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diff --git a/old/890-8.txt b/old/890-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a42b7a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/890-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17360 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of the +Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire + Volume 1 + +Author: Edward Gibbon + +Posting Date: June 7, 2008 [EBook #890] +Release Date: April, 1997 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + + + + +Produced by David Reed and Dale R. Fredrickson + + + + + +HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE + +Edward Gibbon, Esq. + +With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman + +Volume 1 + +1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) + + + + +CONTENTS: + +Introduction + +Preface By The Editor + +Preface Of The Author + +Preface To The First Volume + +Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.—Part +I. Part II. Part III. + +Introduction—The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In The Age Of +The Antonines. + + +Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part I. +Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of +The Antonines. + + +Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part I. +Part II. + +Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The Antonines. + + +Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part I. Part +II. + +The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus. Election Of Pertinax—His +Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination By The Prætorian Guards. + + +Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. Part II. + +Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The Prætorian +Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius Niger In Syria, And +Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare Against The Murderers Of +Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of Severus Over His Three +Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New Maxims Of Government. + + +Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of +Macrinus.—Part I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation Of +Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander +Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The Roman +Finances. + + +Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of +Maximin.—Part I. Part II. Part III. + +The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa And Italy, +Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And Seditions.—Violent +Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus And Balbinus, And Of The Three +Gordians.—Usurpation And Secular Games Of Philip. + + +Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part I. +Part II. + +Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy By +Artaxerxes. + + +Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. Part II. +Part III. + +The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In The Time Of +The Emperor Decius. + + +Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And +Gallienus.—Part I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And Gallienus.—The +General Irruption Of The Barbarians.—The Thirty Tyrants. + + +Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. Part II. +Part III. + +Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, Triumph, And Death Of +Aurelian. + + +Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part I. +Part II. Part III. + +Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.— Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. + + +Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part I. +Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, Galerius, +And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order And Tranquillity.—The +Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.— The New Form Of +Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of Diocletian And Maximian. + + +Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part +I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of +Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxentius. Six Emperors At +The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And Galerius. —Victories Of Constantine +Over Maxentius And Licinus.— Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority +Of Constantine. + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. Part II. +Part III. Part IV. Part V. Part VI. Part VII. Part VIII. +Part IX. + +The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, Manners, +Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. + + + + +Introduction + +Preface By The Editor. + +The great work of Gibbon is indispensable to the student of history. The +literature of Europe offers no substitute for "The Decline and Fall of +the Roman Empire." It has obtained undisputed possession, as rightful +occupant, of the vast period which it comprehends. However some +subjects, which it embraces, may have undergone more complete +investigation, on the general view of the whole period, this history +is the sole undisputed authority to which all defer, and from which +few appeal to the original writers, or to more modern compilers. The +inherent interest of the subject, the inexhaustible labor employed upon +it; the immense condensation of matter; the luminous arrangement; the +general accuracy; the style, which, however monotonous from its uniform +stateliness, and sometimes wearisome from its elaborate art., is +throughout vigorous, animated, often picturesque always commands +attention, always conveys its meaning with emphatic energy, describes +with singular breadth and fidelity, and generalizes with unrivalled +felicity of expression; all these high qualifications have secured, and +seem likely to secure, its permanent place in historic literature. + +This vast design of Gibbon, the magnificent whole into which he has cast +the decay and ruin of the ancient civilization, the formation and birth +of the new order of things, will of itself, independent of the laborious +execution of his immense plan, render "The Decline and Fall of the +Roman Empire" an unapproachable subject to the future historian:* in the +eloquent language of his recent French editor, M. Guizot:-- + +"The gradual decline of the most extraordinary dominion which has +ever invaded and oppressed the world; the fall of that immense empire, +erected on the ruins of so many kingdoms, republics, and states both +barbarous and civilized; and forming in its turn, by its dismemberment, +a multitude of states, republics, and kingdoms; the annihilation of the +religion of Greece and Rome; the birth and the progress of the two new +religions which have shared the most beautiful regions of the earth; the +decrepitude of the ancient world, the spectacle of its expiring glory +and degenerate manners; the infancy of the modern world, the picture of +its first progress, of the new direction given to the mind and character +of man--such a subject must necessarily fix the attention and excite +the interest of men, who cannot behold with indifference those memorable +epochs, during which, in the fine language of Corneille-- + +'Un grand destin commence, un grand destin s'achève.'" + +This extent and harmony of design is unquestionably that which +distinguishes the work of Gibbon from all other great historical +compositions. He has first bridged the abyss between ancient and modern +times, and connected together the two great worlds of history. The great +advantage which the classical historians possess over those of modern +times is in unity of plan, of course greatly facilitated by the narrower +sphere to which their researches were confined. Except Herodotus, the +great historians of Greece--we exclude the more modern compilers, like +Diodorus Siculus--limited themselves to a single period, or at least +to the contracted sphere of Grecian affairs. As far as the Barbarians +trespassed within the Grecian boundary, or were necessarily mingled +up with Grecian politics, they were admitted into the pale of Grecian +history; but to Thucydides and to Xenophon, excepting in the Persian +inroad of the latter, Greece was the world. Natural unity confined +their narrative almost to chronological order, the episodes were of rare +occurrence and extremely brief. To the Roman historians the course +was equally clear and defined. Rome was their centre of unity; and the +uniformity with which the circle of the Roman dominion spread around, +the regularity with which their civil polity expanded, forced, as it +were, upon the Roman historian that plan which Polybius announces as +the subject of his history, the means and the manner by which the whole +world became subject to the Roman sway. How different the complicated +politics of the European kingdoms! Every national history, to be +complete, must, in a certain sense, be the history of Europe; there is +no knowing to how remote a quarter it may be necessary to trace our +most domestic events; from a country, how apparently disconnected, may +originate the impulse which gives its direction to the whole course of +affairs. + +In imitation of his classical models, Gibbon places Rome as the cardinal +point from which his inquiries diverge, and to which they bear constant +reference; yet how immeasurable the space over which those inquiries +range; how complicated, how confused, how apparently inextricable the +causes which tend to the decline of the Roman empire! how countless the +nations which swarm forth, in mingling and indistinct hordes, constantly +changing the geographical limits--incessantly confounding the natural +boundaries! At first sight, the whole period, the whole state of the +world, seems to offer no more secure footing to an historical adventurer +than the chaos of Milton--to be in a state of irreclaimable disorder, +best described in the language of the poet:-- + + "A dark Illimitable ocean, without bound, + Without dimension, where length, breadth, and height, + And time, and place, are lost: where eldest Night + And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold + Eternal anarchy, amidst the noise + Of endless wars, and by confusion stand." + +We feel that the unity and harmony of narrative, which shall comprehend +this period of social disorganization, must be ascribed entirely to the +skill and luminous disposition of the historian. It is in this sublime +Gothic architecture of his work, in which the boundless range, the +infinite variety, the, at first sight, incongruous gorgeousness of +the separate parts, nevertheless are all subordinate to one main and +predominant idea, that Gibbon is unrivalled. We cannot but admire the +manner in which he masses his materials, and arranges his facts in +successive groups, not according to chronological order, but to their +moral or political connection; the distinctness with which he marks his +periods of gradually increasing decay; and the skill with which, though +advancing on separate parallels of history, he shows the common tendency +of the slower or more rapid religious or civil innovations. However +these principles of composition may demand more than ordinary attention +on the part of the reader, they can alone impress upon the memory the +real course, and the relative importance of the events. Whoever would +justly appreciate the superiority of Gibbon's lucid arrangement, should +attempt to make his way through the regular but wearisome annals of +Tillemont, or even the less ponderous volumes of Le Beau. Both these +writers adhere, almost entirely, to chronological order; the consequence +is, that we are twenty times called upon to break off, and resume the +thread of six or eight wars in different parts of the empire; to suspend +the operations of a military expedition for a court intrigue; to hurry +away from a siege to a council; and the same page places us in the +middle of a campaign against the barbarians, and in the depths of the +Monophysite controversy. In Gibbon it is not always easy to bear in mind +the exact dates but the course of events is ever clear and distinct; +like a skilful general, though his troops advance from the most +remote and opposite quarters, they are constantly bearing down and +concentrating themselves on one point--that which is still occupied +by the name, and by the waning power of Rome. Whether he traces the +progress of hostile religions, or leads from the shores of the +Baltic, or the verge of the Chinese empire, the successive hosts of +barbarians--though one wave has hardly burst and discharged itself, +before another swells up and approaches--all is made to flow in the same +direction, and the impression which each makes upon the tottering fabric +of the Roman greatness, connects their distant movements, and measures +the relative importance assigned to them in the panoramic history. The +more peaceful and didactic episodes on the development of the Roman law, +or even on the details of ecclesiastical history, interpose themselves +as resting-places or divisions between the periods of barbaric invasion. +In short, though distracted first by the two capitals, and afterwards +by the formal partition of the empire, the extraordinary felicity of +arrangement maintains an order and a regular progression. As our horizon +expands to reveal to us the gathering tempests which are forming +far beyond the boundaries of the civilized world--as we follow their +successive approach to the trembling frontier--the compressed and +receding line is still distinctly visible; though gradually dismembered +and the broken fragments assuming the form of regular states and +kingdoms, the real relation of those kingdoms to the empire is +maintained and defined; and even when the Roman dominion has shrunk +into little more than the province of Thrace--when the name of Rome, +confined, in Italy, to the walls of the city--yet it is still the +memory, the shade of the Roman greatness, which extends over the wide +sphere into which the historian expands his later narrative; the +whole blends into the unity, and is manifestly essential to the double +catastrophe of his tragic drama. + +But the amplitude, the magnificence, or the harmony of design, are, +though imposing, yet unworthy claims on our admiration, unless the +details are filled up with correctness and accuracy. No writer has been +more severely tried on this point than Gibbon. He has undergone the +triple scrutiny of theological zeal quickened by just resentment, of +literary emulation, and of that mean and invidious vanity which delights +in detecting errors in writers of established fame. On the result of +the trial, we may be permitted to summon competent witnesses before we +deliver our own judgment. + +M. Guizot, in his preface, after stating that in France and Germany, as +well as in England, in the most enlightened countries of Europe, Gibbon +is constantly cited as an authority, thus proceeds:-- + +"I have had occasion, during my labors, to consult the writings of +philosophers, who have treated on the finances of the Roman empire; of +scholars, who have investigated the chronology; of theologians, who have +searched the depths of ecclesiastical history; of writers on law, who +have studied with care the Roman jurisprudence; of Orientalists, who +have occupied themselves with the Arabians and the Koran; of modern +historians, who have entered upon extensive researches touching the +crusades and their influence; each of these writers has remarked and +pointed out, in the 'History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman +Empire,' some negligences, some false or imperfect views some omissions, +which it is impossible not to suppose voluntary; they have rectified +some facts combated with advantage some assertions; but in general +they have taken the researches and the ideas of Gibbon, as points of +departure, or as proofs of the researches or of the new opinions which +they have advanced." + +M. Guizot goes on to state his own impressions on reading Gibbon's +history, and no authority will have greater weight with those to whom +the extent and accuracy of his historical researches are known:-- + +"After a first rapid perusal, which allowed me to feel nothing but +the interest of a narrative, always animated, and, notwithstanding its +extent and the variety of objects which it makes to pass before the +view, always perspicuous, I entered upon a minute examination of the +details of which it was composed; and the opinion which I then formed +was, I confess, singularly severe. I discovered, in certain chapters, +errors which appeared to me sufficiently important and numerous to +make me believe that they had been written with extreme negligence; in +others, I was struck with a certain tinge of partiality and prejudice, +which imparted to the exposition of the facts that want of truth +and justice, which the English express by their happy term +misrepresentation. Some imperfect (tronquées) quotations; some passages, +omitted unintentionally or designedly cast a suspicion on the honesty +(bonne foi) of the author; and his violation of the first law of +history--increased to my eye by the prolonged attention with which I +occupied myself with every phrase, every note, every reflection--caused +me to form upon the whole work, a judgment far too rigorous. After +having finished my labors, I allowed some time to elapse before I +reviewed the whole. A second attentive and regular perusal of the entire +work, of the notes of the author, and of those which I had thought it +right to subjoin, showed me how much I had exaggerated the importance of +the reproaches which Gibbon really deserved; I was struck with the same +errors, the same partiality on certain subjects; but I had been far from +doing