + the ruins of Seleucia, the camp of Julian was fixed, and secured, by a + ditch and rampart, against the sallies of the numerous and enterprising + garrison of Coche. In this fruitful and pleasant country, the Romans were + plentifully supplied with water and forage: and several forts, which might + have embarrassed the motions of the army, submitted, after some + resistance, to the efforts of their valor. The fleet passed from the + Euphrates into an artificial derivation of that river, which pours a + copious and navigable stream into the Tigris, at a small distance <strong><em>below</em></strong> + the great city. If they had followed this royal canal, which bore the name + of Nahar-Malcha, the intermediate situation of Coche would have separated + the fleet and army of Julian; and the rash attempt of steering against the + current of the Tigris, and forcing their way through the midst of a + hostile capital, must have been attended with the total destruction of the + Roman navy. The prudence of the emperor foresaw the danger, and provided + the remedy. As he had minutely studied the operations of Trajan in the + same country, he soon recollected that his warlike predecessor had dug a + new and navigable canal, which, leaving Coche on the right hand, conveyed + the waters of the Nahar-Malcha into the river Tigris, at some distance + <strong><em>above</em></strong> the cities. From the information of the + peasants, Julian ascertained the vestiges of this ancient work, which were + almost obliterated by design or accident. By the indefatigable labor of + the soldiers, a broad and deep channel was speedily prepared for the + reception of the Euphrates. A strong dike was constructed to interrupt the + ordinary current of the Nahar-Malcha: a flood of waters rushed impetuously + into their new bed; and the Roman fleet, steering their triumphant course + into the Tigris, derided the vain and ineffectual barriers which the + Persians of Ctesiphon had erected to oppose their passage.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As it became necessary to transport the Roman army over the Tigris, + another labor presented itself, of less toil, but of more danger, than the + preceding expedition. The stream was broad and rapid; the ascent steep and + difficult; and the intrenchments which had been formed on the ridge of the + opposite bank, were lined with a numerous army of heavy cuirassiers, + dexterous archers, and huge elephants; who (according to the extravagant + hyperbole of Libanius) could trample with the same ease a field of corn, + or a legion of Romans. In the presence of such an enemy, the construction + of a bridge was impracticable; and the intrepid prince, who instantly + seized the only possible expedient, concealed his design, till the moment + of execution, from the knowledge of the Barbarians, of his own troops, and + even of his generals themselves. Under the specious pretence of examining + the state of the magazines, fourscore vessels * were gradually unladen; + and a select detachment, apparently destined for some secret expedition, + was ordered to stand to their arms on the first signal. Julian disguised + the silent anxiety of his own mind with smiles of confidence and joy; and + amused the hostile nations with the spectacle of military games, which he + insultingly celebrated under the walls of Coche. The day was consecrated + to pleasure; but, as soon as the hour of supper was passed, the emperor + summoned the generals to his tent, and acquainted them that he had fixed + that night for the passage of the Tigris. They stood in silent and + respectful astonishment; but, when the venerable Sallust assumed the + privilege of his age and experience, the rest of the chiefs supported with + freedom the weight of his prudent remonstrances. Julian contented himself + with observing, that conquest and safety depended on the attempt; that + instead of diminishing, the number of their enemies would be increased, by + successive reenforcements; and that a longer delay would neither contract + the breadth of the stream, nor level the height of the bank. The signal + was instantly given, and obeyed; the most impatient of the legionaries + leaped into five vessels that lay nearest to the bank; and as they plied + their oars with intrepid diligence, they were lost, after a few moments, + in the darkness of the night. A flame arose on the opposite side; and + Julian, who too clearly understood that his foremost vessels, in + attempting to land, had been fired by the enemy, dexterously converted + their extreme danger into a presage of victory. "Our fellow-soldiers," he + eagerly exclaimed, "are already masters of the bank; see—they make + the appointed signal; let us hasten to emulate and assist their courage." + The united and rapid motion of a great fleet broke the violence of the + current, and they reached the eastern shore of the Tigris with sufficient + speed to extinguish the flames, and rescue their adventurous companions. + The difficulties of a steep and lofty ascent were increased by the weight + of armor, and the darkness of the night. A shower of stones, darts, and + fire, was incessantly discharged on the heads of the assailants; who, + after an arduous struggle, climbed the bank and stood victorious upon the + rampart. As soon as they possessed a more equal field, Julian, who, with + his light infantry, had led the attack, darted through the ranks a skilful + and experienced eye: his bravest soldiers, according to the precepts of + Homer, were distributed in the front and rear: and all the trumpets of the + Imperial army sounded to battle. The Romans, after sending up a military + shout, advanced in measured steps to the animating notes of martial music; + launched their formidable javelins; and rushed forwards with drawn swords, + to deprive the Barbarians, by a closer onset, of the advantage of their + missile weapons. The whole engagement lasted above twelve hours; till the + gradual retreat of the Persians was changed into a disorderly flight, of + which the shameful example was given by the principal leader, and the + Surenas himself. They were pursued to the gates of Ctesiphon; and the + conquerors might have entered the dismayed city, if their general, Victor, + who was dangerously wounded with an arrow, had not conjured them to desist + from a rash attempt, which must be fatal, if it were not successful. On + <strong><em>their</em></strong> side, the Romans acknowledged the loss of + only seventy-five men; while they affirmed, that the Barbarians had left + on the field of battle two thousand five hundred, or even six thousand, of + their bravest soldiers. The spoil was such as might be expected from the + riches and luxury of an Oriental camp; large quantities of silver and + gold, splendid arms and trappings, and beds and tables of massy silver. * + The victorious emperor distributed, as the rewards of valor, some + honorable gifts, civic, and mural, and naval crowns; which he, and perhaps + he alone, esteemed more precious than the wealth of Asia. A solemn + sacrifice was offered to the god of war, but the appearances of the + victims threatened the most inauspicious events; and Julian soon + discovered, by less ambiguous signs, that he had now reached the term of + his prosperity.<br /> + </p> + <p> + On the second day after the battle, the domestic guards, the Jovians and + Herculians, and the remaining troops, which composed near two thirds of + the whole army, were securely wafted over the Tigris. While the Persians + beheld from the walls of Ctesiphon the desolation of the adjacent country, + Julian cast many an anxious look towards the North, in full expectation, + that as he himself had victoriously penetrated to the capital of Sapor, + the march and junction of his lieutenants, Sebastian and Procopius, would + be executed with the same courage and diligence. His expectations were + disappointed by the treachery of the Armenian king, who permitted, and + most probably directed, the desertion of his auxiliary troops from the + camp of the Romans; and by the dissensions of the two generals, who were + incapable of forming or executing any plan for the public service. When + the emperor had relinquished the hope of this important reenforcement, he + condescended to hold a council of war, and approved, after a full debate, + the sentiment of those generals, who dissuaded the siege of Ctesiphon, as + a fruitless and pernicious undertaking. It is not easy for us to conceive, + by what arts of fortification a city thrice besieged and taken by the + predecessors of Julian could be rendered impregnable against an army of + sixty thousand Romans, commanded by a brave and experienced general, and + abundantly supplied with ships, provisions, battering engines, and + military stores. But we may rest assured, from the love of glory, and + contempt of danger, which formed the character of Julian, that he was not + discouraged by any trivial or imaginary obstacles. At the very time when + he declined the siege of Ctesiphon, he rejected, with obstinacy and + disdain, the most flattering offers of a negotiation of peace. Sapor, who + had been so long accustomed to the tardy ostentation of Constantius, was + surprised by the intrepid diligence of his successor. As far as the + confines of India and Scythia, the satraps of the distant provinces were + ordered to assemble their troops, and to march, without delay, to the + assistance of their monarch. But their preparations were dilatory, their + motions slow; and before Sapor could lead an army into the field, he + received the melancholy intelligence of the devastation of Assyria, the + ruin of his palaces, and the slaughter of his bravest troops, who defended + the passage of the Tigris. The pride of royalty was humbled in the dust; + he took his repasts on the ground; and the disorder of his hair expressed + the grief and anxiety of his mind. Perhaps he would not have refused to + purchase, with one half of his kingdom, the safety of the remainder; and + he would have gladly subscribed himself, in a treaty of peace, the + faithful and dependent ally of the Roman conqueror. Under the pretence of + private business, a minister of rank and confidence was secretly + despatched to embrace the knees of Hormisdas, and to request, in the + language of a suppliant, that he might be introduced into the presence of + the emperor. The Sassanian prince, whether he listened to the voice of + pride or humanity, whether he consulted the sentiments of his birth, or + the duties of his situation, was equally inclined to promote a salutary + measure, which would terminate the calamities of Persia, and secure the + triumph of Rome. He was astonished by the inflexible firmness of a hero, + who remembered, most unfortunately for himself and for his country, that + Alexander had uniformly rejected the propositions of Darius. But as Julian + was sensible, that the hope of a safe and honorable peace might cool the + ardor of his troops, he earnestly requested that Hormisdas would privately + dismiss the minister of Sapor, and conceal this dangerous temptation from + the knowledge of the camp.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch24-p4" id="linkch24-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The honor, as well as interest, of Julian, forbade him to consume his time + under the impregnable walls of Ctesiphon and as often as he defied the + Barbarians, who defended the city, to meet him on the open plain, they + prudently replied, that if he desired to exercise his valor, he might seek + the army of the Great King. He felt the insult, and he accepted the + advice. Instead of confining his servile march to the banks of the + Euphrates and Tigris, he resolved to imitate the adventurous spirit of + Alexander, and boldly to advance into the inland provinces, till he forced + his rival to contend with him, perhaps in the plains of Arbela, for the + empire of Asia. The magnanimity of Julian was applauded and betrayed, by + the arts of a noble Persian, who, in the cause of his country, had + generously submitted to act a part full of danger, of falsehood, and of + shame. With a train of faithful followers, he deserted to the Imperial + camp; exposed, in a specious tale, the injuries which he had sustained; + exaggerated the cruelty of Sapor, the discontent of the people, and the + weakness of the monarchy; and confidently offered himself as the hostage + and guide of the Roman march. The most rational grounds of suspicion were + urged, without effect, by the wisdom and experience of Hormisdas; and the + credulous Julian, receiving the traitor into his bosom, was persuaded to + issue a hasty order, which, in the opinion of mankind, appeared to arraign + his prudence, and to endanger his safety. He destroyed, in a single hour, + the whole navy, which had been transported above five hundred miles, at so + great an expense of toil, of treasure, and of blood. Twelve, or, at the + most, twenty-two small vessels were saved, to accompany, on carriages, the + march of the army, and to form occasional bridges for the passage of the + rivers. A supply of twenty days' provisions was reserved for the use of + the soldiers; and the rest of the magazines, with a fleet of eleven + hundred vessels, which rode at anchor in the Tigris, were abandoned to the + flames, by the absolute command of the emperor. The Christian bishops, + Gregory and Augustin, insult the madness of the Apostate, who executed, + with his own hands, the sentence of divine justice. Their authority, of + less weight, perhaps, in a military question, is confirmed by the cool + judgment of an experienced soldier, who was himself spectator of the + conflagration, and who could not disapprove the reluctant murmurs of the + troops. Yet there are not wanting some specious, and perhaps solid, + reasons, which might justify the resolution of Julian. The navigation of + the Euphrates never ascended above Babylon, nor that of the Tigris above + Opis. The distance of the last-mentioned city from the Roman camp was not + very considerable: and Julian must soon have renounced the vain and + impracticable attempt of forcing upwards a great fleet against the stream + of a rapid river, which in several places was embarrassed by natural or + artificial cataracts. The power of sails and oars was insufficient; it + became necessary to tow the ships against the current of the river; the + strength of twenty thousand soldiers was exhausted in this tedious and + servile labor, and if the Romans continued to march along the banks of the + Tigris, they could only expect to return home without achieving any + enterprise worthy of the genius or fortune of their leader. If, on the + contrary, it was advisable to advance into the inland country, the + destruction of the fleet and magazines was the only measure which could + save that valuable prize from the hands of the numerous and active troops + which might suddenly be poured from the gates of Ctesiphon. Had the arms + of Julian been victorious, we should now admire the conduct, as well as + the courage, of a hero, who, by depriving his soldiers of the hopes of a + retreat, left them only the alternative of death or conquest.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The cumbersome train of artillery and wagons, which retards the operations + of a modern army, were in a great measure unknown in the camps of the + Romans. Yet, in every age, the subsistence of sixty thousand men must have + been one of the most important cares of a prudent general; and that + subsistence could only be drawn from his own or from the enemy's country. + Had it been possible for Julian to maintain a bridge of communication on + the Tigris, and to preserve the conquered places of Assyria, a desolated + province could not afford any large or regular supplies, in a season of + the year when the lands were covered by the inundation of the Euphrates, + and the unwholesome air was darkened with swarms of innumerable insects. + The appearance of the hostile country was far more inviting. The extensive + region that lies between the River Tigris and the mountains of Media, was + filled with villages and towns; and the fertile soil, for the most part, + was in a very improved state of cultivation. Julian might expect, that a + conqueror, who possessed the two forcible instruments of persuasion, steel + and gold, would easily procure a plentiful subsistence from the fears or + avarice of the natives. But, on the approach of the Romans, the rich and + smiling prospect was instantly blasted. Wherever they moved, the + inhabitants deserted the open villages, and took shelter in the fortified + towns; the cattle was driven away; the grass and ripe corn were consumed + with fire; and, as soon as the flames had subsided which interrupted the + march of Julian, he beheld the melancholy face of a smoking and naked + desert. This desperate but effectual method of defence can only be + executed by the enthusiasm of a people who prefer their independence to + their property; or by the rigor of an arbitrary government, which consults + the public safety without submitting to their inclinations the liberty of + choice. On the present occasion the zeal and obedience of the Persians + seconded the commands of Sapor; and the emperor was soon reduced to the + scanty stock of provisions, which continually wasted in his hands. Before + they were entirely consumed, he might still have reached the wealthy and + unwarlike cities of Ecbatana or Susa, by the effort of a rapid and + well-directed march; but he was deprived of this last resource by his + ignorance of the roads, and by the perfidy of his guides. The Romans + wandered several days in the country to the eastward of Bagdad; the + Persian deserter, who had artfully led them into the snare, escaped from + their resentment; and his followers, as soon as they were put to the + torture, confessed the secret of the conspiracy. The visionary conquests + of Hyrcania and India, which had so long amused, now tormented, the mind + of Julian. Conscious that his own imprudence was the cause of the public + distress, he anxiously balanced the hopes of safety or success, without + obtaining a satisfactory answer, either from gods or men. At length, as + the only practicable measure, he embraced the resolution of directing his + steps towards the banks of the Tigris, with the design of saving the army + by a hasty march to the confines of Corduene; a fertile and friendly + province, which acknowledged the sovereignty of Rome. The desponding + troops obeyed the signal of the retreat, only seventy days after they had + passed the Chaboras, with the sanguine expectation of subverting the + throne of Persia.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As long as the Romans seemed to advance into the country, their march was + observed and insulted from a distance, by several bodies of Persian + cavalry; who, showing themselves sometimes in loose, and sometimes in + close order, faintly skirmished with the advanced guards. These + detachments were, however, supported by a much greater force; and the + heads of the columns were no sooner pointed towards the Tigris than a + cloud of dust arose on the plain. The Romans, who now aspired only to the + permission of a safe and speedy retreat, endeavored to persuade + themselves, that this formidable appearance was occasioned by a troop of + wild asses, or perhaps by the approach of some friendly Arabs. They + halted, pitched their tents, fortified their camp, passed the whole night + in continual alarms; and discovered at the dawn of day, that they were + surrounded by an army of Persians. This army, which might be considered + only as the van of the Barbarians, was soon followed by the main body of + cuirassiers, archers, and elephants, commanded by Meranes, a general of + rank and reputation. He was accompanied by two of the king's sons, and + many of the principal satraps; and fame and expectation exaggerated the + strength of the remaining powers, which slowly advanced under the conduct + of Sapor himself. As the Romans continued their march, their long array, + which was forced to bend or divide, according to the varieties of the + ground, afforded frequent and favorable opportunities to their vigilant + enemies. The Persians repeatedly charged with fury; they were repeatedly + repulsed with firmness; and the action at Maronga, which almost deserved + the name of a battle, was marked by a considerable loss of satraps and + elephants, perhaps of equal value in the eyes of their monarch. These + splendid advantages were not obtained without an adequate slaughter on the + side of the Romans: several officers of distinction were either killed or + wounded; and the emperor himself, who, on all occasions of danger, + inspired and guided the valor of his troops, was obliged to expose his + person, and exert his abilities. The weight of offensive and defensive + arms, which still constituted the strength and safety of the Romans, + disabled them from making any long or effectual pursuit; and as the + horsemen of the East were trained to dart their javelins, and shoot their + arrows, at full speed, and in every possible direction, the cavalry of + Persia was never more formidable than in the moment of a rapid and + disorderly flight. But the most certain and irreparable loss of the Romans + was that of time. The hardy veterans, accustomed to the cold climate of + Gaul and Germany, fainted under the sultry heat of an Assyrian summer; + their vigor was exhausted by the incessant repetition of march and combat; + and the progress of the army was suspended by the precautions of a slow + and dangerous retreat, in the presence of an active enemy. Every day, + every hour, as the supply diminished, the value and price of subsistence + increased in the Roman camp. Julian, who always contented himself with + such food as a hungry soldier would have disdained, distributed, for the + use of the troops, the provisions of the Imperial household, and whatever + could be spared, from the sumpter-horses, of the tribunes and generals. + But this feeble relief served only to aggravate the sense of the public + distress; and the Romans began to entertain the most gloomy apprehensions + that, before they could reach the frontiers of the empire, they should all + perish, either by famine, or by the sword of the Barbarians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + While Julian struggled with the almost insuperable difficulties of his + situation, the silent hours of the night were still devoted to study and + contemplation. Whenever he closed his eyes in short and interrupted + slumbers, his mind was agitated with painful anxiety; nor can it be + thought surprising, that the Genius of the empire should once more appear + before him, covering with a funeral veil his head, and his horn of + abundance, and slowly retiring from the Imperial tent. The monarch started + from his couch, and stepping forth to refresh his wearied spirits with the + coolness of the midnight air, he beheld a fiery meteor, which shot athwart + the sky, and suddenly vanished. Julian was convinced that he had seen the + menacing countenance of the god of war; the council which he summoned, of + Tuscan Haruspices, unanimously pronounced that he should abstain from + action; but on this occasion, necessity and reason were more prevalent + than superstition; and the trumpets sounded at the break of day. The army + marched through a hilly country; and the hills had been secretly occupied + by the Persians. Julian led the van with the skill and attention of a + consummate general; he was alarmed by the intelligence that his rear was + suddenly attacked. The heat of the weather had tempted him to lay aside + his cuirass; but he snatched a shield from one of his attendants, and + hastened, with a sufficient reenforcement, to the relief of the + rear-guard. A similar danger recalled the intrepid prince to the defence + of the front; and, as he galloped through the columns, the centre of the + left was attacked, and almost overpowered by the furious charge of the + Persian cavalry and elephants. This huge body was soon defeated, by the + well-timed evolution of the light infantry, who aimed their weapons, with + dexterity and effect, against the backs of the horsemen, and the legs of + the elephants. The Barbarians fled; and Julian, who was foremost in every + danger, animated the pursuit with his voice and gestures. His trembling + guards, scattered and oppressed by the disorderly throng of friends and + enemies, reminded their fearless sovereign that he was without armor; and + conjured him to decline the fall of the impending ruin. As they exclaimed, + a cloud of darts and arrows was discharged from the flying squadrons; and + a javelin, after razing the skin of his arm, transpierced the ribs, and + fixed in the inferior part of the liver. Julian attempted to draw the + deadly weapon from his side; but his fingers were cut by the sharpness of + the steel, and he fell senseless from his horse. His guards flew to his + relief; and the wounded emperor was gently raised from the ground, and + conveyed out of the tumult of the battle into an adjacent tent. The report + of the melancholy event passed from rank to rank; but the grief of the + Romans inspired them with invincible valor, and the desire of revenge. The + bloody and obstinate conflict was maintained by the two armies, till they + were separated by the total darkness of the night. The Persians derived + some honor from the advantage which they obtained against the left wing, + where Anatolius, master of the offices, was slain, and the præfect + Sallust very narrowly escaped. But the event of the day was adverse to the + Barbarians. They abandoned the field; their two generals, Meranes and + Nohordates, fifty nobles or satraps, and a multitude of their bravest + soldiers; and the success of the Romans, if Julian had survived, might + have been improved into a decisive and useful victory.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The first words that Julian uttered, after his recovery from the fainting + fit into which he had been thrown by loss of blood, were expressive of his + martial spirit. He called for his horse and arms, and was impatient to + rush into the battle. His remaining strength was exhausted by the painful + effort; and the surgeons, who examined his wound, discovered the symptoms + of approaching death. He employed the awful moments with the firm temper + of a hero and a sage; the philosophers who had accompanied him in this + fatal expedition, compared the tent of Julian with the prison of Socrates; + and the spectators, whom duty, or friendship, or curiosity, had assembled + round his couch, listened with respectful grief to the funeral oration of + their dying emperor. "Friends and fellow-soldiers, the seasonable period + of my departure is now arrived, and I discharge, with the cheerfulness of + a ready debtor, the demands of nature. I have learned from philosophy, how + much the soul is more excellent than the body; and that the separation of + the nobler substance should be the subject of joy, rather than of + affliction. I have learned from religion, that an early death has often + been the reward of piety; and I accept, as a favor of the gods, the mortal + stroke that secures me from the danger of disgracing a character, which + has hitherto been supported by virtue and fortitude. I die without + remorse, as I have lived without guilt. I am pleased to reflect on the + innocence of my private life; and I can affirm with confidence, that the + supreme authority, that emanation of the Divine Power, has been preserved + in my hands pure and immaculate. Detesting the corrupt and destructive + maxims of despotism, I have considered the happiness of the people as the + end of government. Submitting my actions to the laws of prudence, of + justice, and of moderation, I have trusted the event to the care of + Providence. Peace was the object of my counsels, as long as peace was + consistent with the public welfare; but when the imperious voice of my + country summoned me to arms, I exposed my person to the dangers of war, + with the clear foreknowledge (which I had acquired from the art of + divination) that I was destined to fall by the sword. I now offer my + tribute of gratitude to the Eternal Being, who has not suffered me to + perish by the cruelty of a tyrant, by the secret dagger of conspiracy, or + by the slow tortures of lingering disease. He has given me, in the midst + of an honorable career, a splendid and glorious departure from this world; + and I hold it equally absurd, equally base, to solicit, or to decline, the + stroke of fate. This much I have attempted to say; but my strength fails + me, and I feel the approach of death. I shall cautiously refrain from any + word that may tend to influence your suffrages in the election of an + emperor. My choice might be imprudent or injudicious; and if it should not + be ratified by the consent of the army, it might be fatal to the person + whom I should recommend. I shall only, as a good citizen, express my + hopes, that the Romans may be blessed with the government of a virtuous + sovereign." After this discourse, which Julian pronounced in a firm and + gentle tone of voice, he distributed, by a military testament, the remains + of his private fortune; and making some inquiry why Anatolius was not + present, he understood, from the answer of Sallust, that Anatolius was + killed; and bewailed, with amiable inconsistency, the loss of his friend. + At the same time he reproved the immoderate grief of the spectators; and + conjured them not to disgrace, by unmanly tears, the fate of a prince, who + in a few moments would be united with heaven, and with the stars. The + spectators were silent; and Julian entered into a metaphysical argument + with the philosophers Priscus and Maximus, on the nature of the soul. The + efforts which he made, of mind as well as body, most probably hastened his + death. His wound began to bleed with fresh violence; his respiration was + embarrassed by the swelling of the veins; he called for a draught of cold + water, and, as soon as he had drank it, expired without pain, about the + hour of midnight. Such was the end of that extraordinary man, in the + thirty-second year of his age, after a reign of one year and about eight + months, from the death of Constantius. In his last moments he displayed, + perhaps with some ostentation, the love of virtue and of fame, which had + been the ruling passions of his life.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The triumph of Christianity, and the calamities of the empire, may, in + some measure, be ascribed to Julian himself, who had neglected to secure + the future execution of his designs, by the timely and judicious + nomination of an associate and successor. But the royal race of + Constantius Chlorus was reduced to his own person; and if he entertained + any serious thoughts of investing with the purple the most worthy among + the Romans, he was diverted from his resolution by the difficulty of the + choice, the jealousy of power, the fear of ingratitude, and the natural + presumption of health, of youth, and of prosperity. His unexpected death + left the empire without a master, and without an heir, in a state of + perplexity and danger, which, in the space of fourscore years, had never + been experienced, since the election of Diocletian. In a government which + had almost forgotten the distinction of pure and noble blood, the + superiority of birth was of little moment; the claims of official rank + were accidental and precarious; and the candidates, who might aspire to + ascend the vacant throne could be supported only by the consciousness of + personal merit, or by the hopes of popular favor. But the situation of a + famished army, encompassed on all sides by a host of Barbarians, shortened + the moments of grief and deliberation. In this scene of terror and + distress, the body of the deceased prince, according to his own + directions, was decently embalmed; and, at the dawn of day, the generals + convened a military senate, at which the commanders of the legions, and + the officers both of cavalry and infantry, were invited to assist. Three + or four hours of the night had not passed away without some secret cabals; + and when the election of an emperor was proposed, the spirit of faction + began to agitate the assembly. Victor and Arinthæus collected the + remains of the court of Constantius; the friends of Julian attached + themselves to the Gallic chiefs, Dagalaiphus and Nevitta; and the most + fatal consequences might be apprehended from the discord of two factions, + so opposite in their character and interest, in their maxims of + government, and perhaps in their religious principles. The superior + virtues of Sallust could alone reconcile their divisions, and unite their + suffrages; and the venerable præfect would immediately have been + declared the successor of Julian, if he himself, with sincere and modest + firmness, had not alleged his age and infirmities, so unequal to the + weight of the diadem. The generals, who were surprised and perplexed by + his refusal, showed some disposition to adopt the salutary advice of an + inferior officer, that they should act as they would have acted in the + absence of the emperor; that they should exert their abilities to + extricate the army from the present distress; and, if they were fortunate + enough to reach the confines of Mesopotamia, they should proceed with + united and deliberate counsels in the election of a lawful sovereign. + While they debated, a few voices saluted Jovian, who was no more than + <strong><em>first</em></strong> of the domestics, with the names of + Emperor and Augustus. The tumultuary acclamation * was instantly repeated + by the guards who surrounded the tent, and passed, in a few minutes, to + the extremities of the line. The new prince, astonished with his own + fortune was hastily invested with the Imperial ornaments, and received an + oath of fidelity from the generals, whose favor and protection he so + lately solicited. The strongest recommendation of Jovian was the merit of + his father, Count Varronian, who enjoyed, in honorable retirement, the + fruit of his long services. In the obscure freedom of a private station, + the son indulged his taste for wine and women; yet he supported, with + credit, the character of a Christian and a soldier. Without being + conspicuous for any of the ambitious qualifications which excite the + admiration and envy of mankind, the comely person of Jovian, his cheerful + temper, and familiar wit, had gained the affection of his fellow-soldiers; + and the generals of both parties acquiesced in a popular election, which + had not been conducted by the arts of their enemies. The pride of this + unexpected elevation was moderated by the just apprehension, that the same + day might terminate the life and reign of the new emperor. The pressing + voice of necessity was obeyed without delay; and the first orders issued + by Jovian, a few hours after his predecessor had expired, were to + prosecute a march, which could alone extricate the Romans from their + actual distress.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch24-p5" id="linkch24-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXIV: The Retreat And Death Of Julian.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The esteem of an enemy is most sincerely expressed by his fears; and the + degree of fear may be accurately measured by the joy with which he + celebrates his deliverance. The welcome news of the death of Julian, which + a deserter revealed to the camp of Sapor, inspired the desponding monarch + with a sudden confidence of victory. He immediately detached the royal + cavalry, perhaps the ten thousand Immortals, to second and support the + pursuit; and discharged the whole weight of his united forces on the + rear-guard of the Romans. The rear-guard was thrown into disorder; the + renowned legions, which derived their titles from Diocletian, and his + warlike colleague, were broke and trampled down by the elephants; and + three tribunes lost their lives in attempting to stop the flight of their + soldiers. The battle was at length restored by the persevering valor of + the Romans; the Persians were repulsed with a great slaughter of men and + elephants; and the army, after marching and fighting a long summer's day, + arrived, in the evening, at Samara, on the banks of the Tigris, about one + hundred miles above Ctesiphon. On the ensuing day, the Barbarians, instead + of harassing the march, attacked the camp, of Jovian; which had been + seated in a deep and sequestered valley. From the hills, the archers of + Persia insulted and annoyed the wearied legionaries; and a body of + cavalry, which had penetrated with desperate courage through the Prætorian + gate, was cut in pieces, after a doubtful conflict, near the Imperial + tent. In the succeeding night, the camp of Carche was protected by the + lofty dikes of the river; and the Roman army, though incessantly exposed + to the vexatious pursuit of the Saracens, pitched their tents near the + city of Dura, four days after the death of Julian. The Tigris was still on + their left; their hopes and provisions were almost consumed; and the + impatient soldiers, who had fondly persuaded themselves that the frontiers + of the empire were not far distant, requested their new sovereign, that + they might be permitted to hazard the passage of the river. With the + assistance of his wisest officers, Jovian endeavored to check their + rashness; by representing, that if they possessed sufficient skill and + vigor to stem the torrent of a deep and rapid stream, they would only + deliver themselves naked and defenceless to the Barbarians, who had + occupied the opposite banks, Yielding at length to their clamorous + importunities, he consented, with reluctance, that five hundred Gauls and + Germans, accustomed from their infancy to the waters of the Rhine and + Danube, should attempt the bold adventure, which might serve either as an + encouragement, or as a warning, for the rest of the army. In the silence + of the night, they swam the Tigris, surprised an unguarded post of the + enemy, and displayed at the dawn of day the signal of their resolution and + fortune. The success of this trial disposed the emperor to listen to the + promises of his architects, who propose to construct a floating bridge of + the inflated skins of sheep, oxen, and goats, covered with a floor of + earth and fascines. Two important days were spent in the ineffectual + labor; and the Romans, who already endured the miseries of famine, cast a + look of despair on the Tigris, and upon the Barbarians; whose numbers and + obstinacy increased with the distress of the Imperial army.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In this hopeless condition, the fainting spirits of the Romans were + revived by the sound of peace. The transient presumption of Sapor had + vanished: he observed, with serious concern, that, in the repetition of + doubtful combats, he had lost his most faithful and intrepid nobles, his + bravest troops, and the greatest part of his train of elephants: and the + experienced monarch feared to provoke the resistance of despair, the + vicissitudes of fortune, and the unexhausted powers of the Roman empire; + which might soon advance to relieve, or to revenge, the successor of + Julian. The Surenas himself, accompanied by another satrap, * appeared in + the camp of Jovian; and declared, that the clemency of his sovereign was + not averse to signify the conditions on which he would consent to spare + and to dismiss the Cæsar with the relics of his captive army. The + hopes of safety subdued the firmness of the Romans; the emperor was + compelled, by the advice of his council, and the cries of his soldiers, to + embrace the offer of peace; and the præfect Sallust was immediately + sent, with the general Arinthæus, to understand the pleasure of the + Great King. The crafty Persian delayed, under various pretenses, the + conclusion of the agreement; started difficulties, required explanations, + suggested expedients, receded from his concessions, increased his demands, + and wasted four days in the arts of negotiation, till he had consumed the + stock of provisions which yet remained in the camp of the Romans. Had + Jovian been capable of executing a bold and prudent measure, he would have + continued his march, with unremitting diligence; the progress of the + treaty would have suspended the attacks of the Barbarians; and, before the + expiration of the fourth day, he might have safely reached the fruitful + province of Corduene, at the distance only of one hundred miles. The + irresolute emperor, instead of breaking through the toils of the enemy, + expected his fate with patient resignation; and accepted the humiliating + conditions of peace, which it was no longer in his power to refuse. The + five provinces beyond the Tigris, which had been ceded by the grandfather + of Sapor, were restored to the Persian monarchy. He acquired, by a single + article, the impregnable city of Nisibis; which had sustained, in three + successive sieges, the effort of his arms. Singara, and the castle of the + Moors, one of the strongest places of Mesopotamia, were likewise + dismembered from the empire. It was considered as an indulgence, that the + inhabitants of those fortresses were permitted to retire with their + effects; but the conqueror rigorously insisted, that the Romans should + forever abandon the king and kingdom of Armenia. § A peace, or rather + a long truce, of thirty years, was stipulated between the hostile nations; + the faith of the treaty was ratified by solemn oaths and religious + ceremonies; and hostages of distinguished rank were reciprocally delivered + to secure the performance of the conditions.