adequate justice to the immensity of his researches, the +variety of his knowledge, and above all, to that truly philosophical +discrimination (justesse d'esprit) which judges the past as it would +judge the present; which does not permit itself to be blinded by the +clouds which time gathers around the dead, and which prevent us from +seeing that, under the toga, as under the modern dress, in the senate +as in our councils, men were what they still are, and that events took +place eighteen centuries ago, as they take place in our days. I then +felt that his book, in spite of its faults, will always be a noble +work--and that we may correct his errors and combat his prejudices, +without ceasing to admit that few men have combined, if we are not to +say in so high a degree, at least in a manner so complete, and so well +regulated, the necessary qualifications for a writer of history." + +The present editor has followed the track of Gibbon through many parts +of his work; he has read his authorities with constant reference to +his pages, and must pronounce his deliberate judgment, in terms of +the highest admiration as to his general accuracy. Many of his seeming +errors are almost inevitable from the close condensation of his matter. +From the immense range of his history, it was sometimes necessary to +compress into a single sentence, a whole vague and diffuse page of a +Byzantine chronicler. Perhaps something of importance may have thus +escaped, and his expressions may not quite contain the whole substance +of the passage from which they are taken. His limits, at times, compel +him to sketch; where that is the case, it is not fair to expect the +full details of the finished picture. At times he can only deal with +important results; and in his account of a war, it sometimes +requires great attention to discover that the events which seem to +be comprehended in a single campaign, occupy several years. But this +admirable skill in selecting and giving prominence to the points which +are of real weight and importance--this distribution of light and +shade--though perhaps it may occasionally betray him into vague and +imperfect statements, is one of the highest excellencies of Gibbon's +historic manner. It is the more striking, when we pass from the works of +his chief authorities, where, after laboring through long, minute, and +wearisome descriptions of the accessary and subordinate circumstances, a +single unmarked and undistinguished sentence, which we may overlook +from the inattention of fatigue, contains the great moral and political +result. + +Gibbon's method of arrangement, though on the whole most favorable +to the clear comprehension of the events, leads likewise to apparent +inaccuracy. That which we expect to find in one part is reserved for +another. The estimate which we are to form, depends on the accurate +balance of statements in remote parts of the work; and we have sometimes +to correct and modify opinions, formed from one chapter by those of +another. Yet, on the other hand, it is astonishing how rarely we detect +contradiction; the mind of the author has already harmonized the whole +result to truth and probability; the general impression is almost +invariably the same. The quotations of Gibbon have likewise been called +in question;--I have, in general, been more inclined to admire their +exactitude, than to complain of their indistinctness, or incompleteness. +Where they are imperfect, it is commonly from the study of brevity, and +rather from the desire of compressing the substance of his notes into +pointed and emphatic sentences, than from dishonesty, or uncandid +suppression of truth. + +These observations apply more particularly to the accuracy and fidelity +of the historian as to his facts; his inferences, of course, are more +liable to exception. It is almost impossible to trace the line between +unfairness and unfaithfulness; between intentional misrepresentation +and undesigned false coloring. The relative magnitude and importance of +events must, in some respect, depend upon the mind before which they are +presented; the estimate of character, on the habits and feelings of the +reader. Christians, like M. Guizot and ourselves, will see some things, +and some persons, in a different light from the historian of the Decline +and Fall. We may deplore the bias of his mind; we may ourselves be on +our guard against the danger of being misled, and be anxious to warn +less wary readers against the same perils; but we must not confound +this secret and unconscious departure from truth, with the deliberate +violation of that veracity which is the only title of an historian +to our confidence. Gibbon, it may be fearlessly asserted, is rarely +chargeable even with the suppression of any material fact, which bears +upon individual character; he may, with apparently invidious hostility, +enhance the errors and crimes, and disparage the virtues of certain +persons; yet, in general, he leaves us the materials for forming a +fairer judgment; and if he is not exempt from his own prejudices, +perhaps we might write passions, yet it must be candidly acknowledged, +that his philosophical bigotry is not more unjust than the theological +partialities of those ecclesiastical writers who were before in +undisputed possession of this province of history. + +We are thus naturally led to that great misrepresentation which +pervades his history--his false estimate of the nature and influence of +Christianity. + +But on this subject some preliminary caution is necessary, lest that +should be expected from a new edition, which it is impossible that it +should completely accomplish. We must first be prepared with the only +sound preservative against the false impression likely to be produced +by the perusal of Gibbon; and we must see clearly the real cause of that +false impression. The former of these cautions will be briefly suggested +in its proper place, but it may be as well to state it, here, somewhat +more at length. The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression +produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his confounding +together, in one indistinguishable mass, the origin and apostolic +propagation of the new religion, with its later progress. No argument +for the divine authority of Christianity has been urged with greater +force, or traced with higher eloquence, than that deduced from its +primary development, explicable on no other hypothesis than a heavenly +origin, and from its rapid extension through great part of the Roman +empire. But this argument--one, when confined within reasonable limits, +of unanswerable force--becomes more feeble and disputable in proportion +as it recedes from the birthplace, as it were, of the religion. The +further Christianity advanced, the more causes purely human were +enlisted in its favor; nor can it be doubted that those developed with +such artful exclusiveness by Gibbon did concur most essentially to its +establishment. It is in the Christian dispensation, as in the material +world. In both it is as the great First Cause, that the Deity is most +undeniably manifest. When once launched in regular motion upon the bosom +of space, and endowed with all their properties and relations of weight +and mutual attraction, the heavenly bodies appear to pursue their +courses according to secondary laws, which account for all their sublime +regularity. So Christianity proclaims its Divine Author chiefly in its +first origin and development. When it had once received its impulse +from above--when it had once been infused into the minds of its +first teachers--when it had gained full possession of the reason and +affections of the favored few--it might be--and to the Protestant, the +rational Christian, it is impossible to define when it really was--left +to make its way by its native force, under the ordinary secret agencies +of all-ruling Providence. The main question, the divine origin of the +religion, was dexterously eluded, or speciously conceded by Gibbon; +his plan enabled him to commence his account, in most parts, below the +apostolic times; and it was only by the strength of the dark coloring +with which he brought out the failings and the follies of the succeeding +ages, that a shadow of doubt and suspicion was thrown back upon the +primitive period of Christianity. + +"The theologian," says Gibbon, "may indulge the pleasing task of +describing religion as she descended from heaven, arrayed in her native +purity; a more melancholy duty is imposed upon the historian:--he +must discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption which she +contracted in a long residence upon earth among a weak and degenerate +race of beings." Divest this passage of the latent sarcasm betrayed by +the subsequent tone of the whole disquisition, and it might commence a +Christian history written in the most Christian spirit of candor. But as +the historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding the +limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was an Utopia +which had no existence but in the imagination of the theologian--as he +suggested rather than affirmed that the days of Christian purity were a +kind of poetic golden age;--so the theologian, by venturing too far into +the domain of the historian, has been perpetually obliged to contest +points on which he had little chance of victory--to deny facts +established on unshaken evidence--and thence, to retire, if not with the +shame of defeat, yet with but doubtful and imperfect success. + +Paley, with his intuitive sagacity, saw through the difficulty of +answering Gibbon by the ordinary arts of controversy; his emphatic +sentence, "Who can refute a sneer?" contains as much truth as point. But +full and pregnant as this phrase is, it is not quite the whole truth; +it is the tone in which the progress of Christianity is traced, in +comparison with the rest of the splendid and prodigally ornamented work, +which is the radical defect in the "Decline and Fall." Christianity +alone receives no embellishment from the magic of Gibbon's language; his +imagination is dead to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a general +zone of jealous disparagement, or neutralized by a painfully elaborate +exposition of its darker and degenerate periods. There are occasions, +indeed, when its pure and exalted humanity, when its manifestly +beneficial influence, can compel even him, as it were, to fairness, and +kindle his unguarded eloquence to its usual fervor; but, in general, +he soon relapses into a frigid apathy; affects an ostentatiously severe +impartiality; notes all the faults of Christians in every age with +bitter and almost malignant sarcasm; reluctantly, and with exception and +reservation, admits their claim to admiration. This inextricable bias +appears even to influence his manner of composition. While all the other +assailants of the Roman empire, whether warlike or religious, the Goth, +the Hun, the Arab, the Tartar, Alaric and Attila, Mahomet, and Zengis, +and Tamerlane, are each introduced upon the scene almost with dramatic +animation--their progress related in a full, complete, and unbroken +narrative--the triumph of Christianity alone takes the form of a cold +and critical disquisition. The successes of barbarous energy and brute +force call forth all the consummate skill of composition; while the +moral triumphs of Christian benevolence--the tranquil heroism of +endurance, the blameless purity, the contempt of guilty fame and of +honors destructive to the human race, which, had they assumed the proud +name of philosophy, would have been blazoned in his brightest words, +because they own religion as their principle--sink into narrow +asceticism. The glories of Christianity, in short, touch on no chord in +the heart of the writer; his imagination remains unkindled; his words, +though they maintain their stately and measured march, have become cool, +argumentative, and inanimate. Who would obscure one hue of that gorgeous +coloring in which Gibbon has invested the dying forms of Paganism, or +darken one paragraph in his splendid view of the rise and progress of +Mahometanism? But who would not have wished that the same equal justice +had been done to Christianity; that its real character and deeply +penetrating influence had been traced with the same philosophical +sagacity, and represented with more sober, as would become its quiet +course, and perhaps less picturesque, but still with lively and +attractive, descriptiveness? He might have thrown aside, with the same +scorn, the mass of ecclesiastical fiction which envelops the early +history of the church, stripped off the legendary romance, and brought +out the facts in their primitive nakedness and simplicity--if he had but +allowed those facts the benefit of the glowing eloquence which he +denied to them alone. He might have annihilated the whole fabric +of post-apostolic miracles, if he had left uninjured by sarcastic +insinuation those of the New Testament; he might have cashiered, with +Dodwell, the whole host of martyrs, which owe their existence to the +prodigal invention of later days, had he but bestowed fair room, +and dwelt with his ordinary energy on the sufferings of the genuine +witnesses to the truth of Christianity, the Polycarps, or the martyrs of +Vienne. + +And indeed, if, after all, the view of the early progress of +Christianity be melancholy and humiliating we must beware lest we charge +the whole of this on the infidelity of the historian. It is idle, it +is disingenuous, to deny or to dissemble the early depravations of +Christianity, its gradual but rapid departure from its primitive +simplicity and purity, still more, from its spirit of universal love. +It may be no unsalutary lesson to the Christian world, that this silent, +this unavoidable, perhaps, yet fatal change shall have been drawn by an +impartial, or even an hostile hand. The Christianity of every age may +take warning, lest by its own narrow views, its want of wisdom, and its +want of charity, it give the same advantage to the future unfriendly +historian, and disparage the cause of true religion. + +The design of the present edition is partly corrective, partly +supplementary: corrective, by notes, which point out (it is hoped, in +a perfectly candid and dispassionate spirit with no desire but to +establish the truth) such inaccuracies or misstatements as may have been +detected, particularly with regard to Christianity; and which thus, with +the previous caution, may counteract to a considerable extent the +unfair and unfavorable impression created against rational religion: +supplementary, by adding such additional information as the editor's +reading may have been able to furnish, from original documents or books, +not accessible at the time when Gibbon wrote. + +The work originated in the editor's habit of noting on the margin of his +copy of Gibbon references to such authors as had discovered errors, or +thrown new light on the subjects treated by Gibbon. These had grown +to some extent, and seemed to him likely to be of use to others. The +annotations of M. Guizot also appeared to him worthy of being better +known to the English public than they were likely to be, as appended to +the French translation. + +The chief works from which the editor has derived his materials are, +I. The French translation, with notes by M. Guizot; 2d edition, Paris, +1828. The editor has translated almost all the notes of M. Guizot. Where +he has not altogether agreed with him, his respect for the learning +and judgment of that writer has, in general, induced him to retain the +statement from which he has ventured to differ, with the grounds on +which he formed his own opinion. In the notes on Christianity, he has +retained all those of M. Guizot, with his own, from the conviction, +that on such a subject, to many, the authority of a French statesman, +a Protestant, and a rational and sincere Christian, would appear more +independent and unbiassed, and therefore be more commanding, than that +of an English clergyman. + +The editor has not scrupled to transfer the notes of M. Guizot to the +present work. The well-known zeal for knowledge, displayed in all +the writings of that distinguished historian, has led to the natural +inference, that he would not be displeased at the attempt to make them +of use to the English readers of Gibbon. The notes of M. Guizot are +signed with the letter G. + +II. The German translation, with the notes of Wenck. Unfortunately this +learned translator died, after having completed only the first volume; +the rest of the work was executed by a very inferior hand. + +The notes of Wenck are extremely valuable; many of them have been +adopted by M. Guizot; they are distinguished by the letter W.