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The sophist of Antioch, who saw with indignation the sceptre of his hero + in the feeble hand of a Christian successor, professes to admire the + moderation of Sapor, in contenting himself with so small a portion of the + Roman empire. If he had stretched as far as the Euphrates the claims of + his ambition, he might have been secure, says Libanius, of not meeting + with a refusal. If he had fixed, as the boundary of Persia, the Orontes, + the Cydnus, the Sangarius, or even the Thracian Bosphorus, flatterers + would not have been wanting in the court of Jovian to convince the timid + monarch, that his remaining provinces would still afford the most ample + gratifications of power and luxury. Without adopting in its full force + this malicious insinuation, we must acknowledge, that the conclusion of so + ignominious a treaty was facilitated by the private ambition of Jovian. + The obscure domestic, exalted to the throne by fortune, rather than by + merit, was impatient to escape from the hands of the Persians, that he + might prevent the designs of Procopius, who commanded the army of + Mesopotamia, and establish his doubtful reign over the legions and + provinces which were still ignorant of the hasty and tumultuous choice of + the camp beyond the Tigris. In the neighborhood of the same river, at no + very considerable distance from the fatal station of Dura, the ten + thousand Greeks, without generals, or guides, or provisions, were + abandoned, above twelve hundred miles from their native country, to the + resentment of a victorious monarch. The difference of <strong><em>their</em></strong> + conduct and success depended much more on their character than on their + situation. Instead of tamely resigning themselves to the secret + deliberations and private views of a single person, the united councils of + the Greeks were inspired by the generous enthusiasm of a popular assembly; + where the mind of each citizen is filled with the love of glory, the pride + of freedom, and the contempt of death. Conscious of their superiority over + the Barbarians in arms and discipline, they disdained to yield, they + refused to capitulate: every obstacle was surmounted by their patience, + courage, and military skill; and the memorable retreat of the ten thousand + exposed and insulted the weakness of the Persian monarchy.<br /> + </p> + <p> + As the price of his disgraceful concessions, the emperor might perhaps + have stipulated, that the camp of the hungry Romans should be plentifully + supplied; and that they should be permitted to pass the Tigris on the + bridge which was constructed by the hands of the Persians. But, if Jovian + presumed to solicit those equitable terms, they were sternly refused by + the haughty tyrant of the East, whose clemency had pardoned the invaders + of his country. The Saracens sometimes intercepted the stragglers of the + march; but the generals and troops of Sapor respected the cessation of + arms; and Jovian was suffered to explore the most convenient place for the + passage of the river. The small vessels, which had been saved from the + conflagration of the fleet, performed the most essential service. They + first conveyed the emperor and his favorites; and afterwards transported, + in many successive voyages, a great part of the army. But, as every man + was anxious for his personal safety, and apprehensive of being left on the + hostile shore, the soldiers, who were too impatient to wait the slow + returns of the boats, boldly ventured themselves on light hurdles, or + inflated skins; and, drawing after them their horses, attempted, with + various success, to swim across the river. Many of these daring + adventurers were swallowed by the waves; many others, who were carried + along by the violence of the stream, fell an easy prey to the avarice or + cruelty of the wild Arabs: and the loss which the army sustained in the + passage of the Tigris, was not inferior to the carnage of a day of battle. + As soon as the Romans were landed on the western bank, they were delivered + from the hostile pursuit of the Barbarians; but, in a laborious march of + two hundred miles over the plains of Mesopotamia, they endured the last + extremities of thirst and hunger. They were obliged to traverse the sandy + desert, which, in the extent of seventy miles, did not afford a single + blade of sweet grass, nor a single spring of fresh water; and the rest of + the inhospitable waste was untrod by the footsteps either of friends or + enemies. Whenever a small measure of flour could be discovered in the + camp, twenty pounds weight were greedily purchased with ten pieces of + gold: the beasts of burden were slaughtered and devoured; and the desert + was strewed with the arms and baggage of the Roman soldiers, whose + tattered garments and meagre countenances displayed their past sufferings + and actual misery. A small convoy of provisions advanced to meet the army + as far as the castle of Ur; and the supply was the more grateful, since it + declared the fidelity of Sebastian and Procopius. At Thilsaphata, the + emperor most graciously received the generals of Mesopotamia; and the + remains of a once flourishing army at length reposed themselves under the + walls of Nisibis. The messengers of Jovian had already proclaimed, in the + language of flattery, his election, his treaty, and his return; and the + new prince had taken the most effectual measures to secure the allegiance + of the armies and provinces of Europe, by placing the military command in + the hands of those officers, who, from motives of interest, or + inclination, would firmly support the cause of their benefactor.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The friends of Julian had confidently announced the success of his + expedition. They entertained a fond persuasion that the temples of the + gods would be enriched with the spoils of the East; that Persia would be + reduced to the humble state of a tributary province, governed by the laws + and magistrates of Rome; that the Barbarians would adopt the dress, and + manners, and language of their conquerors; and that the youth of Ecbatana + and Susa would study the art of rhetoric under Grecian masters. The + progress of the arms of Julian interrupted his communication with the + empire; and, from the moment that he passed the Tigris, his affectionate + subjects were ignorant of the fate and fortunes of their prince. Their + contemplation of fancied triumphs was disturbed by the melancholy rumor of + his death; and they persisted to doubt, after they could no longer deny, + the truth of that fatal event. The messengers of Jovian promulgated the + specious tale of a prudent and necessary peace; the voice of fame, louder + and more sincere, revealed the disgrace of the emperor, and the conditions + of the ignominious treaty. The minds of the people were filled with + astonishment and grief, with indignation and terror, when they were + informed, that the unworthy successor of Julian relinquished the five + provinces which had been acquired by the victory of Galerius; and that he + shamefully surrendered to the Barbarians the important city of Nisibis, + the firmest bulwark of the provinces of the East. The deep and dangerous + question, how far the public faith should be observed, when it becomes + incompatible with the public safety, was freely agitated in popular + conversation; and some hopes were entertained that the emperor would + redeem his pusillanimous behavior by a splendid act of patriotic perfidy. + The inflexible spirit of the Roman senate had always disclaimed the + unequal conditions which were extorted from the distress of their captive + armies; and, if it were necessary to satisfy the national honor, by + delivering the guilty general into the hands of the Barbarians, the + greatest part of the subjects of Jovian would have cheerfully acquiesced + in the precedent of ancient times.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the emperor, whatever might be the limits of his constitutional + authority, was the absolute master of the laws and arms of the state; and + the same motives which had forced him to subscribe, now pressed him to + execute, the treaty of peace. He was impatient to secure an empire at the + expense of a few provinces; and the respectable names of religion and + honor concealed the personal fears and ambition of Jovian. Notwithstanding + the dutiful solicitations of the inhabitants, decency, as well as + prudence, forbade the emperor to lodge in the palace of Nisibis; but the + next morning after his arrival, Bineses, the ambassador of Persia, entered + the place, displayed from the citadel the standard of the Great King, and + proclaimed, in his name, the cruel alternative of exile or servitude. The + principal citizens of Nisibis, who, till that fatal moment, had confided + in the protection of their sovereign, threw themselves at his feet. They + conjured him not to abandon, or, at least, not to deliver, a faithful + colony to the rage of a Barbarian tyrant, exasperated by the three + successive defeats which he had experienced under the walls of Nisibis. + They still possessed arms and courage to repel the invaders of their + country: they requested only the permission of using them in their own + defence; and, as soon as they had asserted their independence, they should + implore the favor of being again admitted into the ranks of his subjects. + Their arguments, their eloquence, their tears, were ineffectual. Jovian + alleged, with some confusion, the sanctity of oaths; and, as the + reluctance with which he accepted the present of a crown of gold, + convinced the citizens of their hopeless condition, the advocate Sylvanus + was provoked to exclaim, "O emperor! may you thus be crowned by all the + cities of your dominions!" Jovian, who in a few weeks had assumed the + habits of a prince, was displeased with freedom, and offended with truth: + and as he reasonably supposed, that the discontent of the people might + incline them to submit to the Persian government, he published an edict, + under pain of death, that they should leave the city within the term of + three days. Ammianus has delineated in lively colors the scene of + universal despair, which he seems to have viewed with an eye of + compassion. The martial youth deserted, with indignant grief, the walls + which they had so gloriously defended: the disconsolate mourner dropped a + last tear over the tomb of a son or husband, which must soon be profaned + by the rude hand of a Barbarian master; and the aged citizen kissed the + threshold, and clung to the doors, of the house where he had passed the + cheerful and careless hours of infancy. The highways were crowded with a + trembling multitude: the distinctions of rank, and sex, and age, were lost + in the general calamity. Every one strove to bear away some fragment from + the wreck of his fortunes; and as they could not command the immediate + service of an adequate number of horses or wagons, they were obliged to + leave behind them the greatest part of their valuable effects. The savage + insensibility of Jovian appears to have aggravated the hardships of these + unhappy fugitives. They were seated, however, in a new-built quarter of + Amida; and that rising city, with the reenforcement of a very considerable + colony, soon recovered its former splendor, and became the capital of + Mesopotamia. Similar orders were despatched by the emperor for the + evacuation of Singara and the castle of the Moors; and for the restitution + of the five provinces beyond the Tigris. Sapor enjoyed the glory and the + fruits of his victory; and this ignominious peace has justly been + considered as a memorable æra in the decline and fall of the Roman + empire. The predecessors of Jovian had sometimes relinquished the dominion + of distant and unprofitable provinces; but, since the foundation of the + city, the genius of Rome, the god Terminus, who guarded the boundaries of + the republic, had never retired before the sword of a victorious enemy.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After Jovian had performed those engagements which the voice of his people + might have tempted him to violate, he hastened away from the scene of his + disgrace, and proceeded with his whole court to enjoy the luxury of + Antioch. Without consulting the dictates of religious zeal, he was + prompted, by humanity and gratitude, to bestow the last honors on the + remains of his deceased sovereign: and Procopius, who sincerely bewailed + the loss of his kinsman, was removed from the command of the army, under + the decent pretence of conducting the funeral. The corpse of Julian was + transported from Nisibis to Tarsus, in a slow march of fifteen days; and, + as it passed through the cities of the East, was saluted by the hostile + factions, with mournful lamentations and clamorous insults. The Pagans + already placed their beloved hero in the rank of those gods whose worship + he had restored; while the invectives of the Christians pursued the soul + of the Apostate to hell, and his body to the grave. One party lamented the + approaching ruin of their altars; the other celebrated the marvellous + deliverance of their church. The Christians applauded, in lofty and + ambiguous strains, the stroke of divine vengeance, which had been so long + suspended over the guilty head of Julian. They acknowledge, that the death + of the tyrant, at the instant he expired beyond the Tigris, was <strong><em>revealed</em></strong> + to the saints of Egypt, Syria, and Cappadocia; and instead of suffering + him to fall by the Persian darts, their indiscretion ascribed the heroic + deed to the obscure hand of some mortal or immortal champion of the faith. + Such imprudent declarations were eagerly adopted by the malice, or + credulity, of their adversaries; who darkly insinuated, or confidently + asserted, that the governors of the church had instigated and directed the + fanaticism of a domestic assassin. Above sixteen years after the death of + Julian, the charge was solemnly and vehemently urged, in a public oration, + addressed by Libanius to the emperor Theodosius. His suspicions are + unsupported by fact or argument; and we can only esteem the generous zeal + of the sophist of Antioch for the cold and neglected ashes of his friend.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It was an ancient custom in the funerals, as well as in the triumphs, of + the Romans, that the voice of praise should be corrected by that of satire + and ridicule; and that, in the midst of the splendid pageants, which + displayed the glory of the living or of the dead, their imperfections + should not be concealed from the eyes of the world. This custom was + practised in the funeral of Julian. The comedians, who resented his + contempt and aversion for the theatre, exhibited, with the applause of a + Christian audience, the lively and exaggerated representation of the + faults and follies of the deceased emperor. His various character and + singular manners afforded an ample scope for pleasantry and ridicule. In + the exercise of his uncommon talents, he often descended below the majesty + of his rank. Alexander was transformed into Diogenes; the philosopher was + degraded into a priest. The purity of his virtue was sullied by excessive + vanity; his superstition disturbed the peace, and endangered the safety, + of a mighty empire; and his irregular sallies were the less entitled to + indulgence, as they appeared to be the laborious efforts of art, or even + of affectation. The remains of Julian were interred at Tarsus in Cilicia; + but his stately tomb, which arose in that city, on the banks of the cold + and limpid Cydnus, was displeasing to the faithful friends, who loved and + revered the memory of that extraordinary man. The philosopher expressed a + very reasonable wish, that the disciple of Plato might have reposed amidst + the groves of the academy; while the soldier exclaimed, in bolder accents, + that the ashes of Julian should have been mingled with those of Cæsar, + in the field of Mars, and among the ancient monuments of Roman virtue. The + history of princes does not very frequently renew the examples of a + similar competition.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch25-p1" id="linkch25-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Government And Death Of Jovian.—Election Of +Valentinian, Who Associates His Brother Valens, And Makes The +Final Division Of The Eastern And Western Empires.—Revolt Of +Procopius.—Civil And Ecclesiastical Administration.— +Germany.—Britain.—Africa.—The East.—The Danube.— +Death Of Valentinian.—His Two Sons, Gratian And Valentinian +II., Succeed To The Western Empire. +</pre> + <p> + The death of Julian had left the public affairs of the empire in a very + doubtful and dangerous situation. The Roman army was saved by an + inglorious, perhaps a necessary treaty; and the first moments of peace + were consecrated by the pious Jovian to restore the domestic tranquility + of the church and state. The indiscretion of his predecessor, instead of + reconciling, had artfully fomented the religious war: and the balance + which he affected to preserve between the hostile factions, served only to + perpetuate the contest, by the vicissitudes of hope and fear, by the rival + claims of ancient possession and actual favor. The Christians had + forgotten the spirit of the gospel; and the Pagans had imbibed the spirit + of the church. In private families, the sentiments of nature were + extinguished by the blind fury of zeal and revenge: the majesty of the + laws was violated or abused; the cities of the East were stained with + blood; and the most implacable enemies of the Romans were in the bosom of + their country. Jovian was educated in the profession of Christianity; and + as he marched from Nisibis to Antioch, the banner of the Cross, the + Labarum of Constantine, which was again displayed at the head of the + legions, announced to the people the faith of their new emperor. As soon + as he ascended the throne, he transmitted a circular epistle to all the + governors of provinces; in which he confessed the divine truth, and + secured the legal establishment, of the Christian religion. The insidious + edicts of Julian were abolished; the ecclesiastical immunities were + restored and enlarged; and Jovian condescended to lament, that the + distress of the times obliged him to diminish the measure of charitable + distributions. The Christians were unanimous in the loud and sincere + applause which they bestowed on the pious successor of Julian. But they + were still ignorant what creed, or what synod, he would choose for the + standard of orthodoxy; and the peace of the church immediately revived + those eager disputes which had been suspended during the season of + persecution. The episcopal leaders of the contending sects, convinced, + from experience, how much their fate would depend on the earliest + impressions that were made on the mind of an untutored soldier, hastened + to the court of Edessa, or Antioch. The highways of the East were crowded + with Homoousian, and Arian, and Semi-Arian, and Eunomian bishops, who + struggled to outstrip each other in the holy race: the apartments of the + palace resounded with their clamors; and the ears of the prince were + assaulted, and perhaps astonished, by the singular mixture of metaphysical + argument and passionate invective. The moderation of Jovian, who + recommended concord and charity, and referred the disputants to the + sentence of a future council, was interpreted as a symptom of + indifference: but his attachment to the Nicene creed was at length + discovered and declared, by the reverence which he expressed for the + <strong><em>celestial</em></strong> virtues of the great Athanasius. The + intrepid veteran of the faith, at the age of seventy, had issued from his + retreat on the first intelligence of the tyrant's death. The acclamations + of the people seated him once more on the archiepiscopal throne; and he + wisely accepted, or anticipated, the invitation of Jovian. The venerable + figure of Athanasius, his calm courage, and insinuating eloquence, + sustained the reputation which he had already acquired in the courts of + four successive princes. As soon as he had gained the confidence, and + secured the faith, of the Christian emperor, he returned in triumph to his + diocese, and continued, with mature counsels and undiminished vigor, to + direct, ten years longer, the ecclesiastical government of Alexandria, + Egypt, and the Catholic church. Before his departure from Antioch, he + assured Jovian that his orthodox devotion would be rewarded with a long + and peaceful reign. Athanasius, had reason to hope, that he should be + allowed either the merit of a successful prediction, or the excuse of a + grateful though ineffectual prayer.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The slightest force, when it is applied to assist and guide the natural + descent of its object, operates with irresistible weight; and Jovian had + the good fortune to embrace the religious opinions which were supported by + the spirit of the times, and the zeal and numbers of the most powerful + sect. Under his reign, Christianity obtained an easy and lasting victory; + and as soon as the smile of royal patronage was withdrawn, the genius of + Paganism, which had been fondly raised and cherished by the arts of + Julian, sunk irrecoverably. In many cities, the temples were shut or + deserted: the philosophers who had abused their transient favor, thought + it prudent to shave their beards, and disguise their profession; and the + Christians rejoiced, that they were now in a condition to forgive, or to + revenge, the injuries which they had suffered under the preceding reign. + The consternation of the Pagan world was dispelled by a wise and gracious + edict of toleration; in which Jovian explicitly declared, that although he + should severely punish the sacrilegious rites of magic, his subjects might + exercise, with freedom and safety, the ceremonies of the ancient worship. + The memory of this law has been preserved by the orator Themistius, who + was deputed by the senate of Constantinople to express their royal + devotion for the new emperor. Themistius expatiates on the clemency of the + Divine Nature, the facility of human error, the rights of conscience, and + the independence of the mind; and, with some eloquence, inculcates the + principles of philosophical toleration; whose aid Superstition herself, in + the hour of her distress, is not ashamed to implore. He justly observes, + that in the recent changes, both religions had been alternately disgraced + by the seeming acquisition of worthless proselytes, of those votaries of + the reigning purple, who could pass, without a reason, and without a + blush, from the church to the temple, and from the altars of Jupiter to + the sacred table of the Christians.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the space of seven months, the Roman troops, who were now returned to + Antioch, had performed a march of fifteen hundred miles; in which they had + endured all the hardships of war, of famine, and of climate. + Notwithstanding their services, their fatigues, and the approach of + winter, the timid and impatient Jovian allowed only, to the men and + horses, a respite of six weeks. The emperor could not sustain the + indiscreet and malicious raillery of the people of Antioch. He was + impatient to possess the palace of Constantinople; and to prevent the + ambition of some competitor, who might occupy the vacant allegiance of + Europe. But he soon received the grateful intelligence, that his authority + was acknowledged from the Thracian Bosphorus to the Atlantic Ocean. By the + first letters which he despatched from the camp of Mesopotamia, he had + delegated the military command of Gaul and Illyricum to Malarich, a brave + and faithful officer of the nation of the Franks; and to his + father-in-law, Count Lucillian, who had formerly distinguished his courage + and conduct in the defence of Nisibis. Malarich had declined an office to + which he thought himself unequal; and Lucillian was massacred at Rheims, + in an accidental mutiny of the Batavian cohorts. But the moderation of + Jovinus, master-general of the cavalry, who forgave the intention of his + disgrace, soon appeased the tumult, and confirmed the uncertain minds of + the soldiers. The oath of fidelity was administered and taken, with loyal + acclamations; and the deputies of the Western armies saluted their new + sovereign as he descended from Mount Taurus to the city of Tyana in + Cappadocia. From Tyana he continued his hasty march to Ancyra, capital of + the province of Galatia; where Jovian assumed, with his infant son, the + name and ensigns of the consulship. Dadastana, an obscure town, almost at + an equal distance between Ancyra and Nice, was marked for the fatal term + of his journey and life. After indulging himself with a plentiful, perhaps + an intemperate, supper, he retired to rest; and the next morning the + emperor Jovian was found dead in his bed. The cause of this sudden death + was variously understood. By some it was ascribed to the consequences of + an indigestion, occasioned either by the quantity of the wine, or the + quality of the mushrooms, which he had swallowed in the evening. According + to others, he was suffocated in his sleep by the vapor of charcoal, which + extracted from the walls of the apartment the unwholesome moisture of the + fresh plaster. But the want of a regular inquiry into the death of a + prince, whose reign and person were soon forgotten, appears to have been + the only circumstance which countenanced the malicious whispers of poison + and domestic guilt. The body of Jovian was sent to Constantinople, to be + interred with his predecessors, and the sad procession was met on the road + by his wife Charito, the daughter of Count Lucillian; who still wept the + recent death of her father, and was hastening to dry her tears in the + embraces of an Imperial husband. Her disappointment and grief were + imbittered by the anxiety of maternal tenderness. Six weeks before the + death of Jovian, his infant son had been placed in the curule chair, + adorned with the title of <strong><em>Nobilissimus</em></strong>, and the + vain ensigns of the consulship. Unconscious of his fortune, the royal + youth, who, from his grandfather, assumed the name of Varronian, was + reminded only by the jealousy of the government, that he was the son of an + emperor. Sixteen years afterwards he was still alive, but he had already + been deprived of an eye; and his afflicted mother expected every hour, + that the innocent victim would be torn from her arms, to appease, with his + blood, the suspicions of the reigning prince.<br /> + </p> + <p> + After the death of Jovian, the throne of the Roman world remained ten + days, without a master. The ministers and generals still continued to meet + in council; to exercise their respective functions; to maintain the public + order; and peaceably to conduct the army to the city of Nice in Bithynia, + which was chosen for the place of the election. In a solemn assembly of + the civil and military powers of the empire, the diadem was again + unanimously offered to the præfect Sallust. He enjoyed the glory of + a second refusal: and when the virtues of the father were alleged in favor + of his son, the præfect, with the firmness of a disinterested + patriot, declared to the electors, that the feeble age of the one, and the + unexperienced youth of the other, were equally incapable of the laborious + duties of government. Several candidates were proposed; and, after + weighing the objections of character or situation, they were successively + rejected; but, as soon as the name of Valentinian was pronounced, the + merit of that officer united the suffrages of the whole assembly, and + obtained the sincere approbation of Sallust himself. Valentinian was the + son of Count Gratian, a native of Cibalis, in Pannonia, who from an + obscure condition had raised himself, by matchless strength and dexterity, + to the military commands of Africa and Britain; from which he retired with + an ample fortune and suspicious integrity. The rank and services of + Gratian contributed, however, to smooth the first steps of the promotion + of his son; and afforded him an early opportunity of displaying those + solid and useful qualifications, which raised his character above the + ordinary level of his fellow-soldiers. The person of Valentinian was tall, + graceful, and majestic. His manly countenance, deeply marked with the + impression of sense and spirit, inspired his friends with awe, and his + enemies with fear; and to second the efforts of his undaunted courage, the + son of Gratian had inherited the advantages of a strong and healthy + constitution. By the habits of chastity and temperance, which restrain the + appetites and invigorate the faculties, Valentinian preserved his own and + the public esteem. The avocations of a military life had diverted his + youth from the elegant pursuits of literature; * he was ignorant of the + Greek language, and the arts of rhetoric; but as the mind of the orator + was never disconcerted by timid perplexity, he was able, as often as the + occasion prompted him, to deliver his decided sentiments with bold and + ready elocution. The laws of martial discipline were the only laws that he + had studied; and he was soon distinguished by the laborious diligence, and + inflexible severity, with which he discharged and enforced the duties of + the camp. In the time of Julian he provoked the danger of disgrace, by the + contempt which he publicly expressed for the reigning religion; and it + should seem, from his subsequent conduct, that the indiscreet and + unseasonable freedom of Valentinian was the effect of military spirit, + rather than of Christian zeal. He was pardoned, however, and still + employed by a prince who esteemed his merit; and in the various events of + the Persian war, he improved the reputation which he had already acquired + on the banks of the Rhine. The celerity and success with which he executed + an important commission, recommended him to the favor of Jovian; and to + the honorable command of the second school, or company, of Targetiers, of + the domestic guards. In the march from Antioch, he had reached his + quarters at Ancyra, when he was unexpectedly summoned, without guilt and + without intrigue, to assume, in the forty-third year of his age, the + absolute government of the Roman empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The invitation of the ministers and generals at Nice was of little moment, + unless it were confirmed by the voice of the army. The aged Sallust, who + had long observed the irregular fluctuations of popular assemblies, + proposed, under pain of death, that none of those persons, whose rank in + the service might excite a party in their favor, should appear in public + on the day of the inauguration. Yet such was the prevalence of ancient + superstition, that a whole day was voluntarily added to this dangerous + interval, because it happened to be the intercalation of the Bissextile. + At length, when the hour was supposed to be propitious, Valentinian showed + himself from a lofty tribunal; the judicious choice was applauded; and the + new prince was solemnly invested with the diadem and the purple, amidst + the acclamation of the troops, who were disposed in martial order round + the tribunal. But when he stretched forth his hand to address the armed + multitude, a busy whisper was accidentally started in the ranks, and + insensibly swelled into a loud and imperious clamor, that he should name, + without delay, a colleague in the empire. The intrepid calmness of + Valentinian obtained silence, and commanded respect; and he thus addressed + the assembly: "A few minutes since it was in <strong><em>your</em></strong> + power, fellow-soldiers, to have left me in the obscurity of a private + station. Judging, from the testimony of my past life, that I deserved to + reign, you have placed me on the throne. It is now <strong><em>my</em></strong> + duty to consult the safety and interest of the republic. The weight of the + universe is undoubtedly too great for the hands of a feeble mortal. I am + conscious of the limits of my abilities, and the uncertainty of my life; + and far from declining, I am anxious to solicit, the assistance of a + worthy colleague. But, where discord may be fatal, the choice of a + faithful friend requires mature and serious deliberation. That + deliberation shall be <strong><em>my</em></strong> care. Let <strong><em>your</em></strong> + conduct be dutiful and consistent. Retire to your quarters; refresh your + minds and bodies; and expect the accustomed donative on the accession of a + new emperor." The astonished troops, with a mixture of pride, of + satisfaction, and of terror, confessed the voice of their master. Their + angry clamors subsided into silent reverence; and Valentinian, encompassed + with the eagles of the legions, and the various banners of the cavalry and + infantry, was conducted, in warlike pomp, to the palace of Nice. As he was + sensible, however, of the importance of preventing some rash declaration + of the soldiers, he consulted the assembly of the chiefs; and their real + sentiments were concisely expressed by the generous freedom of + Dagalaiphus. "Most excellent prince," said that officer, "if you consider + only your family, you have a brother; if you love the republic, look round + for the most deserving of the Romans." The emperor, who suppressed his + displeasure, without altering his intention, slowly proceeded from Nice to + Nicomedia and Constantinople. In one of the suburbs of that capital, + thirty days after his own elevation, he bestowed the title of Augustus on + his brother Valens; * and as the boldest patriots were convinced, that + their opposition, without being serviceable to their country, would be + fatal to themselves, the declaration of his absolute will was received + with silent submission. Valens was now in the thirty-sixth year of his + age; but his abilities had never been exercised in any employment, + military or civil; and his character had not inspired the world with any + sanguine expectations. He possessed, however, one quality, which + recommended him to Valentinian, and preserved the domestic peace of the + empire; devout and grateful attachment to his benefactor, whose + superiority of genius, as well as of authority, Valens humbly and + cheerfully acknowledged in every action of his life.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch25-p2" id="linkch25-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Before Valentinian divided the provinces, he reformed the administration + of the empire. All ranks of subjects, who had been injured or oppressed + under the reign of Julian, were invited to support their public + accusations. The silence of mankind attested the spotless integrity of the + præfect Sallust; and his own pressing solicitations, that he might + be permitted to retire from the business of the state, were rejected by + Valentinian with the most honorable expressions of friendship and esteem. + But among the favorites of the late emperor, there were many who had + abused his credulity or superstition; and who could no longer hope to be + protected either by favor or justice. The greater part of the ministers of + the palace, and the governors of the provinces, were removed from their + respective stations; yet the eminent merit of some officers was + distinguished from the obnoxious crowd; and, notwithstanding the opposite + clamors of zeal and resentment, the whole proceedings of this delicate + inquiry appear to have been conducted with a reasonable share of wisdom + and moderation. The festivity of a new reign received a short and + suspicious interruption from the sudden illness of the two princes; but as + soon as their health was restored, they left Constantinople in the + beginning of the spring. In the castle, or palace, of Mediana, only three + miles from Naissus, they executed the solemn and final division of the + Roman empire. Valentinian bestowed on his brother the rich præfecture + of the <strong><em>East</em></strong>, from the Lower Danube to the + confines of Persia; whilst he reserved for his immediate government the + warlike * præfectures of <strong><em>Illyricum</em></strong>, + <strong><em>Italy</em></strong>, and <strong><em>Gaul</em></strong>, from + the extremity of Greece to the Caledonian rampart, and from the rampart of + Caledonia to the foot of Mount Atlas. The provincial administration + remained on its former basis; but a double supply of generals and + magistrates was required for two councils, and two courts: the division + was made with a just regard to their peculiar merit and situation, and + seven master-generals were soon created, either of the cavalry or + infantry. When this important business had been amicably transacted, + Valentinian and Valens embraced for the last time. The emperor of the West + established his temporary residence at Milan; and the emperor of the East + returned to Constantinople, to assume the dominion of fifty provinces, of + whose language he was totally ignorant.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The tranquility of the East was soon disturbed by rebellion; and the + throne of Valens was threatened by the daring attempts of a rival whose + affinity to the emperor Julian was his sole merit, and had been his only + crime. Procopius had been hastily promoted from the obscure station of a + tribune, and a notary, to the joint command of the army of Mesopotamia; + the public opinion already named him as the successor of a prince who was + destitute of natural heirs; and a vain rumor was propagated by his + friends, or his enemies, that Julian, before the altar of the Moon at + Carrhæ, had privately invested Procopius with the Imperial purple. + He endeavored, by his dutiful and submissive behavior, to disarm the + jealousy of Jovian; resigned, without a contest, his military command; and + retired, with his wife and family, to cultivate the ample patrimony which + he possessed in the province of Cappadocia. These useful and innocent + occupations were interrupted by the appearance of an officer with a band + of soldiers, who, in the name of his new sovereigns, Valentinian and + Valens, was despatched to conduct the unfortunate Procopius either to a + perpetual prison or an ignominious death. His presence of mind procured + him a longer respite, and a more splendid fate. Without presuming to + dispute the royal mandate, he requested the indulgence of a few moments to + embrace his weeping family; and while the vigilance of his guards was + relaxed by a plentiful entertainment, he dexterously escaped to the + sea-coast of the Euxine, from whence he passed over to the country of + Bosphorus. In that sequestered region he remained many months, exposed to + the hardships of exile, of solitude, and of want; his melancholy temper + brooding over his misfortunes, and his mind agitated by the just + apprehension, that, if any accident should discover his name, the + faithless Barbarians would violate, without much scruple, the laws of + hospitality. In a moment of impatience and despair, Procopius embarked in + a merchant vessel, which made sail for Constantinople; and boldly aspired + to the rank of a sovereign, because he was not allowed to enjoy the + security of a subject. At first he lurked in the villages of Bithynia, + continually changing his habitation and his disguise. By degrees he + ventured into the capital, trusted his life and fortune to the fidelity of + two friends, a senator and a eunuch, and conceived some hopes of success, + from the intelligence which he obtained of the actual state of public + affairs. The body of the people was infected with a spirit of discontent: + they regretted the justice and the abilities of Sallust, who had been + imprudently dismissed from the præfecture of the East. They despised + the character of Valens, which was rude without vigor, and feeble without + mildness. They dreaded the influence of his father-in-law, the patrician + Petronius, a cruel and rapacious minister, who rigorously exacted all the + arrears of tribute that might remain unpaid since the reign of the emperor + Aurelian. The circumstances were propitious to the designs of a usurper. + The hostile measures of the Persians required the presence of Valens in + Syria: from the Danube to the Euphrates the troops were in motion; and the + capital was occasionally filled with the soldiers who passed or repassed + the Thracian Bosphorus. Two cohorts of Gaul were persuaded to listen to + the secret proposals of the conspirators; which were recommended by the + promise of a liberal donative; and, as they still revered the memory of + Julian, they easily consented to support the hereditary claim of his + proscribed kinsman. At the dawn of day they were drawn up near the baths + of Anastasia; and Procopius, clothed in a purple garment, more suitable to + a player than to a monarch, appeared, as if he rose from the dead, in the + midst of Constantinople. The soldiers, who were prepared for his + reception, saluted their trembling prince with shouts of joy and vows of + fidelity. Their numbers were soon increased by a band of sturdy peasants, + collected from the adjacent country; and Procopius, shielded by the arms + of his adherents, was successively conducted to the tribunal, the senate, + and the palace. During the first moments of his tumultuous reign, he was + astonished and terrified by the gloomy silence of the people; who were + either ignorant of the cause, or apprehensive of the event. But his + military strength was superior to any actual resistance: the malcontents + flocked to the standard of rebellion; the poor were excited by the hopes, + and the rich were intimidated by the fear, of a general pillage; and the + obstinate credulity of the multitude was once more deceived by the + promised advantages of a revolution. The magistrates were seized; the + prisons and arsenals broke open; the gates, and the entrance of the + harbor, were diligently occupied; and, in a few hours, Procopius became + the absolute, though precarious, master of the Imperial city. * The + usurper improved this unexpected success with some degree of courage and + dexterity. He artfully propagated the rumors and opinions the most + favorable to his interest; while he deluded the populace by giving + audience to the frequent, but imaginary, ambassadors of distant nations. + The large bodies of troops stationed in the cities of Thrace and the + fortresses of the Lower Danube, were gradually involved in the guilt of + rebellion: and the Gothic princes consented to supply the sovereign of + Constantinople with the formidable strength of several thousand + auxiliaries. His generals passed the Bosphorus, and subdued, without an + effort, the unarmed, but wealthy provinces of Bithynia and Asia. After an + honorable defence, the city and island of Cyzicus yielded to his power; + the renowned legions of the Jovians and Herculians embraced the cause of + the usurper, whom they were ordered to crush; and, as the veterans were + continually augmented with new levies, he soon appeared at the head of an + army, whose valor, as well as numbers, were not unequal to the greatness + of the contest. The son of Hormisdas, a youth of spirit and ability, + condescended to draw his sword against the lawful emperor of the East; and + the Persian prince was immediately invested with the ancient and + extraordinary powers of a Roman Proconsul. The alliance of Faustina, the + widow of the emperor Constantius, who intrusted herself and her daughter + to the hands of the usurper, added dignity and reputation to his cause. + The princess Constantia, who was then about five years of age, + accompanied, in a litter, the march of the army. She was shown to the + multitude in the arms of her adopted father; and, as often as she passed + through the ranks, the tenderness of the soldiers was inflamed into + martial fury: they recollected the glories of the house of Constantine, + and they declared, with loyal acclamation, that they would shed the last + drop of their blood in the defence of the royal infant.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the mean while Valentinian was alarmed and perplexed by the doubtful + intelligence of the revolt of the East. * The difficulties of a German war + forced him to confine his immediate care to the safety of his own + dominions; and, as every channel of communication was stopped or + corrupted, he listened, with doubtful anxiety, to the rumors which were + industriously spread, that the defeat and death of Valens had left + Procopius sole master of the Eastern provinces. Valens was not dead: but + on the news of the rebellion, which he received at Cæsarea, he + basely despaired of his life and fortune; proposed to negotiate with the + usurper, and discovered his secret inclination to abdicate the Imperial + purple. The timid monarch was saved from disgrace and ruin by the firmness + of his ministers, and their abilities soon decided in his favor the event + of the civil war. In a season of tranquillity, Sallust had resigned + without a murmur; but as soon as the public safety was attacked, he + ambitiously solicited the preeminence of toil and danger; and the + restoration of that virtuous minister to the præfecture of the East, + was the first step which indicated the repentance of Valens, and satisfied + the minds of the people. The reign of Procopius was apparently supported + by powerful armies and obedient provinces. But many of the principal + officers, military as well as civil, had been urged, either by motives of + duty or interest, to withdraw themselves from the guilty scene; or to + watch the moment of betraying, and deserting, the cause of the usurper. + Lupicinus advanced by hasty marches, to bring the legions of Syria to the + aid of Valens. Arintheus, who, in strength, beauty, and valor, excelled + all the heroes of the age, attacked with a small troop a superior body of + the rebels. When he beheld the faces of the soldiers who had served under + his banner, he commanded them, with a loud voice, to seize and deliver up + their pretended leader; and such was the ascendant of his genius, that + this extraordinary order was instantly obeyed. Arbetio, a respectable + veteran of the great Constantine, who had been distinguished by the honors + of the consulship, was persuaded to leave his retirement, and once more to + conduct an army into the field. In the heat of action, calmly taking off + his helmet, he showed his gray hairs and venerable countenance: saluted + the soldiers of Procopius by the endearing names of children and + companions, and exhorted them no longer to support the desperate cause of + a contemptible tyrant; but to follow their old commander, who had so often + led them to honor and victory. In the two engagements of Thyatira and + Nacolia, the unfortunate Procopius was deserted by his troops, who were + seduced by the instructions and example of their perfidious officers. + After wandering some time among the woods and mountains of Phrygia, he was + betrayed by his desponding followers, conducted to the Imperial camp, and + immediately beheaded. He suffered the ordinary fate of an unsuccessful + usurper; but the acts of cruelty which were exercised by the conqueror, + under the forms of legal justice, excited the pity and indignation of + mankind.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Such indeed are the common and natural fruits of despotism and rebellion. + But the inquisition into the crime of magic, which, under the reign of the + two brothers, was so rigorously prosecuted both at Rome and Antioch, was + interpreted as the fatal symptom, either of the displeasure of Heaven, or + of the depravity of mankind. Let us not hesitate to indulge a liberal + pride, that, in the present age, the enlightened part of Europe has + abolished a cruel and odious prejudice, which reigned in every climate of + the globe, and adhered to every system of religious opinions. The nations, + and the sects, of the Roman world, admitted with equal credulity, and + similar abhorrence, the reality of that infernal art, which was able to + control the eternal order of the planets, and the voluntary operations of + the human mind. They dreaded the mysterious power of spells and + incantations, of potent herbs, and execrable rites; which could extinguish + or recall life, inflame the passions of the soul, blast the works of + creation, and extort from the reluctant dæmons the secrets of + futurity. They believed, with the wildest inconsistency, that this + preternatural dominion of the air, of earth, and of hell, was exercised, + from the vilest motives of malice or gain, by some wrinkled hags and + itinerant sorcerers, who passed their obscure lives in penury and + contempt. The arts of magic were equally condemned by the public opinion, + and by the laws of Rome; but as they tended to gratify the most imperious + passions of the heart of man, they were continually proscribed, and + continually practised. An imaginary cause was capable of producing the most + serious and mischievous effects. The dark predictions of the death of an + emperor, or the success of a conspiracy, were calculated only to stimulate + the hopes of ambition, and to dissolve the ties of fidelity; and the + intentional guilt of magic was aggravated by the actual crimes of treason + and sacrilege. Such vain terrors disturbed the peace of society, and the + happiness of individuals; and the harmless flame which insensibly melted a + waxen image, might derive a powerful and pernicious energy from the + affrighted fancy of the person whom it was maliciously designed to + represent. From the infusion of those herbs, which were supposed to + possess a supernatural influence, it was an easy step to the use of more + substantial poison; and the folly of mankind sometimes became the + instrument, and the mask, of the most atrocious crimes. As soon as the + zeal of informers was encouraged by the ministers of Valens and + Valentinian, they could not refuse to listen to another charge, too + frequently mingled in the scenes of domestic guilt; a charge of a softer + and less malignant nature, for which the pious, though excessive, rigor of + Constantine had recently decreed the punishment of death. This deadly and + incoherent mixture of treason and magic, of poison and adultery, afforded + infinite gradations of guilt and innocence, of excuse and aggravation, + which in these proceedings appear to have been confounded by the angry or + corrupt passions of the judges. They easily discovered that the degree of + their industry and discernment was estimated, by the Imperial court, + according to the number of executions that were furnished from the + respective tribunals. It was not without extreme reluctance that they + pronounced a sentence of acquittal; but they eagerly admitted such + evidence as was stained with perjury, or procured by torture, to prove the + most improbable charges against the most respectable characters. The + progress of the inquiry continually opened new subjects of criminal + prosecution; the audacious informer, whose falsehood was detected, retired + with impunity; but the wretched victim, who discovered his real or + pretended accomplices, were seldom permitted to receive the price of his + infamy. From the extremity of Italy and Asia, the young, and the aged, + were dragged in chains to the tribunals of Rome and Antioch. Senators, + matrons, and philosophers, expired in ignominious and cruel tortures. The + soldiers, who were appointed to guard the prisons, declared, with a murmur + of pity and indignation, that their numbers were insufficient to oppose + the flight, or resistance, of the multitude of captives. The wealthiest + families were ruined by fines and confiscations; the most innocent + citizens trembled for their safety; and we may form some notion of the + magnitude of the evil, from the extravagant assertion of an ancient + writer, that, in the obnoxious provinces, the prisoners, the exiles, and + the fugitives, formed the greatest part of the inhabitants.<br /> + </p> + <p> + When Tacitus describes the deaths of the innocent and illustrious Romans, + who were sacrificed to the cruelty of the first Cæsars, the art of + the historian, or the merit of the sufferers, excites in our breast the + most lively sensations of terror, of admiration, and of pity. The coarse + and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures + with tedious and disgusting accuracy. But as our attention is no longer + engaged by the contrast of freedom and servitude, of recent greatness and + of actual misery, we should turn with horror from the frequent executions, + which disgraced, both at Rome and Antioch, the reign of the two brothers. + Valens was of a timid, and Valentinian of a choleric, disposition. An + anxious regard to his personal safety was the ruling principle of the + administration of Valens. In the condition of a subject, he had kissed, + with trembling awe, the hand of the oppressor; and when he ascended the + throne, he reasonably expected, that the same fears, which had subdued his + own mind, would secure the patient submission of his people. The favorites + of Valens obtained, by the privilege of rapine and confiscation, the + wealth which his economy would have refused. They urged, with persuasive + eloquence, <strong><em>that</em></strong>, in all cases of treason, + suspicion is equivalent to proof; <strong><em>that</em></strong> the power + supposes the intention, of mischief; <strong><em>that</em></strong> the + intention is not less criminal than the act; and <strong><em>that</em></strong> + a subject no longer deserves to live, if his life may threaten the safety, + or disturb the repose, of his sovereign. The judgment of Valentinian was + sometimes deceived, and his confidence abused; but he would have silenced + the informers with a contemptuous smile, had they presumed to alarm his + fortitude by the sound of danger. They praised his inflexible love of + justice; and, in the pursuit of justice, the emperor was easily tempted to + consider clemency as a weakness, and passion as a virtue. As long as he + wrestled with his equals, in the bold competition of an active and + ambitious life, Valentinian was seldom injured, and never insulted, with + impunity: if his prudence was arraigned, his spirit was applauded; and the + proudest and most powerful generals were apprehensive of provoking the + resentment of a fearless soldier. After he became master of the world, he + unfortunately forgot, that where no resistance can be made, no courage can + be exerted; and instead of consulting the dictates of reason and + magnanimity, he indulged the furious emotions of his temper, at a time + when they were disgraceful to himself, and fatal to the defenceless + objects of his displeasure. In the government of his household, or of his + empire, slight, or even imaginary, offences—a hasty word, a casual + omission, an involuntary delay—were chastised by a sentence of + immediate death. The expressions which issued the most readily from the + mouth of the emperor of the West were, "Strike off his head;" "Burn him + alive;" "Let him be beaten with clubs till he expires;" and his most + favored ministers soon understood, that, by a rash attempt to dispute, or + suspend, the execution of his sanguinary commands, they might involve + themselves in the guilt and punishment of disobedience. The repeated + gratification of this savage justice hardened the mind of Valentinian + against pity and remorse; and the sallies of passion were confirmed by the + habits of cruelty. He could behold with calm satisfaction the convulsive + agonies of torture and death; he reserved his friendship for those + faithful servants whose temper was the most congenial to his own. The + merit of Maximin, who had slaughtered the noblest families of Rome, was + rewarded with the royal approbation, and the præfecture of Gaul. Two + fierce and enormous bears, distinguished by the appellations of <strong><em>Innocence</em></strong>, + and <strong><em>Mica Aurea</em></strong>, could alone deserve to share the + favor of Maximin. The cages of those trusty guards were always placed near + the bed-chamber of Valentinian, who frequently amused his eyes with the + grateful spectacle of seeing them tear and devour the bleeding limbs of + the malefactors who were abandoned to their rage. Their diet and exercises + were carefully inspected by the Roman emperor; and when <strong><em>Innocence</em></strong> + had earned her discharge, by a long course of meritorious service, the + faithful animal was again restored to the freedom of her native woods.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch25-p3" id="linkch25-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + But in the calmer moments of reflection, when the mind of Valens was not + agitated by fear, or that of Valentinian by rage, the tyrant resumed the + sentiments, or at least the conduct, of the father of his country. The + dispassionate judgment of the Western emperor could clearly perceive, and + accurately pursue, his own and the public interest; and the sovereign of + the East, who imitated with equal docility the various examples which he + received from his elder brother, was sometimes guided by the wisdom and + virtue of the præfect Sallust. Both princes invariably retained, in + the purple, the chaste and temperate simplicity which had adorned their + private life; and, under their reign, the pleasures of the court never + cost the people a blush or a sigh. They gradually reformed many of the + abuses of the times of Constantius; judiciously adopted and improved the + designs of Julian and his successor; and displayed a style and spirit of + legislation which might inspire posterity with the most favorable opinion + of their character and government. It is not from the master of <strong><em>Innocence</em></strong>, + that we should expect the tender regard for the welfare of his subjects, + which prompted Valentinian to condemn the exposition of new-born infants; + and to establish fourteen skilful physicians, with stipends and + privileges, in the fourteen quarters of Rome. The good sense of an + illiterate soldier founded a useful and liberal institution for the + education of youth, and the support of declining science. It was his + intention, that the arts of rhetoric and grammar should be taught in the + Greek and Latin languages, in the metropolis of every province; and as the + size and dignity of the school was usually proportioned to the importance + of the city, the academies of Rome and Constantinople claimed a just and + singular preeminence. The fragments of the literary edicts of Valentinian + imperfectly represent the school of Constantinople, which was gradually + improved by subsequent regulations. That school consisted of thirty-one + professors in different branches of learning. One philosopher, and two + lawyers; five sophists, and ten grammarians for the Greek, and three + orators, and ten grammarians for the Latin tongue; besides seven scribes, + or, as they were then styled, antiquarians, whose laborious pens supplied + the public library with fair and correct copies of the classic writers. + The rule of conduct, which was prescribed to the students, is the more + curious, as it affords the first outlines of the form and discipline of a + modern university. It was required, that they should bring proper + certificates from the magistrates of their native province. Their names, + professions, and places of abode, were regularly entered in a public + register. The studious youth were severely prohibited from wasting their + time in feasts, or in the theatre; and the term of their education was + limited to the age of twenty. The præfect of the city was empowered + to chastise the idle and refractory by stripes or expulsion; and he was + directed to make an annual report to the master of the offices, that the + knowledge and abilities of the scholars might be usefully applied to the + public service. The institutions of Valentinian contributed to secure the + benefits of peace and plenty; and the cities were guarded by the + establishment of the <strong><em>Defensors</em></strong>; freely elected + as the tribunes and advocates of the people, to support their rights, and + to expose their grievances, before the tribunals of the civil magistrates, + or even at the foot of the Imperial throne. The finances were diligently + administered by two princes, who had been so long accustomed to the rigid + economy of a private fortune; but in the receipt and application of the + revenue, a discerning eye might observe some difference between the + government of the East and of the West. Valens was persuaded, that royal + liberality can be supplied only by public oppression, and his ambition + never aspired to secure, by their actual distress, the future strength and + prosperity of his people. Instead of increasing the weight of taxes, + which, in the space of forty years, had been gradually doubled, he + reduced, in the first years of his reign, one fourth of the tribute of the + East. Valentinian appears to have been less attentive and less anxious to + relieve the burdens of his people. He might reform the abuses of the + fiscal administration; but he exacted, without scruple, a very large share + of the private property; as he was convinced, that the revenues, which + supported the luxury of individuals, would be much more advantageously + employed for the defence and improvement of the state. The subjects of the + East, who enjoyed the present benefit, applauded the indulgence of their + prince. The solid but less splendid, merit of Valentinian was felt and + acknowledged by the subsequent generation.<br /> + </p> + <p> + But the most honorable circumstance of the character of Valentinian, is + the firm and temperate impartiality which he uniformly preserved in an age + of religious contention. His strong sense, unenlightened, but uncorrupted, + by study, declined, with respectful indifference, the subtle questions of + theological debate. The government of the <strong><em>Earth</em></strong> + claimed his vigilance, and satisfied his ambition; and while he remembered + that he was the disciple of the church, he never forgot that he was the + sovereign of the clergy. Under the reign of an apostate, he had signalized + his zeal for the honor of Christianity: he allowed to his subjects the + privilege which he had assumed for himself; and they might accept, with + gratitude and confidence, the general toleration which was granted by a + prince addicted to passion, but incapable of fear or of disguise. The + Pagans, the Jews, and all the various sects which acknowledged the divine + authority of Christ, were protected by the laws from arbitrary power or + popular insult; nor was any mode of worship prohibited by Valentinian, + except those secret and criminal practices, which abused the name of + religion for the dark purposes of vice and disorder. The art of magic, as + it was more cruelly punished, was more strictly proscribed: but the + emperor admitted a formal distinction to protect the ancient methods of + divination, which were approved by the senate, and exercised by the Tuscan + haruspices. He had condemned, with the consent of the most rational + Pagans, the license of nocturnal sacrifices; but he immediately admitted + the petition of Prætextatus, proconsul of Achaia, who represented, + that the life of the Greeks would become dreary and comfortless, if they + were deprived of the invaluable blessing of the Eleusinian mysteries. + Philosophy alone can boast, (and perhaps it is no more than the boast of + philosophy,) that her gentle hand is able to eradicate from the human mind + the latent and deadly principle of fanaticism. But this truce of twelve + years, which was enforced by the wise and vigorous government of + Valentinian, by suspending the repetition of mutual injuries, contributed + to soften the manners, and abate the prejudices, of the religious + factions.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The friend of toleration was unfortunately placed at a distance from the + scene of the fiercest controversies. As soon as the Christians of the West + had extricated themselves from the snares of the creed of Rimini, they + happily relapsed into the slumber of orthodoxy; and the small remains of + the Arian party, that still subsisted at Sirmium or Milan, might be + considered rather as objects of contempt than of resentment. But in the + provinces of the East, from the Euxine to the extremity of Thebais, the + strength and numbers of the hostile factions were more equally balanced; + and this equality, instead of recommending the counsels of peace, served + only to perpetuate the horrors of religious war. The monks and bishops + supported their arguments by invectives; and their invectives were + sometimes followed by blows. Athanasius still reigned at Alexandria; the + thrones of Constantinople and Antioch were occupied by Arian prelates, and + every episcopal vacancy was the occasion of a popular tumult. The + Homoousians were fortified by the reconciliation of fifty-nine Macedonian, + or Semi-Arian, bishops; but their secret reluctance to embrace the + divinity of the Holy Ghost, clouded the splendor of the triumph; and the + declaration of Valens, who, in the first years of his reign, had imitated + the impartial conduct of his brother, was an important victory on the side + of Arianism. The two brothers had passed their private life in the + condition of catechumens; but the piety of Valens prompted him to solicit + the sacrament of baptism, before he exposed his person to the dangers of a + Gothic war. He naturally addressed himself to Eudoxus, * bishop of the + Imperial city; and if the ignorant monarch was instructed by that Arian + pastor in the principles of heterodox theology, his misfortune, rather + than his guilt, was the inevitable consequence of his erroneous choice. + Whatever had been the determination of the emperor, he must have offended + a numerous party of his Christian subjects; as the leaders both of the + Homoousians and of the Arians believed, that, if they were not suffered to + reign, they were most cruelly injured and oppressed. After he had taken + this decisive step, it was extremely difficult for him to preserve either + the virtue, or the reputation of impartiality. He never aspired, like + Constantius, to the fame of a profound theologian; but as he had received + with simplicity and respect the tenets of Eudoxus, Valens resigned his + conscience to the direction of his ecclesiastical guides, and promoted, by + the influence of his authority, the reunion of the <strong><em>Athanasian + heretics</em></strong> to the body of the Catholic church. At first, he + pitied their blindness; by degrees he was provoked at their obstinacy; and + he insensibly hated those sectaries to whom he was an object of hatred. + The feeble mind of Valens was always swayed by the persons with whom he + familiarly conversed; and the exile or imprisonment of a private citizen + are the favors the most readily granted in a despotic court. Such + punishments were frequently inflicted on the leaders of the Homoousian + party; and the misfortune of fourscore ecclesiastics of Constantinople, + who, perhaps accidentally, were burned on shipboard, was imputed to the + cruel and premeditated malice of the emperor, and his Arian ministers. In + every contest, the Catholics (if we may anticipate that name) were obliged + to pay the penalty of their own faults, and of those of their adversaries. + In every election, the claims of the Arian candidate obtained the + preference; and if they were opposed by the majority of the people, he was + usually supported by the authority of the civil magistrate, or even by the + terrors of a military force. The enemies of Athanasius attempted to + disturb the last years of his venerable age; and his temporary retreat to + his father's sepulchre has been celebrated as a fifth exile. But the zeal + of a great people, who instantly flew to arms, intimidated the præfect: + and the archbishop was permitted to end his life in peace and in glory, + after a reign of forty-seven years. The death of Athanasius was the signal + of the persecution of Egypt; and the Pagan minister of Valens, who + forcibly seated the worthless Lucius on the archiepiscopal throne, + purchased the favor of the reigning party, by the blood and sufferings of + their Christian brethren. The free toleration of the heathen and Jewish + worship was bitterly lamented, as a circumstance which aggravated the + misery of the Catholics, and the guilt of the impious tyrant of the East.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The triumph of the orthodox party has left a deep stain of persecution on + the memory of Valens; and the character of a prince who derived his + virtues, as well as his vices, from a feeble understanding and a + pusillanimous temper, scarcely deserves the labor of an apology. Yet + candor may discover some reasons to suspect that the ecclesiastical + ministers of Valens often exceeded the orders, or even the intentions, of + their master; and that the real measure of facts has been very liberally + magnified by the vehement declamation and easy credulity of his + antagonists. <strong>1</strong>. The silence of Valentinian may suggest a + probable argument that the partial severities, which were exercised in the + name and provinces of his colleague, amounted only to some obscure and + inconsiderable deviations from the established system of religious + toleration: and the judicious historian, who has praised the equal temper + of the elder brother, has not thought himself obliged to contrast the + tranquillity of the West with the cruel persecution of the East. <strong>2</strong>. + Whatever credit may be allowed to vague and distant reports, the + character, or at least the behavior, of Valens, may be most distinctly + seen in his personal transactions with the eloquent Basil, archbishop of Cæsarea, + who had succeeded Athanasius in the management of the Trinitarian cause. + The circumstantial narrative has been composed by the friends and admirers + of Basil; and as soon as we have stripped away a thick coat of rhetoric + and miracle, we shall be astonished by the unexpected mildness of the + Arian tyrant, who admired the firmness of his character, or was + apprehensive, if he employed violence, of a general revolt in the province + of Cappadocia. The archbishop, who asserted, with inflexible pride, the + truth of his opinions, and the dignity of his rank, was left in the free + possession of his conscience and his throne. The emperor devoutly assisted + at the solemn service of the cathedral; and, instead of a sentence of + banishment, subscribed the donation of a valuable estate for the use of a + hospital, which Basil had lately founded in the neighborhood of Cæsarea. + <strong>3</strong>. I am not able to discover, that any law (such as + Theodosius afterwards enacted against the Arians) was published by Valens + against the Athanasian sectaries; and the edict which excited the most + violent clamors, may not appear so extremely reprehensible. The emperor + had observed, that several of his subjects, gratifying their lazy + disposition under the pretence of religion, had associated themselves with + the monks of Egypt; and he directed the count of the East to drag them + from their solitude; and to compel these deserters of society to accept + the fair alternative of renouncing their temporal possessions, or of + discharging the public duties of men and citizens. The ministers of Valens + seem to have extended the sense of this penal statute, since they claimed + a right of enlisting the young and able-bodied monks in the Imperial + armies. A detachment of cavalry and infantry, consisting of three thousand + men, marched from Alexandria into the adjacent desert of Nitria, which was + peopled by five thousand monks. The soldiers were conducted by Arian + priests; and it is reported, that a considerable slaughter was made in the + monasteries which disobeyed the commands of their sovereign.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The strict regulations which have been framed by the wisdom of modern + legislators to restrain the wealth and avarice of the clergy, may be + originally deduced from the example of the emperor Valentinian. His edict, + addressed to Damasus, bishop of Rome, was publicly read in the churches of + the city. He admonished the ecclesiastics and monks not to frequent the + houses of widows and virgins; and menaced their disobedience with the + animadversion of the civil judge. The director was no longer permitted to + receive any gift, or legacy, or inheritance, from the liberality of his + spiritual-daughter: every testament contrary to this edict was declared + null and void; and the illegal donation was confiscated for the use of the + treasury. By a subsequent regulation, it should seem, that the same + provisions were extended to nuns and bishops; and that all persons of the + ecclesiastical order were rendered incapable of receiving any testamentary + gifts, and strictly confined to the natural and legal rights of + inheritance. As the guardian of domestic happiness and virtue, Valentinian + applied this severe remedy to the growing evil. In the capital of the + empire, the females of noble and opulent houses possessed a very ample + share of independent property: and many of those devout females had + embraced the doctrines of Christianity, not only with the cold assent of + the understanding, but with the warmth of affection, and perhaps with the + eagerness of fashion. They sacrificed the pleasures of dress and luxury; + and renounced, for the praise of chastity, the soft endearments of + conjugal society. Some ecclesiastic, of real or apparent sanctity, was + chosen to direct their timorous conscience, and to amuse the vacant + tenderness of their heart: and the unbounded confidence, which they + hastily bestowed, was often abused by knaves and enthusiasts; who hastened + from the extremities of the East, to enjoy, on a splendid theatre, the + privileges of the monastic profession. By their contempt of the world, + they insensibly acquired its most desirable advantages; the lively + attachment, perhaps of a young and beautiful woman, the delicate plenty of + an opulent household, and the respectful homage of the slaves, the + freedmen, and the clients of a senatorial family. The immense fortunes of + the Roman ladies were gradually consumed in lavish alms and expensive + pilgrimages; and the artful monk, who had assigned himself the first, or + possibly the sole place, in the testament of his spiritual daughter, still + presumed to declare, with the smooth face of hypocrisy, that <strong><em>he</em></strong> + was only the instrument of charity, and the steward of the poor. The + lucrative, but disgraceful, trade, which was exercised by the clergy to + defraud the expectations of the natural heirs, had provoked the + indignation of a superstitious age: and two of the most respectable of the + Latin fathers very honestly confess, that the ignominious edict of + Valentinian was just and necessary; and that the Christian priests had + deserved to lose a privilege, which was still enjoyed by comedians, + charioteers, and the ministers of idols. But the wisdom and authority of + the legislator are seldom victorious in a contest with the vigilant + dexterity of private interest; and Jerom, or Ambrose, might patiently + acquiesce in the justice of an ineffectual or salutary law. If the + ecclesiastics were checked in the pursuit of personal emolument, they + would exert a more laudable industry to increase the wealth of the church; + and dignify their covetousness with the specious names of piety and + patriotism.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Damasus, bishop of Rome, who was constrained to stigmatize the avarice of + his clergy by the publication of the law of Valentinian, had the good + sense, or the good fortune, to engage in his service the zeal and + abilities of the learned Jerom; and the grateful saint has celebrated the + merit and purity of a very ambiguous character. But the splendid vices of + the church of Rome, under the reign of Valentinian and Damasus, have been + curiously observed by the historian Ammianus, who delivers his impartial + sense in these expressive words: "The præfecture of Juventius was + accompanied with peace and plenty, but the tranquillity of his government + was soon disturbed by a bloody sedition of the distracted people. The + ardor of Damasus and Ursinus, to seize the episcopal seat, surpassed the + ordinary measure of human ambition. They contended with the rage of party; + the quarrel was maintained by the wounds and death of their followers; and + the præfect, unable to resist or appease the tumult, was + constrained, by superior violence, to retire into the suburbs. Damasus + prevailed: the well-disputed victory remained on the side of his faction; + one hundred and thirty-seven dead bodies were found in the <strong><em>Basilica</em></strong> + of Sicininus, where the Christians hold their religious assemblies; and it + was long before the angry minds of the people resumed their accustomed + tranquillity. When I consider the splendor of the capital, I am not + astonished that so valuable a prize should inflame the desires of + ambitious men, and produce the fiercest and most obstinate contests. The + successful candidate is secure, that he will be enriched by the offerings + of matrons; that, as soon as his dress is composed with becoming care and + elegance, he may proceed, in his chariot, through the streets of Rome; and + that the sumptuousness of the Imperial table will not equal the profuse + and delicate entertainments provided by the taste, and at the expense, of + the Roman pontiffs. How much more rationally (continues the honest Pagan) + would those pontiffs consult their true happiness, if, instead of alleging + the greatness of the city as an excuse for their manners, they would + imitate the exemplary life of some provincial bishops, whose temperance + and sobriety, whose mean apparel and downcast looks, recommend their pure + and modest virtue to the Deity and his true worshippers!" The schism of + Damasus and Ursinus was extinguished by the exile of the latter; and the + wisdom of the præfect Prætextatus restored the tranquillity of + the city. Prætextatus was a philosophic Pagan, a man of learning, of + taste, and politeness; who disguised a reproach in the form of a jest, + when he assured Damasus, that if he could obtain the bishopric of Rome, he + himself would immediately embrace the Christian religion. This lively + picture of the wealth and luxury of the popes in the fourth century + becomes the more curious, as it represents the intermediate degree between + the humble poverty of the apostolic fishermen, and the royal state of a + temporal prince, whose dominions extend from the confines of Naples to the + banks of the Po.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch25-p4" id="linkch25-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + When the suffrage of the generals and of the army committed the sceptre of + the Roman empire to the hands of Valentinian, his reputation in arms, his + military skill and experience, and his rigid attachment to the forms, as + well as spirit, of ancient discipline, were the principal motives of their + judicious choice. The eagerness of the troops, who pressed him to nominate + his colleague, was justified by the dangerous situation of public affairs; + and Valentinian himself was conscious, that the abilities of the most + active mind were unequal to the defence of the distant frontiers of an + invaded monarchy. As soon as the death of Julian had relieved the + Barbarians from the terror of his name, the most sanguine hopes of rapine + and conquest excited the nations of the East, of the North, and of the + South. Their inroads were often vexatious, and sometimes formidable; but, + during the twelve years of the reign of Valentinian, his firmness and + vigilance protected his own dominions; and his powerful genius seemed to + inspire and direct the feeble counsels of his brother. Perhaps the method + of annals would more forcibly express the urgent and divided cares of the + two emperors; but the attention of the reader, likewise, would be + distracted by a tedious and desultory narrative. A separate view of the + five great theatres of war; I. Germany; II. Britain; III. Africa; IV. The + East; and, V. The Danube; will impress a more distinct image of the + military state of the empire under the reigns of Valentinian and Valens.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. The ambassadors of the Alemanni had been offended by the harsh and + haughty behavior of Ursacius, master of the offices; who by an act of + unseasonable parsimony, had diminished the value, as well as the quantity, + of the presents to which they were entitled, either from custom or treaty, + on the accession of a new emperor. They expressed, and they communicated + to their countrymen, their strong sense of the national affront. The + irascible minds of the chiefs were exasperated by the suspicion of + contempt; and the martial youth crowded to their standard. Before + Valentinian could pass the Alps, the villages of Gaul were in flames; + before his general Degalaiphus could encounter the Alemanni, they had + secured the captives and the spoil in the forests of Germany. In the + beginning of the ensuing year, the military force of the whole nation, in + deep and solid columns, broke through the barrier of the Rhine, during the + severity of a northern winter. Two Roman counts were defeated and mortally + wounded; and the standard of the Heruli and Batavians fell into + the hands of the conquerors, who + displayed, with insulting shouts and menaces, the trophy of their victory. + The standard was recovered; but the Batavians had not redeemed the shame + of their disgrace and flight in the eyes of their severe judge. It was the + opinion of Valentinian, that his soldiers must learn to fear their + commander, before they could cease to fear the enemy. The troops were + solemnly assembled; and the trembling Batavians were enclosed within the + circle of the Imperial army. Valentinian then ascended his tribunal; and, + as if he disdained to punish cowardice with death, he inflicted a stain of + indelible ignominy on the officers, whose misconduct and pusillanimity + were found to be the first occasion of the defeat. The Batavians were + degraded from their rank, stripped of their arms, and condemned to be sold + for slaves to the highest bidder. At this tremendous sentence, the troops + fell prostrate on the ground, deprecated the indignation of their + sovereign, and protested, that, if he would indulge them in another trial, + they would approve themselves not unworthy of the name of Romans, and of + his soldiers. Valentinian, with affected reluctance, yielded to their + entreaties; the Batavians resumed their arms, and with their arms, the + invincible resolution of wiping away their disgrace in the blood of the + Alemanni. The principal command was declined by Dagalaiphus; and that + experienced general, who had represented, perhaps with too much prudence, + the extreme difficulties of the undertaking, had the mortification, before + the end of the campaign, of seeing his rival Jovinus convert those + difficulties into a decisive advantage over the scattered forces of the + Barbarians. At the head of a well-disciplined army of cavalry, infantry, + and light troops, Jovinus advanced, with cautious and rapid steps, to + Scarponna, * in the territory of Metz, where he surprised a large division + of the Alemanni, before they had time to run to their arms; and flushed + his soldiers with the confidence of an easy and bloodless victory. Another + division, or rather army, of the enemy, after the cruel and wanton + devastation of the adjacent country, reposed themselves on the shady banks + of the Moselle. Jovinus, who had viewed the ground with the eye of a + general, made a silent approach through a deep and woody vale, till he + could distinctly perceive the indolent security of the Germans. Some were + bathing their huge limbs in the river; others were combing their long and + flaxen hair; others again were swallowing large draughts of rich and + delicious wine. On a sudden they heard the sound of the Roman trumpet; + they saw the enemy in their camp. Astonishment produced disorder; disorder + was followed by flight and dismay; and the confused multitude of the + bravest warriors was pierced by the swords and javelins of the legionaries + and auxiliaries. The fugitives escaped to the third, and most + considerable, camp, in the Catalonian plains, near Chalons in Champagne: + the straggling detachments were hastily recalled to their standard; and + the Barbarian chiefs, alarmed and admonished by the fate of their + companions, prepared to encounter, in a decisive battle, the victorious + forces of the lieutenant of Valentinian. The bloody and obstinate conflict + lasted a whole summer's day, with equal valor, and with alternate success. + The Romans at length prevailed, with the loss of about twelve hundred men. + Six thousand of the Alemanni were slain, four thousand were wounded; and + the brave Jovinus, after chasing the flying remnant of their host as far + as the banks of the Rhine, returned to Paris, to receive the applause of + his sovereign, and the ensigns of the consulship for the ensuing year. The + triumph of the Romans was indeed sullied by their treatment of the captive + king, whom they hung on a gibbet, without the knowledge of their indignant + general. This disgraceful act of cruelty, which might be imputed to the + fury of the troops, was followed by the deliberate murder of Withicab, the + son of Vadomair; a German prince, of a weak and sickly constitution, but + of a daring and formidable spirit. The domestic assassin was instigated + and protected by the Romans; and the violation of the laws of humanity and + justice betrayed their secret apprehension of the weakness of the + declining empire. The use of the dagger is seldom adopted in public + councils, as long as they retain any confidence in the power of the sword.