* + +III. The new edition of Le Beau's "Histoire du Bas Empire, with notes by +M. St. Martin, and M. Brosset." That distinguished Armenian scholar, M. +St. Martin (now, unhappily, deceased) had added much information from +Oriental writers, particularly from those of Armenia, as well as from +more general sources. Many of his observations have been found as +applicable to the work of Gibbon as to that of Le Beau. + +IV. The editor has consulted the various answers made to Gibbon on the +first appearance of his work; he must confess, with little profit. +They were, in general, hastily compiled by inferior and now forgotten +writers, with the exception of Bishop Watson, whose able apology is +rather a general argument, than an examination of misstatements. The +name of Milner stands higher with a certain class of readers, but will +not carry much weight with the severe investigator of history. + +V. Some few classical works and fragments have come to light, since +the appearance of Gibbon's History, and have been noticed in their +respective places; and much use has been made, in the latter volumes +particularly, of the increase to our stores of Oriental literature. The +editor cannot, indeed, pretend to have followed his author, in these +gleanings, over the whole vast field of his inquiries; he may have +overlooked or may not have been able to command some works, which might +have thrown still further light on these subjects; but he trusts that +what he has adduced will be of use to the student of historic truth. + +The editor would further observe, that with regard to some other +objectionable passages, which do not involve misstatement or inaccuracy, +he has intentionally abstained from directing particular attention +towards them by any special protest. + +The editor's notes are marked M. + +A considerable part of the quotations (some of which in the later +editions had fallen into great confusion) have been verified, and have +been corrected by the latest and best editions of the authors. + +June, 1845. + +In this new edition, the text and the notes have been carefully revised, +the latter by the editor. + +Some additional notes have been subjoined, distinguished by the +signature M. 1845. + + + +Preface Of The Author. + +It is not my intention to detain the reader by expatiating on the +variety or the importance of the subject, which I have undertaken to +treat; since the merit of the choice would serve to render the weakness +of the execution still more apparent, and still less excusable. But as +I have presumed to lay before the public a first volume only of the +History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, it will, perhaps, +be expected that I should explain, in a few words, the nature and limits +of my general plan. + +The memorable series of revolutions, which in the course of about +thirteen centuries gradually undermined, and at length destroyed, the +solid fabric of human greatness, may, with some propriety, be divided +into the three following periods: + +I. The first of these periods may be traced from the age of Trajan +and the Antonines, when the Roman monarchy, having attained its full +strength and maturity, began to verge towards its decline; and will +extend to the subversion of the Western Empire, by the barbarians of +Germany and Scythia, the rude ancestors of the most polished nations of +modern Europe. This extraordinary revolution, which subjected Rome to +the power of a Gothic conqueror, was completed about the beginning of +the sixth century. + +II. The second period of the Decline and Fall of Rome may be supposed +to commence with the reign of Justinian, who, by his laws, as well as by +his victories, restored a transient splendor to the Eastern Empire. It +will comprehend the invasion of Italy by the Lombards; the conquest +of the Asiatic and African provinces by the Arabs, who embraced the +religion of Mahomet; the revolt of the Roman people against the feeble +princes of Constantinople; and the elevation of Charlemagne, who, in the +year eight hundred, established the second, or German Empire of the West + +III. The last and longest of these periods includes about six centuries +and a half; from the revival of the Western Empire, till the taking of +Constantinople by the Turks, and the extinction of a degenerate race of +princes, who continued to assume the titles of Cæsar and Augustus, after +their dominions were contracted to the limits of a single city; in which +the language, as well as manners, of the ancient Romans, had been long +since forgotten. The writer who should undertake to relate the events +of this period, would find himself obliged to enter into the general +history of the Crusades, as far as they contributed to the ruin of the +Greek Empire; and he would scarcely be able to restrain his curiosity +from making some inquiry into the state of the city of Rome, during the +darkness and confusion of the middle ages. + +As I have ventured, perhaps too hastily, to commit to the press a work +which in every sense of the word, deserves the epithet of imperfect. I +consider myself as contracting an engagement to finish, most probably in +a second volume, the first of these memorable periods; and to deliver +to the Public the complete History of the Decline and Fall of Rome, from +the age of the Antonines to the subversion of the Western Empire. With +regard to the subsequent periods, though I may entertain some hopes, I +dare not presume to give any assurances. The execution of the extensive +plan which I have described, would connect the ancient and modern +history of the world; but it would require many years of health, of +leisure, and of perseverance. + +Bentinck Street, February 1, 1776. + +P. S. The entire History, which is now published, of the Decline +and Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, abundantly discharges my +engagements with the Public. Perhaps their favorable opinion may +encourage me to prosecute a work, which, however laborious it may seem, +is the most agreeable occupation of my leisure hours. + +Bentinck Street, March 1, 1781. + +An Author easily persuades himself that the public opinion is still +favorable to his labors; and I have now embraced the serious resolution +of proceeding to the last period of my original design, and of the +Roman Empire, the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the year +one thousand four hundred and fifty-three. The most patient Reader, who +computes that three ponderous volumes have been already employed on the +events of four centuries, may, perhaps, be alarmed at the long prospect +of nine hundred years. But it is not my intention to expatiate with the +same minuteness on the whole series of the Byzantine history. At our +entrance into this period, the reign of Justinian, and the conquests of +the Mahometans, will deserve and detain our attention, and the last age +of Constantinople (the Crusades and the Turks) is connected with the +revolutions of Modern Europe. From the seventh to the eleventh century, +the obscure interval will be supplied by a concise narrative of such +facts as may still appear either interesting or important. + +Bentinck Street, March 1, 1782. + + + +Preface To The First Volume. + +Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical writer +may ascribe to himself; if any merit, indeed, can be assumed from the +performance of an indispensable duty. I may therefore be allowed to say, +that I have carefully examined all the original materials that could +illustrate the subject which I had undertaken to treat. Should I +ever complete the extensive design which has been sketched out in the +Preface, I might perhaps conclude it with a critical account of the +authors consulted during the progress of the whole work; and however +such an attempt might incur the censure of ostentation, I am persuaded +that it would be susceptible of entertainment, as well as information. + +At present I shall content myself with a single observation. The +biographers, who, under the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, +composed, or rather compiled, the lives of the Emperors, from Hadrian +to the sons of Carus, are usually mentioned under the names of Ælius +Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, +Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. But there is so much perplexity +in the titles of the MSS., and so many disputes have arisen among the +critics (see Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin. l. iii. c. 6) concerning their +number, their names, and their respective property, that for the most +part I have quoted them without distinction, under the general and +well-known title of the Augustan History. + + + +Preface To The Fourth Volume Of The Original Quarto Edition. + +I now discharge my promise, and complete my design, of writing the +History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, both in the West +and the East. The whole period extends from the age of Trajan and the +Antonines, to the taking of Constantinople by Mahomet the Second; and +includes a review of the Crusades, and the state of Rome during the +middle ages. Since the publication of the first volume, twelve years +have elapsed; twelve years, according to my wish, "of health, of +leisure, and of perseverance." I may now congratulate my deliverance +from a long and laborious service, and my satisfaction will be pure and +perfect, if the public favor should be extended to the conclusion of my +work. + +It was my first intention to have collected, under one view, the +numerous authors, of every age and language, from whom I have derived +the materials of this history; and I am still convinced that the +apparent ostentation would be more than compensated by real use. If I +have renounced this idea, if I have declined an undertaking which had +obtained the approbation of a master-artist, * my excuse may be found +in the extreme difficulty of assigning a proper measure to such a +catalogue. A naked list of names and editions would not be satisfactory +either to myself or my readers: the characters of the principal Authors +of the Roman and Byzantine History have been occasionally connected +with the events which they describe; a more copious and critical inquiry +might indeed deserve, but it would demand, an elaborate volume, which +might swell by degrees into a general library of historical writers. +For the present, I shall content myself with renewing my serious +protestation, that I have always endeavored to draw from the +fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always +urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded +my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose +faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend. + +I shall soon revisit the banks of the Lake of Lausanne, a country which +I have known and loved from my early youth. Under a mild government, +amidst a beauteous landscape, in a life of leisure and independence, +and among a people of easy and elegant manners, I have enjoyed, and may +again hope to enjoy, the varied pleasures of retirement and society. +But I shall ever glory in the name and character of an Englishman: I am +proud of my birth in a free and enlightened country; and the approbation +of that country is the best and most honorable reward of my labors. Were +I ambitious of any other Patron than the Public, I would inscribe +this work to a Statesman, who, in a long, a stormy, and at length an +unfortunate administration, had many political opponents, almost +without a personal enemy; who has retained, in his fall from power, +many faithful and disinterested friends; and who, under the pressure of +severe infirmity, enjoys the lively vigor of his mind, and the felicity +of his incomparable temper. Lord North will permit me to express the +feelings of friendship in the language of truth: but even truth and +friendship should be silent, if he still dispensed the favors of the +crown. + +In a remote solitude, vanity may still whisper in my ear, that my +readers, perhaps, may inquire whether, in the conclusion of the present +work, I am now taking an everlasting farewell. They shall hear all that +I know myself, and all that I could reveal to the most intimate friend. +The motives of action or silence are now equally balanced; nor can I +pronounce, in my most secret thoughts, on which side the scale will +preponderate. I cannot dissemble that six quartos must have tried, +and may have exhausted, the indulgence of the Public; that, in the +repetition of similar attempts, a successful Author has much more to +lose than he can hope to gain; that I am now descending into the vale +of years; and that the most respectable of my countrymen, the men whom +I aspire to imitate, have resigned the pen of history about the same +period of their lives. Yet I consider that the annals of ancient and +modern times may afford many rich and interesting subjects; that I am +still possessed of health and leisure; that by the practice of writing, +some skill and facility must be acquired; and that, in the ardent +pursuit of truth and knowledge, I am not conscious of decay. To an +active mind, indolence is more painful than labor; and the first months +of my liberty will be occupied and amused in the excursions of curiosity +and taste. By such temptations, I have been sometimes seduced from the +rigid duty even of a pleasing and voluntary task: but my time will now +be my own; and in the use or abuse of independence, I shall no longer +fear my own reproaches or those of my friends. I am fairly entitled to a +year of jubilee: next summer and the following winter will rapidly pass +away; and experience only can determine whether I shall still prefer the +freedom and variety of study to the design and composition of a regular +work, which animates, while it confines, the daily application of the +Author. Caprice and accident may influence my choice; but the dexterity +of self-love will contrive to applaud either active industry or +philosophic repose. + +Downing Street, May 1, 1788. + +P. S. I shall embrace this opportunity of introducing two verbal +remarks, which have not conveniently offered themselves to my notice. +1. As often as I use the definitions of beyond the Alps, the Rhine, +the Danube, &c., I generally suppose myself at Rome, and afterwards at +Constantinople; without observing whether this relative geography may +agree with the local, but variable, situation of the reader, or the +historian. 2. In proper names of foreign, and especially of Oriental +origin, it should be always our aim to express, in our English version, +a faithful copy of the original. But this rule, which is founded on +a just regard to uniformity and truth, must often be relaxed; and the +exceptions will be limited or enlarged by the custom of the language and +the taste of the interpreter. Our alphabets may be often defective; a +harsh sound, an uncouth spelling, might offend the ear or the eye of our +countrymen; and some words, notoriously corrupt, are fixed, and, as +it were, naturalized in the vulgar tongue. The prophet Mohammed can +no longer be stripped of the famous, though improper, appellation of +Mahomet: the well-known cities of Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo, would +almost be lost in the strange descriptions of Haleb, Demashk, and Al +Cahira: the titles and offices of the Ottoman empire are fashioned by +the practice of three hundred years; and we are pleased to blend the +three Chinese monosyllables, Con-fû-tzee, in the respectable name of +Confucius, or even to adopt the Portuguese corruption of Mandarin. But +I would vary the use of Zoroaster and Zerdusht, as I drew my information +from Greece or Persia: since our connection with India, the genuine +Timour is restored to the throne of Tamerlane: our most correct writers +have retrenched the Al, the superfluous article, from the Koran; and we +escape an ambiguous termination, by adopting Moslem instead of Musulman, +in the plural number. In these, and in a thousand examples, the shades +of distinction are often minute; and I can feel, where I cannot explain, +the motives of my choice. + + + + +Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.--Part I. + + Introduction--The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In + The Age Of The Antonines. + +In the second century of the Christian Æra, the empire of Rome +comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilized +portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were +guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor. The gentle but powerful +influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the +provinces. Their peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages +of wealth and luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved +with decent reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the +sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive +powers of government. During a happy period of more than fourscore +years, the public administration was conducted by the virtue and +abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines. It is the +design of this, and of the two succeeding chapters, to describe the +prosperous condition of their empire; and after wards, from the death +of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the most important circumstances of its +decline and fall; a revolution which will ever be remembered, and is +still felt by the nations of the earth. + +The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the republic; +and the emperors, for the most part, were satisfied with preserving +those dominions which had been acquired by the policy of the senate, +the active emulations of the consuls, and the martial enthusiasm of the +people. The seven first centuries were filled with a rapid succession of +triumphs; but it was reserved for Augustus to relinquish the ambitious +design of subduing the whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of +moderation into the public councils. Inclined to peace by his temper +and situation, it was easy for him to discover that Rome, in her present +exalted situation, had much less to hope than to fear from the chance +of arms; and that, in the prosecution of remote wars, the undertaking +became every day more difficult, the event more doubtful, and the +possession more precarious, and less beneficial. The experience of +Augustus added weight to these salutary reflections, and effectually +convinced him that, by the prudent vigor of his counsels, it would be +easy to secure every concession which the safety or the dignity of Rome +might require from the most formidable barbarians. Instead of exposing +his person and his legions to the arrows of the Parthians, he obtained, +by an honorable treaty, the restitution of the standards and prisoners +which had been taken in the defeat of Crassus. + +His generals, in the early part of his reign, attempted the reduction +of Ethiopia and Arabia Felix. They marched near a thousand miles to +the south of the tropic; but the heat of the climate soon repelled the +invaders, and protected the un-warlike natives of those sequestered +regions. The northern countries of Europe scarcely deserved the expense +and labor of conquest. The forests and morasses of Germany were filled +with a hardy race of barbarians, who despised life when it was separated +from freedom; and though, on the first attack, they seemed to yield to +the weight of the Roman power, they soon, by a signal act of despair, +regained their independence, and reminded Augustus of the vicissitude of +fortune. On the death of that emperor, his testament was publicly read +in the senate. He bequeathed, as a valuable legacy to his successors, +the advice of confining the empire within those limits which nature +seemed to have placed as its permanent bulwarks and boundaries: on +the west, the Atlantic Ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the +Euphrates on the east; and towards the south, the sandy deserts of +Arabia and Africa. + +Happily for the repose of mankind, the moderate system recommended +by the wisdom of Augustus, was adopted by the fears and vices of his +immediate successors. Engaged in the pursuit of pleasure, or in the +exercise of tyranny, the first Cæsars seldom showed themselves to the +armies, or to the provinces; nor were they disposed to suffer, that +those triumphs which their indolence neglected, should be usurped by the +conduct and valor of their lieutenants. The military fame of a subject +was considered as an insolent invasion of the Imperial prerogative; +and it became the duty, as well as interest, of every Roman general, to +guard the frontiers intrusted to his care, without aspiring to conquests +which might have proved no less fatal to himself than to the vanquished +barbarians. + +The only accession which the Roman empire received, during the first +century of the Christian Æra, was the province of Britain. In this +single instance, the successors of Cæsar and Augustus were persuaded to +follow the example of the former, rather than the precept of the latter. +The proximity of its situation to the coast of Gaul seemed to invite +their arms; the pleasing though doubtful intelligence of a pearl +fishery, attracted their avarice; and as Britain was viewed in the light +of a distinct and insulated world, the conquest scarcely formed any +exception to the general system of continental measures. After a war of +about forty years, undertaken by the most stupid, maintained by the most +dissolute, and terminated by the most timid of all the emperors, the +far greater part of the island submitted to the Roman yoke. The various +tribes of Britain possessed valor without conduct, and the love of +freedom without the spirit of union. They took up arms with savage +fierceness; they laid them down, or turned them against each other, with +wild inconsistency; and while they fought singly, they were successively +subdued. Neither the fortitude of Caractacus, nor the despair of +Boadicea, nor the fanaticism of the Druids, could avert the slavery of +their country, or resist the steady progress of the Imperial generals, +who maintained the national glory, when the throne was disgraced by the +weakest, or the most vicious of mankind. At the very time when Domitian, +confined to his palace, felt the terrors which he inspired, his legions, +under the command of the virtuous Agricola, defeated the collected force +of the Caledonians, at the foot of the Grampian Hills; and his fleets, +venturing to explore an unknown and dangerous navigation, displayed the +Roman arms round every part of the island. The conquest of Britain was +considered as already achieved; and it was the design of Agricola to +complete and insure his success, by the easy reduction of Ireland, for +which, in his opinion, one legion and a few auxiliaries were sufficient. +The western isle might be improved into a valuable possession, and +the Britons would wear their chains with the less reluctance, if the +prospect and example of freedom were on every side removed from before +their eyes. + +But the superior merit of Agricola soon occasioned his removal from the +government of Britain; and forever disappointed this rational, though +extensive scheme of conquest. Before his departure, the prudent general +had provided for security as well as for dominion. He had observed, +that the island is almost divided into two unequal parts by the opposite +gulfs, or, as they are now called, the Friths of Scotland. Across the +narrow interval of about forty miles, he had drawn a line of military +stations, which was afterwards fortified, in the reign of Antoninus +Pius, by a turf rampart, erected on foundations of stone. This wall of +Antoninus, at a small distance beyond the modern cities of Edinburgh +and Glasgow, was fixed as the limit of the Roman province. The native +Caledonians preserved, in the northern extremity of the island, their +wild independence, for which they were not less indebted to their +poverty than to their valor. Their incursions were frequently repelled +and chastised; but their country was never subdued. The masters of the +fairest and most wealthy climates of the globe turned with contempt from +gloomy hills, assailed by the winter tempest, from lakes concealed in a +blue mist, and from cold and lonely heaths, over which the deer of the +forest were chased by a troop of naked barbarians. + +Such was the state of the Roman frontiers, and such the maxims of +Imperial policy, from the death of Augustus to the accession of Trajan. +That virtuous and active prince had received the education of a soldier, +and possessed the talents of a general. The peaceful system of his +predecessors was interrupted by scenes of war and conquest; and the +legions, after a long interval, beheld a military emperor at their head. +The first exploits of Trajan were against the Dacians, the most warlike +of men, who dwelt beyond the Danube, and who, during the reign of +Domitian, had insulted, with impunity, the Majesty of Rome. To the +strength and fierceness of barbarians they added a contempt for +life, which was derived from a warm persuasion of the immortality and +transmigration of the soul. Decebalus, the Dacian king, approved himself +a rival not unworthy of Trajan; nor did he despair of his own and the +public fortune, till, by the confession of his enemies, he had exhausted +every resource both of valor and policy. This memorable war, with a very +short suspension of hostilities, lasted five years; and as the emperor +could exert, without control, the whole force of the state, it was +terminated by an absolute submission of the barbarians. The new province +of Dacia, which formed a second exception to the precept of Augustus, +was about thirteen hundred miles in circumference. Its natural +boundaries were the Niester, the Teyss or Tibiscus, the Lower Danube, +and the Euxine Sea. The vestiges of a military road may still be traced +from the banks of the Danube to the neighborhood of Bender, a place +famous in modern history, and the actual frontier of the Turkish and +Russian empires. + +Trajan was ambitious of fame; and as long as mankind shall continue +to bestow more liberal applause on their destroyers than on their +benefactors, the thirst of military glory will ever be the vice of the +most exalted characters. The praises of Alexander, transmitted by a +succession of poets and historians, had kindled a dangerous emulation in +the mind of Trajan. Like him, the Roman emperor undertook an expedition +against the nations of the East; but he lamented with a sigh, that his +advanced age scarcely left him any hopes of equalling the renown of the +son of Philip. Yet the success of Trajan, however transient, was rapid +and specious. The degenerate Parthians, broken by intestine discord, +fled before his arms. He descended the River Tigris in triumph, from the +mountains of Armenia to the Persian Gulf. He enjoyed the honor of being +the first, as he was the last, of the Roman generals, who ever navigated +that remote sea. His fleets ravaged the coast of Arabia; and Trajan +vainly flattered himself that he was approaching towards the confines of +India. Every day the astonished senate received the intelligence of new +names and new nations, that acknowledged his sway. They were informed +that the kings of Bosphorus, Colchos, Iberia, Albania, Osrhoene, and +even the Parthian monarch himself, had accepted their diadems from the +hands of the emperor; that the independent tribes of the Median +and Carduchian hills had implored his protection; and that the rich +countries of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, were reduced into the +state of provinces. But the death of Trajan soon clouded the splendid +prospect; and it was justly to be dreaded, that so many distant +nations would throw off the unaccustomed yoke, when they were no longer +restrained by the powerful hand which had imposed it. + + + +Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.--Part +II. + +It was an ancient tradition, that when the Capitol was founded by one of +the Roman kings, the god Terminus (who presided over boundaries, and +was represented, according to the fashion of that age, by a large stone) +alone, among all the inferior deities, refused to yield his place to +Jupiter himself. A favorable inference was drawn from his obstinacy, +which was interpreted by the augurs as a sure presage that the +boundaries of the Roman power would never recede. During many ages, the +prediction, as it is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment. But +though Terminus had resisted the Majesty of Jupiter, he submitted to +the authority of the emperor Hadrian. The resignation of all the eastern +conquests of Trajan was the first measure of his reign. He restored to +the Parthians the election of an independent sovereign; withdrew the +Roman garrisons from the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria; +and, in compliance with the precept of Augustus, once more established +the Euphrates as the frontier of the empire. Censure, which arraigns the +public actions and the private motives of princes, has ascribed to envy, +a conduct which might be attributed to the prudence and moderation of +Hadrian. The various character of that emperor, capable, by turns, of +the meanest and the most generous sentiments, may afford some color +to the suspicion. It was, however, scarcely in his power to place the +superiority of his predecessor in a more conspicuous light, than by thus +confessing himself unequal to the task of defending the conquests of +Trajan. + +The martial and ambitious of spirit Trajan formed a very singular +contrast with the moderation of his successor. The restless activity of +Hadrian was not less remarkable when compared with the gentle repose of +Antoninus Pius. The life of the former was almost a perpetual journey; +and as he possessed the various talents of the soldier, the statesman, +and the scholar, he gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his +duty. Careless of the difference of seasons and of climates, he marched +on foot, and bare-headed, over the snows of Caledonia, and the sultry +plains of the Upper Egypt; nor was there a province of the empire which, +in the course of his reign, was not honored with the presence of the +monarch. But the tranquil life of Antoninus Pius was spent in the bosom +of Italy, and, during the twenty-three years that he directed the public +administration, the longest journeys of that amiable prince extended no +farther than from his palace in Rome to the retirement of his Lanuvian +villa. + +Notwithstanding this difference in their personal conduct, the general +system of Augustus was equally adopted and uniformly pursued by Hadrian +and by the two Antonines. They persisted in the design of maintaining +the dignity of the empire, without attempting to enlarge its limits. By +every honorable expedient they invited the friendship of the barbarians; +and endeavored to convince mankind that the Roman power, raised above +the temptation of conquest, was actuated only by the love of order +and justice. During a long period of forty-three years, their virtuous +labors were crowned with success; and if we except a few slight +hostilities, that served to exercise the legions of the frontier, +the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius offer the fair prospect of +universal peace. The Roman name was revered among the most remote +nations of the earth. The fiercest barbarians frequently submitted their +differences to the arbitration of the emperor; and we are informed by a +contemporary historian that he had seen ambassadors who were refused +the honor which they came to solicit of being admitted into the rank of +subjects. + +The terror of the Roman arms added weight and dignity to the moderation +of the emperors. They preserved peace by a constant preparation for war; +and while justice regulated their conduct, they announced to the nations +on their confines, that they were as little disposed to endure, as to +offer an injury. The military strength, which it had been sufficient +for Hadrian and the elder Antoninus to display, was exerted against the +Parthians and the Germans by the emperor Marcus. The hostilities of the +barbarians provoked the resentment of that philosophic monarch, and, in +the prosecution of a just defence, Marcus and his generals obtained many +signal victories, both on the Euphrates and on the Danube. The military +establishment of the Roman empire, which thus assured either its +tranquillity or success, will now become the proper and important object +of our attention. + +In the purer ages of the commonwealth, the use of arms was reserved for +those ranks of citizens who had a country to love, a property to defend, +and some share in enacting those laws, which it was their interest as +well as duty to maintain. But in proportion as the public freedom was +lost in extent of conquest, war was gradually improved into an art, and +degraded into a trade. The legions themselves, even at the time when +they were recruited in the most distant provinces, were supposed to +consist of Roman citizens. That distinction was generally considered, +either as a legal qualification or as a proper recompense for the +soldier; but a more serious regard was paid to the essential merit of +age, strength, and military stature. In all levies, a just preference +was given to the climates of the North over those of the South: the race +of men born to the exercise of arms was sought for in the country rather +than in cities; and it was very reasonably presumed, that the hardy +occupations of smiths, carpenters, and huntsmen, would supply more +vigor and resolution than the sedentary trades which are employed in the +service of luxury. After every qualification of property had been laid +aside, the armies of the Roman emperors were still commanded, for the +most part, by officers of liberal birth and education; but the common +soldiers, like the mercenary troops of modern Europe, were drawn from +the meanest, and very frequently from the most profligate, of mankind. + +That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated patriotism, +is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in the preservation +and prosperity of the free government of which we are members. Such +a sentiment, which had rendered the legions of the republic almost +invincible, could make but a very feeble impression on the mercenary +servants of a despotic prince; and it became necessary to supply +that defect by other motives, of a different, but not less forcible +nature--honor and religion. The peasant, or mechanic, imbibed the useful +prejudice that he was advanced to the more dignified profession of arms, +in which his rank and reputation would depend on his own valor; and +that, although the prowess of a private soldier must often escape +the notice of fame, his own behavior might sometimes confer glory or +disgrace on the company, the legion, or even the army, to whose honors +he was associated. On his first entrance into the service, an oath was +administered to him with every circumstance of solemnity. He promised +never to desert his standard, to submit his own will to the commands of +his leaders, and to sacrifice his life for the safety of the emperor and +the empire. The attachment of the Roman troops to their standards was +inspired by the united influence of religion and of honor. The golden +eagle, which glittered in the front of the legion, was the object of +their fondest devotion; nor was it esteemed less impious than it was +ignominious, to abandon that sacred ensign in the hour of danger. +These motives, which derived their strength from the imagination, were +enforced by fears and hopes of a more substantial kind. Regular pay, +occasional donatives, and a stated recompense, after the appointed time +of service, alleviated the hardships of the military life, whilst, +on the other hand, it was impossible for cowardice or disobedience +to escape the severest punishment. The centurions were authorized to +chastise with blows, the generals had a right to punish with death; +and it was an inflexible maxim of Roman discipline, that a good soldier +should dread his officers far more than the enemy. From such laudable +arts did the valor of the Imperial troops receive a degree of firmness +and docility unattainable by the impetuous and irregular passions of +barbarians. + +And yet so sensible were the Romans of the imperfection of valor without +skill and practice, that, in their language, the name of an army was +borrowed from the word which