<br /> + </p> + <p> + While the Alemanni appeared to be humbled by their recent calamities, the + pride of Valentinian was mortified by the unexpected surprisal of + Moguntiacum, or Mentz, the principal city of the Upper Germany. In the + unsuspicious moment of a Christian festival, * Rando, a bold and artful + chieftain, who had long meditated his attempt, suddenly passed the Rhine; + entered the defenceless town, and retired with a multitude of captives of + either sex. Valentinian resolved to execute severe vengeance on the whole + body of the nation. Count Sebastian, with the bands of Italy and + Illyricum, was ordered to invade their country, most probably on the side + of Rhætia. The emperor in person, accompanied by his son Gratian, + passed the Rhine at the head of a formidable army, which was supported on + both flanks by Jovinus and Severus, the two masters-general of the cavalry + and infantry of the West. The Alemanni, unable to prevent the devastation + of their villages, fixed their camp on a lofty, and almost inaccessible, + mountain, in the modern duchy of Wirtemberg, and resolutely expected the + approach of the Romans. The life of Valentinian was exposed to imminent + danger by the intrepid curiosity with which he persisted to explore some + secret and unguarded path. A troop of Barbarians suddenly rose from their + ambuscade: and the emperor, who vigorously spurred his horse down a steep + and slippery descent, was obliged to leave behind him his armor-bearer, + and his helmet, magnificently enriched with gold and precious stones. At + the signal of the general assault, the Roman troops encompassed and + ascended the mountain of Solicinium on three different sides. Every step + which they gained, increased their ardor, and abated the resistance of the + enemy: and after their united forces had occupied the summit of the hill, + they impetuously urged the Barbarians down the northern descent, where + Count Sebastian was posted to intercept their retreat. After this signal + victory, Valentinian returned to his winter quarters at Treves; where he + indulged the public joy by the exhibition of splendid and triumphal games. + But the wise monarch, instead of aspiring to the conquest of Germany, + confined his attention to the important and laborious defence of the + Gallic frontier, against an enemy whose strength was renewed by a stream + of daring volunteers, which incessantly flowed from the most distant + tribes of the North. The banks of the Rhine from its source to the straits + of the ocean, were closely planted with strong castles and convenient + towers; new works, and new arms, were invented by the ingenuity of a + prince who was skilled in the mechanical arts; and his numerous levies of + Roman and Barbarian youth were severely trained in all the exercises of + war. The progress of the work, which was sometimes opposed by modest + representations, and sometimes by hostile attempts, secured the + tranquillity of Gaul during the nine subsequent years of the + administration of Valentinian.<br /> + </p> + <p> + That prudent emperor, who diligently practised the wise maxims of + Diocletian, was studious to foment and excite the intestine divisions of + the tribes of Germany. About the middle of the fourth century, the + countries, perhaps of Lusace and Thuringia, on either side of the Elbe, + were occupied by the vague dominion of the Burgundians; a warlike and + numerous people, * of the Vandal race, whose obscure name insensibly + swelled into a powerful kingdom, and has finally settled on a flourishing + province. The most remarkable circumstance in the ancient manners of the + Burgundians appears to have been the difference of their civil and + ecclesiastical constitution. The appellation of <strong><em>Hendinos</em></strong> + was given to the king or general, and the title of <strong><em>Sinistus</em></strong> + to the high priest, of the nation. The person of the priest was sacred, + and his dignity perpetual; but the temporal government was held by a very + precarious tenure. If the events of war accuses the courage or conduct of + the king, he was immediately deposed; and the injustice of his subjects + made him responsible for the fertility of the earth, and the regularity of + the seasons, which seemed to fall more properly within the sacerdotal + department. The disputed possession of some salt-pits engaged the Alemanni + and the Burgundians in frequent contests: the latter were easily tempted, + by the secret solicitations and liberal offers of the emperor; and their + fabulous descent from the Roman soldiers, who had formerly been left to + garrison the fortresses of Drusus, was admitted with mutual credulity, as + it was conducive to mutual interest. An army of fourscore thousand + Burgundians soon appeared on the banks of the Rhine; and impatiently + required the support and subsidies which Valentinian had promised: but + they were amused with excuses and delays, till at length, after a + fruitless expectation, they were compelled to retire. The arms and + fortifications of the Gallic frontier checked the fury of their just + resentment; and their massacre of the captives served to imbitter the + hereditary feud of the Burgundians and the Alemanni. The inconstancy of a + wise prince may, perhaps, be explained by some alteration of + circumstances; and perhaps it was the original design of Valentinian to + intimidate, rather than to destroy; as the balance of power would have + been equally overturned by the extirpation of either of the German + nations. Among the princes of the Alemanni, Macrianus, who, with a Roman + name, had assumed the arts of a soldier and a statesman, deserved his + hatred and esteem. The emperor himself, with a light and unencumbered + band, condescended to pass the Rhine, marched fifty miles into the + country, and would infallibly have seized the object of his pursuit, if + his judicious measures had not been defeated by the impatience of the + troops. Macrianus was afterwards admitted to the honor of a personal + conference with the emperor; and the favors which he received, fixed him, + till the hour of his death, a steady and sincere friend of the republic.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The land was covered by the fortifications of Valentinian; but the + sea-coast of Gaul and Britain was exposed to the depredations of the + Saxons. That celebrated name, in which we have a dear and domestic + interest, escaped the notice of Tacitus; and in the maps of Ptolemy, it + faintly marks the narrow neck of the Cimbric peninsula, and three small + islands towards the mouth of the Elbe. This contracted territory, the + present duchy of Sleswig, or perhaps of Holstein, was incapable of pouring + forth the inexhaustible swarms of Saxons who reigned over the ocean, who + filled the British island with their language, their laws, and their + colonies; and who so long defended the liberty of the North against the + arms of Charlemagne. The solution of this difficulty is easily derived + from the similar manners, and loose constitution, of the tribes of + Germany; which were blended with each other by the slightest accidents of + war or friendship. The situation of the native Saxons disposed them to + embrace the hazardous professions of fishermen and pirates; and the + success of their first adventures would naturally excite the emulation of + their bravest countrymen, who were impatient of the gloomy solitude of + their woods and mountains. Every tide might float down the Elbe whole + fleets of canoes, filled with hardy and intrepid associates, who aspired + to behold the unbounded prospect of the ocean, and to taste the wealth and + luxury of unknown worlds. It should seem probable, however, that the most + numerous auxiliaries of the Saxons were furnished by the nations who dwelt + along the shores of the Baltic. They possessed arms and ships, the art of + navigation, and the habits of naval war; but the difficulty of issuing + through the northern columns of Hercules (which, during several months of + the year, are obstructed with ice) confined their skill and courage within + the limits of a spacious lake. The rumor of the successful armaments which + sailed from the mouth of the Elbe, would soon provoke them to cross the + narrow isthmus of Sleswig, and to launch their vessels on the great sea. + The various troops of pirates and adventurers, who fought under the same + standard, were insensibly united in a permanent society, at first of + rapine, and afterwards of government. A military confederation was + gradually moulded into a national body, by the gentle operation of + marriage and consanguinity; and the adjacent tribes, who solicited the + alliance, accepted the name and laws, of the Saxons. If the fact were not + established by the most unquestionable evidence, we should appear to abuse + the credulity of our readers, by the description of the vessels in which + the Saxon pirates ventured to sport in the waves of the German Ocean, the + British Channel, and the Bay of Biscay. The keel of their large + flat-bottomed boats were framed of light timber, but the sides and upper + works consisted only of wicker, with a covering of strong hides. In the + course of their slow and distant navigations, they must always have been + exposed to the danger, and very frequently to the misfortune, of + shipwreck; and the naval annals of the Saxons were undoubtedly filled with + the accounts of the losses which they sustained on the coasts of Britain + and Gaul. But the daring spirit of the pirates braved the perils both of + the sea and of the shore: their skill was confirmed by the habits of + enterprise; the meanest of their mariners was alike capable of handling an + oar, of rearing a sail, or of conducting a vessel, and the Saxons rejoiced + in the appearance of a tempest, which concealed their design, and + dispersed the fleets of the enemy. After they had acquired an accurate + knowledge of the maritime provinces of the West, they extended the scene + of their depredations, and the most sequestered places had no reason to + presume on their security. The Saxon boats drew so little water that they + could easily proceed fourscore or a hundred miles up the great rivers; + their weight was so inconsiderable, that they were transported on wagons + from one river to another; and the pirates who had entered the mouth of + the Seine, or of the Rhine, might descend, with the rapid stream of the + Rhone, into the Mediterranean. Under the reign of Valentinian, the + maritime provinces of Gaul were afflicted by the Saxons: a military count + was stationed for the defence of the sea-coast, or Armorican limit; and + that officer, who found his strength, or his abilities, unequal to the + task, implored the assistance of Severus, master-general of the infantry. + The Saxons, surrounded and outnumbered, were forced to relinquish their + spoil, and to yield a select band of their tall and robust youth to serve + in the Imperial armies. They stipulated only a safe and honorable retreat; + and the condition was readily granted by the Roman general, who meditated + an act of perfidy, imprudent as it was inhuman, while a Saxon remained + alive, and in arms, to revenge the fate of their countrymen. The premature + eagerness of the infantry, who were secretly posted in a deep valley, + betrayed the ambuscade; and they would perhaps have fallen the victims of + their own treachery, if a large body of cuirassiers, alarmed by the noise + of the combat, had not hastily advanced to extricate their companions, and + to overwhelm the undaunted valor of the Saxons. Some of the prisoners were + saved from the edge of the sword, to shed their blood in the amphitheatre; + and the orator Symmachus complains, that twenty-nine of those desperate + savages, by strangling themselves with their own hands, had disappointed + the amusement of the public. Yet the polite and philosophic citizens of + Rome were impressed with the deepest horror, when they were informed, that + the Saxons consecrated to the gods the tithe of their <strong><em>human</em></strong> + spoil; and that they ascertained by lot the objects of the barbarous + sacrifice.<br /> + </p> + <p> + II. The fabulous colonies of Egyptians and Trojans, of Scandinavians and + Spaniards, which flattered the pride, and amused the credulity, of our + rude ancestors, have insensibly vanished in the light of science and + philosophy. The present age is satisfied with the simple and rational + opinion, that the islands of Great Britain and Ireland were gradually + peopled from the adjacent continent of Gaul. From the coast of Kent, to + the extremity of Caithness and Ulster, the memory of a Celtic origin was + distinctly preserved, in the perpetual resemblance of language, of + religion, and of manners; and the peculiar characters of the British + tribes might be naturally ascribed to the influence of accidental and + local circumstances. The Roman Province was reduced to the state of + civilized and peaceful servitude; the rights of savage freedom were + contracted to the narrow limits of Caledonia. The inhabitants of that + northern region were divided, as early as the reign of Constantine, + between the two great tribes of the Scots and of the Picts, who have since + experienced a very different fortune. The power, and almost the memory, of + the Picts have been extinguished by their successful rivals; and the + Scots, after maintaining for ages the dignity of an independent kingdom, + have multiplied, by an equal and voluntary union, the honors of the + English name. The hand of nature had contributed to mark the ancient + distinctions of the Scots and Picts. The former were the men of the hills, + and the latter those of the plain. The eastern coast of Caledonia may be + considered as a level and fertile country, which, even in a rude state of + tillage, was capable of producing a considerable quantity of corn; and the + epithet of <strong><em>cruitnich</em></strong>, or wheat-eaters, expressed + the contempt or envy of the carnivorous highlander. The cultivation of the + earth might introduce a more accurate separation of property, and the + habits of a sedentary life; but the love of arms and rapine was still the + ruling passion of the Picts; and their warriors, who stripped themselves + for a day of battle, were distinguished, in the eyes of the Romans, by the + strange fashion of painting their naked bodies with gaudy colors and + fantastic figures. The western part of Caledonia irregularly rises into + wild and barren hills, which scarcely repay the toil of the husbandman, + and are most profitably used for the pasture of cattle. The highlanders + were condemned to the occupations of shepherds and hunters; and, as they + seldom were fixed to any permanent habitation, they acquired the + expressive name of Scots, which, in the Celtic tongue, is said to be + equivalent to that of <strong><em>wanderers</em></strong>, or <strong><em>vagrants</em></strong>. + The inhabitants of a barren land were urged to seek a fresh supply of food + in the waters. The deep lakes and bays which intersect their country, are + plentifully supplied with fish; and they gradually ventured to cast their + nets in the waves of the ocean. The vicinity of the Hebrides, so profusely + scattered along the western coast of Scotland, tempted their curiosity, + and improved their skill; and they acquired, by slow degrees, the art, or + rather the habit, of managing their boats in a tempestuous sea, and of + steering their nocturnal course by the light of the well-known stars. The + two bold headlands of Caledonia almost touch the shores of a spacious + island, which obtained, from its luxuriant vegetation, the epithet of + <strong><em>Green</em></strong>; and has preserved, with a slight + alteration, the name of Erin, or Ierne, or Ireland. It is <strong><em>probable</em></strong>, + that in some remote period of antiquity, the fertile plains of Ulster + received a colony of hungry Scots; and that the strangers of the North, + who had dared to encounter the arms of the legions, spread their conquests + over the savage and unwarlike natives of a solitary island. It is <strong><em>certain</em></strong>, + that, in the declining age of the Roman empire, Caledonia, Ireland, and + the Isle of Man, were inhabited by the Scots, and that the kindred tribes, + who were often associated in military enterprise, were deeply affected by + the various accidents of their mutual fortunes. They long cherished the + lively tradition of their common name and origin; and the missionaries of + the Isle of Saints, who diffused the light of Christianity over North + Britain, established the vain opinion, that their Irish countrymen were + the natural, as well as spiritual, fathers of the Scottish race. The loose + and obscure tradition has been preserved by the venerable Bede, who + scattered some rays of light over the darkness of the eighth century. On + this slight foundation, a huge superstructure of fable was gradually + reared, by the bards and the monks; two orders of men, who equally abused + the privilege of fiction. The Scottish nation, with mistaken pride, + adopted their Irish genealogy; and the annals of a long line of imaginary + kings have been adorned by the fancy of Boethius, and the classic elegance + of Buchanan.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch25-p5" id="linkch25-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + V. + </h2> + <p> + Six years after the death of Constantine, the destructive inroads of the + Scots and Picts required the presence of his youngest son, who reigned in + the Western empire. Constans visited his British dominions: but we may + form some estimate of the importance of his achievements, by the language + of panegyric, which celebrates only his triumph over the elements or, in + other words, the good fortune of a safe and easy passage from the port of + Boulogne to the harbor of Sandwich. The calamities which the afflicted + provincials continued to experience, from foreign war and domestic + tyranny, were aggravated by the feeble and corrupt administration of the + eunuchs of Constantius; and the transient relief which they might obtain + from the virtues of Julian, was soon lost by the absence and death of + their benefactor. The sums of gold and silver, which had been painfully + collected, or liberally transmitted, for the payment of the troops, were + intercepted by the avarice of the commanders; discharges, or, at least, + exemptions, from the military service, were publicly sold; the distress of + the soldiers, who were injuriously deprived of their legal and scanty + subsistence, provoked them to frequent desertion; the nerves of discipline + were relaxed, and the highways were infested with robbers. The oppression + of the good, and the impunity of the wicked, equally contributed to + diffuse through the island a spirit of discontent and revolt; and every + ambitious subject, every desperate exile, might entertain a reasonable + hope of subverting the weak and distracted government of Britain. The + hostile tribes of the North, who detested the pride and power of the King + of the World, suspended their domestic feuds; and the Barbarians of the + land and sea, the Scots, the Picts, and the Saxons, spread themselves with + rapid and irresistible fury, from the wall of Antoninus to the shores of + Kent. Every production of art and nature, every object of convenience and + luxury, which they were incapable of creating by labor or procuring by + trade, was accumulated in the rich and fruitful province of Britain. A + philosopher may deplore the eternal discords of the human race, but he + will confess, that the desire of spoil is a more rational provocation than + the vanity of conquest. From the age of Constantine to the Plantagenets, + this rapacious spirit continued to instigate the poor and hardy + Caledonians; but the same people, whose generous humanity seems to inspire + the songs of Ossian, was disgraced by a savage ignorance of the virtues of + peace, and of the laws of war. Their southern neighbors have felt, and + perhaps exaggerated, the cruel depredations of the Scots and Picts; and a + valiant tribe of Caledonia, the Attacotti, the enemies, and afterwards the + soldiers, of Valentinian, are accused, by an eye-witness, of delighting in + the taste of human flesh. When they hunted the woods for prey, it is said, + that they attacked the shepherd rather than his flock; and that they + curiously selected the most delicate and brawny parts, both of males and + females, which they prepared for their horrid repasts. If, in the + neighborhood of the commercial and literary town of Glasgow, a race of + cannibals has really existed, we may contemplate, in the period of the + Scottish history, the opposite extremes of savage and civilized life. Such + reflections tend to enlarge the circle of our ideas; and to encourage the + pleasing hope, that New Zealand may produce, in some future age, the Hume + of the Southern Hemisphere.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Every messenger who escaped across the British Channel, conveyed the most + melancholy and alarming tidings to the ears of Valentinian; and the + emperor was soon informed that the two military commanders of the province + had been surprised and cut off by the Barbarians. Severus, count of the + domestics, was hastily despatched, and as suddenly recalled, by the court + of Treves. The representations of Jovinus served only to indicate the + greatness of the evil; and, after a long and serious consultation, the + defence, or rather the recovery, of Britain was intrusted to the abilities + of the brave Theodosius. The exploits of that general, the father of a + line of emperors, have been celebrated, with peculiar complacency, by the + writers of the age: but his real merit deserved their applause; and his + nomination was received, by the army and province, as a sure presage of + approaching victory. He seized the favorable moment of navigation, and + securely landed the numerous and veteran bands of the Heruli and + Batavians, the Jovians and the Victors. In his march from Sandwich to + London, Theodosius defeated several parties of the Barbarians, released a + multitude of captives, and, after distributing to his soldiers a small + portion of the spoil, established the fame of disinterested justice, by + the restitution of the remainder to the rightful proprietors. The citizens + of London, who had almost despaired of their safety, threw open their + gates; and as soon as Theodosius had obtained from the court of Treves the + important aid of a military lieutenant, and a civil governor, he executed, + with wisdom and vigor, the laborious task of the deliverance of Britain. + The vagrant soldiers were recalled to their standard; an edict of amnesty + dispelled the public apprehensions; and his cheerful example alleviated + the rigor of martial discipline. The scattered and desultory warfare of + the Barbarians, who infested the land and sea, deprived him of the glory + of a signal victory; but the prudent spirit, and consummate art, of the + Roman general, were displayed in the operations of two campaigns, which + successively rescued every part of the province from the hands of a cruel + and rapacious enemy. The splendor of the cities, and the security of the + fortifications, were diligently restored, by the paternal care of + Theodosius; who with a strong hand confined the trembling Caledonians to + the northern angle of the island; and perpetuated, by the name and + settlement of the new province of <strong><em>Valentia</em></strong>, the + glories of the reign of Valentinian. The voice of poetry and panegyric may + add, perhaps with some degree of truth, that the unknown regions of Thule + were stained with the blood of the Picts; that the oars of Theodosius + dashed the waves of the Hyperborean ocean; and that the distant Orkneys + were the scene of his naval victory over the Saxon pirates. He left the + province with a fair, as well as splendid, reputation; and was immediately + promoted to the rank of master-general of the cavalry, by a prince who + could applaud, without envy, the merit of his servants. In the important + station of the Upper Danube, the conqueror of Britain checked and defeated + the armies of the Alemanni, before he was chosen to suppress the revolt of + Africa.<br /> + </p> + <p> + III. The prince who refuses to be the judge, instructs the people to + consider him as the accomplice, of his ministers. The military command of + Africa had been long exercised by Count Romanus, and his abilities were + not inadequate to his station; but, as sordid interest was the sole motive + of his conduct, he acted, on most occasions, as if he had been the enemy + of the province, and the friend of the Barbarians of the desert. The three + flourishing cities of Oea, Leptis, and Sabrata, which, under the name of + Tripoli, had long constituted a federal union, were obliged, for the first + time, to shut their gates against a hostile invasion; several of their + most honorable citizens were surprised and massacred; the villages, and + even the suburbs, were pillaged; and the vines and fruit trees of that + rich territory were extirpated by the malicious savages of Getulia. The + unhappy provincials implored the protection of Romanus; but they soon + found that their military governor was not less cruel and rapacious than + the Barbarians. As they were incapable of furnishing the four thousand + camels, and the exorbitant present, which he required, before he would + march to the assistance of Tripoli; his demand was equivalent to a + refusal, and he might justly be accused as the author of the public + calamity. In the annual assembly of the three cities, they nominated two + deputies, to lay at the feet of Valentinian the customary offering of a + gold victory; and to accompany this tribute of duty, rather than of + gratitude, with their humble complaint, that they were ruined by the + enemy, and betrayed by their governor. If the severity of Valentinian had + been rightly directed, it would have fallen on the guilty head of Romanus. + But the count, long exercised in the arts of corruption, had despatched a + swift and trusty messenger to secure the venal friendship of Remigius, + master of the offices. The wisdom of the Imperial council was deceived by + artifice; and their honest indignation was cooled by delay. At length, + when the repetition of complaint had been justified by the repetition of + public misfortunes, the notary Palladius was sent from the court of + Treves, to examine the state of Africa, and the conduct of Romanus. The + rigid impartiality of Palladius was easily disarmed: he was tempted to + reserve for himself a part of the public treasure, which he brought with + him for the payment of the troops; and from the moment that he was + conscious of his own guilt, he could no longer refuse to attest the + innocence and merit of the count. The charge of the Tripolitans was + declared to be false and frivolous; and Palladius himself was sent back + from Treves to Africa, with a special commission to discover and prosecute + the authors of this impious conspiracy against the representatives of the + sovereign. His inquiries were managed with so much dexterity and success, + that he compelled the citizens of Leptis, who had sustained a recent siege + of eight days, to contradict the truth of their own decrees, and to + censure the behavior of their own deputies. A bloody sentence was + pronounced, without hesitation, by the rash and headstrong cruelty of + Valentinian. The president of Tripoli, who had presumed to pity the + distress of the province, was publicly executed at Utica; four + distinguished citizens were put to death, as the accomplices of the + imaginary fraud; and the tongues of two others were cut out, by the + express order of the emperor. Romanus, elated by impunity, and irritated + by resistance, was still continued in the military command; till the + Africans were provoked, by his avarice, to join the rebellious standard of + Firmus, the Moor.<br /> + </p> + <p> + His father Nabal was one of the richest and most powerful of the Moorish + princes, who acknowledged the supremacy of Rome. But as he left, either by + his wives or concubines, a very numerous posterity, the wealthy + inheritance was eagerly disputed; and Zamma, one of his sons, was slain in + a domestic quarrel by his brother Firmus. The implacable zeal, with which + Romanus prosecuted the legal revenge of this murder, could be ascribed + only to a motive of avarice, or personal hatred; but, on this occasion, + his claims were just; his influence was weighty; and Firmus clearly + understood, that he must either present his neck to the executioner, or + appeal from the sentence of the Imperial consistory, to his sword, and to + the people. He was received as the deliverer of his country; and, as soon + as it appeared that Romanus was formidable only to a submissive province, + the tyrant of Africa became the object of universal contempt. The ruin of + Cæsarea, which was plundered and burnt by the licentious Barbarians, + convinced the refractory cities of the danger of resistance; the power of + Firmus was established, at least in the provinces of Mauritania and + Numidia; and it seemed to be his only doubt whether he should assume the + diadem of a Moorish king, or the purple of a Roman emperor. But the + imprudent and unhappy Africans soon discovered, that, in this rash + insurrection, they had not sufficiently consulted their own strength, or + the abilities of their leader. Before he could procure any certain + intelligence, that the emperor of the West had fixed the choice of a + general, or that a fleet of transports was collected at the mouth of the + Rhone, he was suddenly informed that the great Theodosius, with a small + band of veterans, had landed near Igilgilis, or Gigeri, on the African + coast; and the timid usurper sunk under the ascendant of virtue and + military genius. Though Firmus possessed arms and treasures, his despair + of victory immediately reduced him to the use of those arts, which, in the + same country, and in a similar situation, had formerly been practised by + the crafty Jugurtha. He attempted to deceive, by an apparent submission, + the vigilance of the Roman general; to seduce the fidelity of his troops; + and to protract the duration of the war, by successively engaging the + independent tribes of Africa to espouse his quarrel, or to protect his + flight. Theodosius imitated the example, and obtained the success, of his + predecessor Metellus. When Firmus, in the character of a suppliant, + accused his own rashness, and humbly solicited the clemency of the + emperor, the lieutenant of Valentinian received and dismissed him with a + friendly embrace: but he diligently required the useful and substantial + pledges of a sincere repentance; nor could he be persuaded, by the + assurances of peace, to suspend, for an instant, the operations of an + active war. A dark conspiracy was detected by the penetration of + Theodosius; and he satisfied, without much reluctance, the public + indignation, which he had secretly excited. Several of the guilty + accomplices of Firmus were abandoned, according to ancient custom, to the + tumult of a military execution; many more, by the amputation of both their + hands, continued to exhibit an instructive spectacle of horror; the hatred + of the rebels was accompanied with fear; and the fear of the Roman + soldiers was mingled with respectful admiration. Amidst the boundless + plains of Getulia, and the innumerable valleys of Mount Atlas, it was + impossible to prevent the escape of Firmus; and if the usurper could have + tired the patience of his antagonist, he would have secured his person in + the depth of some remote solitude, and expected the hopes of a future + revolution. He was subdued by the perseverance of Theodosius; who had + formed an inflexible determination, that the war should end only by the + death of the tyrant; and that every nation of Africa, which presumed to + support his cause, should be involved in his ruin. At the head of a small + body of troops, which seldom exceeded three thousand five hundred men, the + Roman general advanced, with a steady prudence, devoid of rashness or of + fear, into the heart of a country, where he was sometimes attacked by + armies of twenty thousand Moors. The boldness of his charge dismayed the + irregular Barbarians; they were disconcerted by his seasonable and orderly + retreats; they were continually baffled by the unknown resources of the + military art; and they felt and confessed the just superiority which was + assumed by the leader of a civilized nation. When Theodosius entered the + extensive dominions of Igmazen, king of the Isaflenses, the haughty savage + required, in words of defiance, his name, and the object of his + expedition. "I am," replied the stern and disdainful count, "I am the + general of Valentinian, the lord of the world; who has sent me hither to + pursue and punish a desperate robber. Deliver him instantly into my hands; + and be assured, that if thou dost not obey the commands of my invincible + sovereign, thou, and the people over whom thou reignest, shall be utterly + extirpated." * As soon as Igmazen was satisfied, that his enemy had + strength and resolution to execute the fatal menace, he consented to + purchase a necessary peace by the sacrifice of a guilty fugitive. The + guards that were placed to secure the person of Firmus deprived him of the + hopes of escape; and the Moorish tyrant, after wine had extinguished the + sense of danger, disappointed the insulting triumph of the Romans, by + strangling himself in the night. His dead body, the only present which + Igmazen could offer to the conqueror, was carelessly thrown upon a camel; + and Theodosius, leading back his victorious troops to Sitifi, was saluted + by the warmest acclamations of joy and loyalty.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Africa had been lost by the vices of Romanus; it was restored by the + virtues of Theodosius; and our curiosity may be usefully directed to the + inquiry of the respective treatment which the two generals received from + the Imperial court. The authority of Count Romanus had been suspended by + the master-general of the cavalry; and he was committed to safe and + honorable custody till the end of the war. His crimes were proved by the + most authentic evidence; and the public expected, with some impatience, + the decree of severe justice. But the partial and powerful favor of + Mellobaudes encouraged him to challenge his legal judges, to obtain + repeated delays for the purpose of procuring a crowd of friendly + witnesses, and, finally, to cover his guilty conduct, by the additional + guilt of fraud and forgery. About the same time, the restorer of Britain + and Africa, on a vague suspicion that his name and services were superior + to the rank of a subject, was ignominiously beheaded at Carthage. + Valentinian no longer reigned; and the death of Theodosius, as well as the + impunity of Romanus, may justly be imputed to the arts of the ministers, + who abused the confidence, and deceived the inexperienced youth, of his + sons.<br /> + </p> + <p> + If the geographical accuracy of Ammianus had been fortunately bestowed on + the British exploits of Theodosius, we should have traced, with eager + curiosity, the distinct and domestic footsteps of his march. But the + tedious enumeration of the unknown and uninteresting tribes of Africa may + be reduced to the general remark, that they were all of the swarthy race + of the Moors; that they inhabited the back settlements of the Mauritanian + and Numidian province, the country, as they have since been termed by the + Arabs, of dates and of locusts; and that, as the Roman power declined in + Africa, the boundary of civilized manners and cultivated land was + insensibly contracted. Beyond the utmost limits of the Moors, the vast and + inhospitable desert of the South extends above a thousand miles to the + banks of the Niger. The ancients, who had a very faint and imperfect + knowledge of the great peninsula of Africa, were sometimes tempted to + believe, that the torrid zone must ever remain destitute of inhabitants; + and they sometimes amused their fancy by filling the vacant space with + headless men, or rather monsters; with horned and cloven-footed satyrs; + with fabulous centaurs; and with human pygmies, who waged a bold and + doubtful warfare against the cranes. Carthage would have trembled at the + strange intelligence that the countries on either side of the equator were + filled with innumerable nations, who differed only in their color from the + ordinary appearance of the human species: and the subjects of the Roman + empire might have anxiously expected, that the swarms of Barbarians, which + issued from the North, would soon be encountered from the South by new + swarms of Barbarians, equally fierce and equally formidable. These gloomy + terrors would indeed have been dispelled by a more intimate acquaintance + with the character of their African enemies. The inaction of the negroes + does not seem to be the effect either of their virtue or of their + pusillanimity. They indulge, like the rest of mankind, their passions and + appetites; and the adjacent tribes are engaged in frequent acts of + hostility. But their rude ignorance has never invented any effectual + weapons of defence, or of destruction; they appear incapable of forming + any extensive plans of government, or conquest; and the obvious + inferiority of their mental faculties has been discovered and abused by + the nations of the temperate zone. Sixty thousand blacks are annually + embarked from the coast of Guinea, never to return to their native + country; but they are embarked in chains; and this constant emigration, + which, in the space of two centuries, might have furnished armies to + overrun the globe, accuses the guilt of Europe, and the weakness of + Africa.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch25-p6" id="linkch25-p6"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + VI. + </h2> + <p> + IV. The ignominious treaty, which saved the army of Jovian, had been + faithfully executed on the side of the Romans; and as they had solemnly + renounced the sovereignty and alliance of Armenia and Iberia, those + tributary kingdoms were exposed, without protection, to the arms of the + Persian monarch. Sapor entered the Armenian territories at the head of a + formidable host of cuirassiers, of archers, and of mercenary foot; but it + was the invariable practice of Sapor to mix war and negotiation, and to + consider falsehood and perjury as the most powerful instruments of regal + policy. He affected to praise the prudent and moderate conduct of the king + of Armenia; and the unsuspicious Tiranus was persuaded, by the repeated + assurances of insidious friendship, to deliver his person into the hands + of a faithless and cruel enemy. In the midst of a splendid entertainment, + he was bound in chains of silver, as an honor due to the blood of the + Arsacides; and, after a short confinement in the Tower of Oblivion at + Ecbatana, he was released from the miseries of life, either by his own + dagger, or by that of an assassin. * The kingdom of Armenia was reduced to + the state of a Persian province; the administration was shared between a + distinguished satrap and a favorite eunuch; and Sapor marched, without + delay, to subdue the martial spirit of the Iberians. Sauromaces, who + reigned in that country by the permission of the emperors, was expelled by + a superior force; and, as an insult on the majesty of Rome, the king of + kings placed a diadem on the head of his abject vassal Aspacuras. The city + of Artogerassa was the only place of Armenia which presumed to resist the + efforts of his arms. The treasure deposited in that strong fortress + tempted the avarice of Sapor; but the danger of Olympias, the wife or + widow of the Armenian king, excited the public compassion, and animated + the desperate valor of her subjects and soldiers. § The Persians were + surprised and repulsed under the walls of Artogerassa, by a bold and + well-concerted sally of the besieged. But the forces of Sapor were + continually renewed and increased; the hopeless courage of the garrison + was exhausted; the strength of the walls yielded to the assault; and the + proud conqueror, after wasting the rebellious city with fire and sword, + led away captive an unfortunate queen; who, in a more auspicious hour, had + been the destined bride of the son of Constantine. Yet if Sapor already + triumphed in the easy conquest of two dependent kingdoms, he soon felt, + that a country is unsubdued as long as the minds of the people are + actuated by a hostile and contumacious spirit. The satraps, whom he was + obliged to trust, embraced the first opportunity of regaining the + affection of their countrymen, and of signalizing their immortal hatred to + the Persian name. Since the conversion of the Armenians and Iberians, + these nations considered the Christians as the favorites, and the Magians + as the adversaries, of the Supreme Being: the influence of the clergy, + over a superstitious people was uniformly exerted in the cause of Rome; + and as long as the successors of Constantine disputed with those of + Artaxerxes the sovereignty of the intermediate provinces, the religious + connection always threw a decisive advantage into the scale of the empire. + A numerous and active party acknowledged Para, the son of Tiranus, as the + lawful sovereign of Armenia, and his title to the throne was deeply rooted + in the hereditary succession of five hundred years. By the unanimous + consent of the Iberians, the country was equally divided between the rival + princes; and Aspacuras, who owed his diadem to the choice of Sapor, was + obliged to declare, that his regard for his children, who were detained as + hostages by the tyrant, was the only consideration which prevented him + from openly renouncing the alliance of Persia. The emperor Valens, who + respected the obligations of the treaty, and who was apprehensive of + involving the East in a dangerous war, ventured, with slow and cautious + measures, to support the Roman party in the kingdoms of Iberia and + Armenia. $ Twelve legions established the authority of Sauromaces on the + banks of the Cyrus. The Euphrates was protected by the valor of Arintheus. + A powerful army, under the command of Count Trajan, and of Vadomair, king + of the Alemanni, fixed their camp on the confines of Armenia. But they + were strictly enjoined not to commit the first hostilities, which might be + understood as a breach of the treaty: and such was the implicit obedience + of the Roman general, that they retreated, with exemplary patience, under + a shower of Persian arrows till they had clearly acquired a just title to + an honorable and legitimate victory. Yet these appearances of war + insensibly subsided in a vain and tedious negotiation. The contending + parties supported their claims by mutual reproaches of perfidy and + ambition; and it should seem, that the original treaty was expressed in + very obscure terms, since they were reduced to the necessity of making + their inconclusive appeal to the partial testimony of the generals of the + two nations, who had assisted at the negotiations. The invasion of the + Goths and Huns which soon afterwards shook the foundations of the Roman + empire, exposed the provinces of Asia to the arms of Sapor. But the + declining age, and perhaps the infirmities, of the monarch suggested new + maxims of tranquillity and moderation. His death, which happened in the + full maturity of a reign of seventy years, changed in a moment the court + and councils of Persia; and their attention was most probably engaged by + domestic troubles, and the distant efforts of a Carmanian war. The + remembrance of ancient injuries was lost in the enjoyment of peace. The + kingdoms of Armenia and Iberia were permitted, by the mutual, though tacit + consent of both empires, to resume their doubtful neutrality. In the first + years of the reign of Theodosius, a Persian embassy arrived at + Constantinople, to excuse the unjustifiable measures of the former reign; + and to offer, as the tribute of friendship, or even of respect, a splendid + present of gems, of silk, and of Indian elephants.