signified exercise. Military exercises were +the important and unremitted object of their discipline. The recruits +and young soldiers were constantly trained, both in the morning and in +the evening, nor was age or knowledge allowed to excuse the veterans +from the daily repetition of what they had completely learnt. Large +sheds were erected in the winter-quarters of the troops, that their +useful labors might not receive any interruption from the most +tempestuous weather; and it was carefully observed, that the arms +destined to this imitation of war, should be of double the weight which +was required in real action. It is not the purpose of this work to +enter into any minute description of the Roman exercises. We shall only +remark, that they comprehended whatever could add strength to the +body, activity to the limbs, or grace to the motions. The soldiers were +diligently instructed to march, to run, to leap, to swim, to carry +heavy burdens, to handle every species of arms that was used either +for offence or for defence, either in distant engagement or in a closer +onset; to form a variety of evolutions; and to move to the sound of +flutes in the Pyrrhic or martial dance. In the midst of peace, the +Roman troops familiarized themselves with the practice of war; and it is +prettily remarked by an ancient historian who had fought against them, +that the effusion of blood was the only circumstance which distinguished +a field of battle from a field of exercise. ^39 It was the policy of the +ablest generals, and even of the emperors themselves, to encourage these +military studies by their presence and example; and we are informed +that Hadrian, as well as Trajan, frequently condescended to instruct the +unexperienced soldiers, to reward the diligent, and sometimes to dispute +with them the prize of superior strength or dexterity. Under the reigns +of those princes, the science of tactics was cultivated with +success; and as long as the empire retained any vigor, their military +instructions were respected as the most perfect model of Roman +discipline. + +Nine centuries of war had gradually introduced into the service many +alterations and improvements. The legions, as they are described by +Polybius, in the time of the Punic wars, differed very materially from +those which achieved the victories of Cæsar, or defended the monarchy of +Hadrian and the Antonines. The constitution of the Imperial legion may +be described in a few words. The heavy-armed infantry, which composed +its principal strength, was divided into ten cohorts, and fifty-five +companies, under the orders of a correspondent number of tribunes and +centurions. The first cohort, which always claimed the post of honor +and the custody of the eagle, was formed of eleven hundred and five +soldiers, the most approved for valor and fidelity. The remaining nine +cohorts consisted each of five hundred and fifty-five; and the whole +body of legionary infantry amounted to six thousand one hundred men. +Their arms were uniform, and admirably adapted to the nature of their +service: an open helmet, with a lofty crest; a breastplate, or coat of +mail; greaves on their legs, and an ample buckler on their left arm. The +buckler was of an oblong and concave figure, four feet in length, and +two and a half in breadth, framed of a light wood, covered with a bull's +hide, and strongly guarded with plates of brass. Besides a lighter +spear, the legionary soldier grasped in his right hand the formidable +pilum, a ponderous javelin, whose utmost length was about six feet, and +which was terminated by a massy triangular point of steel of eighteen +inches. This instrument was indeed much inferior to our modern +fire-arms; since it was exhausted by a single discharge, at the distance +of only ten or twelve paces. Yet when it was launched by a firm and +skilful hand, there was not any cavalry that durst venture within its +reach, nor any shield or corselet that could sustain the impetuosity +of its weight. As soon as the Roman had darted his pilum, he drew his +sword, and rushed forwards to close with the enemy. His sword was a +short well-tempered Spanish blade, that carried a double edge, and was +alike suited to the purpose of striking or of pushing; but the soldier +was always instructed to prefer the latter use of his weapon, as his own +body remained less exposed, whilst he inflicted a more dangerous wound +on his adversary. The legion was usually drawn up eight deep; and the +regular distance of three feet was left between the files as well as +ranks. A body of troops, habituated to preserve this open order, in +a long front and a rapid charge, found themselves prepared to execute +every disposition which the circumstances of war, or the skill of their +leader, might suggest. The soldier possessed a free space for his +arms and motions, and sufficient intervals were allowed, through which +seasonable reenforcements might be introduced to the relief of the +exhausted combatants. The tactics of the Greeks and Macedonians were +formed on very different principles. The strength of the phalanx +depended on sixteen ranks of long pikes, wedged together in the closest +array. But it was soon discovered by reflection, as well as by the +event, that the strength of the phalanx was unable to contend with the +activity of the legion. + +The cavalry, without which the force of the legion would have remained +imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the first, as the +companion of the first cohort, consisted of a hundred and thirty-two +men; whilst each of the other nine amounted only to sixty-six. The +entire establishment formed a regiment, if we may use the modern +expression, of seven hundred and twenty-six horse, naturally connected +with its respective legion, but occasionally separated to act in the +line, and to compose a part of the wings of the army. The cavalry of the +emperors was no longer composed, like that of the ancient republic, of +the noblest youths of Rome and Italy, who, by performing their military +service on horseback, prepared themselves for the offices of senator and +consul; and solicited, by deeds of valor, the future suffrages of their +countrymen. Since the alteration of manners and government, the most +wealthy of the equestrian order were engaged in the administration of +justice, and of the revenue; and whenever they embraced the profession +of arms, they were immediately intrusted with a troop of horse, or a +cohort of foot. Trajan and Hadrian formed their cavalry from the same +provinces, and the same class of their subjects, which recruited the +ranks of the legion. The horses were bred, for the most part, in Spain +or Cappadocia. The Roman troopers despised the complete armor with which +the cavalry of the East was encumbered. Their more useful arms consisted +in a helmet, an oblong shield, light boots, and a coat of mail. A +javelin, and a long broad sword, were their principal weapons of +offence. The use of lances and of iron maces they seem to have borrowed +from the barbarians. + +The safety and honor of the empire was principally intrusted to the +legions, but the policy of Rome condescended to adopt every useful +instrument of war. Considerable levies were regularly made among the +provincials, who had not yet deserved the honorable distinction of +Romans. Many dependent princes and communities, dispersed round the +frontiers, were permitted, for a while, to hold their freedom and +security by the tenure of military service. Even select troops of +hostile barbarians were frequently compelled or persuaded to consume +their dangerous valor in remote climates, and for the benefit of the +state. All these were included under the general name of auxiliaries; +and howsoever they might vary according to the difference of times and +circumstances, their numbers were seldom much inferior to those of the +legions themselves. Among the auxiliaries, the bravest and most faithful +bands were placed under the command of præfects and centurions, and +severely trained in the arts of Roman discipline; but the far greater +part retained those arms, to which the nature of their country, or their +early habits of life, more peculiarly adapted them. By this institution, +each legion, to whom a certain proportion of auxiliaries was allotted, +contained within itself every species of lighter troops, and of +missile weapons; and was capable of encountering every nation, with the +advantages of its respective arms and discipline. Nor was the legion +destitute of what, in modern language, would be styled a train of +artillery. It consisted in ten military engines of the largest, and +fifty-five of a smaller size; but all of which, either in an oblique +or horizontal manner, discharged stones and darts with irresistible +violence. + + + +Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.--Part +III. + +The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a fortified city. +As soon as the space was marked out, the pioneers carefully levelled the +ground, and removed every impediment that might interrupt its perfect +regularity. Its form was an exact quadrangle; and we may calculate, that +a square of about seven hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment +of twenty thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops +would expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that extent. In +the midst of the camp, the prætorium, or general's quarters, rose above +the others; the cavalry, the infantry, and the auxiliaries occupied +their respective stations; the streets were broad and perfectly +straight, and a vacant space of two hundred feet was left on all sides +between the tents and the rampart. The rampart itself was usually twelve +feet high, armed with a line of strong and intricate palisades, and +defended by a ditch of twelve feet in depth as well as in breadth. +This important labor was performed by the hands of the legionaries +themselves; to whom the use of the spade and the pickaxe was no less +familiar than that of the sword or pilum. Active valor may often be the +present of nature; but such patient diligence can be the fruit only of +habit and discipline. + +Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp was almost +instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their ranks without +delay or confusion. Besides their arms, which the legendaries scarcely +considered as an encumbrance, they were laden with their kitchen +furniture, the instruments of fortification, and the provision of many +days. Under this weight, which would oppress the delicacy of a modern +soldier, they were trained by a regular step to advance, in about six +hours, near twenty miles. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw +aside their baggage, and by easy and rapid evolutions converted the +column of march into an order of battle. The slingers and archers +skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries formed the first line, and +were seconded or sustained by the strength of the legions; the cavalry +covered the flanks, and the military engines were placed in the rear. + +Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors defended their +extensive conquests, and preserved a military spirit, at a time when +every other virtue was oppressed by luxury and despotism. If, in the +consideration of their armies, we pass from their discipline to their +numbers, we shall not find it easy to define them with any tolerable +accuracy. We may compute, however, that the legion, which was itself a +body of six thousand eight hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with +its attendant auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred +men. The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was composed +of no less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and most probably +formed a standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men. +Instead of being confined within the walls of fortified cities, which +the Romans considered as the refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the +legions were encamped on the banks of the great rivers, and along the +frontiers of the barbarians. As their stations, for the most +part, remained fixed and permanent, we may venture to describe the +distribution of the troops. Three legions were sufficient for Britain. +The principal strength lay upon the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of +sixteen legions, in the following proportions: two in the Lower, and +three in the Upper Germany; one in Rhætia, one in Noricum, four in +Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in Dacia. The defence of the Euphrates +was intrusted to eight legions, six of whom were planted in Syria, and +the other two in Cappadocia. With regard to Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as +they were far removed from any important scene of war, a single legion +maintained the domestic tranquillity of each of those great provinces. +Even Italy was not left destitute of a military force. Above twenty +thousand chosen soldiers, distinguished by the titles of City Cohorts +and Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of the monarch and the +capital. As the authors of almost every revolution that distracted the +empire, the Prætorians will, very soon, and very loudly, demand our +attention; but, in their arms and institutions, we cannot find any +circumstance which discriminated them from the legions, unless it were a +more splendid appearance, and a less rigid discipline. + +The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to their +greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful purpose of +government. The ambition of the Romans was confined to the land; nor was +that warlike people ever actuated by the enterprising spirit which had +prompted the navigators of Tyre, of Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to +enlarge the bounds of the world, and to explore the most remote coasts +of the ocean. To the Romans the ocean remained an object of terror +rather than of curiosity; the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after +the destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was +included within their provinces. The policy of the emperors was directed +only to preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and to protect +the commerce of their subjects. With these moderate views, Augustus +stationed two permanent fleets in the most convenient ports of Italy, +the one at Ravenna, on the Adriatic, the other at Misenum, in the Bay of +Naples. Experience seems at length to have convinced the ancients, that +as soon as their galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of +oars, they were suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. +Augustus himself, in the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of +his own light frigates (they were called Liburnians) over the lofty but +unwieldy castles of his rival. Of these Liburnians he composed the two +fleets of Ravenna and Misenum, destined to command, the one the eastern, +the other the western division of the Mediterranean; and to each of the +squadrons he attached a body of several thousand marines. Besides these +two ports, which may be considered as the principal seats of the Roman +navy, a very considerable force was stationed at Frejus, on the coast of +Provence, and the Euxine was guarded by forty ships, and three +thousand soldiers. To all these we add the fleet which preserved the +communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great number of vessels +constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harass the country, +or to intercept the passage of the barbarians. If we review this general +state of the Imperial forces; of the cavalry as well as infantry; of +the legions, the auxiliaries, the guards, and the navy; the most liberal +computation will not allow us to fix the entire establishment by sea +and by land at more than four hundred and fifty thousand men: a military +power, which, however formidable it may seem, was equalled by a monarch +of the last century, whose kingdom was confined within a single province +of the Roman empire. + +We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the +strength which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines. +We shall now endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe the +provinces once united under their sway, but, at present, divided into so +many independent and hostile states. + +Spain, the western extremity of the empire, of Europe, and of the +ancient world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the same natural +limits; the Pyrenæan Mountains, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic +Ocean. That great peninsula, at present so unequally divided between two +sovereigns, was distributed by Augustus into three provinces, Lusitania, +Bætica, and Tarraconensis. The kingdom of Portugal now fills the place +of the warlike country of the Lusitanians; and the loss sustained by +the former on the side of the East, is compensated by an accession +of territory towards the North. The confines of Grenada and Andalusia +correspond with those of ancient Bætica. The remainder of Spain, +Gallicia, and the Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two +Castiles, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to +form the third and most considerable of the Roman governments, which, +from the name of its capital, was styled the province of Tarragona. Of +the native barbarians, the Celtiberians were the most powerful, as the +Cantabrians and Asturians proved the most obstinate. Confident in the +strength of their mountains, they were the last who submitted to the +arms of Rome, and the first who threw off the yoke of the