<br /> + </p> + <p> + In the general picture of the affairs of the East under the reign of + Valens, the adventures of Para form one of the most striking and singular + objects. The noble youth, by the persuasion of his mother Olympias, had + escaped through the Persian host that besieged Artogerassa, and implored + the protection of the emperor of the East. By his timid councils, Para was + alternately supported, and recalled, and restored, and betrayed. The hopes + of the Armenians were sometimes raised by the presence of their natural + sovereign, * and the ministers of Valens were satisfied, that they + preserved the integrity of the public faith, if their vassal was not + suffered to assume the diadem and title of King. But they soon repented of + their own rashness. They were confounded by the reproaches and threats of + the Persian monarch. They found reason to distrust the cruel and + inconstant temper of Para himself; who sacrificed, to the slightest + suspicions, the lives of his most faithful servants, and held a secret and + disgraceful correspondence with the assassin of his father and the enemy + of his country. Under the specious pretence of consulting with the emperor + on the subject of their common interest, Para was persuaded to descend + from the mountains of Armenia, where his party was in arms, and to trust + his independence and safety to the discretion of a perfidious court. The + king of Armenia, for such he appeared in his own eyes and in those of his + nation, was received with due honors by the governors of the provinces + through which he passed; but when he arrived at Tarsus in Cilicia, his + progress was stopped under various pretences; his motions were watched + with respectful vigilance, and he gradually discovered, that he was a + prisoner in the hands of the Romans. Para suppressed his indignation, + dissembled his fears, and after secretly preparing his escape, mounted on + horseback with three hundred of his faithful followers. The officer + stationed at the door of his apartment immediately communicated his flight + to the consular of Cilicia, who overtook him in the suburbs, and + endeavored without success, to dissuade him from prosecuting his rash and + dangerous design. A legion was ordered to pursue the royal fugitive; but + the pursuit of infantry could not be very alarming to a body of light + cavalry; and upon the first cloud of arrows that was discharged into the + air, they retreated with precipitation to the gates of Tarsus. After an + incessant march of two days and two nights, Para and his Armenians reached + the banks of the Euphrates; but the passage of the river which they were + obliged to swim, * was attended with some delay and some loss. The country + was alarmed; and the two roads, which were only separated by an interval + of three miles had been occupied by a thousand archers on horseback, under + the command of a count and a tribune. Para must have yielded to superior + force, if the accidental arrival of a friendly traveller had not revealed + the danger and the means of escape. A dark and almost impervious path + securely conveyed the Armenian troop through the thicket; and Para had + left behind him the count and the tribune, while they patiently expected + his approach along the public highways. They returned to the Imperial + court to excuse their want of diligence or success; and seriously alleged, + that the king of Armenia, who was a skilful magician, had transformed + himself and his followers, and passed before their eyes under a borrowed + shape. After his return to his native kingdom, Para still continued to + profess himself the friend and ally of the Romans: but the Romans had + injured him too deeply ever to forgive, and the secret sentence of his + death was signed in the council of Valens. The execution of the bloody + deed was committed to the subtle prudence of Count Trajan; and he had the + merit of insinuating himself into the confidence of the credulous prince, + that he might find an opportunity of stabbing him to the heart Para was + invited to a Roman banquet, which had been prepared with all the pomp and + sensuality of the East; the hall resounded with cheerful music, and the + company was already heated with wine; when the count retired for an + instant, drew his sword, and gave the signal of the murder. A robust and + desperate Barbarian instantly rushed on the king of Armenia; and though he + bravely defended his life with the first weapon that chance offered to his + hand, the table of the Imperial general was stained with the royal blood + of a guest, and an ally. Such were the weak and wicked maxims of the Roman + administration, that, to attain a doubtful object of political interest + the laws of nations, and the sacred rights of hospitality were inhumanly + violated in the face of the world.<br /> + </p> + <p> + V. During a peaceful interval of thirty years, the Romans secured their + frontiers, and the Goths extended their dominions. The victories of the + great Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, and the most noble of the race of + the Amali, have been compared, by the enthusiasm of his countrymen, to the + exploits of Alexander; with this singular, and almost incredible, + difference, that the martial spirit of the Gothic hero, instead of being + supported by the vigor of youth, was displayed with glory and success in + the extreme period of human life, between the age of fourscore and one + hundred and ten years. The independent tribes were persuaded, or + compelled, to acknowledge the king of the Ostrogoths as the sovereign of + the Gothic nation: the chiefs of the Visigoths, or Thervingi, renounced + the royal title, and assumed the more humble appellation of <strong><em>Judges</em></strong>; + and, among those judges, Athanaric, Fritigern, and Alavivus, were the most + illustrious, by their personal merit, as well as by their vicinity to the + Roman provinces. These domestic conquests, which increased the military + power of Hermanric, enlarged his ambitious designs. He invaded the + adjacent countries of the North; and twelve considerable nations, whose + names and limits cannot be accurately defined, successively yielded to the + superiority of the Gothic arms. The Heruli, who inhabited the marshy lands + near the lake Mæotis, were renowned for their strength and agility; + and the assistance of their light infantry was eagerly solicited, and + highly esteemed, in all the wars of the Barbarians. But the active spirit + of the Heruli was subdued by the slow and steady perseverance of the + Goths; and, after a bloody action, in which the king was slain, the + remains of that warlike tribe became a useful accession to the camp of + Hermanric. He then marched against the Venedi; unskilled in the use of + arms, and formidable only by their numbers, which filled the wide extent + of the plains of modern Poland. The victorious Goths, who were not + inferior in numbers, prevailed in the contest, by the decisive advantages + of exercise and discipline. After the submission of the Venedi, the + conqueror advanced, without resistance, as far as the confines of the + Æstii; an ancient people, whose name is still preserved in the + province of Esthonia. Those distant inhabitants of the Baltic coast were + supported by the labors of agriculture, enriched by the trade of amber, + and consecrated by the peculiar worship of the Mother of the Gods. But the + scarcity of iron obliged the Æstian warriors to content themselves + with wooden clubs; and the reduction of that wealthy country is ascribed + to the prudence, rather than to the arms, of Hermanric. His dominions, + which extended from the Danube to the Baltic, included the native seats, + and the recent acquisitions, of the Goths; and he reigned over the + greatest part of Germany and Scythia with the authority of a conqueror, + and sometimes with the cruelty of a tyrant. But he reigned over a part of + the globe incapable of perpetuating and adorning the glory of its heroes. + The name of Hermanric is almost buried in oblivion; his exploits are + imperfectly known; and the Romans themselves appeared unconscious of the + progress of an aspiring power which threatened the liberty of the North, + and the peace of the empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The Goths had contracted an hereditary attachment for the Imperial house + of Constantine, of whose power and liberality they had received so many + signal proofs. They respected the public peace; and if a hostile band + sometimes presumed to pass the Roman limit, their irregular conduct was + candidly ascribed to the ungovernable spirit of the Barbarian youth. Their + contempt for two new and obscure princes, who had been raised to the + throne by a popular election, inspired the Goths with bolder hopes; and, + while they agitated some design of marching their confederate force under + the national standard, they were easily tempted to embrace the party of + Procopius; and to foment, by their dangerous aid, the civil discord of the + Romans. The public treaty might stipulate no more than ten thousand + auxiliaries; but the design was so zealously adopted by the chiefs of the + Visigoths, that the army which passed the Danube amounted to the number of + thirty thousand men. They marched with the proud confidence, that their + invincible valor would decide the fate of the Roman empire; and the + provinces of Thrace groaned under the weight of the Barbarians, who + displayed the insolence of masters and the licentiousness of enemies. But + the intemperance which gratified their appetites, retarded their progress; + and before the Goths could receive any certain intelligence of the defeat + and death of Procopius, they perceived, by the hostile state of the + country, that the civil and military powers were resumed by his successful + rival. A chain of posts and fortifications, skilfully disposed by Valens, + or the generals of Valens, resisted their march, prevented their retreat, + and intercepted their subsistence. The fierceness of the Barbarians was + tamed and suspended by hunger; they indignantly threw down their arms at + the feet of the conqueror, who offered them food and chains: the numerous + captives were distributed in all the cities of the East; and the + provincials, who were soon familiarized with their savage appearance, + ventured, by degrees, to measure their own strength with these formidable + adversaries, whose name had so long been the object of their terror. The + king of Scythia (and Hermanric alone could deserve so lofty a title) was + grieved and exasperated by this national calamity. His ambassadors loudly + complained, at the court of Valens, of the infraction of the ancient and + solemn alliance, which had so long subsisted between the Romans and the + Goths. They alleged, that they had fulfilled the duty of allies, by + assisting the kinsman and successor of the emperor Julian; they required + the immediate restitution of the noble captives; and they urged a very + singular claim, that the Gothic generals marching in arms, and in hostile + array, were entitled to the sacred character and privileges of + ambassadors. The decent, but peremptory, refusal of these extravagant + demands, was signified to the Barbarians by Victor, master-general of the + cavalry; who expressed, with force and dignity, the just complaints of the + emperor of the East. The negotiation was interrupted; and the manly + exhortations of Valentinian encouraged his timid brother to vindicate the + insulted majesty of the empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The splendor and magnitude of this Gothic war are celebrated by a + contemporary historian: but the events scarcely deserve the attention of + posterity, except as the preliminary steps of the approaching decline and + fall of the empire. Instead of leading the nations of Germany and Scythia + to the banks of the Danube, or even to the gates of Constantinople, the + aged monarch of the Goths resigned to the brave Athanaric the danger and + glory of a defensive war, against an enemy, who wielded with a feeble hand + the powers of a mighty state. A bridge of boats was established upon the + Danube; the presence of Valens animated his troops; and his ignorance of + the art of war was compensated by personal bravery, and a wise deference + to the advice of Victor and Arintheus, his masters-general of the cavalry + and infantry. The operations of the campaign were conducted by their skill + and experience; but they found it impossible to drive the Visigoths from + their strong posts in the mountains; and the devastation of the plains + obliged the Romans themselves to repass the Danube on the approach of + winter. The incessant rains, which swelled the waters of the river, + produced a tacit suspension of arms, and confined the emperor Valens, + during the whole course of the ensuing summer, to his camp of + Marcianopolis. The third year of the war was more favorable to the Romans, + and more pernicious to the Goths. The interruption of trade deprived the + Barbarians of the objects of luxury, which they already confounded with + the necessaries of life; and the desolation of a very extensive tract of + country threatened them with the horrors of famine. Athanaric was + provoked, or compelled, to risk a battle, which he lost, in the plains; + and the pursuit was rendered more bloody by the cruel precaution of the + victorious generals, who had promised a large reward for the head of every + Goth that was brought into the Imperial camp. The submission of the + Barbarians appeased the resentment of Valens and his council: the emperor + listened with satisfaction to the flattering and eloquent remonstrance of + the senate of Constantinople, which assumed, for the first time, a share + in the public deliberations; and the same generals, Victor and Arintheus, + who had successfully directed the conduct of the war, were empowered to + regulate the conditions of peace. The freedom of trade, which the Goths + had hitherto enjoyed, was restricted to two cities on the Danube; the + rashness of their leaders was severely punished by the suppression of + their pensions and subsidies; and the exception, which was stipulated in + favor of Athanaric alone, was more advantageous than honorable to the + Judge of the Visigoths. Athanaric, who, on this occasion, appears to have + consulted his private interest, without expecting the orders of his + sovereign, supported his own dignity, and that of his tribe, in the + personal interview which was proposed by the ministers of Valens. He + persisted in his declaration, that it was impossible for him, without + incurring the guilt of perjury, ever to set his foot on the territory of + the empire; and it is more than probable, that his regard for the sanctity + of an oath was confirmed by the recent and fatal examples of Roman + treachery. The Danube, which separated the dominions of the two + independent nations, was chosen for the scene of the conference. The + emperor of the East, and the Judge of the Visigoths, accompanied by an + equal number of armed followers, advanced in their respective barges to + the middle of the stream. After the ratification of the treaty, and the + delivery of hostages, Valens returned in triumph to Constantinople; and + the Goths remained in a state of tranquillity about six years; till they + were violently impelled against the Roman empire by an innumerable host of + Scythians, who appeared to issue from the frozen regions of the North.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The emperor of the West, who had resigned to his brother the command of + the Lower Danube, reserved for his immediate care the defence of the Rhætian + and Illyrian provinces, which spread so many hundred miles along the + greatest of the European rivers. The active policy of Valentinian was + continually employed in adding new fortifications to the security of the + frontier: but the abuse of this policy provoked the just resentment of the + Barbarians. The Quadi complained, that the ground for an intended fortress + had been marked out on their territories; and their complaints were urged + with so much reason and moderation, that Equitius, master-general of + Illyricum, consented to suspend the prosecution of the work, till he + should be more clearly informed of the will of his sovereign. This fair + occasion of injuring a rival, and of advancing the fortune of his son, was + eagerly embraced by the inhuman Maximin, the præfect, or rather + tyrant, of Gaul. The passions of Valentinian were impatient of control; + and he credulously listened to the assurances of his favorite, that if the + government of Valeria, and the direction of the work, were intrusted to + the zeal of his son Marcellinus, the emperor should no longer be + importuned with the audacious remonstrances of the Barbarians. The + subjects of Rome, and the natives of Germany, were insulted by the + arrogance of a young and worthless minister, who considered his rapid + elevation as the proof and reward of his superior merit. He affected, + however, to receive the modest application of Gabinius, king of the Quadi, + with some attention and regard: but this artful civility concealed a dark + and bloody design, and the credulous prince was persuaded to accept the + pressing invitation of Marcellinus. I am at a loss how to vary the + narrative of similar crimes; or how to relate, that, in the course of the + same year, but in remote parts of the empire, the inhospitable table of + two Imperial generals was stained with the royal blood of two guests and + allies, inhumanly murdered by their order, and in their presence. The fate + of Gabinius, and of Para, was the same: but the cruel death of their + sovereign was resented in a very different manner by the servile temper of + the Armenians, and the free and daring spirit of the Germans. The Quadi + were much declined from that formidable power, which, in the time of + Marcus Antoninus, had spread terror to the gates of Rome. But they still + possessed arms and courage; their courage was animated by despair, and + they obtained the usual reenforcement of the cavalry of their Sarmatian + allies. So improvident was the assassin Marcellinus, that he chose the + moment when the bravest veterans had been drawn away, to suppress the + revolt of Firmus; and the whole province was exposed, with a very feeble + defence, to the rage of the exasperated Barbarians. They invaded Pannonia + in the season of harvest; unmercifully destroyed every object of plunder + which they could not easily transport; and either disregarded, or + demolished, the empty fortifications. The princess Constantia, the + daughter of the emperor Constantius, and the granddaughter of the great + Constantine, very narrowly escaped. That royal maid, who had innocently + supported the revolt of Procopius, was now the destined wife of the heir + of the Western empire. She traversed the peaceful province with a splendid + and unarmed train. Her person was saved from danger, and the republic from + disgrace, by the active zeal of Messala, governor of the provinces. As + soon as he was informed that the village, where she stopped only to dine, + was almost encompassed by the Barbarians, he hastily placed her in his own + chariot, and drove full speed till he reached the gates of Sirmium, which + were at the distance of six-and-twenty miles. Even Sirmium might not have + been secure, if the Quadi and Sarmatians had diligently advanced during + the general consternation of the magistrates and people. Their delay + allowed Probus, the Prætorian præfect, sufficient time to + recover his own spirits, and to revive the courage of the citizens. He + skilfully directed their strenuous efforts to repair and strengthen the + decayed fortifications; and procured the seasonable and effectual + assistance of a company of archers, to protect the capital of the Illyrian + provinces. Disappointed in their attempts against the walls of Sirmium, + the indignant Barbarians turned their arms against the master general of + the frontier, to whom they unjustly attributed the murder of their king. + Equitius could bring into the field no more than two legions; but they + contained the veteran strength of the Mæsian and Pannonian bands. + The obstinacy with which they disputed the vain honors of rank and + precedency, was the cause of their destruction; and while they acted with + separate forces and divided councils, they were surprised and slaughtered + by the active vigor of the Sarmatian horse. The success of this invasion + provoked the emulation of the bordering tribes; and the province of Mæsia + would infallibly have been lost, if young Theodosius, the duke, or + military commander, of the frontier, had not signalized, in the defeat of + the public enemy, an intrepid genius, worthy of his illustrious father, + and of his future greatness.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch25-p7" id="linkch25-p7"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXV: Reigns Of Jovian And Valentinian, Division Of The Empire.—Part + VII. + </h2> + <p> + The mind of Valentinian, who then resided at Treves, was deeply affected + by the calamities of Illyricum; but the lateness of the season suspended + the execution of his designs till the ensuing spring. He marched in + person, with a considerable part of the forces of Gaul, from the banks of + the Moselle: and to the suppliant ambassadors of the Sarmatians, who met + him on the way, he returned a doubtful answer, that, as soon as he reached + the scene of action, he should examine, and pronounce. When he arrived at + Sirmium, he gave audience to the deputies of the Illyrian provinces; who + loudly congratulated their own felicity under the auspicious government of + Probus, his Prætorian præfect. Valentinian, who was flattered + by these demonstrations of their loyalty and gratitude, imprudently asked + the deputy of Epirus, a Cynic philosopher of intrepid sincerity, whether + he was freely sent by the wishes of the province. "With tears and groans + am I sent," replied Iphicles, "by a reluctant people." The emperor paused: + but the impunity of his ministers established the pernicious maxim, that + they might oppress his subjects, without injuring his service. A strict + inquiry into their conduct would have relieved the public discontent. The + severe condemnation of the murder of Gabinius, was the only measure which + could restore the confidence of the Germans, and vindicate the honor of + the Roman name. But the haughty monarch was incapable of the magnanimity + which dares to acknowledge a fault. He forgot the provocation, remembered + only the injury, and advanced into the country of the Quadi with an + insatiate thirst of blood and revenge. The extreme devastation, and + promiscuous massacre, of a savage war, were justified, in the eyes of the + emperor, and perhaps in those of the world, by the cruel equity of + retaliation: and such was the discipline of the Romans, and the + consternation of the enemy, that Valentinian repassed the Danube without + the loss of a single man. As he had resolved to complete the destruction + of the Quadi by a second campaign, he fixed his winter quarters at + Bregetio, on the Danube, near the Hungarian city of Presburg. While the + operations of war were suspended by the severity of the weather, the Quadi + made an humble attempt to deprecate the wrath of their conqueror; and, at + the earnest persuasion of Equitius, their ambassadors were introduced into + the Imperial council. They approached the throne with bended bodies and + dejected countenances; and without daring to complain of the murder of + their king, they affirmed, with solemn oaths, that the late invasion was + the crime of some irregular robbers, which the public council of the + nation condemned and abhorred. The answer of the emperor left them but + little to hope from his clemency or compassion. He reviled, in the most + intemperate language, their baseness, their ingratitude, their insolence. + His eyes, his voice, his color, his gestures, expressed the violence of + his ungoverned fury; and while his whole frame was agitated with + convulsive passion, a large blood vessel suddenly burst in his body; and + Valentinian fell speechless into the arms of his attendants. Their pious + care immediately concealed his situation from the crowd; but, in a few + minutes, the emperor of the West expired in an agony of pain, retaining + his senses till the last; and struggling, without success, to declare his + intentions to the generals and ministers, who surrounded the royal couch. + Valentinian was about fifty-four years of age; and he wanted only one + hundred days to accomplish the twelve years of his reign.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The polygamy of Valentinian is seriously attested by an ecclesiastical + historian. "The empress Severa (I relate the fable) admitted into her + familiar society the lovely Justina, the daughter of an Italian governor: + her admiration of those naked charms, which she had often seen in the + bath, was expressed with such lavish and imprudent praise, that the + emperor was tempted to introduce a second wife into his bed; and his + public edict extended to all the subjects of the empire the same domestic + privilege which he had assumed for himself." But we may be assured, from + the evidence of reason as well as history, that the two marriages of + Valentinian, with Severa, and with Justina, were <strong><em>successively</em></strong> + contracted; and that he used the ancient permission of divorce, which was + still allowed by the laws, though it was condemned by the church. Severa + was the mother of Gratian, who seemed to unite every claim which could + entitle him to the undoubted succession of the Western empire. He was the + eldest son of a monarch whose glorious reign had confirmed the free and + honorable choice of his fellow-soldiers. Before he had attained the ninth + year of his age, the royal youth received from the hands of his indulgent + father the purple robe and diadem, with the title of Augustus; the + election was solemnly ratified by the consent and applause of the armies + of Gaul; and the name of Gratian was added to the names of Valentinian and + Valens, in all the legal transactions of the Roman government. By his + marriage with the granddaughter of Constantine, the son of Valentinian + acquired all the hereditary rights of the Flavian family; which, in a + series of three Imperial generations, were sanctified by time, religion, + and the reverence of the people. At the death of his father, the royal + youth was in the seventeenth year of his age; and his virtues already + justified the favorable opinion of the army and the people. But Gratian + resided, without apprehension, in the palace of Treves; whilst, at the + distance of many hundred miles, Valentinian suddenly expired in the camp + of Bregetio. The passions, which had been so long suppressed by the + presence of a master, immediately revived in the Imperial council; and the + ambitious design of reigning in the name of an infant, was artfully + executed by Mellobaudes and Equitius, who commanded the attachment of the + Illyrian and Italian bands. They contrived the most honorable pretences to + remove the popular leaders, and the troops of Gaul, who might have + asserted the claims of the lawful successor; they suggested the necessity + of extinguishing the hopes of foreign and domestic enemies, by a bold and + decisive measure. The empress Justina, who had been left in a palace about + one hundred miles from Bregetio, was respectively invited to appear in the + camp, with the son of the deceased emperor. On the sixth day after the + death of Valentinian, the infant prince of the same name, who was only + four years old, was shown, in the arms of his mother, to the legions; and + solemnly invested, by military acclamation, with the titles and ensigns of + supreme power. The impending dangers of a civil war were seasonably + prevented by the wise and moderate conduct of the emperor Gratian. He + cheerfully accepted the choice of the army; declared that he should always + consider the son of Justina as a brother, not as a rival; and advised the + empress, with her son Valentinian to fix their residence at Milan, in the + fair and peaceful province of Italy; while he assumed the more arduous + command of the countries beyond the Alps. Gratian dissembled his + resentment till he could safely punish, or disgrace, the authors of the + conspiracy; and though he uniformly behaved with tenderness and regard to + his infant colleague, he gradually confounded, in the administration of + the Western empire, the office of a guardian with the authority of a + sovereign. The government of the Roman world was exercised in the united + names of Valens and his two nephews; but the feeble emperor of the East, + who succeeded to the rank of his elder brother, never obtained any weight + or influence in the councils of the West.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch26-p1" id="linkch26-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Manners Of The Pastoral Nations.—Progress Of The Huns, From +China To Europe.—Flight Of The Goths.—They Pass The Danube. +—Gothic War.—Defeat And Death Of Valens.—Gratian Invests +Theodosius With The Eastern Empire.—His Character And Success. +—Peace And Settlement Of The Goths.<br /> +</pre> + <p> + In the second year of the reign of Valentinian and Valens, on the morning + of the twenty-first day of July, the greatest part of the Roman world was + shaken by a violent and destructive earthquake. The impression was + communicated to the waters; the shores of the Mediterranean were left dry, + by the sudden retreat of the sea; great quantities of fish were caught + with the hand; large vessels were stranded on the mud; and a curious + spectator amused his eye, or rather his fancy, by contemplating the + various appearance of valleys and mountains, which had never, since the + formation of the globe, been exposed to the sun. But the tide soon + returned, with the weight of an immense and irresistible deluge, which was + severely felt on the coasts of Sicily, of Dalmatia, of Greece, and of + Egypt: large boats were transported, and lodged on the roofs of houses, or + at the distance of two miles from the shore; the people, with their + habitations, were swept away by the waters; and the city of Alexandria + annually commemorated the fatal day, on which fifty thousand persons had + lost their lives in the inundation. This calamity, the report of which was + magnified from one province to another, astonished and terrified the + subjects of Rome; and their affrighted imagination enlarged the real + extent of a momentary evil. They recollected the preceding earthquakes, + which had subverted the cities of Palestine and Bithynia: they considered + these alarming strokes as the prelude only of still more dreadful + calamities, and their fearful vanity was disposed to confound the symptoms + of a declining empire and a sinking world. It was the fashion of the times + to attribute every remarkable event to the particular will of the Deity; + the alterations of nature were connected, by an invisible chain, with the + moral and metaphysical opinions of the human mind; and the most sagacious + divines could distinguish, according to the color of their respective + prejudices, that the establishment of heresy tended to produce an + earthquake; or that a deluge was the inevitable consequence of the + progress of sin and error. Without presuming to discuss the truth or + propriety of these lofty speculations, the historian may content himself + with an observation, which seems to be justified by experience, that man + has much more to fear from the passions of his fellow-creatures, than from + the convulsions of the elements. The mischievous effects of an earthquake, + or deluge, a hurricane, or the eruption of a volcano, bear a very + inconsiderable portion to the ordinary calamities of war, as they are now + moderated by the prudence or humanity of the princes of Europe, who amuse + their own leisure, and exercise the courage of their subjects, in the + practice of the military art. But the laws and manners of modern nations + protect the safety and freedom of the vanquished soldier; and the peaceful + citizen has seldom reason to complain, that his life, or even his fortune, + is exposed to the rage of war. In the disastrous period of the fall of the + Roman empire, which may justly be dated from the reign of Valens, the + happiness and security of each individual were personally attacked; and + the arts and labors of ages were rudely defaced by the Barbarians of + Scythia and Germany. The invasion of the Huns precipitated on the + provinces of the West the Gothic nation, which advanced, in less than + forty years, from the Danube to the Atlantic, and opened a way, by the + success of their arms, to the inroads of so many hostile tribes, more + savage than themselves. The original principle of motion was concealed in + the remote countries of the North; and the curious observation of the + pastoral life of the Scythians, or Tartars, will illustrate the latent + cause of these destructive emigrations.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The different characters that mark the civilized nations of the globe, may + be ascribed to the use, and the abuse, of reason; which so variously + shapes, and so artificially composes, the manners and opinions of a + European, or a Chinese. But the operation of instinct is more sure and + simple than that of reason: it is much easier to ascertain the appetites + of a quadruped than the speculations of a philosopher; and the savage + tribes of mankind, as they approach nearer to the condition of animals, + preserve a stronger resemblance to themselves and to each other. The + uniform stability of their manners is the natural consequence of the + imperfection of their faculties. Reduced to a similar situation, their + wants, their desires, their enjoyments, still continue the same: and the + influence of food or climate, which, in a more improved state of society, + is suspended, or subdued, by so many moral causes, most powerfully + contributes to form, and to maintain, the national character of + Barbarians. In every age, the immense plains of Scythia, or Tartary, have + been inhabited by vagrant tribes of hunters and shepherds, whose indolence + refuses to cultivate the earth, and whose restless spirit disdains the + confinement of a sedentary life. In every age, the Scythians, and Tartars, + have been renowned for their invincible courage and rapid conquests. The + thrones of Asia have been repeatedly overturned by the shepherds of the + North; and their arms have spread terror and devastation over the most + fertile and warlike countries of Europe. On this occasion, as well as on + many others, the sober historian is forcibly awakened from a pleasing + vision; and is compelled, with some reluctance, to confess, that the + pastoral manners, which have been adorned with the fairest attributes of + peace and innocence, are much better adapted to the fierce and cruel + habits of a military life. To illustrate this observation, I shall now + proceed to consider a nation of shepherds and of warriors, in the three + important articles of, I. Their diet; II. Their habitations; and, III. + Their exercises. The narratives of antiquity are justified by the + experience of modern times; and the banks of the Borysthenes, of the + Volga, or of the Selinga, will indifferently present the same uniform + spectacle of similar and native manners.<br /> + </p> + <p> + I. The corn, or even the rice, which constitutes the ordinary and + wholesome food of a civilized people, can be obtained only by the patient + toil of the husbandman. Some of the happy savages, who dwell between the + tropics, are plentifully nourished by the liberality of nature; but in the + climates of the North, a nation of shepherds is reduced to their flocks + and herds. The skilful practitioners of the medical art will determine (if + they are able to determine) how far the temper of the human mind may be + affected by the use of animal, or of vegetable, food; and whether the + common association of carnivorous and cruel deserves to be considered in + any other light than that of an innocent, perhaps a salutary, prejudice of + humanity. Yet, if it be true, that the sentiment of compassion is + imperceptibly weakened by the sight and practice of domestic cruelty, we + may observe, that the horrid objects which are disguised by the arts of + European refinement, are exhibited in their naked and most disgusting + simplicity in the tent of a Tartarian shepherd. The ox, or the sheep, are + slaughtered by the same hand from which they were accustomed to receive + their daily food; and the bleeding limbs are served, with very little + preparation, on the table of their unfeeling murderer. In the military + profession, and especially in the conduct of a numerous army, the + exclusive use of animal food appears to be productive of the most solid + advantages. Corn is a bulky and perishable commodity; and the large + magazines, which are indispensably necessary for the subsistence of our + troops, must be slowly transported by the labor of men or horses. But the + flocks and herds, which accompany the march of the Tartars, afford a sure + and increasing supply of flesh and milk: in the far greater part of the + uncultivated waste, the vegetation of the grass is quick and luxuriant; + and there are few places so extremely barren, that the hardy cattle of the + North cannot find some tolerable pasture. The supply is multiplied and + prolonged by the undistinguishing appetite, and patient abstinence, of the + Tartars. They indifferently feed on the flesh of those animals that have + been killed for the table, or have died of disease. Horseflesh, which in + every age and country has been proscribed by the civilized nations of + Europe and Asia, they devour with peculiar greediness; and this singular + taste facilitates the success of their military operations. The active + cavalry of Scythia is always followed, in their most distant and rapid + incursions, by an adequate number of spare horses, who may be occasionally + used, either to redouble the speed, or to satisfy the hunger, of the + Barbarians. Many are the resources of courage and poverty. When the forage + round a camp of Tartars is almost consumed, they slaughter the greatest + part of their cattle, and preserve the flesh, either smoked, or dried in + the sun. On the sudden emergency of a hasty march, they provide themselves + with a sufficient quantity of little balls of cheese, or rather of hard + curd, which they occasionally dissolve in water; and this unsubstantial + diet will support, for many days, the life, and even the spirits, of the + patient warrior. But this extraordinary abstinence, which the Stoic would + approve, and the hermit might envy, is commonly succeeded by the most + voracious indulgence of appetite. The wines of a happier climate are the + most grateful present, or the most valuable commodity, that can be offered + to the Tartars; and the only example of their industry seems to consist in + the art of extracting from mare's milk a fermented liquor, which possesses + a very strong power of intoxication. Like the animals of prey, the + savages, both of the old and new world, experience the alternate + vicissitudes of famine and plenty; and their stomach is inured to sustain, + without much inconvenience, the opposite extremes of hunger and of + intemperance.<br /> + </p> + <p> + II. In the ages of rustic and martial simplicity, a people of soldiers and + husbandmen are dispersed over the face of an extensive and cultivated + country; and some time must elapse before the warlike youth of Greece or + Italy could be assembled under the same standard, either to defend their + own confines, or to invade the territories of the adjacent tribes. The + progress of manufactures and commerce insensibly collects a large + multitude within the walls of a city: but these citizens are no longer + soldiers; and the arts which adorn and improve the state of civil society, + corrupt the habits of the military life. The pastoral manners of the + Scythians seem to unite the different advantages of simplicity and + refinement. The individuals of the same tribe are constantly assembled, + but they are assembled in a camp; and the native spirit of these dauntless + shepherds is animated by mutual support and emulation. The houses of the + Tartars are no more than small tents, of an oval form, which afford a cold + and dirty habitation, for the promiscuous youth of both sexes. The palaces + of the rich consist of wooden huts, of such a size that they may be + conveniently fixed on large wagons, and drawn by a team perhaps of twenty + or thirty oxen. The flocks and herds, after grazing all day in the + adjacent pastures, retire, on the approach of night, within the protection + of the camp. The necessity of preventing the most mischievous confusion, + in such a perpetual concourse of men and animals, must gradually + introduce, in the distribution, the order, and the guard, of the + encampment, the rudiments of the military art. As soon as the forage of a + certain district is consumed, the tribe, or rather army, of shepherds, + makes a regular march to some fresh pastures; and thus acquires, in the + ordinary occupations of the pastoral life, the practical knowledge of one + of the most important and difficult operations of war. The choice of + stations is regulated by the difference of the seasons: in the summer, the + Tartars advance towards the North, and pitch their tents on the banks of a + river, or, at least, in the neighborhood of a running stream. But in the + winter, they return to the South, and shelter their camp, behind some + convenient eminence, against the winds, which are chilled in their passage + over the bleak and icy regions of Siberia. These manners are admirably + adapted to diffuse, among the wandering tribes, the spirit of emigration + and conquest. The connection between the people and their territory is of + so frail a texture, that it may be broken by the slightest accident. The + camp, and not the soil, is the native country of the genuine Tartar. + Within the precincts of that camp, his family, his companions, his + property, are always included; and, in the most distant marches, he is + still surrounded by the objects which are dear, or valuable, or familiar + in his eyes. The thirst of rapine, the fear, or the resentment of injury, + the impatience of servitude, have, in every age, been sufficient causes to + urge the tribes of Scythia boldly to advance into some unknown countries, + where they might hope to find a more plentiful subsistence or a less + formidable enemy. The revolutions of the North have frequently determined + the fate of the South; and in the conflict of hostile nations, the victor + and the vanquished have alternately drove, and been driven, from the + confines of China to those of Germany. These great emigrations, which have + been sometimes executed with almost incredible diligence, were rendered + more easy by the peculiar nature of the climate. It is well known that the + cold of Tartary is much more severe than in the midst of the temperate + zone might reasonably be expected; this uncommon rigor is attributed to + the height of the plains, which rise, especially towards the East, more + than half a mile above the level of the sea; and to the quantity of + saltpetre with which the soil is deeply impregnated. In the winter season, + the broad and rapid rivers, that discharge their waters into the Euxine, + the Caspian, or the Icy Sea, are strongly frozen; the fields are covered + with a bed of snow; and the fugitive, or victorious, tribes may securely + traverse, with their families, their wagons, and their cattle, the smooth + and hard surface of an immense plain.<br /> + </p> + <p> + III. The pastoral life, compared with the labors of agriculture and + manufactures, is undoubtedly a life of idleness; and as the most honorable + shepherds of the Tartar race devolve on their captives the domestic + management of the cattle, their own leisure is seldom disturbed by any + servile and assiduous cares. But this leisure, instead of being devoted to + the soft enjoyments of love and harmony, is usefully spent in the violent + and sanguinary exercise of the chase. The plains of Tartary are filled + with a strong and serviceable breed of horses, which are easily trained + for the purposes of war and hunting. The Scythians of every age have been + celebrated as bold and skilful riders; and constant practice had seated + them so firmly on horseback, that they were supposed by strangers to + perform the ordinary duties of civil life, to eat, to drink, and even to + sleep, without dismounting from their steeds. They excel in the dexterous + management of the lance; the long Tartar bow is drawn with a nervous arm; + and the weighty arrow is directed to its object with unerring aim and + irresistible force. These arrows are often pointed against the harmless + animals of the desert, which increase and multiply in the absence of their + most formidable enemy; the hare, the goat, the roebuck, the fallow-deer, + the stag, the elk, and the antelope. The vigor and patience, both of the + men and horses, are continually exercised by the fatigues of the chase; + and the plentiful supply of game contributes to the subsistence, and even + luxury, of a Tartar camp. But the exploits of the hunters of Scythia are + not confined to the destruction of timid or innoxious beasts; they boldly + encounter the angry wild boar, when he turns against his pursuers, excite + the sluggish courage of the bear, and provoke the fury of the tiger, as he + slumbers in the thicket. Where there is danger, there may be glory; and + the mode of hunting, which opens the fairest field to the exertions of + valor, may justly be considered as the image, and as the school, of war. + The general hunting matches, the pride and delight of the Tartar princes, + compose an instructive exercise for their numerous cavalry. A circle is + drawn, of many miles in circumference, to encompass the game of an + extensive district; and the troops that form the circle regularly advance + towards a common centre; where the captive animals, surrounded on every + side, are abandoned to the darts of the hunters. In this march, which + frequently continues many days, the cavalry are obliged to climb the + hills, to swim the rivers, and to wind through the valleys, without + interrupting the prescribed order of their gradual progress. They acquire + the habit of directing their eye, and their steps, to a remote object; of + preserving their intervals of suspending or accelerating their pace, + according to the motions of the troops on their right and left; and of + watching and repeating the signals of their leaders. Their leaders study, + in this practical school, the most important lesson of the military art; + the prompt and accurate judgment of ground, of distance, and of time. To + employ against a human enemy the same patience and valor, the same skill + and discipline, is the only alteration which is required in real war; and + the amusements of the chase serve as a prelude to the conquest of an + empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The political society of the ancient Germans has the appearance of a + voluntary alliance of independent warriors. The tribes of Scythia, + distinguished by the modern appellation of <strong><em>Hords</em></strong>, + assume the form of a numerous and increasing family; which, in the course + of successive generations, has been propagated from the same original + stock. The meanest, and most ignorant, of the Tartars, preserve, with + conscious pride, the inestimable treasure of their genealogy; and whatever + distinctions of rank may have been introduced, by the unequal distribution + of pastoral wealth, they mutually respect themselves, and each other, as + the descendants of the first founder of the tribe. The custom, which still + prevails, of adopting the bravest and most faithful of the captives, may + countenance the very probable suspicion, that this extensive consanguinity + is, in a great measure, legal and fictitious. But the useful prejudice, + which has obtained the sanction of time and opinion, produces the effects + of truth; the haughty Barbarians yield a cheerful and voluntary obedience + to the head of their blood; and their chief, or <strong><em>mursa</em></strong>, + as the representative of their great father, exercises the authority of a + judge in peace, and of a leader in war. In the original state of the + pastoral world, each of the <strong><em>mursas</em></strong> (if we may + continue to use a modern appellation) acted as the independent chief of a + large and separate family; and the limits of their peculiar territories + were gradually fixed by superior force, or mutual consent. But the + constant operation of various and permanent causes contributed to unite + the vagrant Hords into national communities, under the command of a + supreme head. The weak were desirous of support, and the strong were + ambitious of dominion; the power, which is the result of union, oppressed + and collected the divided force of the adjacent tribes; and, as the + vanquished were freely admitted to share the advantages of victory, the + most valiant chiefs hastened to range themselves and their followers under + the formidable standard of a confederate nation. The most successful of + the Tartar princes assumed the military command, to which he was entitled + by the superiority, either of merit or of power. He was raised to the + throne by the acclamations of his equals; and the title of <strong><em>Khan</em></strong> + expresses, in the language of the North of Asia, the full extent of the + regal dignity. The right of hereditary succession was long confined to the + blood of the founder of the monarchy; and at this moment all the Khans, + who reign from Crimea to the wall of China, are the lineal descendants of + the renowned Zingis. But, as it is the indispensable duty of a Tartar + sovereign to lead his warlike subjects into the field, the claims of an + infant are often disregarded; and some royal kinsman, distinguished by his + age and valor, is intrusted with the sword and sceptre of his predecessor. + Two distinct and regular taxes are levied on the tribes, to support the + dignity of the national monarch, and of their peculiar chief; and each of + those contributions amounts to the tithe, both of their property, and of + their spoil. A Tartar sovereign enjoys the tenth part of the wealth of his + people; and as his own domestic riches of flocks and herds increase in a + much larger proportion, he is able plentifully to maintain the rustic + splendor of his court, to reward the most deserving, or the most favored + of his followers, and to obtain, from the gentle influence of corruption, + the obedience which might be sometimes refused to the stern mandates of + authority. The manners of his subjects, accustomed, like himself, to blood + and rapine, might excuse, in their eyes, such partial acts of tyranny, as + would excite the horror of a civilized people; but the power of a despot + has never been acknowledged in the deserts of Scythia. The immediate + jurisdiction of the khan is confined within the limits of his own tribe; + and the exercise of his royal prerogative has been moderated by the + ancient institution of a national council. The Coroultai, or Diet, of the + Tartars, was regularly held in the spring and autumn, in the midst of a + plain; where the princes of the reigning family, and the mursas of the + respective tribes, may conveniently assemble on horseback, with their + martial and numerous trains; and the ambitious monarch, who reviewed the + strength, must consult the inclination of an armed people. The rudiments + of a feudal government may be discovered in the constitution of the + Scythian or Tartar nations; but the perpetual conflict of those hostile + nations has sometimes terminated in the establishment of a powerful and + despotic empire. The victor, enriched by the tribute, and fortified by the + arms of dependent kings, has spread his conquests over Europe or Asia: the + successful shepherds of the North have submitted to the confinement of + arts, of laws, and of cities; and the introduction of luxury, after + destroying the freedom of the people, has undermined the foundations of + the throne.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The memory of past events cannot long be preserved in the frequent and + remote emigrations of illiterate Barbarians. The modern Tartars are + ignorant of the conquests of their ancestors; and our knowledge of the + history of the Scythians is derived from their intercourse with the + learned and civilized nations of the South, the Greeks, the Persians, and + the Chinese. The Greeks, who navigated the Euxine, and planted their + colonies along the sea-coast, made the gradual and imperfect discovery of + Scythia; from the Danube, and the confines of Thrace, as far as the frozen + Mæotis, the seat of eternal winter, and Mount Caucasus, which, in + the language of poetry, was described as the utmost boundary of the earth. + They celebrated, with simple credulity, the virtues of the pastoral life: + they entertained a more rational apprehension of the strength and numbers + of the warlike Barbarians, who contemptuously baffled the immense armament + of Darius, the son of Hystaspes. The Persian monarchs had extended their + western conquests to the banks of the Danube, and the limits of European + Scythia. The eastern provinces of their empire were exposed to the + Scythians of Asia; the wild inhabitants of the plains beyond the Oxus and + the Jaxartes, two mighty rivers, which direct their course towards the + Caspian Sea. The long and memorable quarrel of Iran and Touran is still + the theme of history or romance: the famous, perhaps the fabulous, valor + of the Persian heroes, Rustan and Asfendiar, was signalized, in the + defence of their country, against the Afrasiabs of the North; and the + invincible spirit of the same Barbarians resisted, on the same ground, the + victorious arms of Cyrus and Alexander. In the eyes of the Greeks and + Persians, the real geography of Scythia was bounded, on the East, by the + mountains of Imaus, or Caf; and their distant prospect of the extreme and + inaccessible parts of Asia was clouded by ignorance, or perplexed by + fiction. But those inaccessible regions are the ancient residence of a + powerful and civilized nation, which ascends, by a probable tradition, + above forty centuries; and which is able to verify a series of near two + thousand years, by the perpetual testimony of accurate and contemporary + historians. The annals of China illustrate the state and revolutions of + the pastoral tribes, which may still be distinguished by the vague + appellation of Scythians, or Tartars; the vassals, the enemies, and + sometimes the conquerors, of a great empire; whose policy has uniformly + opposed the blind and impetuous valor of the Barbarians of the North. From + the mouth of the Danube to the Sea of Japan, the whole longitude of + Scythia is about one hundred and ten degrees, which, in that parallel, are + equal to more than five thousand miles. The latitude of these extensive + deserts cannot be so easily, or so accurately, measured; but, from the + fortieth degree, which touches the wall of China, we may securely advance + above a thousand miles to the northward, till our progress is stopped by + the excessive cold of Siberia. In that dreary climate, instead of the + animated picture of a Tartar camp, the smoke that issues from the earth, + or rather from the snow, betrays the subterraneous dwellings of the + Tongouses, and the Samoides: the want of horses and oxen is imperfectly + supplied by the use of reindeer, and of large dogs; and the conquerors of + the earth insensibly degenerate into a race of deformed and diminutive + savages, who tremble at the sound of arms.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch26-p2" id="linkch26-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The Huns, who under the reign of Valens threatened the empire of Rome, had + been formidable, in a much earlier period, to the empire of China. Their + ancient, perhaps their original, seat was an extensive, though dry and + barren, tract of country, immediately on the north side of the great wall. + Their place is at present occupied by the forty-nine Hords or Banners of + the Mongous, a pastoral nation, which consists of about two hundred + thousand families. But the valor of the Huns had extended the narrow + limits of their dominions; and their rustic chiefs, who assumed the + appellation of <strong><em>Tanjou</em></strong>, gradually became the + conquerors, and the sovereigns of a formidable empire. Towards the East, + their victorious arms were stopped only by the ocean; and the tribes, + which are thinly scattered between the Amoor and the extreme peninsula of + Corea, adhered, with reluctance, to the standard of the Huns. On the West, + near the head of the Irtish, in the valleys of Imaus, they found a more + ample space, and more numerous enemies. One of the lieutenants of the + Tanjou subdued, in a single expedition, twenty-six nations; the Igours, + distinguished above the Tartar race by the use of letters, were in the + number of his vassals; and, by the strange connection of human events, the + flight of one of those vagrant tribes recalled the victorious Parthians + from the invasion of Syria. On the side of the North, the ocean was + assigned as the limit of the power of the Huns. Without enemies to resist + their progress, or witnesses to contradict their vanity, they might + securely achieve a real, or imaginary, conquest of the frozen regions of + Siberia. The <strong><em>Northern Sea</em></strong> was fixed as the + remote boundary of their empire. But the name of that sea, on whose shores + the patriot Sovou embraced the life of a shepherd and an exile, may be + transferred, with much more probability, to the Baikal, a capacious basin, + above three hundred miles in length, which disdains the modest appellation + of a lake and which actually communicates with the seas of the North, by + the long course of the Angara, the Tongusha, and the Jenissea. The + submission of so many distant nations might flatter the pride of the + Tanjou; but the valor of the Huns could be rewarded only by the enjoyment + of the wealth and luxury of the empire of the South. In the third century + before the Christian æra, a wall of fifteen hundred miles in length + was constructed, to defend the frontiers of China against the inroads of + the Huns; but this stupendous work, which holds a conspicuous place in the + map of the world, has never contributed to the safety of an unwarlike + people. The cavalry of the Tanjou frequently consisted of two or three + hundred thousand men, formidable by the matchless dexterity with which + they managed their bows and their horses: by their hardy patience in + supporting the inclemency of the weather; and by the incredible speed of + their march, which was seldom checked by torrents, or precipices, by the + deepest rivers, or by the most lofty mountains. They spread themselves at + once over the face of the country; and their rapid impetuosity surprised, + astonished, and disconcerted the grave and elaborate tactics of a Chinese + army. The emperor Kaoti, a soldier of fortune, whose personal merit had + raised him to the throne, marched against the Huns with those veteran + troops which had been trained in the civil wars of China. But he was soon + surrounded by the Barbarians; and, after a siege of seven days, the + monarch, hopeless of relief, was reduced to purchase his deliverance by an + ignominious capitulation. The successors of Kaoti, whose lives were + dedicated to the arts of peace, or the luxury of the palace, submitted to + a more permanent disgrace. They too hastily confessed the insufficiency of + arms and fortifications. They were too easily convinced, that while the + blazing signals announced on every side the approach of the Huns, the + Chinese troops, who slept with the helmet on their head, and the cuirass + on their back, were destroyed by the incessant labor of ineffectual + marches. A regular payment of money, and silk, was stipulated as the + condition of a temporary and precarious peace; and the wretched expedient + of disguising a real tribute, under the names of a gift or subsidy, was + practised by the emperors of China as well as by those of Rome. But there + still remained a more disgraceful article of tribute, which violated the + sacred feelings of humanity and nature. The hardships of the savage life, + which destroy in their infancy the children who are born with a less + healthy and robust constitution, introduced a remarkable disproportion + between the numbers of the two sexes. The Tartars are an ugly and even + deformed race; and while they consider their own women as the instruments + of domestic labor, their desires, or rather their appetites, are directed + to the enjoyment of more elegant beauty. A select band of the fairest + maidens of China was annually devoted to the rude embraces of the Huns; + and the alliance of the haughty Tanjous was secured by their marriage with + the genuine, or adopted, daughters of the Imperial family, which vainly + attempted to escape the sacrilegious pollution. The situation of these + unhappy victims is described in the verses of a Chinese princess, who + laments that she had been condemned by her parents to a distant exile, + under a Barbarian husband; who complains that sour milk was her only + drink, raw flesh her only food, a tent her only palace; and who expresses, + in a strain of pathetic simplicity, the natural wish, that she were + transformed into a bird, to fly back to her dear country; the object of + her tender and perpetual regret.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The conquest of China has been twice achieved by the pastoral tribes of + the North: the forces of the Huns were not inferior to those of the + Moguls, or of the Mantcheoux; and their ambition might entertain the most + sanguine hopes of success. But their pride was humbled, and their progress + was checked, by the arms and policy of Vouti, the fifth emperor of the + powerful dynasty of the Han. In his long reign of fifty-four years, the + Barbarians of the southern provinces submitted to the laws and manners of + China; and the ancient limits of the monarchy were enlarged, from the + great river of Kiang, to the port of Canton. Instead of confining himself + to the timid operations of a defensive war, his lieutenants penetrated + many hundred miles into the country of the Huns. In those boundless + deserts, where it is impossible to form magazines, and difficult to + transport a sufficient supply of provisions, the armies of Vouti were + repeatedly exposed to intolerable hardships: and, of one hundred and forty + thousand soldiers, who marched against the Barbarians, thirty thousand + only returned in safety to the feet of their master. These losses, + however, were compensated by splendid and decisive success. The Chinese + generals improved the superiority which they derived from the temper of + their arms, their chariots of war, and the service of their Tartar + auxiliaries. The camp of the Tanjou was surprised in the midst of sleep + and intemperance; and, though the monarch of the Huns bravely cut his way + through the ranks of the enemy, he left above fifteen thousand of his + subjects on the field of battle. Yet this signal victory, which was + preceded and followed by many bloody engagements, contributed much less to + the destruction of the power of the Huns than the effectual policy which + was employed to detach the tributary nations from their obedience. + Intimidated by the arms, or allured by the promises, of Vouti and his + successors, the most considerable tribes, both of the East and of the + West, disclaimed the authority of the Tanjou. While some acknowledged + themselves the allies or vassals of the empire, they all became the + implacable enemies of the Huns; and the numbers of that haughty people, as + soon as they were reduced to their native strength, might, perhaps, have + been contained within the walls of one of the great and populous cities of + China. The desertion of his subjects, and the perplexity of a civil war, + at length compelled the Tanjou himself to renounce the dignity of an + independent sovereign, and the freedom of a warlike and high-spirited + nation. He was received at Sigan, the capital of the monarchy, by the + troops, the mandarins, and the emperor himself, with all the honors that + could adorn and disguise the triumph of Chinese vanity. A magnificent + palace was prepared for his reception; his place was assigned above all + the princes of the royal family; and the patience of the Barbarian king + was exhausted by the ceremonies of a banquet, which consisted of eight + courses of meat, and of nine solemn pieces of music. But he performed, on + his knees, the duty of a respectful homage to the emperor of China; + pronounced, in his own name, and in the name of his successors, a + perpetual oath of fidelity; and gratefully accepted a seal, which was + bestowed as the emblem of his regal dependence. After this humiliating + submission, the Tanjous sometimes departed from their allegiance and + seized the favorable moments of war and rapine; but the monarchy of the + Huns gradually declined, till it was broken, by civil dissension, into two + hostile and separate kingdoms. One of the princes of the nation was urged, + by fear and ambition, to retire towards the South with eight hords, which + composed between forty and fifty thousand families. He obtained, with the + title of Tanjou, a convenient territory on the verge of the Chinese + provinces; and his constant attachment to the service of the empire was + secured by weakness, and the desire of revenge. From the time of this + fatal schism, the Huns of the North continued to languish about fifty + years; till they were oppressed on every side by their foreign and + domestic enemies. The proud inscription of a column, erected on a lofty + mountain, announced to posterity, that a Chinese army had marched seven + hundred miles into the heart of their country. The Sienpi, a tribe of + Oriental Tartars, retaliated the injuries which they had formerly + sustained; and the power of the Tanjous, after a reign of thirteen hundred + years, was utterly destroyed before the end of the first century of the + Christian æra.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The fate of the vanquished Huns was diversified by the various influence + of character and situation. Above one hundred thousand persons, the + poorest, indeed, and the most pusillanimous of the people, were contented + to remain in their native country, to renounce their peculiar name and + origin, and to mingle with the victorious nation of the Sienpi. + Fifty-eight hords, about two hundred thousand men, ambitious of a more + honorable servitude, retired towards the South; implored the protection of + the emperors of China; and were permitted to inhabit, and to guard, the + extreme frontiers of the province of Chansi and the territory of Ortous. + But the most warlike and powerful tribes of the Huns maintained, in their + adverse fortune, the undaunted spirit of their ancestors. The Western + world was open to their valor; and they resolved, under the conduct of + their hereditary chieftains, to conquer and subdue some remote country, + which was still inaccessible to the arms of the Sienpi, and to the laws of + China. The course of their emigration soon carried them beyond the + mountains of Imaus, and the limits of the Chinese geography; but we are + able to distinguish the two great divisions of these formidable exiles, + which directed their march towards the Oxus, and towards the Volga. The + first of these colonies established their dominion in the fruitful and + extensive plains of Sogdiana, on the eastern side of the Caspian; where + they preserved the name of Huns, with the epithet of Euthalites, or + Nepthalites. Their manners were softened, and even their features were + insensibly improved, by the mildness of the climate, and their long + residence in a flourishing province, which might still retain a faint + impression of the arts of Greece. The <strong><em>white</em></strong> + Huns, a name which they derived from the change of their complexions, soon + abandoned the pastoral life of Scythia. Gorgo, which, under the + appellation of Carizme, has since enjoyed a temporary splendor, was the + residence of the king, who exercised a legal authority over an obedient + people. Their luxury was maintained by the labor of the Sogdians; and the + only vestige of their ancient barbarism, was the custom which obliged all + the companions, perhaps to the number of twenty, who had shared the + liberality of a wealthy lord, to be buried alive in the same grave. The + vicinity of the Huns to the provinces of Persia, involved them in frequent + and bloody contests with the power of that monarchy. But they respected, + in peace, the faith of treaties; in war, the dictates of humanity; and + their memorable victory over Peroses, or Firuz, displayed the moderation, + as well as the valor, of the Barbarians. The <strong><em>second</em></strong> + division of their countrymen, the Huns, who gradually advanced towards the + North-west, were exercised by the hardships of a colder climate, and a + more laborious march. Necessity compelled them to exchange the silks of + China for the furs of Siberia; the imperfect rudiments of civilized life + were obliterated; and the native fierceness of the Huns was exasperated by + their intercourse with the savage tribes, who were compared, with some + propriety, to the wild beasts of the desert. Their independent spirit soon + rejected the hereditary succession of the Tanjous; and while each horde + was governed by its peculiar mursa, their tumultuary council directed the + public measures of the whole nation. As late as the thirteenth century, + their transient residence on the eastern banks of the Volga was attested + by the name of Great Hungary. In the winter, they descended with their + flocks and herds towards the mouth of that mighty river; and their summer + excursions reached as high as the latitude of Saratoff, or perhaps the + conflux of the Kama. Such at least were the recent limits of the black + Calmucks, who remained about a century under the protection of Russia; and + who have since returned to their native seats on the frontiers of the + Chinese empire. The march, and the return, of those wandering Tartars, + whose united camp consists of fifty thousand tents or families, illustrate + the distant emigrations of the ancient Huns.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to fill the dark interval of time, which elapsed, after + the Huns of the Volga were lost in the eyes of the Chinese, and before + they showed themselves to those of the Romans. There is some reason, + however, to apprehend, that the same force which had driven them from + their native seats, still continued to impel their march towards the + frontiers of Europe. The power of the Sienpi, their implacable enemies, + which extended above three thousand miles from East to West, must have + gradually oppressed them by the weight and terror of a formidable + neighborhood; and the flight of the tribes of Scythia would inevitably + tend to increase the strength or to contract the territories, of the Huns. + The harsh and obscure appellations of those tribes would offend the ear, + without informing the understanding, of the reader; but I cannot suppress + the very natural suspicion, <strong><em>that</em></strong> the Huns of the + North derived a considerable reenforcement from the ruin of the dynasty of + the South, which, in the course of the third century, submitted to the + dominion of China; <strong><em>that</em></strong> the bravest warriors + marched away in search of their free and adventurous countrymen; <strong><em>and</em></strong> + that, as they had been divided by prosperity, they were easily reunited by + the common hardships of their adverse fortune. The Huns, with their flocks + and herds, their wives and children, their dependents and allies, were + transported to the west of the Volga, and they boldly advanced to invade + the country of the Alani, a pastoral people, who occupied, or wasted, an + extensive tract of the deserts of Scythia. The plains between the Volga + and the Tanais were covered with the tents of the Alani, but their name + and manners were diffused over the wide extent of their conquests; and the + painted tribes of the Agathyrsi and Geloni were confounded among their + vassals. Towards the North, they penetrated into the frozen regions of + Siberia, among the savages who were accustomed, in their rage or hunger, + to the taste of human flesh; and their Southern inroads were pushed as far + as the confines of Persia and India. The mixture of Somatic and German + blood had contributed to improve the features of the Alani, * to whiten + their swarthy complexions, and to tinge their hair with a yellowish cast, + which is seldom found in the Tartar race. They were less deformed in their + persons, less brutish in their manners, than the Huns; but they did not + yield to those formidable Barbarians in their martial and independent + spirit; in the love of freedom, which rejected even the use of domestic + slaves; and in the love of arms, which considered war and rapine as the + pleasure and the glory of mankind. A naked cimeter, fixed in the ground, + was the only object of their religious worship; the scalps of their + enemies formed the costly trappings of their horses; and they viewed, with + pity and contempt, the pusillanimous warriors, who patiently expected the + infirmities of age, and the tortures of lingering disease. On the banks of + the Tanais, the military power of the Huns and the Alani encountered each + other with equal valor, but with unequal success. The Huns prevailed in + the bloody contest; the king of the Alani was slain; and the remains of + the vanquished nation were dispersed by the ordinary alternative of flight + or submission. A colony of exiles found a secure refuge in the mountains + of Caucasus, between the Euxine and the Caspian, where they still preserve + their name and their independence. Another colony advanced, with more + intrepid courage, towards the shores of the Baltic; associated themselves + with the Northern tribes of Germany; and shared the spoil of the Roman + provinces of Gaul and Spain. But the greatest part of the nation of the + Alani embraced the offers of an honorable and advantageous union; and the + Huns, who esteemed the valor of their less fortunate enemies, proceeded, + with an increase of numbers and confidence, to invade the limits of the + Gothic empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The great Hermanric, whose dominions extended from the Baltic to the + Euxine, enjoyed, in the full maturity of age and reputation, the fruit of + his victories, when he was alarmed by the formidable approach of a host of + unknown enemies, on whom his barbarous subjects might, without injustice, + bestow the epithet of Barbarians. The numbers, the strength, the rapid + motions, and the implacable cruelty of the Huns, were felt, and dreaded, + and magnified, by the astonished Goths; who beheld their fields and + villages consumed with flames, and deluged with indiscriminate slaughter. + To these real terrors they added the surprise and abhorrence which were + excited by the shrill voice, the uncouth gestures, and the strange + deformity of the Huns. * These savages of Scythia were compared (and the + picture had some resemblance) to the animals who walk very awkwardly on + two legs and to the misshapen figures, the Termini, which were often + placed on the bridges of antiquity. They were distinguished from the rest + of the human species by their broad shoulders, flat noses, and small black + eyes, deeply buried in the head; and as they were almost destitute of + beards, they never enjoyed either the manly grace of youth, or the + venerable aspect of age. A fabulous origin was assigned, worthy of their + form and manners; that the witches of Scythia, who, for their foul and + deadly practices, had been driven from society, had copulated in the + desert with infernal spirits; and that the Huns were the offspring of this + execrable conjunction. The tale, so full of horror and absurdity, was + greedily embraced by the credulous hatred of the Goths; but, while it + gratified their hatred, it increased their fear, since the posterity of dæmons + and witches might be supposed to inherit some share of the præternatural + powers, as well as of the malignant temper, of their parents. Against + these enemies, Hermanric prepared to exert the united forces of the Gothic + state; but he soon discovered that his vassal tribes, provoked by + oppression, were much more inclined to second, than to repel, the invasion + of the Huns. One of the chiefs of the Roxolani had formerly deserted the + standard of Hermanric, and the cruel tyrant had condemned the innocent + wife of the traitor to be torn asunder by wild horses. The brothers of + that unfortunate woman seized the favorable moment of revenge. The aged + king of the Goths languished some time after the dangerous wound which he + received from their daggers; but the conduct of the war was retarded by + his infirmities; and the public councils of the nation were distracted by + a spirit of jealousy and discord. His death, which has been imputed to his + own despair, left the reins of government in the hands of Withimer, who, + with the doubtful aid of some Scythian mercenaries, maintained the unequal + contest against the arms of the Huns and the Alani, till he was defeated + and slain in a decisive battle. The Ostrogoths submitted to their fate; + and the royal race of the Amali will hereafter be found among the subjects + of the haughty Attila. But the person of Witheric, the infant king, was + saved by the diligence of Alatheus and Saphrax; two warriors of approved + valor and fidelity, who, by cautious marches, conducted the independent + remains of the nation of the Ostrogoths towards the Danastus, or Niester; + a considerable river, which now separates the Turkish dominions from the + empire of Russia. On the banks of the Niester, the prudent Athanaric, more + attentive to his own than to the general safety, had fixed the camp of the + Visigoths; with the firm resolution of opposing the victorious Barbarians, + whom he thought it less advisable to provoke. The ordinary speed of the + Huns was checked by the weight of baggage, and the encumbrance of + captives; but their military skill deceived, and almost destroyed, the + army of Athanaric. While the Judge of the Visigoths defended the banks of + the Niester, he was encompassed and attacked by a numerous detachment of + cavalry, who, by the light of the moon, had passed the river in a fordable + place; and it was not without the utmost efforts of courage and conduct, + that he was able to effect his retreat towards the hilly country. The + undaunted general had already formed a new and judicious plan of defensive + war; and the strong lines, which he was preparing to construct between the + mountains, the Pruth, and the Danube, would have secured the extensive and + fertile territory that bears the modern name of Walachia, from the + destructive inroads of the Huns. But the hopes and measures of the Judge + of the Visigoths was soon disappointed, by the trembling impatience of his + dismayed countrymen; who were persuaded by their fears, that the + interposition of the Danube was the only barrier that could save them from + the rapid pursuit, and invincible valor, of the Barbarians of Scythia. + Under the command of Fritigern and Alavivus, the body of the nation + hastily advanced to the banks of the great river, and implored the + protection of the Roman emperor of the East. Athanaric himself, still + anxious to avoid the guilt of perjury, retired, with a band of faithful + followers, into the mountainous country of Caucaland; which appears to + have been guarded, and almost concealed, by the impenetrable forests of + Transylvania. *<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch26-p3" id="linkch26-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + After Valens had terminated the Gothic war with some appearance of glory + and success, he made a progress through his dominions of Asia, and at + length fixed his residence in the capital of Syria. The five years which + he spent at Antioch was employed to watch, from a secure distance, the + hostile designs of the Persian monarch; to check the depredations of the + Saracens and Isaurians; to enforce, by arguments more prevalent than those + of reason and eloquence, the belief of the Arian theology; and to satisfy + his anxious suspicions by the promiscuous execution of the innocent and + the guilty. But the attention of the emperor was most seriously engaged, + by the important intelligence which he received from the civil and + military officers who were intrusted with the defence of the Danube. He + was informed, that the North was agitated by a furious tempest; that the + irruption of the Huns, an unknown and monstrous race of savages, had + subverted the power of the Goths; and that the suppliant multitudes of + that warlike nation, whose pride was now humbled in the dust, covered a + space of many miles along the banks of the river. With outstretched arms, + and pathetic lamentations, they loudly deplored their past misfortunes and + their present danger; acknowledged that their only hope of safety was in + the clemency of the Roman government; and most solemnly protested, that if + the gracious liberality of the emperor would permit them to cultivate the + waste lands of Thrace, they should ever hold themselves bound, by the + strongest obligations of duty and gratitude, to obey the laws, and to + guard the limits, of the republic. These assurances were confirmed by the + ambassadors of the Goths, * who impatiently expected from the mouth of + Valens an answer that must finally determine the fate of their unhappy + countrymen. The emperor of the East was no longer guided by the wisdom and + authority of his elder brother, whose death happened towards the end of + the preceding year; and as the distressful situation of the Goths required + an instant and peremptory decision, he was deprived of the favorite + resources of feeble and timid minds, who consider the use of dilatory and + ambiguous measures as the most admirable efforts of consummate prudence. + As long as the same passions and interests subsist among mankind, the + questions of war and peace, of justice and policy, which were debated in + the councils of antiquity, will frequently present themselves as the + subject of modern deliberation. But the most experienced statesman of + Europe has never been summoned to consider the propriety, or the danger, + of admitting, or rejecting, an innumerable multitude of Barbarians, who + are driven by despair and hunger to solicit a settlement on the + territories of a civilized nation. When that important proposition, so + essentially connected with the public safety, was referred to the + ministers of Valens, they were perplexed and divided; but they soon + acquiesced in the flattering sentiment which seemed the most favorable to + the pride, the indolence, and the avarice of their sovereign. The slaves, + who were decorated with the titles of præfects and generals, + dissembled or disregarded the terrors of this national emigration; so + extremely different from the partial and accidental colonies, which had + been received on the extreme limits of the empire. But they applauded the + liberality of fortune, which had conducted, from the most distant + countries of the globe, a numerous and invincible army of strangers, to + defend the throne of Valens; who might now add to the royal treasures the + immense sums of gold supplied by the provincials to compensate their + annual proportion of recruits. The prayers of the Goths were granted, and + their service was accepted by the Imperial court: and orders were + immediately despatched to the civil and military governors of the Thracian + diocese, to make the necessary preparations for the passage and + subsistence of a great people, till a proper and sufficient territory + could be allotted for their future residence. The liberality of the + emperor was accompanied, however, with two harsh and rigorous conditions, + which prudence might justify on the side of the Romans; but which distress + alone could extort from the indignant Goths. Before they passed the + Danube, they were required to deliver their arms: and it was insisted, + that their children should be taken from them, and dispersed through the + provinces of Asia; where they might be civilized by the arts of education, + and serve as hostages to secure the fidelity of their parents.