Arabs. + +Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the Pyrenees, +the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater extent than modern +France. To the dominions of that powerful monarchy, with its recent +acquisitions of Alsace and Lorraine, we must add the duchy of Savoy, +the cantons of Switzerland, the four electorates of the Rhine, and the +territories of Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. +When Augustus gave laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a +division of Gaul, equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the +course of the rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, which +had comprehended above a hundred independent states. The sea-coast of +the Mediterranean, Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphine, received their +provincial appellation from the colony of Narbonne. The government +of Aquitaine was extended from the Pyrenees to the Loire. The country +between the Loire and the Seine was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon +borrowed a new denomination from the celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or +Lyons. The Belgic lay beyond the Seine, and in more ancient times had +been bounded only by the Rhine; but a little before the age of Cæsar, +the Germans, abusing their superiority of valor, had occupied a +considerable portion of the Belgic territory. The Roman conquerors very +eagerly embraced so flattering a circumstance, and the Gallic frontier +of the Rhine, from Basil to Leyden, received the pompous names of the +Upper and the Lower Germany. Such, under the reign of the Antonines, +were the six provinces of Gaul; the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, the Celtic, +or Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the two Germanies. + +We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of Britain, and to +fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this island. It comprehended +all England, Wales, and the Lowlands of Scotland, as far as the Friths +of Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Before Britain lost her freedom, the country +was irregularly divided between thirty tribes of barbarians, of whom +the most considerable were the Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in the +North, the Silures in South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk. +As far as we can either trace or credit the resemblance of manners and +language, Spain, Gaul, and Britain were peopled by the same hardy race +of savages. Before they yielded to the Roman arms, they often disputed +the field, and often renewed the contest. After their submission, +they constituted the western division of the European provinces, which +extended from the columns of Hercules to the wall of Antoninus, and from +the mouth of the Tagus to the sources of the Rhine and Danube. + +Before the Roman conquest, the country which is now called Lombardy, was +not considered as a part of Italy. It had been occupied by a powerful +colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves along the banks of the Po, +from Piedmont to Romagna, carried their arms and diffused their name +from the Alps to the Apennine. The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast +which now forms the republic of Genoa. Venice was yet unborn; but the +territories of that state, which lie to the east of the Adige, were +inhabited by the Venetians. The middle part of the peninsula, that now +composes the duchy of Tuscany and the ecclesiastical state, was the +ancient seat of the Etruscans and Umbrians; to the former of whom Italy +was indebted for the first rudiments of civilized life. The Tyber rolled +at the foot of the seven hills of Rome, and the country of the Sabines, +the Latins, and the Volsci, from that river to the frontiers of Naples, +was the theatre of her infant victories. On that celebrated ground the +first consuls deserved triumphs, their successors adorned villas, and +their posterity have erected convents. Capua and Campania possessed the +immediate territory of Naples; the rest of the kingdom was inhabited +by many warlike nations, the Marsi, the Samnites, the Apulians, and +the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts had been covered by the flourishing +colonies of the Greeks. We may remark, that when Augustus divided Italy +into eleven regions, the little province of Istria was annexed to that +seat of Roman sovereignty. + +The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of the Rhine +and the Danube. The latter of those mighty streams, which rises at the +distance of only thirty miles from the former, flows above thirteen +hundred miles, for the most part to the south-east, collects the tribute +of sixty navigable rivers, and is, at length, through six mouths, +received into the Euxine, which appears scarcely equal to such an +accession of waters. The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the +general appellation of Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were +esteemed the most warlike of the empire; but they deserve to be more +particularly considered under the names of Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, +Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. + +The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name of the +Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the banks of +the Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with the Inn. The +greatest part of the flat country is subject to the elector of Bavaria; +the city of Augsburg is protected by the constitution of the German +empire; the Grisons are safe in their mountains, and the country of +Tirol is ranked among the numerous provinces of the house of Austria. + +The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, the +Danube, and the Save,--Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Lower +Hungary, and Sclavonia,--was known to the ancients under the names of +Noricum and Pannonia. In their original state of independence, their +fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. Under the Roman government +they were frequently united, and they still remain the patrimony of a +single family. They now contain the residence of a German prince, who +styles himself Emperor of the Romans, and form the centre, as well as +strength, of the Austrian power. It may not be improper to observe, that +if we except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern skirts of Austria, and +a part of Hungary between the Teyss and the Danube, all the other +dominions of the House of Austria were comprised within the limits of +the Roman Empire. + +Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly belonged, was a +long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the Adriatic. The best +part of the sea-coast, which still retains its ancient appellation, is +a province of the Venetian state, and the seat of the little republic +of Ragusa. The inland parts have assumed the Sclavonian names of Croatia +and Bosnia; the former obeys an Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish +pacha; but the whole country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, +whose savage independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the +Christian and Mahometan power. + +After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the Save, +it acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister. It formerly +divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, as we have already seen, +was a conquest of Trajan, and the only province beyond the river. If we +inquire into the present state of those countries, we shall find that, +on the left hand of the Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been +annexed, after many revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the +principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of +the Ottoman Porte. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, which, during +the middle ages, was broken into the barbarian kingdoms of Servia and +Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish slavery. + +The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the Turks on +the extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, preserves the +memory of their ancient state under the Roman empire. In the time of the +Antonines, the martial regions of Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus +and Rhodope, to the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, had assumed the form +of a province. Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, +the new city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the +Bosphorus, has ever since remained the capital of a great monarchy. The +kingdom of Macedonia, which, under the reign of Alexander, gave laws to +Asia, derived more solid advantages from the policy of the two Philips; +and with its dependencies of Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the +Ægean to the Ionian Sea. When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and +Argos, of Sparta and Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so +many immortal republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single province +of the Roman empire, which, from the superior influence of the Achæan +league, was usually denominated the province of Achaia. + +Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors. The provinces +of Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of Trajan, are all +comprehended within the limits of the Turkish power. But, instead of +following the arbitrary divisions of despotism and ignorance, it will +be safer for us, as well as more agreeable, to observe the indelible +characters of nature. The name of Asia Minor is attributed with some +propriety to the peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the +Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. The most +extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus and the +River Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the exclusive title +of Asia. The jurisdiction of that province extended over the ancient +monarchies of Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, the maritime countries of the +Pamphylians, Lycians, and Carians, and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, +which equalled in arts, though not in arms, the glory of their parent. +The kingdoms of Bithynia and Pontus possessed the northern side of the +peninsula from Constantinople to Trebizond. On the opposite side, the +province of Cilicia was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland +country, separated from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and from +Armenia by the Euphrates, had once formed the independent kingdom of +Cappadocia. In this place we may observe, that the northern shores of +the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in Asia, and beyond the Danube in Europe, +acknowledged the sovereignty of the emperors, and received at their +hands either tributary princes or Roman garrisons. Budzak, Crim Tartary, +Circassia, and Mingrelia, are the modern appellations of those savage +countries. + +Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the Seleucidæ, +who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful revolt of the Parthians +confined their dominions between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean. +When Syria became subject to the Romans, it formed the eastern frontier +of their empire: nor did that province, in its utmost latitude, know any +other bounds than the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards +the south, the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Phoenicia and +Palestine were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the +jurisdiction of Syria. The former of these was a narrow and rocky +coast; the latter was a territory scarcely superior to Wales, either in +fertility or extent. * Yet Phoenicia and Palestine will forever live in +the memory of mankind; since America, as well as Europe, has received +letters from the one, and religion from the other. A sandy desert, alike +destitute of wood and water, skirts along the doubtful confine of Syria, +from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. The wandering life of the Arabs was +inseparably connected with their independence; and wherever, on some +spots less barren than the rest, they ventured to for many settled +habitations, they soon became subjects to the Roman empire. + +The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what portion +of the globe they should ascribe Egypt. By its situation that celebrated +kingdom is included within the immense peninsula of Africa; but it is +accessible only on the side of Asia, whose revolutions, in almost every +period of history, Egypt has humbly obeyed. A Roman præfect was seated +on the splendid throne of the Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of the +Mamelukes is now in the hands of a Turkish pacha. The Nile flows down +the country, above five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to the +Mediterranean, and marks on either side of the extent of fertility by +the measure of its inundations. Cyrene, situate towards the west, and +along the sea-coast, was first a Greek colony, afterwards a province of +Egypt, and is now lost in the desert of Barca. * + +From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above fifteen +hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the Mediterranean +and the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth seldom exceeds +fourscore or a hundred miles. The eastern division was considered by +the Romans as the more peculiar and proper province of Africa. Till the +arrival of the Phnician colonies, that fertile country was inhabited +by the Libyans, the most savage of mankind. Under the immediate +jurisdiction of Carthage, it became the centre of commerce and empire; +but the republic of Carthage is now degenerated into the feeble and +disorderly states of Tripoli and Tunis. The military government of +Algiers oppresses the wide extent of Numidia, as it was once united +under Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the time of Augustus, the limits +of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, two thirds of the country +acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the epithet of Cæsariensis. +The genuine Mauritania, or country of the Moors, which, from the ancient +city of Tingi, or Tangier, was distinguished by the appellation of +Tingitana, is represented by the modern kingdom of Fez. Salle, on +the Ocean, so infamous at present for its piratical depredations, was +noticed by the Romans, as the extreme object of their power, and almost +of their geography. A city of their foundation may still be discovered +near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom we condescend to +style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, that his +more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were ever +comprehended within the Roman province. The western parts of Africa are +intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so idly celebrated +by the fancy of poets; but which is now diffused over the immense ocean +that rolls between the ancient and the new continent. + +Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may observe, +that Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of about twelve +miles, through which the Atlantic flows into the Mediterranean. The +columns of Hercules, so famous among the ancients, were two mountains +which seemed to have been torn asunder by some convulsion of the +elements; and at the foot of the European mountain, the fortress of +Gibraltar is now seated. The whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its +coasts and its islands, were comprised within the Roman dominion. Of the +larger islands, the two Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and +Minorca from their respective size, are subject at present, the former +to Spain, the latter to Great Britain. * It is easier to deplore the +fate, than to describe the actual condition, of Corsica. Two Italian +sovereigns assume a regal title from Sardinia and Sicily. Crete, or +Candia, with Cyprus, and most of the smaller islands of Greece and Asia, +have been subdued by the Turkish arms, whilst the little rock of +Malta defies their power, and has emerged, under the government of its +military Order, into fame and opulence. + +This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments have formed +so many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to forgive the vanity +or ignorance of the ancients. Dazzled with the extensive sway, the +irresistible strength, and the real or affected moderation of the +emperors, they permitted themselves to despise, and sometimes to +forget, the outlying countries which had been left in the enjoyment of +a barbarous independence; and they gradually usurped the license of +confounding the Roman monarchy with the globe of the earth. But the +temper, as well as knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more +sober and accurate language. He may impress a juster image of the +greatness of Rome, by observing that the empire was above two thousand +miles in breadth, from the wall of Antoninus and the northern limits +of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and the tropic of Cancer; that it extended +in length more than three thousand miles from the Western Ocean to the +Euphrates; that it was situated in the finest part of the Temperate +Zone, between the twenty-fourth and fifty-sixth degrees of northern +latitude; and that it was supposed to contain above sixteen hundred +thousand square miles, for the most part of fertile and well-cultivated +land. + + + +Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.