<br /> + </p> + <p> + During the suspense of a doubtful and distant negotiation, the impatient + Goths made some rash attempts to pass the Danube, without the permission + of the government, whose protection they had implored. Their motions were + strictly observed by the vigilance of the troops which were stationed + along the river and their foremost detachments were defeated with + considerable slaughter; yet such were the timid councils of the reign of + Valens, that the brave officers who had served their country in the + execution of their duty, were punished by the loss of their employments, + and narrowly escaped the loss of their heads. The Imperial mandate was at + length received for transporting over the Danube the whole body of the + Gothic nation; but the execution of this order was a task of labor and + difficulty. The stream of the Danube, which in those parts is above a mile + broad, had been swelled by incessant rains; and in this tumultuous + passage, many were swept away, and drowned, by the rapid violence of the + current. A large fleet of vessels, of boats, and of canoes, was provided; + many days and nights they passed and repassed with indefatigable toil; and + the most strenuous diligence was exerted by the officers of Valens, that + not a single Barbarian, of those who were reserved to subvert the + foundations of Rome, should be left on the opposite shore. It was thought + expedient that an accurate account should be taken of their numbers; but + the persons who were employed soon desisted, with amazement and dismay, + from the prosecution of the endless and impracticable task: and the + principal historian of the age most seriously affirms, that the prodigious + armies of Darius and Xerxes, which had so long been considered as the + fables of vain and credulous antiquity, were now justified, in the eyes of + mankind, by the evidence of fact and experience. A probable testimony has + fixed the number of the Gothic warriors at two hundred thousand men: and + if we can venture to add the just proportion of women, of children, and of + slaves, the whole mass of people which composed this formidable + emigration, must have amounted to near a million of persons, of both + sexes, and of all ages. The children of the Goths, those at least of a + distinguished rank, were separated from the multitude. They were + conducted, without delay, to the distant seats assigned for their + residence and education; and as the numerous train of hostages or captives + passed through the cities, their gay and splendid apparel, their robust + and martial figure, excited the surprise and envy of the Provincials. * + But the stipulation, the most offensive to the Goths, and the most + important to the Romans, was shamefully eluded. The Barbarians, who + considered their arms as the ensigns of honor and the pledges of safety, + were disposed to offer a price, which the lust or avarice of the Imperial + officers was easily tempted to accept. To preserve their arms, the haughty + warriors consented, with some reluctance, to prostitute their wives or + their daughters; the charms of a beauteous maid, or a comely boy, secured + the connivance of the inspectors; who sometimes cast an eye of + covetousness on the fringed carpets and linen garments of their new + allies, or who sacrificed their duty to the mean consideration of filling + their farms with cattle, and their houses with slaves. The Goths, with + arms in their hands, were permitted to enter the boats; and when their + strength was collected on the other side of the river, the immense camp + which was spread over the plains and the hills of the Lower Mæsia, + assumed a threatening and even hostile aspect. The leaders of the + Ostrogoths, Alatheus and Saphrax, the guardians of their infant king, + appeared soon afterwards on the Northern banks of the Danube; and + immediately despatched their ambassadors to the court of Antioch, to + solicit, with the same professions of allegiance and gratitude, the same + favor which had been granted to the suppliant Visigoths. The absolute + refusal of Valens suspended their progress, and discovered the repentance, + the suspicions, and the fears, of the Imperial council.<br /> + </p> + <p> + An undisciplined and unsettled nation of Barbarians required the firmest + temper, and the most dexterous management. The daily subsistence of near a + million of extraordinary subjects could be supplied only by constant and + skilful diligence, and might continually be interrupted by mistake or + accident. The insolence, or the indignation, of the Goths, if they + conceived themselves to be the objects either of fear or of contempt, + might urge them to the most desperate extremities; and the fortune of the + state seemed to depend on the prudence, as well as the integrity, of the + generals of Valens. At this important crisis, the military government of + Thrace was exercised by Lupicinus and Maximus, in whose venal minds the + slightest hope of private emolument outweighed every consideration of + public advantage; and whose guilt was only alleviated by their incapacity + of discerning the pernicious effects of their rash and criminal + administration. Instead of obeying the orders of their sovereign, and + satisfying, with decent liberality, the demands of the Goths, they levied + an ungenerous and oppressive tax on the wants of the hungry Barbarians. + The vilest food was sold at an extravagant price; and, in the room of + wholesome and substantial provisions, the markets were filled with the + flesh of dogs, and of unclean animals, who had died of disease. To obtain + the valuable acquisition of a pound of bread, the Goths resigned the + possession of an expensive, though serviceable, slave; and a small + quantity of meat was greedily purchased with ten pounds of a precious, but + useless metal, when their property was exhausted, they continued this + necessary traffic by the sale of their sons and daughters; and + notwithstanding the love of freedom, which animated every Gothic breast, + they submitted to the humiliating maxim, that it was better for their + children to be maintained in a servile condition, than to perish in a + state of wretched and helpless independence. The most lively resentment is + excited by the tyranny of pretended benefactors, who sternly exact the + debt of gratitude which they have cancelled by subsequent injuries: a + spirit of discontent insensibly arose in the camp of the Barbarians, who + pleaded, without success, the merit of their patient and dutiful behavior; + and loudly complained of the inhospitable treatment which they had + received from their new allies. They beheld around them the wealth and + plenty of a fertile province, in the midst of which they suffered the + intolerable hardships of artificial famine. But the means of relief, and + even of revenge, were in their hands; since the rapaciousness of their + tyrants had left to an injured people the possession and the use of arms. + The clamors of a multitude, untaught to disguise their sentiments, + announced the first symptoms of resistance, and alarmed the timid and + guilty minds of Lupicinus and Maximus. Those crafty ministers, who + substituted the cunning of temporary expedients to the wise and salutary + counsels of general policy, attempted to remove the Goths from their + dangerous station on the frontiers of the empire; and to disperse them, in + separate quarters of cantonment, through the interior provinces. As they + were conscious how ill they had deserved the respect, or confidence, of + the Barbarians, they diligently collected, from every side, a military + force, that might urge the tardy and reluctant march of a people, who had + not yet renounced the title, or the duties, of Roman subjects. But the + generals of Valens, while their attention was solely directed to the + discontented Visigoths, imprudently disarmed the ships and the + fortifications which constituted the defence of the Danube. The fatal + oversight was observed, and improved, by Alatheus and Saphrax, who + anxiously watched the favorable moment of escaping from the pursuit of the + Huns. By the help of such rafts and vessels as could be hastily procured, + the leaders of the Ostrogoths transported, without opposition, their king + and their army; and boldly fixed a hostile and independent camp on the + territories of the empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Under the name of Judges, Alavivus and Fritigern were the leaders of the + Visigoths in peace and war; and the authority which they derived from + their birth was ratified by the free consent of the nation. In a season of + tranquility, their power might have been equal, as well as their rank; + but, as soon as their countrymen were exasperated by hunger and + oppression, the superior abilities of Fritigern assumed the military + command, which he was qualified to exercise for the public welfare. He + restrained the impatient spirit of the Visigoths till the injuries and the + insults of their tyrants should justify their resistance in the opinion of + mankind: but he was not disposed to sacrifice any solid advantages for the + empty praise of justice and moderation. Sensible of the benefits which + would result from the union of the Gothic powers under the same standard, + he secretly cultivated the friendship of the Ostrogoths; and while he + professed an implicit obedience to the orders of the Roman generals, he + proceeded by slow marches towards Marcianopolis, the capital of the Lower + Mæsia, about seventy miles from the banks of the Danube. On that + fatal spot, the flames of discord and mutual hatred burst forth into a + dreadful conflagration. Lupicinus had invited the Gothic chiefs to a + splendid entertainment; and their martial train remained under arms at the + entrance of the palace. But the gates of the city were strictly guarded, + and the Barbarians were sternly excluded from the use of a plentiful + market, to which they asserted their equal claim of subjects and allies. + Their humble prayers were rejected with insolence and derision; and as + their patience was now exhausted, the townsmen, the soldiers, and the + Goths, were soon involved in a conflict of passionate altercation and + angry reproaches. A blow was imprudently given; a sword was hastily drawn; + and the first blood that was spilt in this accidental quarrel, became the + signal of a long and destructive war. In the midst of noise and brutal + intemperance, Lupicinus was informed, by a secret messenger, that many of + his soldiers were slain, and despoiled of their arms; and as he was + already inflamed by wine, and oppressed by sleep he issued a rash command, + that their death should be revenged by the massacre of the guards of + Fritigern and Alavivus. The clamorous shouts and dying groans apprised + Fritigern of his extreme danger; and, as he possessed the calm and + intrepid spirit of a hero, he saw that he was lost if he allowed a moment + of deliberation to the man who had so deeply injured him. "A trifling + dispute," said the Gothic leader, with a firm but gentle tone of voice, + "appears to have arisen between the two nations; but it may be productive + of the most dangerous consequences, unless the tumult is immediately + pacified by the assurance of our safety, and the authority of our + presence." At these words, Fritigern and his companions drew their swords, + opened their passage through the unresisting crowd, which filled the + palace, the streets, and the gates, of Marcianopolis, and, mounting their + horses, hastily vanished from the eyes of the astonished Romans. The + generals of the Goths were saluted by the fierce and joyful acclamations + of the camp; war was instantly resolved, and the resolution was executed + without delay: the banners of the nation were displayed according to the + custom of their ancestors; and the air resounded with the harsh and + mournful music of the Barbarian trumpet. The weak and guilty Lupicinus, + who had dared to provoke, who had neglected to destroy, and who still + presumed to despise, his formidable enemy, marched against the Goths, at + the head of such a military force as could be collected on this sudden + emergency. The Barbarians expected his approach about nine miles from + Marcianopolis; and on this occasion the talents of the general were found + to be of more prevailing efficacy than the weapons and discipline of the + troops. The valor of the Goths was so ably directed by the genius of + Fritigern, that they broke, by a close and vigorous attack, the ranks of + the Roman legions. Lupicinus left his arms and standards, his tribunes and + his bravest soldiers, on the field of battle; and their useless courage + served only to protect the ignominious flight of their leader. "That + successful day put an end to the distress of the Barbarians, and the + security of the Romans: from that day, the Goths, renouncing the + precarious condition of strangers and exiles, assumed the character of + citizens and masters, claimed an absolute dominion over the possessors of + land, and held, in their own right, the northern provinces of the empire, + which are bounded by the Danube." Such are the words of the Gothic + historian, who celebrates, with rude eloquence, the glory of his + countrymen. But the dominion of the Barbarians was exercised only for the + purposes of rapine and destruction. As they had been deprived, by the + ministers of the emperor, of the common benefits of nature, and the fair + intercourse of social life, they retaliated the injustice on the subjects + of the empire; and the crimes of Lupicinus were expiated by the ruin of + the peaceful husbandmen of Thrace, the conflagration of their villages, + and the massacre, or captivity, of their innocent families. The report of + the Gothic victory was soon diffused over the adjacent country; and while + it filled the minds of the Romans with terror and dismay, their own hasty + imprudence contributed to increase the forces of Fritigern, and the + calamities of the province. Some time before the great emigration, a + numerous body of Goths, under the command of Suerid and Colias, had been + received into the protection and service of the empire. They were encamped + under the walls of Hadrianople; but the ministers of Valens were anxious + to remove them beyond the Hellespont, at a distance from the dangerous + temptation which might so easily be communicated by the neighborhood, and + the success, of their countrymen. The respectful submission with which + they yielded to the order of their march, might be considered as a proof + of their fidelity; and their moderate request of a sufficient allowance of + provisions, and of a delay of only two days was expressed in the most + dutiful terms. But the first magistrate of Hadrianople, incensed by some + disorders which had been committed at his country-house, refused this + indulgence; and arming against them the inhabitants and manufacturers of a + populous city, he urged, with hostile threats, their instant departure. + The Barbarians stood silent and amazed, till they were exasperated by the + insulting clamors, and missile weapons, of the populace: but when patience + or contempt was fatigued, they crushed the undisciplined multitude, + inflicted many a shameful wound on the backs of their flying enemies, and + despoiled them of the splendid armor, which they were unworthy to bear. + The resemblance of their sufferings and their actions soon united this + victorious detachment to the nation of the Visigoths; the troops of Colias + and Suerid expected the approach of the great Fritigern, ranged themselves + under his standard, and signalized their ardor in the siege of + Hadrianople. But the resistance of the garrison informed the Barbarians, + that in the attack of regular fortifications, the efforts of unskillful + courage are seldom effectual. Their general acknowledged his error, raised + the siege, declared that "he was at peace with stone walls," and revenged + his disappointment on the adjacent country. He accepted, with pleasure, + the useful reenforcement of hardy workmen, who labored in the gold mines + of Thrace, for the emolument, and under the lash, of an unfeeling master: + and these new associates conducted the Barbarians, through the secret + paths, to the most sequestered places, which had been chosen to secure the + inhabitants, the cattle, and the magazines of corn. With the assistance of + such guides, nothing could remain impervious or inaccessible; resistance + was fatal; flight was impracticable; and the patient submission of + helpless innocence seldom found mercy from the Barbarian conqueror. In the + course of these depredations, a great number of the children of the Goths, + who had been sold into captivity, were restored to the embraces of their + afflicted parents; but these tender interviews, which might have revived + and cherished in their minds some sentiments of humanity, tended only to + stimulate their native fierceness by the desire of revenge. They listened, + with eager attention, to the complaints of their captive children, who had + suffered the most cruel indignities from the lustful or angry passions of + their masters, and the same cruelties, the same indignities, were severely + retaliated on the sons and daughters of the Romans.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The imprudence of Valens and his ministers had introduced into the heart + of the empire a nation of enemies; but the Visigoths might even yet have + been reconciled, by the manly confession of past errors, and the sincere + performance of former engagements. These healing and temperate measures + seemed to concur with the timorous disposition of the sovereign of the + East: but, on this occasion alone, Valens was brave; and his unseasonable + bravery was fatal to himself and to his subjects. He declared his + intention of marching from Antioch to Constantinople, to subdue this + dangerous rebellion; and, as he was not ignorant of the difficulties of + the enterprise, he solicited the assistance of his nephew, the emperor + Gratian, who commanded all the forces of the West. The veteran troops were + hastily recalled from the defence of Armenia; that important frontier was + abandoned to the discretion of Sapor; and the immediate conduct of the + Gothic war was intrusted, during the absence of Valens, to his lieutenants + Trajan and Profuturus, two generals who indulged themselves in a very + false and favorable opinion of their own abilities. On their arrival in + Thrace, they were joined by Richomer, count of the domestics; and the + auxiliaries of the West, that marched under his banner, were composed of + the Gallic legions, reduced indeed, by a spirit of desertion, to the vain + appearances of strength and numbers. In a council of war, which was + influenced by pride, rather than by reason, it was resolved to seek, and + to encounter, the Barbarians, who lay encamped in the spacious and fertile + meadows, near the most southern of the six mouths of the Danube. Their + camp was surrounded by the usual fortification of wagons; and the + Barbarians, secure within the vast circle of the enclosure, enjoyed the + fruits of their valor, and the spoils of the province. In the midst of + riotous intemperance, the watchful Fritigern observed the motions, and + penetrated the designs, of the Romans. He perceived, that the numbers of + the enemy were continually increasing: and, as he understood their + intention of attacking his rear, as soon as the scarcity of forage should + oblige him to remove his camp, he recalled to their standard his predatory + detachments, which covered the adjacent country. As soon as they descried + the flaming beacons, they obeyed, with incredible speed, the signal of + their leader: the camp was filled with the martial crowd of Barbarians; + their impatient clamors demanded the battle, and their tumultuous zeal was + approved and animated by the spirit of their chiefs. The evening was + already far advanced; and the two armies prepared themselves for the + approaching combat, which was deferred only till the dawn of day. While + the trumpets sounded to arms, the undaunted courage of the Goths was + confirmed by the mutual obligation of a solemn oath; and as they advanced + to meet the enemy, the rude songs, which celebrated the glory of their + forefathers, were mingled with their fierce and dissonant outcries, and + opposed to the artificial harmony of the Roman shout. Some military skill + was displayed by Fritigern to gain the advantage of a commanding eminence; + but the bloody conflict, which began and ended with the light, was + maintained on either side, by the personal and obstinate efforts of + strength, valor, and agility. The legions of Armenia supported their fame + in arms; but they were oppressed by the irresistible weight of the hostile + multitude the left wing of the Romans was thrown into disorder and the + field was strewed with their mangled carcasses. This partial defeat was + balanced, however, by partial success; and when the two armies, at a late + hour of the evening, retreated to their respective camps, neither of them + could claim the honors, or the effects, of a decisive victory. The real + loss was more severely felt by the Romans, in proportion to the smallness + of their numbers; but the Goths were so deeply confounded and dismayed by + this vigorous, and perhaps unexpected, resistance, that they remained + seven days within the circle of their fortifications. Such funeral rites, + as the circumstances of time and place would admit, were piously + discharged to some officers of distinguished rank; but the indiscriminate + vulgar was left unburied on the plain. Their flesh was greedily devoured + by the birds of prey, who in that age enjoyed very frequent and delicious + feasts; and several years afterwards the white and naked bones, which + covered the wide extent of the fields, presented to the eyes of Ammianus a + dreadful monument of the battle of Salices.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The progress of the Goths had been checked by the doubtful event of that + bloody day; and the Imperial generals, whose army would have been consumed + by the repetition of such a contest, embraced the more rational plan of + destroying the Barbarians by the wants and pressure of their own + multitudes. They prepared to confine the Visigoths in the narrow angle of + land between the Danube, the desert of Scythia, and the mountains of Hæmus, + till their strength and spirit should be insensibly wasted by the + inevitable operation of famine. The design was prosecuted with some + conduct and success: the Barbarians had almost exhausted their own + magazines, and the harvests of the country; and the diligence of + Saturninus, the master-general of the cavalry, was employed to improve the + strength, and to contract the extent, of the Roman fortifications. His + labors were interrupted by the alarming intelligence, that new swarms of + Barbarians had passed the unguarded Danube, either to support the cause, + or to imitate the example, of Fritigern. The just apprehension, that he + himself might be surrounded, and overwhelmed, by the arms of hostile and + unknown nations, compelled Saturninus to relinquish the siege of the + Gothic camp; and the indignant Visigoths, breaking from their confinement, + satiated their hunger and revenge by the repeated devastation of the + fruitful country, which extends above three hundred miles from the banks + of the Danube to the straits of the Hellespont. The sagacious Fritigern + had successfully appealed to the passions, as well as to the interest, of + his Barbarian allies; and the love of rapine, and the hatred of Rome, + seconded, or even prevented, the eloquence of his ambassadors. He cemented + a strict and useful alliance with the great body of his countrymen, who + obeyed Alatheus and Saphrax as the guardians of their infant king: the + long animosity of rival tribes was suspended by the sense of their common + interest; the independent part of the nation was associated under one + standard; and the chiefs of the Ostrogoths appear to have yielded to the + superior genius of the general of the Visigoths. He obtained the + formidable aid of the Taifalæ, * whose military renown was disgraced + and polluted by the public infamy of their domestic manners. Every youth, + on his entrance into the world, was united by the ties of honorable + friendship, and brutal love, to some warrior of the tribe; nor could he + hope to be released from this unnatural connection, till he had approved + his manhood by slaying, in single combat, a huge bear, or a wild boar of + the forest. But the most powerful auxiliaries of the Goths were drawn from + the camp of those enemies who had expelled them from their native seats. + The loose subordination, and extensive possessions, of the Huns and the + Alani, delayed the conquests, and distracted the councils, of that + victorious people. Several of the hords were allured by the liberal + promises of Fritigern; and the rapid cavalry of Scythia added weight and + energy to the steady and strenuous efforts of the Gothic infantry. The + Sarmatians, who could never forgive the successor of Valentinian, enjoyed + and increased the general confusion; and a seasonable irruption of the + Alemanni, into the provinces of Gaul, engaged the attention, and diverted + the forces, of the emperor of the West.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch26-p4" id="linkch26-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + One of the most dangerous inconveniences of the introduction of the + Barbarians into the army and the palace, was sensibly felt in their + correspondence with their hostile countrymen; to whom they imprudently, or + maliciously, revealed the weakness of the Roman empire. A soldier, of the + lifeguards of Gratian, was of the nation of the Alemanni, and of the tribe + of the Lentienses, who dwelt beyond the Lake of Constance. Some domestic + business obliged him to request a leave of absence. In a short visit to + his family and friends, he was exposed to their curious inquiries: and the + vanity of the loquacious soldier tempted him to display his intimate + acquaintance with the secrets of the state, and the designs of his master. + The intelligence, that Gratian was preparing to lead the military force of + Gaul, and of the West, to the assistance of his uncle Valens, pointed out + to the restless spirit of the Alemanni the moment, and the mode, of a + successful invasion. The enterprise of some light detachments, who, in the + month of February, passed the Rhine upon the ice, was the prelude of a + more important war. The boldest hopes of rapine, perhaps of conquest, + outweighed the considerations of timid prudence, or national faith. Every + forest, and every village, poured forth a band of hardy adventurers; and + the great army of the Alemanni, which, on their approach, was estimated at + forty thousand men by the fears of the people, was afterwards magnified to + the number of seventy thousand by the vain and credulous flattery of the + Imperial court. The legions, which had been ordered to march into + Pannonia, were immediately recalled, or detained, for the defence of Gaul; + the military command was divided between Nanienus and Mellobaudes; and the + youthful emperor, though he respected the long experience and sober wisdom + of the former, was much more inclined to admire, and to follow, the + martial ardor of his colleague; who was allowed to unite the incompatible + characters of count of the domestics, and of king of the Franks. His rival + Priarius, king of the Alemanni, was guided, or rather impelled, by the + same headstrong valor; and as their troops were animated by the spirit of + their leaders, they met, they saw, they encountered each other, near the + town of Argentaria, or Colmar, in the plains of Alsace. The glory of the + day was justly ascribed to the missile weapons, and well-practised + evolutions, of the Roman soldiers; the Alemanni, who long maintained their + ground, were slaughtered with unrelenting fury; five thousand only of the + Barbarians escaped to the woods and mountains; and the glorious death of + their king on the field of battle saved him from the reproaches of the + people, who are always disposed to accuse the justice, or policy, of an + unsuccessful war. After this signal victory, which secured the peace of + Gaul, and asserted the honor of the Roman arms, the emperor Gratian + appeared to proceed without delay on his Eastern expedition; but as he + approached the confines of the Alemanni, he suddenly inclined to the left, + surprised them by his unexpected passage of the Rhine, and boldly advanced + into the heart of their country. The Barbarians opposed to his progress + the obstacles of nature and of courage; and still continued to retreat, + from one hill to another, till they were satisfied, by repeated trials, of + the power and perseverance of their enemies. Their submission was accepted + as a proof, not indeed of their sincere repentance, but of their actual + distress; and a select number of their brave and robust youth was exacted + from the faithless nation, as the most substantial pledge of their future + moderation. The subjects of the empire, who had so often experienced that + the Alemanni could neither be subdued by arms, nor restrained by treaties, + might not promise themselves any solid or lasting tranquillity: but they + discovered, in the virtues of their young sovereign, the prospect of a + long and auspicious reign. When the legions climbed the mountains, and + scaled the fortifications of the Barbarians, the valor of Gratian was + distinguished in the foremost ranks; and the gilt and variegated armor of + his guards was pierced and shattered by the blows which they had received + in their constant attachment to the person of their sovereign. At the age + of nineteen, the son of Valentinian seemed to possess the talents of peace + and war; and his personal success against the Alemanni was interpreted as + a sure presage of his Gothic triumphs.<br /> + </p> + <p> + While Gratian deserved and enjoyed the applause of his subjects, the + emperor Valens, who, at length, had removed his court and army from + Antioch, was received by the people of Constantinople as the author of the + public calamity. Before he had reposed himself ten days in the capital, he + was urged by the licentious clamors of the Hippodrome to march against the + Barbarians, whom he had invited into his dominions; and the citizens, who + are always brave at a distance from any real danger, declared, with + confidence, that, if they were supplied with arms, <strong><em>they</em></strong> + alone would undertake to deliver the province from the ravages of an + insulting foe. The vain reproaches of an ignorant multitude hastened the + downfall of the Roman empire; they provoked the desperate rashness of + Valens; who did not find, either in his reputation or in his mind, any + motives to support with firmness the public contempt. He was soon + persuaded, by the successful achievements of his lieutenants, to despise + the power of the Goths, who, by the diligence of Fritigern, were now + collected in the neighborhood of Hadrianople. The march of the Taifalæ + had been intercepted by the valiant Frigerid: the king of those licentious + Barbarians was slain in battle; and the suppliant captives were sent into + distant exile to cultivate the lands of Italy, which were assigned for + their settlement in the vacant territories of Modena and Parma. The + exploits of Sebastian, who was recently engaged in the service of Valens, + and promoted to the rank of master-general of the infantry, were still + more honorable to himself, and useful to the republic. He obtained the + permission of selecting three hundred soldiers from each of the legions; + and this separate detachment soon acquired the spirit of discipline, and + the exercise of arms, which were almost forgotten under the reign of + Valens. By the vigor and conduct of Sebastian, a large body of the Goths + were surprised in their camp; and the immense spoil, which was recovered + from their hands, filled the city of Hadrianople, and the adjacent plain. + The splendid narratives, which the general transmitted of his own + exploits, alarmed the Imperial court by the appearance of superior merit; + and though he cautiously insisted on the difficulties of the Gothic war, + his valor was praised, his advice was rejected; and Valens, who listened + with pride and pleasure to the flattering suggestions of the eunuchs of + the palace, was impatient to seize the glory of an easy and assured + conquest. His army was strengthened by a numerous reenforcement of + veterans; and his march from Constantinople to Hadrianople was conducted + with so much military skill, that he prevented the activity of the + Barbarians, who designed to occupy the intermediate defiles, and to + intercept either the troops themselves, or their convoys of provisions. + The camp of Valens, which he pitched under the walls of Hadrianople, was + fortified, according to the practice of the Romans, with a ditch and + rampart; and a most important council was summoned, to decide the fate of + the emperor and of the empire. The party of reason and of delay was + strenuously maintained by Victor, who had corrected, by the lessons of + experience, the native fierceness of the Sarmatian character; while + Sebastian, with the flexible and obsequious eloquence of a courtier, + represented every precaution, and every measure, that implied a doubt of + immediate victory, as unworthy of the courage and majesty of their + invincible monarch. The ruin of Valens was precipitated by the deceitful + arts of Fritigern, and the prudent admonitions of the emperor of the West. + The advantages of negotiating in the midst of war were perfectly + understood by the general of the Barbarians; and a Christian ecclesiastic + was despatched, as the holy minister of peace, to penetrate, and to + perplex, the councils of the enemy. The misfortunes, as well as the + provocations, of the Gothic nation, were forcibly and truly described by + their ambassador; who protested, in the name of Fritigern, that he was + still disposed to lay down his arms, or to employ them only in the defence + of the empire; if he could secure for his wandering countrymen a tranquil + settlement on the waste lands of Thrace, and a sufficient allowance of + corn and cattle. But he added, in a whisper of confidential friendship, + that the exasperated Barbarians were averse to these reasonable + conditions; and that Fritigern was doubtful whether he could accomplish + the conclusion of the treaty, unless he found himself supported by the + presence and terrors of an Imperial army. About the same time, Count + Richomer returned from the West to announce the defeat and submission of + the Alemanni, to inform Valens that his nephew advanced by rapid marches + at the head of the veteran and victorious legions of Gaul, and to request, + in the name of Gratian and of the republic, that every dangerous and + decisive measure might be suspended, till the junction of the two emperors + should insure the success of the Gothic war. But the feeble sovereign of + the East was actuated only by the fatal illusions of pride and jealousy. + He disdained the importunate advice; he rejected the humiliating aid; he + secretly compared the ignominious, at least the inglorious, period of his + own reign, with the fame of a beardless youth; and Valens rushed into the + field, to erect his imaginary trophy, before the diligence of his + colleague could usurp any share of the triumphs of the day.<br /> + </p> + <p> + On the ninth of August, a day which has deserved to be marked among the + most inauspicious of the Roman Calendar, the emperor Valens, leaving, + under a strong guard, his baggage and military treasure, marched from + Hadrianople to attack the Goths, who were encamped about twelve miles from + the city. By some mistake of the orders, or some ignorance of the ground, + the right wing, or column of cavalry arrived in sight of the enemy, whilst + the left was still at a considerable distance; the soldiers were + compelled, in the sultry heat of summer, to precipitate their pace; and + the line of battle was formed with tedious confusion and irregular delay. + The Gothic cavalry had been detached to forage in the adjacent country; + and Fritigern still continued to practise his customary arts. He + despatched messengers of peace, made proposals, required hostages, and + wasted the hours, till the Romans, exposed without shelter to the burning + rays of the sun, were exhausted by thirst, hunger, and intolerable + fatigue. The emperor was persuaded to send an ambassador to the Gothic + camp; the zeal of Richomer, who alone had courage to accept the dangerous + commission, was applauded; and the count of the domestics, adorned with + the splendid ensigns of his dignity, had proceeded some way in the space + between the two armies, when he was suddenly recalled by the alarm of + battle. The hasty and imprudent attack was made by Bacurius the Iberian, + who commanded a body of archers and targiteers; and as they advanced with + rashness, they retreated with loss and disgrace. In the same moment, the + flying squadrons of Alatheus and Saphrax, whose return was anxiously + expected by the general of the Goths, descended like a whirlwind from the + hills, swept across the plain, and added new terrors to the tumultuous, + but irresistible charge of the Barbarian host. The event of the battle of + Hadrianople, so fatal to Valens and to the empire, may be described in a + few words: the Roman cavalry fled; the infantry was abandoned, surrounded, + and cut in pieces. The most skilful evolutions, the firmest courage, are + scarcely sufficient to extricate a body of foot, encompassed, on an open + plain, by superior numbers of horse; but the troops of Valens, oppressed + by the weight of the enemy and their own fears, were crowded into a narrow + space, where it was impossible for them to extend their ranks, or even to + use, with effect, their swords and javelins. In the midst of tumult, of + slaughter, and of dismay, the emperor, deserted by his guards and wounded, + as it was supposed, with an arrow, sought protection among the Lancearii + and the Mattiarii, who still maintained their ground with some appearance + of order and firmness. His faithful generals, Trajan and Victor, who + perceived his danger, loudly exclaimed that all was lost, unless the + person of the emperor could be saved. Some troops, animated by their + exhortation, advanced to his relief: they found only a bloody spot, + covered with a heap of broken arms and mangled bodies, without being able + to discover their unfortunate prince, either among the living or the dead. + Their search could not indeed be successful, if there is any truth in the + circumstances with which some historians have related the death of the + emperor. By the care of his attendants, Valens was removed from the field + of battle to a neighboring cottage, where they attempted to dress his + wound, and to provide for his future safety. But this humble retreat was + instantly surrounded by the enemy: they tried to force the door, they were + provoked by a discharge of arrows from the roof, till at length, impatient + of delay, they set fire to a pile of dry fagots, and consumed the cottage + with the Roman emperor and his train. Valens perished in the flames; and a + youth, who dropped from the window, alone escaped, to attest the + melancholy tale, and to inform the Goths of the inestimable prize which + they had lost by their own rashness. A great number of brave and + distinguished officers perished in the battle of Hadrianople, which + equalled in the actual loss, and far surpassed in the fatal consequences, + the misfortune which Rome had formerly sustained in the fields of Cannæ. + Two master-generals of the cavalry and infantry, two great officers of the + palace, and thirty-five tribunes, were found among the slain; and the + death of Sebastian might satisfy the world, that he was the victim, as + well as the author, of the public calamity. Above two thirds of the Roman + army were destroyed: and the darkness of the night was esteemed a very + favorable circumstance, as it served to conceal the flight of the + multitude, and to protect the more orderly retreat of Victor and Richomer, + who alone, amidst the general consternation, maintained the advantage of + calm courage and regular discipline.