--Part +I. + +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of +The Antonines. + +It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of conquest, that we should +estimate the greatness of Rome. The sovereign of the Russian deserts +commands a larger portion of the globe. In the seventh summer after his +passage of the Hellespont, Alexander erected the Macedonian trophies on +the banks of the Hyphasis. Within less than a century, the irresistible +Zingis, and the Mogul princes of his race, spread their cruel +devastations and transient empire from the Sea of China, to the confines +of Egypt and Germany. But the firm edifice of Roman power was raised and +preserved by the wisdom of ages. The obedient provinces of Trajan and +the Antonines were united by laws, and adorned by arts. They might +occasionally suffer from the partial abuse of delegated authority; but +the general principle of government was wise, simple, and beneficent. +They enjoyed the religion of their ancestors, whilst in civil honors and +advantages they were exalted, by just degrees, to an equality with their +conquerors. + +I. The policy of the emperors and the senate, as far as it concerned +religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of the enlightened, +and by the habits of the superstitious, part of their subjects. The +various modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were +all considered by the people, as equally true; by the philosopher, +as equally false; and by the magistrate, as equally useful. And thus +toleration produced not only mutual indulgence, but even religious +concord. + +The superstition of the people was not imbittered by any mixture of +theological rancor; nor was it confined by the chains of any speculative +system. The devout polytheist, though fondly attached to his national +rites, admitted with implicit faith the different religions of the +earth. Fear, gratitude, and curiosity, a dream or an omen, a singular +disorder, or a distant journey, perpetually disposed him to multiply the +articles of his belief, and to enlarge the list of his protectors. The +thin texture of the Pagan mythology was interwoven with various but not +discordant materials. As soon as it was allowed that sages and heroes, +who had lived or who had died for the benefit of their country, +were exalted to a state of power and immortality, it was universally +confessed, that they deserved, if not the adoration, at least the +reverence, of all mankind. The deities of a thousand groves and a +thousand streams possessed, in peace, their local and respective +influence; nor could the Romans who deprecated the wrath of the Tiber, +deride the Egyptian who presented his offering to the beneficent genius +of the Nile. The visible powers of nature, the planets, and the elements +were the same throughout the universe. The invisible governors of the +moral world were inevitably cast in a similar mould of fiction +and allegory. Every virtue, and even vice, acquired its divine +representative; every art and profession its patron, whose attributes, +in the most distant ages and countries, were uniformly derived from +the character of their peculiar votaries. A republic of gods of such +opposite tempers and interests required, in every system, the moderating +hand of a supreme magistrate, who, by the progress of knowledge and +flattery, was gradually invested with the sublime perfections of an +Eternal Parent, and an Omnipotent Monarch. Such was the mild spirit of +antiquity, that the nations were less attentive to the difference, than +to the resemblance, of their religious worship. The Greek, the Roman, +and the Barbarian, as they met before their respective altars, easily +persuaded themselves, that under various names, and with various +ceremonies, they adored the same deities. The elegant mythology of Homer +gave a beautiful, and almost a regular form, to the polytheism of the +ancient world. + +The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from the nature of man, +rather than from that of God. They meditated, however, on the Divine +Nature, as a very curious and important speculation; and in the +profound inquiry, they displayed the strength and weakness of the human +understanding. Of the four most celebrated schools, the Stoics and the +Platonists endeavored to reconcile the jaring interests of reason and +piety. They have left us the most sublime proofs of the existence and +perfections of the first cause; but, as it was impossible for them to +conceive the creation of matter, the workman in the Stoic philosophy was +not sufficiently distinguished from the work; whilst, on the contrary, +the spiritual God of Plato and his disciples resembled an idea, rather +than a substance. The opinions of the Academics and Epicureans were of a +less religious cast; but whilst the modest science of the former induced +them to doubt, the positive ignorance of the latter urged them to deny, +the providence of a Supreme Ruler. The spirit of inquiry, prompted by +emulation, and supported by freedom, had divided the public teachers of +philosophy into a variety of contending sects; but the ingenious +youth, who, from every part, resorted to Athens, and the other seats of +learning in the Roman empire, were alike instructed in every school to +reject and to despise the religion of the multitude. How, indeed, was +it possible that a philosopher should accept, as divine truths, the idle +tales of the poets, and the incoherent traditions of antiquity; or +that he should adore, as gods, those imperfect beings whom he must have +despised, as men? Against such unworthy adversaries, Cicero condescended +to employ the arms of reason and eloquence; but the satire of Lucian +was a much more adequate, as well as more efficacious, weapon. We may be +well assured, that a writer, conversant with the world, would never have +ventured to expose the gods of his country to public ridicule, had they +not already been the objects of secret contempt among the polished and +enlightened orders of society. + +Notwithstanding the fashionable irreligion which prevailed in the age of +the Antonines, both the interest of the priests and the credulity of the +people were sufficiently respected. In their writings and conversation, +the philosophers of antiquity asserted the independent dignity of +reason; but they resigned their actions to the commands of law and of +custom. Viewing, with a smile of pity and indulgence, the various +errors of the vulgar, they diligently practised the ceremonies of their +fathers, devoutly frequented the temples of the gods; and sometimes +condescending to act a part on the theatre of superstition, they +concealed the sentiments of an atheist under the sacerdotal robes. +Reasoners of such a temper were scarcely inclined to wrangle about their +respective modes of faith, or of worship. It was indifferent to them +what shape the folly of the multitude might choose to assume; and +they approached with the same inward contempt, and the same external +reverence, the altars of the Libyan, the Olympian, or the Capitoline +Jupiter. + +It is not easy to conceive from what motives a spirit of persecution +could introduce itself into the Roman councils. The magistrates could +not be actuated by a blind, though honest bigotry, since the magistrates +were themselves philosophers; and the schools of Athens had given laws +to the senate. They could not be impelled by ambition or avarice, as the +temporal and ecclesiastical powers were united in the same hands. The +pontiffs were chosen among the most illustrious of the senators; and +the office of Supreme Pontiff was constantly exercised by the emperors +themselves. They knew and valued the advantages of religion, as it is +connected with civil government. They encouraged the public festivals +which humanize the manners of the people. They managed the arts of +divination as a convenient instrument of policy; and they respected, as +the firmest bond of society, the useful persuasion, that, either in this +or in a future life, the crime of perjury is most assuredly punished by +the avenging gods. But whilst they acknowledged the general advantages +of religion, they were convinced that the various modes of worship +contributed alike to the same salutary purposes; and that, in every +country, the form of superstition, which had received the sanction of +time and experience, was the best adapted to the climate, and to its +inhabitants. Avarice and taste very frequently despoiled the vanquished +nations of the elegant statues of their gods, and the rich ornaments of +their temples; but, in the exercise of the religion which they derived +from their ancestors, they uniformly experienced the indulgence, and +even protection, of the Roman conquerors. The province of Gaul seems, +and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal toleration. +Under the specious pretext of abolishing human sacrifices, the emperors +Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the dangerous power of the Druids: +but the priests themselves, their gods and their altars, subsisted in +peaceful obscurity till the final destruction of Paganism. + +Rome, the capital of a great monarchy, was incessantly filled with +subjects and strangers from every part of the world, who all introduced +and enjoyed the favorite superstitions of their native country. Every +city in the empire was justified in maintaining the purity of its +ancient ceremonies; and the Roman senate, using the common privilege, +sometimes interposed, to check this inundation of foreign rites. * The +Egyptian superstition, of all the most contemptible and abject, was +frequently prohibited: the temples of Serapis and Isis demolished, +and their worshippers banished from Rome and Italy. But the zeal of +fanaticism prevailed over the cold and feeble efforts of policy. The +exiles returned, the proselytes multiplied, the temples were restored +with increasing splendor, and Isis and Serapis at length assumed their +place among the Roman Deities. Nor was this indulgence a departure from +the old maxims of government. In the purest ages of the commonwealth, +Cybele and Æsculapius had been invited by solemn embassies; and it was +customary to tempt the protectors of besieged cities, by the promise of +more distinguished honors than they possessed in their native country. +Rome gradually became the common temple of her subjects; and the freedom +of the city was bestowed on all the gods of mankind. + +II. The narrow policy of preserving, without any foreign mixture, +the pure blood of the ancient citizens, had checked the fortune, and +hastened the ruin, of Athens and Sparta. The aspiring genius of Rome +sacrificed vanity to ambition, and deemed it more prudent, as well as +honorable, to adopt virtue and merit for her own wheresoever they were +found, among slaves or strangers, enemies or barbarians. During the most +flourishing æra of the Athenian commonwealth, the number of citizens +gradually decreased from about thirty to twenty-one thousand. If, on the +contrary, we study the growth of the Roman republic, we may discover, +that, notwithstanding the incessant demands of wars and colonies, the +citizens, who, in the first census of Servius Tullius, amounted to +no more than eighty-three thousand, were multiplied, before the +commencement of the social war, to the number of four hundred and +sixty-three thousand men, able to bear arms in the service of their +country. When the allies of Rome claimed an equal share of honors +and privileges, the senate indeed preferred the chance of arms to an +ignominious concession. The Samnites and the Lucanians paid the severe +penalty of their rashness; but the rest of the Italian states, as they +successively returned to their duty, were admitted into the bosom of the +republic, and soon contributed to the ruin of public freedom. Under +a democratical government, the citizens exercise the powers of +sovereignty; and those powers will be first abused, and afterwards lost, +if they are committed to an unwieldy multitude. But when the popular +assemblies had been suppressed by the administration of the emperors, +the conquerors were distinguished from the vanquished nations, only +as the first and most honorable order of subjects; and their increase, +however rapid, was no longer exposed to the same dangers. Yet the wisest +princes, who adopted the maxims of Augustus, guarded with the strictest +care the dignity of the Roman name, and diffused the freedom of the city +with a prudent liberality. + + + +Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.--Part +II. + +Till the privileges of Romans had been progressively extended to all +the inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction was preserved +between Italy and the provinces. The former was esteemed the centre of +public unity, and the firm basis of the constitution. Italy claimed the +birth, or at least the residence, of the emperors and the senate. The +estates of the Italians were exempt from taxes, their persons from +the arbitrary jurisdiction of governors. Their municipal corporations, +formed after the perfect model of the capital, * were intrusted, under +the immediate eye of the supreme power, with the execution of the laws. +From the foot of the Alps to the extremity of Calabria, all the natives +of Italy were born citizens of Rome. Their partial distinctions were +obliterated, and they insensibly coalesced into one great nation, united +by language, manners, and civil institutions, and equal to the weight of +a powerful empire. The republic gloried in her generous policy, and was +frequently rewarded by the merit and services of her adopted sons. Had +she always confined the distinction of Romans to the ancient families +within the walls of the city, that immortal name would have been +deprived of some of its noblest ornaments. Virgil was a native of +Mantua; Horace was inclined to doubt whether he should call himself +an Apulian or a Lucanian; it was in Padua that an historian was found +worthy to record the majestic series of Roman victories. The patriot +family of the Catos emerged from Tusculum; and the little town of +Arpinum claimed the double honor of producing Marius and Cicero, the +former of whom deserved, after Romulus and Camillus, to be styled the +Third Founder of Rome; and the latter, after saving his country from the +designs of Catiline, enabled her to contend with Athens for the palm of +eloquence. + +The provinces of the empire (as they have been described in the +preceding chapter) were destitute of any public force, or constitutional +freedom. In Etruria, in Greece, and in Gaul, it was the first care +of the senate to dissolve those dangerous confederacies, which taught +mankind that, as the Roman arms prevailed by division, they might be +resisted by union. Those princes, whom the ostentation of gratitude +or generosity permitted for a while to hold a precarious sceptre, were +dismissed from their thrones, as soon as they had per formed their +appointed task of fashioning to the yoke the vanquished nations. +The free states and cities which had embraced the cause of Rome +were rewarded with a nominal alliance, and insensibly sunk into real +servitude. The public authority was every where exercised by the +ministers of the senate and of the emperors, and that authority +was absolute, and without control. But the same salutary maxims of +government, which had secured the peace and obedience of Italy were +extended to the most distant conquests. A nation of Romans was gradually +formed in the provinces, by the double expedient of introducing +colonies, and of admitting the most faithful and deserving of the +provincials to the freedom of Rome. + +"Wheresoever the Roman conquers, he inhabits," is a very just +observation of Seneca, confirmed by history and experience. The natives +of Italy, allured by pleasure or by interest, hastened to enjoy the +advantages of victory; and we may remark, that, about forty years after +the reduction of Asia, eighty thousand Romans were massacred in one day, +by the cruel orders of Mithridates. These voluntary exiles were engaged, +for the most part, in the occupations of commerce, agriculture, and the +farm of the revenue. But after the legions were rendered permanent by +the emperors, the provinces were peopled by a race of soldiers; and the +veterans, whether they received the reward of their service in land or +in money, usually settled with their families in the country, where +they had honorably spent their youth. Throughout the empire, but more +particularly in the western parts, the most fertile districts, and +the most convenient situations, were reserved for the establishment +of colonies; some of which were of a civil, and others of a military +nature. In their manners and internal policy, the colonies formed +a perfect representation of their great parent; and they were soon +endeared to the natives by the ties of friendship and alliance, they +effectually diffused a reverence for the Roman name, and a desire, +which was seldom disappointed, of sharing, in due time, its honors +and advantages. The municipal cities insensibly equalled the rank and +splendor of the colonies; and in the reign of Hadrian, it was disputed +which was the preferable condition, of those societies which had issued +from, or those which had been received into, the bosom of Rome. The +right of Latium, as it was called, * conferred on the cities to which +it had been granted, a more partial favor. The magistrates only, at the +expiration of their office, assumed the quality of Roman citizens; but +as those offices were annual, in a few years they circulated round the +principal families. Those of the provincials who were permitted to bear +arms in the legions; those who exercised any