<br /> + </p> + <p> + While the impressions of grief and terror were still recent in the minds + of men, the most celebrated rhetorician of the age composed the funeral + oration of a vanquished army, and of an unpopular prince, whose throne was + already occupied by a stranger. "There are not wanting," says the candid + Libanius, "those who arraign the prudence of the emperor, or who impute + the public misfortune to the want of courage and discipline in the troops. + For my own part, I reverence the memory of their former exploits: I + reverence the glorious death, which they bravely received, standing, and + fighting in their ranks: I reverence the field of battle, stained with + their <strong><em>blood</em></strong>, and the blood of the Barbarians. + Those honorable marks have been already washed away by the rains; but the + lofty monuments of their bones, the bones of generals, of centurions, and + of valiant warriors, claim a longer period of duration. The king himself + fought and fell in the foremost ranks of the battle. His attendants + presented him with the fleetest horses of the Imperial stable, that would + soon have carried him beyond the pursuit of the enemy. They vainly pressed + him to reserve his important life for the future service of the republic. + He still declared that he was unworthy to survive so many of the bravest + and most faithful of his subjects; and the monarch was nobly buried under + a mountain of the slain. Let none, therefore, presume to ascribe the + victory of the Barbarians to the fear, the weakness, or the imprudence, of + the Roman troops. The chiefs and the soldiers were animated by the virtue + of their ancestors, whom they equalled in discipline and the arts of war. + Their generous emulation was supported by the love of glory, which + prompted them to contend at the same time with heat and thirst, with fire + and the sword; and cheerfully to embrace an honorable death, as their + refuge against flight and infamy. The indignation of the gods has been the + only cause of the success of our enemies." The truth of history may + disclaim some parts of this panegyric, which cannot strictly be reconciled + with the character of Valens, or the circumstances of the battle: but the + fairest commendation is due to the eloquence, and still more to the + generosity, of the sophist of Antioch.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The pride of the Goths was elated by this memorable victory; but their + avarice was disappointed by the mortifying discovery, that the richest + part of the Imperial spoil had been within the walls of Hadrianople. They + hastened to possess the reward of their valor; but they were encountered + by the remains of a vanquished army, with an intrepid resolution, which + was the effect of their despair, and the only hope of their safety. The + walls of the city, and the ramparts of the adjacent camp, were lined with + military engines, that threw stones of an enormous weight; and astonished + the ignorant Barbarians by the noise, and velocity, still more than by the + real effects, of the discharge. The soldiers, the citizens, the + provincials, the domestics of the palace, were united in the danger, and + in the defence: the furious assault of the Goths was repulsed; their + secret arts of treachery and treason were discovered; and, after an + obstinate conflict of many hours, they retired to their tents; convinced, + by experience, that it would be far more advisable to observe the treaty, + which their sagacious leader had tacitly stipulated with the + fortifications of great and populous cities. After the hasty and impolitic + massacre of three hundred deserters, an act of justice extremely useful to + the discipline of the Roman armies, the Goths indignantly raised the siege + of Hadrianople. The scene of war and tumult was instantly converted into a + silent solitude: the multitude suddenly disappeared; the secret paths of + the woods and mountains were marked with the footsteps of the trembling + fugitives, who sought a refuge in the distant cities of Illyricum and + Macedonia; and the faithful officers of the household, and the treasury, + cautiously proceeded in search of the emperor, of whose death they were + still ignorant. The tide of the Gothic inundation rolled from the walls of + Hadrianople to the suburbs of Constantinople. The Barbarians were + surprised with the splendid appearance of the capital of the East, the + height and extent of the walls, the myriads of wealthy and affrighted + citizens who crowded the ramparts, and the various prospect of the sea and + land. While they gazed with hopeless desire on the inaccessible beauties + of Constantinople, a sally was made from one of the gates by a party of + Saracens, who had been fortunately engaged in the service of Valens. The + cavalry of Scythia was forced to yield to the admirable swiftness and + spirit of the Arabian horses: their riders were skilled in the evolutions + of irregular war; and the Northern Barbarians were astonished and + dismayed, by the inhuman ferocity of the Barbarians of the South. A Gothic + soldier was slain by the dagger of an Arab; and the hairy, naked savage, + applying his lips to the wound, expressed a horrid delight, while he + sucked the blood of his vanquished enemy. The army of the Goths, laden + with the spoils of the wealthy suburbs and the adjacent territory, slowly + moved, from the Bosphorus, to the mountains which form the western + boundary of Thrace. The important pass of Succi was betrayed by the fear, + or the misconduct, of Maurus; and the Barbarians, who no longer had any + resistance to apprehend from the scattered and vanquished troops of the + East, spread themselves over the face of a fertile and cultivated country, + as far as the confines of Italy and the Hadriatic Sea.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The Romans, who so coolly, and so concisely, mention the acts of <strong><em>justice</em></strong> + which were exercised by the legions, reserve their compassion, and their + eloquence, for their own sufferings, when the provinces were invaded, and + desolated, by the arms of the successful Barbarians. The simple + circumstantial narrative (did such a narrative exist) of the ruin of a + single town, of the misfortunes of a single family, might exhibit an + interesting and instructive picture of human manners: but the tedious + repetition of vague and declamatory complaints would fatigue the attention + of the most patient reader. The same censure may be applied, though not + perhaps in an equal degree, to the profane, and the ecclesiastical, + writers of this unhappy period; that their minds were inflamed by popular + and religious animosity; and that the true size and color of every object + is falsified by the exaggerations of their corrupt eloquence. The vehement + Jerom might justly deplore the calamities inflicted by the Goths, and + their barbarous allies, on his native country of Pannonia, and the wide + extent of the provinces, from the walls of Constantinople to the foot of + the Julian Alps; the rapes, the massacres, the conflagrations; and, above + all, the profanation of the churches, that were turned into stables, and + the contemptuous treatment of the relics of holy martyrs. But the Saint is + surely transported beyond the limits of nature and history, when he + affirms, "that, in those desert countries, nothing was left except the sky + and the earth; that, after the destruction of the cities, and the + extirpation of the human race, the land was overgrown with thick forests + and inextricable brambles; and that the universal desolation, announced by + the prophet Zephaniah, was accomplished, in the scarcity of the beasts, + the birds, and even of the fish." These complaints were pronounced about + twenty years after the death of Valens; and the Illyrian provinces, which + were constantly exposed to the invasion and passage of the Barbarians, + still continued, after a calamitous period of ten centuries, to supply new + materials for rapine and destruction. Could it even be supposed, that a + large tract of country had been left without cultivation and without + inhabitants, the consequences might not have been so fatal to the inferior + productions of animated nature. The useful and feeble animals, which are + nourished by the hand of man, might suffer and perish, if they were + deprived of his protection; but the beasts of the forest, his enemies or + his victims, would multiply in the free and undisturbed possession of + their solitary domain. The various tribes that people the air, or the + waters, are still less connected with the fate of the human species; and + it is highly probable that the fish of the Danube would have felt more + terror and distress, from the approach of a voracious pike, than from the + hostile inroad of a Gothic army.<br /> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkch26-p5" id="linkch26-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XXVI: Progress of The Huns.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + Whatever may have been the just measure of the calamities of Europe, there + was reason to fear that the same calamities would soon extend to the + peaceful countries of Asia. The sons of the Goths had been judiciously + distributed through the cities of the East; and the arts of education were + employed to polish, and subdue, the native fierceness of their temper. In + the space of about twelve years, their numbers had continually increased; + and the children, who, in the first emigration, were sent over the + Hellespont, had attained, with rapid growth, the strength and spirit of + perfect manhood. It was impossible to conceal from their knowledge the + events of the Gothic war; and, as those daring youths had not studied the + language of dissimulation, they betrayed their wish, their desire, perhaps + their intention, to emulate the glorious example of their fathers. The + danger of the times seemed to justify the jealous suspicions of the + provincials; and these suspicions were admitted as unquestionable + evidence, that the Goths of Asia had formed a secret and dangerous + conspiracy against the public safety. The death of Valens had left the + East without a sovereign; and Julius, who filled the important station of + master-general of the troops, with a high reputation of diligence and + ability, thought it his duty to consult the senate of Constantinople; + which he considered, during the vacancy of the throne, as the + representative council of the nation. As soon as he had obtained the + discretionary power of acting as he should judge most expedient for the + good of the republic, he assembled the principal officers, and privately + concerted effectual measures for the execution of his bloody design. An + order was immediately promulgated, that, on a stated day, the Gothic youth + should assemble in the capital cities of their respective provinces; and, + as a report was industriously circulated, that they were summoned to + receive a liberal gift of lands and money, the pleasing hope allayed the + fury of their resentment, and, perhaps, suspended the motions of the + conspiracy. On the appointed day, the unarmed crowd of the Gothic youth + was carefully collected in the square or Forum; the streets and avenues + were occupied by the Roman troops, and the roofs of the houses were + covered with archers and slingers. At the same hour, in all the cities of + the East, the signal was given of indiscriminate slaughter; and the + provinces of Asia were delivered by the cruel prudence of Julius, from a + domestic enemy, who, in a few months, might have carried fire and sword + from the Hellespont to the Euphrates. The urgent consideration of the + public safety may undoubtedly authorize the violation of every positive + law. How far that, or any other, consideration may operate to dissolve the + natural obligations of humanity and justice, is a doctrine of which I + still desire to remain ignorant.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The emperor Gratian was far advanced on his march towards the plains of + Hadrianople, when he was informed, at first by the confused voice of fame, + and afterwards by the more accurate reports of Victor and Richomer, that + his impatient colleague had been slain in battle, and that two thirds of + the Roman army were exterminated by the sword of the victorious Goths. + Whatever resentment the rash and jealous vanity of his uncle might + deserve, the resentment of a generous mind is easily subdued by the softer + emotions of grief and compassion; and even the sense of pity was soon lost + in the serious and alarming consideration of the state of the republic. + Gratian was too late to assist, he was too weak to revenge, his + unfortunate colleague; and the valiant and modest youth felt himself + unequal to the support of a sinking world. A formidable tempest of the + Barbarians of Germany seemed ready to burst over the provinces of Gaul; + and the mind of Gratian was oppressed and distracted by the administration + of the Western empire. In this important crisis, the government of the + East, and the conduct of the Gothic war, required the undivided attention + of a hero and a statesman. A subject invested with such ample command + would not long have preserved his fidelity to a distant benefactor; and + the Imperial council embraced the wise and manly resolution of conferring + an obligation, rather than of yielding to an insult. It was the wish of + Gratian to bestow the purple as the reward of virtue; but, at the age of + nineteen, it is not easy for a prince, educated in the supreme rank, to + understand the true characters of his ministers and generals. He attempted + to weigh, with an impartial hand, their various merits and defects; and, + whilst he checked the rash confidence of ambition, he distrusted the + cautious wisdom which despaired of the republic. As each moment of delay + diminished something of the power and resources of the future sovereign of + the East, the situation of the times would not allow a tedious debate. The + choice of Gratian was soon declared in favor of an exile, whose father, + only three years before, had suffered, under the sanction of <strong><em>his</em></strong> + authority, an unjust and ignominious death. The great Theodosius, a name + celebrated in history, and dear to the Catholic church, was summoned to + the Imperial court, which had gradually retreated from the confines of + Thrace to the more secure station of Sirmium. Five months after the death + of Valens, the emperor Gratian produced before the assembled troops + <strong><em>his</em></strong> colleague and <strong><em>their</em></strong> + master; who, after a modest, perhaps a sincere, resistance, was compelled + to accept, amidst the general acclamations, the diadem, the purple, and + the equal title of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, + over which Valens had reigned, were resigned to the administration of the + new emperor; but, as he was specially intrusted with the conduct of the + Gothic war, the Illyrian præfecture was dismembered; and the two + great dioceses of Dacia and Macedonia were added to the dominions of the + Eastern empire.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The same province, and perhaps the same city, which had given to the + throne the virtues of Trajan, and the talents of Hadrian, was the original + seat of another family of Spaniards, who, in a less fortunate age, + possessed, near fourscore years, the declining empire of Rome. They + emerged from the obscurity of municipal honors by the active spirit of the + elder Theodosius, a general whose exploits in Britain and Africa have + formed one of the most splendid parts of the annals of Valentinian. The + son of that general, who likewise bore the name of Theodosius, was + educated, by skilful preceptors, in the liberal studies of youth; but he + was instructed in the art of war by the tender care and severe discipline + of his father. Under the standard of such a leader, young Theodosius + sought glory and knowledge, in the most distant scenes of military action; + inured his constitution to the difference of seasons and climates; + distinguished his valor by sea and land; and observed the various warfare + of the Scots, the Saxons, and the Moors. His own merit, and the + recommendation of the conqueror of Africa, soon raised him to a separate + command; and, in the station of Duke of Mæsia, he vanquished an army + of Sarmatians; saved the province; deserved the love of the soldiers; and + provoked the envy of the court. His rising fortunes were soon blasted by + the disgrace and execution of his illustrious father; and Theodosius + obtained, as a favor, the permission of retiring to a private life in his + native province of Spain. He displayed a firm and temperate character in + the ease with which he adapted himself to this new situation. His time was + almost equally divided between the town and country; the spirit, which had + animated his public conduct, was shown in the active and affectionate + performance of every social duty; and the diligence of the soldier was + profitably converted to the improvement of his ample patrimony, which lay + between Valladolid and Segovia, in the midst of a fruitful district, still + famous for a most exquisite breed of sheep. From the innocent, but humble + labors of his farm, Theodosius was transported, in less than four months, + to the throne of the Eastern empire; and the whole period of the history + of the world will not perhaps afford a similar example, of an elevation at + the same time so pure and so honorable. The princes who peaceably inherit + the sceptre of their fathers, claim and enjoy a legal right, the more + secure as it is absolutely distinct from the merits of their personal + characters. The subjects, who, in a monarchy, or a popular state, acquire + the possession of supreme power, may have raised themselves, by the + superiority either of genius or virtue, above the heads of their equals; + but their virtue is seldom exempt from ambition; and the cause of the + successful candidate is frequently stained by the guilt of conspiracy, or + civil war. Even in those governments which allow the reigning monarch to + declare a colleague or a successor, his partial choice, which may be + influenced by the blindest passions, is often directed to an unworthy + object But the most suspicious malignity cannot ascribe to Theodosius, in + his obscure solitude of Caucha, the arts, the desires, or even the hopes, + of an ambitious statesman; and the name of the Exile would long since have + been forgotten, if his genuine and distinguished virtues had not left a + deep impression in the Imperial court. During the season of prosperity, he + had been neglected; but, in the public distress, his superior merit was + universally felt and acknowledged. What confidence must have been reposed + in his integrity, since Gratian could trust, that a pious son would + forgive, for the sake of the republic, the murder of his father! What + expectations must have been formed of his abilities to encourage the hope, + that a single man could save, and restore, the empire of the East! + Theodosius was invested with the purple in the thirty-third year of his + age. The vulgar gazed with admiration on the manly beauty of his face, and + the graceful majesty of his person, which they were pleased to compare + with the pictures and medals of the emperor Trajan; whilst intelligent + observers discovered, in the qualities of his heart and understanding, a + more important resemblance to the best and greatest of the Roman princes.<br /> + </p> + <p> + It is not without the most sincere regret, that I must now take leave of + an accurate and faithful guide, who has composed the history of his own + times, without indulging the prejudices and passions, which usually affect + the mind of a contemporary. Ammianus Marcellinus, who terminates his + useful work with the defeat and death of Valens, recommends the more + glorious subject of the ensuing reign to the youthful vigor and eloquence + of the rising generation. The rising generation was not disposed to accept + his advice or to imitate his example; and, in the study of the reign of + Theodosius, we are reduced to illustrate the partial narrative of Zosimus, + by the obscure hints of fragments and chronicles, by the figurative style + of poetry or panegyric, and by the precarious assistance of the + ecclesiastical writers, who, in the heat of religious faction, are apt to + despise the profane virtues of sincerity and moderation. Conscious of + these disadvantages, which will continue to involve a considerable portion + of the decline and fall of the Roman empire, I shall proceed with doubtful + and timorous steps. Yet I may boldly pronounce, that the battle of + Hadrianople was never revenged by any signal or decisive victory of + Theodosius over the Barbarians: and the expressive silence of his venal + orators may be confirmed by the observation of the condition and + circumstances of the times. The fabric of a mighty state, which has been + reared by the labors of successive ages, could not be overturned by the + misfortune of a single day, if the fatal power of the imagination did not + exaggerate the real measure of the calamity. The loss of forty thousand + Romans, who fell in the plains of Hadrianople, might have been soon + recruited in the populous provinces of the East, which contained so many + millions of inhabitants. The courage of a soldier is found to be the + cheapest, and most common, quality of human nature; and sufficient skill + to encounter an undisciplined foe might have been speedily taught by the + care of the surviving centurions. If the Barbarians were mounted on the + horses, and equipped with the armor, of their vanquished enemies, the + numerous studs of Cappadocia and Spain would have supplied new squadrons + of cavalry; the thirty-four arsenals of the empire were plentifully stored + with magazines of offensive and defensive arms: and the wealth of Asia + might still have yielded an ample fund for the expenses of the war. But + the effects which were produced by the battle of Hadrianople on the minds + of the Barbarians and of the Romans, extended the victory of the former, + and the defeat of the latter, far beyond the limits of a single day. A + Gothic chief was heard to declare, with insolent moderation, that, for his + own part, he was fatigued with slaughter: but that he was astonished how a + people, who fled before him like a flock of sheep, could still presume to + dispute the possession of their treasures and provinces. The same terrors + which the name of the Huns had spread among the Gothic tribes, were + inspired, by the formidable name of the Goths, among the subjects and + soldiers of the Roman empire. If Theodosius, hastily collecting his + scattered forces, had led them into the field to encounter a victorious + enemy, his army would have been vanquished by their own fears; and his + rashness could not have been excused by the chance of success. But the + <strong><em>great</em></strong> Theodosius, an epithet which he honorably + deserved on this momentous occasion, conducted himself as the firm and + faithful guardian of the republic. He fixed his head-quarters at + Thessalonica, the capital of the Macedonian diocese; from whence he could + watch the irregular motions of the Barbarians, and direct the operations + of his lieutenants, from the gates of Constantinople to the shores of the + Hadriatic. The fortifications and garrisons of the cities were + strengthened; and the troops, among whom a sense of order and discipline + was revived, were insensibly emboldened by the confidence of their own + safety. From these secure stations, they were encouraged to make frequent + sallies on the Barbarians, who infested the adjacent country; and, as they + were seldom allowed to engage, without some decisive superiority, either + of ground or of numbers, their enterprises were, for the most part, + successful; and they were soon convinced, by their own experience, of the + possibility of vanquishing their <strong><em>invincible</em></strong> + enemies. The detachments of these separate garrisons were generally united + into small armies; the same cautious measures were pursued, according to + an extensive and well-concerted plan of operations; the events of each day + added strength and spirit to the Roman arms; and the artful diligence of + the emperor, who circulated the most favorable reports of the success of + the war, contributed to subdue the pride of the Barbarians, and to animate + the hopes and courage of his subjects. If, instead of this faint and + imperfect outline, we could accurately represent the counsels and actions + of Theodosius, in four successive campaigns, there is reason to believe, + that his consummate skill would deserve the applause of every military + reader. The republic had formerly been saved by the delays of Fabius; and, + while the splendid trophies of Scipio, in the field of Zama, attract the + eyes of posterity, the camps and marches of the dictator among the hills + of the Campania, may claim a juster proportion of the solid and + independent fame, which the general is not compelled to share, either with + fortune or with his troops. Such was likewise the merit of Theodosius; and + the infirmities of his body, which most unseasonably languished under a + long and dangerous disease, could not oppress the vigor of his mind, or + divert his attention from the public service.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The deliverance and peace of the Roman provinces was the work of prudence, + rather than of valor: the prudence of Theodosius was seconded by fortune: + and the emperor never failed to seize, and to improve, every favorable + circumstance. As long as the superior genius of Fritigern preserved the + union, and directed the motions of the Barbarians, their power was not + inadequate to the conquest of a great empire. The death of that hero, the + predecessor and master of the renowned Alaric, relieved an impatient + multitude from the intolerable yoke of discipline and discretion. The + Barbarians, who had been restrained by his authority, abandoned themselves + to the dictates of their passions; and their passions were seldom uniform + or consistent. An army of conquerors was broken into many disorderly bands + of savage robbers; and their blind and irregular fury was not less + pernicious to themselves, than to their enemies. Their mischievous + disposition was shown in the destruction of every object which they wanted + strength to remove, or taste to enjoy; and they often consumed, with + improvident rage, the harvests, or the granaries, which soon afterwards + became necessary for their own subsistence. A spirit of discord arose + among the independent tribes and nations, which had been united only by + the bands of a loose and voluntary alliance. The troops of the Huns and + the Alani would naturally upbraid the flight of the Goths; who were not + disposed to use with moderation the advantages of their fortune; the + ancient jealousy of the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths could not long be + suspended; and the haughty chiefs still remembered the insults and + injuries, which they had reciprocally offered, or sustained, while the + nation was seated in the countries beyond the Danube. The progress of + domestic faction abated the more diffusive sentiment of national + animosity; and the officers of Theodosius were instructed to purchase, + with liberal gifts and promises, the retreat or service of the + discontented party. The acquisition of Modar, a prince of the royal blood + of the Amali, gave a bold and faithful champion to the cause of Rome. The + illustrious deserter soon obtained the rank of master-general, with an + important command; surprised an army of his countrymen, who were immersed + in wine and sleep; and, after a cruel slaughter of the astonished Goths, + returned with an immense spoil, and four thousand wagons, to the Imperial + camp. In the hands of a skilful politician, the most different means may + be successfully applied to the same ends; and the peace of the empire, + which had been forwarded by the divisions, was accomplished by the + reunion, of the Gothic nation. Athanaric, who had been a patient spectator + of these extraordinary events, was at length driven, by the chance of + arms, from the dark recesses of the woods of Caucaland. He no longer + hesitated to pass the Danube; and a very considerable part of the subjects + of Fritigern, who already felt the inconveniences of anarchy, were easily + persuaded to acknowledge for their king a Gothic Judge, whose birth they + respected, and whose abilities they had frequently experienced. But age + had chilled the daring spirit of Athanaric; and, instead of leading his + people to the field of battle and victory, he wisely listened to the fair + proposal of an honorable and advantageous treaty. Theodosius, who was + acquainted with the merit and power of his new ally, condescended to meet + him at the distance of several miles from Constantinople; and entertained + him in the Imperial city, with the confidence of a friend, and the + magnificence of a monarch. "The Barbarian prince observed, with curious + attention, the variety of objects which attracted his notice, and at last + broke out into a sincere and passionate exclamation of wonder. I now + behold (said he) what I never could believe, the glories of this + stupendous capital! And as he cast his eyes around, he viewed, and he + admired, the commanding situation of the city, the strength and beauty of + the walls and public edifices, the capacious harbor, crowded with + innumerable vessels, the perpetual concourse of distant nations, and the + arms and discipline of the troops. Indeed, (continued Athanaric,) the + emperor of the Romans is a god upon earth; and the presumptuous man, who + dares to lift his hand against him, is guilty of his own blood." The + Gothic king did not long enjoy this splendid and honorable reception; and, + as temperance was not the virtue of his nation, it may justly be + suspected, that his mortal disease was contracted amidst the pleasures of + the Imperial banquets. But the policy of Theodosius derived more solid + benefit from the death, than he could have expected from the most faithful + services, of his ally. The funeral of Athanaric was performed with solemn + rites in the capital of the East; a stately monument was erected to his + memory; and his whole army, won by the liberal courtesy, and decent grief, + of Theodosius, enlisted under the standard of the Roman empire. The + submission of so great a body of the Visigoths was productive of the most + salutary consequences; and the mixed influence of force, of reason, and of + corruption, became every day more powerful, and more extensive. Each + independent chieftain hastened to obtain a separate treaty, from the + apprehension that an obstinate delay might expose <strong><em>him</em></strong>, + alone and unprotected, to the revenge, or justice, of the conqueror. The + general, or rather the final, capitulation of the Goths, may be dated four + years, one month, and twenty-five days, after the defeat and death of the + emperor Valens.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The provinces of the Danube had been already relieved from the oppressive + weight of the Gruthungi, or Ostrogoths, by the voluntary retreat of + Alatheus and Saphrax, whose restless spirit had prompted them to seek new + scenes of rapine and glory. Their destructive course was pointed towards + the West; but we must be satisfied with a very obscure and imperfect + knowledge of their various adventures. The Ostrogoths impelled several of + the German tribes on the provinces of Gaul; concluded, and soon violated, + a treaty with the emperor Gratian; advanced into the unknown countries of + the North; and, after an interval of more than four years, returned, with + accumulated force, to the banks of the Lower Danube. Their troops were + recruited with the fiercest warriors of Germany and Scythia; and the + soldiers, or at least the historians, of the empire, no longer recognized + the name and countenances of their former enemies. The general who + commanded the military and naval powers of the Thracian frontier, soon + perceived that his superiority would be disadvantageous to the public + service; and that the Barbarians, awed by the presence of his fleet and + legions, would probably defer the passage of the river till the + approaching winter. The dexterity of the spies, whom he sent into the + Gothic camp, allured the Barbarians into a fatal snare. They were + persuaded that, by a bold attempt, they might surprise, in the silence and + darkness of the night, the sleeping army of the Romans; and the whole + multitude was hastily embarked in a fleet of three thousand canoes. The + bravest of the Ostrogoths led the van; the main body consisted of the + remainder of their subjects and soldiers; and the women and children + securely followed in the rear. One of the nights without a moon had been + selected for the execution of their design; and they had almost reached + the southern bank of the Danube, in the firm confidence that they should + find an easy landing and an unguarded camp. But the progress of the + Barbarians was suddenly stopped by an unexpected obstacle a triple line of + vessels, strongly connected with each other, and which formed an + impenetrable chain of two miles and a half along the river. While they + struggled to force their way in the unequal conflict, their right flank + was overwhelmed by the irresistible attack of a fleet of galleys, which + were urged down the stream by the united impulse of oars and of the tide. + The weight and velocity of those ships of war broke, and sunk, and + dispersed, the rude and feeble canoes of the Barbarians; their valor was + ineffectual; and Alatheus, the king, or general, of the Ostrogoths, + perished with his bravest troops, either by the sword of the Romans, or in + the waves of the Danube. The last division of this unfortunate fleet might + regain the opposite shore; but the distress and disorder of the multitude + rendered them alike incapable, either of action or counsel; and they soon + implored the clemency of the victorious enemy. On this occasion, as well + as on many others, it is a difficult task to reconcile the passions and + prejudices of the writers of the age of Theodosius. The partial and + malignant historian, who misrepresents every action of his reign, affirms, + that the emperor did not appear in the field of battle till the Barbarians + had been vanquished by the valor and conduct of his lieutenant Promotus. + The flattering poet, who celebrated, in the court of Honorius, the glory + of the father and of the son, ascribes the victory to the personal prowess + of Theodosius; and almost insinuates, that the king of the Ostrogoths was + slain by the hand of the emperor. The truth of history might perhaps be + found in a just medium between these extreme and contradictory assertions.<br /> + </p> + <p> + The original treaty which fixed the settlement of the Goths, ascertained + their privileges, and stipulated their obligations, would illustrate the + history of Theodosius and his successors. The series of their history has + imperfectly preserved the spirit and substance of this single agreement. + The ravages of war and tyranny had provided many large tracts of fertile + but uncultivated land for the use of those Barbarians who might not + disdain the practice of agriculture. A numerous colony of the Visigoths + was seated in Thrace; the remains of the Ostrogoths were planted in + Phrygia and Lydia; their immediate wants were supplied by a distribution + of corn and cattle; and their future industry was encouraged by an + exemption from tribute, during a certain term of years. The Barbarians + would have deserved to feel the cruel and perfidious policy of the + Imperial court, if they had suffered themselves to be dispersed through + the provinces. They required, and they obtained, the sole possession of + the villages and districts assigned for their residence; they still + cherished and propagated their native manners and language; asserted, in + the bosom of despotism, the freedom of their domestic government; and + acknowledged the sovereignty of the emperor, without submitting to the + inferior jurisdiction of the laws and magistrates of Rome. The hereditary + chiefs of the tribes and families were still permitted to command their + followers in peace and war; but the royal dignity was abolished; and the + generals of the Goths were appointed and removed at the pleasure of the + emperor. An army of forty thousand Goths was maintained for the perpetual + service of the empire of the East; and those haughty troops, who assumed + the title of Federati, or allies, were distinguished by their gold + collars, liberal pay, and licentious privileges. Their native courage was + improved by the use of arms and the knowledge of discipline; and, while + the republic was guarded, or threatened, by the doubtful sword of the + Barbarians, the last sparks of the military flame were finally + extinguished in the minds of the Romans. Theodosius had the address to + persuade his allies, that the conditions of peace, which had been extorted + from him by prudence and necessity, were the voluntary expressions of his + sincere friendship for the Gothic nation. A different mode of vindication + or apology was opposed to the complaints of the people; who loudly + censured these shameful and dangerous concessions. The calamities of the + war were painted in the most lively colors; and the first symptoms of the + return of order, of plenty, and security, were diligently exaggerated. The + advocates of Theodosius could affirm, with some appearance of truth and + reason, that it was impossible to extirpate so many warlike tribes, who + were rendered desperate by the loss of their native country; and that the + exhausted provinces would be revived by a fresh supply of soldiers and + husbandmen. The Barbarians still wore an angry and hostile aspect; but the + experience of past times might encourage the hope, that they would acquire + the habits of industry and obedience; that their manners would be polished + by time, education, and the influence of Christianity; and that their + posterity would insensibly blend with the great body of the Roman people.<br /> + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these specious arguments, and these sanguine expectations, + it was apparent to every discerning eye, that the Goths would long remain + the enemies, and might soon become the conquerors of the Roman empire. + Their rude and insolent behavior expressed their contempt of the citizens + and provincials, whom they insulted with impunity. To the zeal and valor + of the Barbarians Theodosius was indebted for the success of his arms: but + their assistance was precarious; and they were sometimes seduced, by a + treacherous and inconstant disposition, to abandon his standard, at the + moment when their service was the most essential. During the civil war + against Maximus, a great number of Gothic deserters retired into the + morasses of Macedonia, wasted the adjacent provinces, and obliged the + intrepid monarch to expose his person, and exert his power, to suppress + the rising flame of rebellion. The public apprehensions were fortified by + the strong suspicion, that these tumults were not the effect of accidental + passion, but the result of deep and premeditated design. It was generally + believed, that the Goths had signed the treaty of peace with a hostile and + insidious spirit; and that their chiefs had previously bound themselves, + by a solemn and secret oath, never to keep faith with the Romans; to + maintain the fairest show of loyalty and friendship, and to watch the + favorable moment of rapine, of conquest, and of revenge. But as the minds + of the Barbarians were not insensible to the power of gratitude, several + of the Gothic leaders sincerely devoted themselves to the service of the + empire, or, at least, of the emperor; the whole nation was insensibly + divided into two opposite factions, and much sophistry was employed in + conversation and dispute, to compare the obligations of their first, and + second, engagements. The Goths, who considered themselves as the friends + of peace, of justice, and of Rome, were directed by the authority of + Fravitta, a valiant and honorable youth, distinguished above the rest of + his countrymen by the politeness of his manners, the liberality of his + sentiments, and the mild virtues of social life. But the more numerous + faction adhered to the fierce and faithless Priulf, * who inflamed the + passions, and asserted the independence, of his warlike followers. On one + of the solemn festivals, when the chiefs of both parties were invited to + the Imperial table, they were insensibly heated by wine, till they forgot + the usual restraints of discretion and respect, and betrayed, in the + presence of Theodosius, the fatal secret of their domestic disputes. The + emperor, who had been the reluctant witness of this extraordinary + controversy, dissembled his fears and resentment, and soon dismissed the + tumultuous assembly. Fravitta, alarmed and exasperated by the insolence of + his rival, whose departure from the palace might have been the signal of a + civil war, boldly followed him; and, drawing his sword, laid Priulf dead + at his feet. Their companions flew to arms; and the faithful champion of + Rome would have been oppressed by superior numbers, if he had not been + protected by the seasonable interposition of the Imperial guards. Such + were the scenes of Barbaric rage, which disgraced the palace and table of + the Roman emperor; and, as the impatient Goths could only be restrained by + the firm and temperate character of Theodosius, the public safety seemed + to depend on the life and abilities of a single man.<br /> + </p> + <p> + End of Vol. 2 + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of +the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + +***** This file should be named 891-h.htm or 891-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/9/891/ + +Produced by David Reed and Dale R. 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