civil employment; all, in +a word, who performed any public service, or displayed any personal +talents, were rewarded with a present, whose value was continually +diminished by the increasing liberality of the emperors. Yet even, in +the age of the Antonines, when the freedom of the city had been bestowed +on the greater number of their subjects, it was still accompanied with +very solid advantages. The bulk of the people acquired, with that title, +the benefit of the Roman laws, particularly in the interesting articles +of marriage, testaments, and inheritances; and the road of fortune was +open to those whose pretensions were seconded by favor or merit. +The grandsons of the Gauls, who had besieged Julius Cæsar in Alcsia, +commanded legions, governed provinces, and were admitted into the senate +of Rome. Their ambition, instead of disturbing the tranquillity of the +state, was intimately connected with its safety and greatness. + +So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over national +manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, with the +progress of their arms, the use of the Latin tongue. The ancient +dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the Venetian, sunk into +oblivion; but in the provinces, the east was less docile than the west +to the voice of its victorious preceptors. This obvious difference +marked the two portions of the empire with a distinction of colors, +which, though it was in some degree concealed during the meridian +splendor of prosperity, became gradually more visible, as the shades +of night descended upon the Roman world. The western countries +were civilized by the same hands which subdued them. As soon as the +barbarians were reconciled to obedience, their minds were open to any +new impressions of knowledge and politeness. The language of Virgil +and Cicero, though with some inevitable mixture of corruption, was so +universally adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul Britain, and Pannonia, that +the faint traces of the Punic or Celtic idioms were preserved only in +the mountains, or among the peasants. Education and study insensibly +inspired the natives of those countries with the sentiments of Romans; +and Italy gave fashions, as well as laws, to her Latin provincials. They +solicited with more ardor, and obtained with more facility, the freedom +and honors of the state; supported the national dignity in letters and +in arms; and at length, in the person of Trajan, produced an emperor +whom the Scipios would not have disowned for their countryman. The +situation of the Greeks was very different from that of the barbarians. +The former had been long since civilized and corrupted. They had too +much taste to relinquish their language, and too much vanity to adopt +any foreign institutions. Still preserving the prejudices, after they +had lost the virtues, of their ancestors, they affected to despise the +unpolished manners of the Roman conquerors, whilst they were compelled +to respect their superior wisdom and power. Nor was the influence of the +Grecian language and sentiments confined to the narrow limits of that +once celebrated country. Their empire, by the progress of colonies and +conquest, had been diffused from the Adriatic to the Euphrates and the +Nile. Asia was covered with Greek cities, and the long reign of the +Macedonian kings had introduced a silent revolution into Syria and +Egypt. In their pompous courts, those princes united the elegance of +Athens with the luxury of the East, and the example of the court was +imitated, at an humble distance, by the higher ranks of their subjects. +Such was the general division of the Roman empire into the Latin and +Greek languages. To these we may add a third distinction for the body of +the natives in Syria, and especially in Egypt, the use of their ancient +dialects, by secluding them from the commerce of mankind, checked the +improvements of those barbarians. The slothful effeminacy of the former +exposed them to the contempt, the sullen ferociousness of the latter +excited the aversion, of the conquerors. Those nations had submitted to +the Roman power, but they seldom desired or deserved the freedom of the +city: and it was remarked, that more than two hundred and thirty years +elapsed after the ruin of the Ptolemies, before an Egyptian was admitted +into the senate of Rome. + +It is a just though trite observation, that victorious Rome was herself +subdued by the arts of Greece. Those immortal writers who still command +the admiration of modern Europe, soon became the favorite object of +study and imitation in Italy and the western provinces. But the elegant +amusements of the Romans were not suffered to interfere with their sound +maxims of policy. Whilst they acknowledged the charms of the Greek, they +asserted the dignity of the Latin tongue, and the exclusive use of the +latter was inflexibly maintained in the administration of civil as well +as military government. The two languages exercised at the same time +their separate jurisdiction throughout the empire: the former, as the +natural idiom of science; the latter, as the legal dialect of public +transactions. Those who united letters with business were equally +conversant with both; and it was almost impossible, in any province, to +find a Roman subject, of a liberal education, who was at once a stranger +to the Greek and to the Latin language. + +It was by such institutions that the nations of the empire insensibly +melted away into the Roman name and people. But there still remained, in +the centre of every province and of every family, an unhappy condition +of men who endured the weight, without sharing the benefits, of society. +In the free states of antiquity, the domestic slaves were exposed to the +wanton rigor of despotism. The perfect settlement of the Roman empire +was preceded by ages of violence and rapine. The slaves consisted, for +the most part, of barbarian captives, * taken in thousands by the chance +of war, purchased at a vile price, accustomed to a life of independence, +and impatient to break and to revenge their fetters. Against such +internal enemies, whose desperate insurrections had more than once +reduced the republic to the brink of destruction, the most severe +regulations, and the most cruel treatment, seemed almost justified by +the great law of self-preservation. But when the principal nations of +Europe, Asia, and Africa were united under the laws of one sovereign, +the source of foreign supplies flowed with much less abundance, and +the Romans were reduced to the milder but more tedious method of +propagation. * In their numerous families, and particularly in their +country estates, they encouraged the marriage of their slaves. The +sentiments of nature, the habits of education, and the possession of a +dependent species of property, contributed to alleviate the hardships of +servitude. The existence of a slave became an object of greater value, +and though his happiness still depended on the temper and circumstances +of the master, the humanity of the latter, instead of being restrained +by fear, was encouraged by the sense of his own interest. The progress +of manners was accelerated by the virtue or policy of the emperors; and +by the edicts of Hadrian and the Antonines, the protection of the laws +was extended to the most abject part of mankind. The jurisdiction of +life and death over the slaves, a power long exercised and often abused, +was taken out of private hands, and reserved to the magistrates alone. +The subterraneous prisons were abolished; and, upon a just complaint +of intolerable treatment, the injured slave obtained either his +deliverance, or a less cruel master. + +Hope, the best comfort of our imperfect condition, was not denied to the +Roman slave; and if he had any opportunity of rendering himself either +useful or agreeable, he might very naturally expect that the diligence +and fidelity of a few years would be rewarded with the inestimable gift +of freedom. The benevolence of the master was so frequently prompted +by the meaner suggestions of vanity and avarice, that the laws found +it more necessary to restrain than to encourage a profuse and +undistinguishing liberality, which might degenerate into a very +dangerous abuse. It was a maxim of ancient jurisprudence, that a +slave had not any country of his own; he acquired with his liberty an +admission into the political society of which his patron was a member. +The consequences of this maxim would have prostituted the privileges +of the Roman city to a mean and promiscuous multitude. Some seasonable +exceptions were therefore provided; and the honorable distinction +was confined to such slaves only as, for just causes, and with the +approbation of the magistrate, should receive a solemn and legal +manumission. Even these chosen freedmen obtained no more than the +private rights of citizens, and were rigorously excluded from civil or +military honors. Whatever might be the merit or fortune of their sons, +they likewise were esteemed unworthy of a seat in the senate; nor were +the traces of a servile origin allowed to be completely obliterated till +the third or fourth generation. Without destroying the distinction of +ranks, a distant prospect of freedom and honors was presented, even +to those whom pride and prejudice almost disdained to number among the +human species. + +It was once proposed to discriminate the slaves by a peculiar habit; but +it was justly apprehended that there might be some danger in acquainting +them with their own numbers. Without interpreting, in their utmost +strictness, the liberal appellations of legions and myriads, we may +venture to pronounce, that the proportion of slaves, who were valued +as property, was more considerable than that of servants, who can be +computed only as an expense. The youths of a promising genius were +instructed in the arts and sciences, and their price was ascertained by +the degree of their skill and talents. Almost every profession, either +liberal or mechanical, might be found in the household of an opulent +senator. The ministers of pomp and sensuality were multiplied beyond +the conception of modern luxury. It was more for the interest of the +merchant or manufacturer to purchase, than to hire his workmen; and in +the country, slaves were employed as the cheapest and most laborious +instruments of agriculture. To confirm the general observation, and to +display the multitude of slaves, we might allege a variety of particular +instances. It was discovered, on a very melancholy occasion, that four +hundred slaves were maintained in a single palace of Rome. The same +number of four hundred belonged to an estate which an African widow, of +a very private condition, resigned to her son, whilst she reserved for +herself a much larger share of her property. A freedman, under the name +of Augustus, though his fortune had suffered great losses in the civil +wars, left behind him three thousand six hundred yoke of oxen, two +hundred and fifty thousand head of smaller cattle, and what was almost +included in the description of cattle, four thousand one hundred and +sixteen slaves. + +The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of citizens, +of provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with such a degree +of accuracy, as the importance of the object would deserve. We are +informed, that when the Emperor Claudius exercised the office of censor, +he took an account of six millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand +Roman citizens, who, with the proportion of women and children, must +have amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of +subjects of an inferior rank was uncertain and fluctuating. But, after +weighing with attention every circumstance which could influence the +balance, it seems probable that there existed, in the time of Claudius, +about twice as many provincials as there were citizens, of either sex, +and of every age; and that the slaves were at least equal in number +to the free inhabitants of the Roman world. * The total amount of +this imperfect calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty +millions of persons; a degree of population which possibly exceeds that +of modern Europe, and forms the most numerous society that has ever been +united under the same system of government. + + + +Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.--Part +III. + +Domestic peace and union were the natural consequences of the moderate +and comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans. If we turn our eyes +towards the monarchies of Asia, we shall behold despotism in the centre, +and weakness in the extremities; the collection of the revenue, or the +administration of justice, enforced by the presence of an army; hostile +barbarians established in the heart of the country, hereditary satraps +usurping the dominion of the provinces, and subjects inclined to +rebellion, though incapable of freedom. But the obedience of the Roman +world was uniform, voluntary, and permanent. The vanquished nations, +blended into one great people, resigned the hope, nay, even the wish, of +resuming their independence, and scarcely considered their own existence +as distinct from the existence of Rome. The established authority of the +emperors pervaded without an effort the wide extent of their dominions, +and was exercised with the same facility on the banks of the Thames, +or of the Nile, as on those of the Tyber. The legions were destined to +serve against the public enemy, and the civil magistrate seldom required +the aid of a military force. In this state of general security, the +leisure, as well as opulence, both of the prince and people, were +devoted to improve and to adorn the Roman empire. + +Among the innumerable monuments of architecture constructed by the +Romans, how many have escaped the notice of history, how few have +resisted the ravages of time and barbarism! And yet, even the majestic +ruins that are still scattered over Italy and the provinces, would be +sufficient to prove that those countries were once the seat of a polite +and powerful empire. Their greatness alone, or their beauty, might +deserve our attention: but they are rendered more interesting, by two +important circumstances, which connect the agreeable history of the arts +with the more useful history of human manners. Many of those works were +erected at private expense, and almost all were intended for public +benefit. + +It is natural to suppose that the greatest number, as well as the most +considerable of the Roman edifices, were raised by the emperors, who +possessed so unbounded a command both of men and money. Augustus was +accustomed to boast that he had found his capital of brick, and that he +had left it of marble. The strict economy of Vespasian was the source of +his magnificence. The works of Trajan bear the stamp of his genius. +The public monuments with which Hadrian adorned every province of the +empire, were executed not only by his orders, but under his immediate +inspection. He was himself an artist; and he loved the arts, as they +conduced to the glory of the monarch. They were encouraged by the +Antonines, as they contributed to the happiness of the people. But if +the emperors were the first, they were not the only architects of their +dominions. Their example was universally imitated by their principal +subjects, who were not afraid of declaring to the world that they had +spirit to conceive, and wealth to accomplish, the noblest undertakings. +Scarcely had the proud structure of the Coliseum been dedicated at Rome, +before the edifices, of a smaller scale indeed, but of the same design +and materials, were erected for the use, and at the expense, of the +cities of Capua and Verona. The inscription of the stupendous bridge of +Alcantara attests that it was thrown over the Tagus by the contribution +of a few Lusitanian communities. When Pliny was intrusted with the +government of Bithynia and Pontus, provinces by no means the richest +or most considerable of the empire, he found the cities within his +jurisdiction striving with each other in every useful and ornamental +work, that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, or the gratitude +of their citizens. It was the duty of the proconsul to supply their +deficiencies, to direct their taste, and sometimes to moderate their +emulation. The opulent senators of Rome and the provinces esteemed it an +honor, and almost an obligation, to adorn the splendor of their age and +country; and the influence of fashion very frequently supplied the want +of taste or generosity. Among a crowd of these private benefactors, we +may select Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, who lived in the age +of the Antonines. Whatever might be the motive of his conduct, his +magnificence would have been worthy of the greatest kings. + +[See Theatre Of Marcellus: Augustus built in Rome the theatre of +Marcellus.] + +The family of Herod, at least after it had been favored by fortune, was +lineally descended from Cimon and Miltiades, Theseus and Cecrops, Æacus +and Jupiter. But the posterity of so many gods and heroes was fallen +into the most abject state. His grandfather had suffered by the hands +of justice, and Julius Atticus, his father, must have ended his life in +poverty and contempt, had he not discovered an immense treasure buried +under an old house, the last remains of his patrimony. According to the +rigor of the law, the emperor might have asserted his claim, and the +prudent Atticus prevented, by a frank confession, the officiousness of +informers. But the equitable Nerva, who then filled the throne, refused +to accept any part of it, and commanded him to use, without scruple, +the present of fortune. The cautious Athenian still insisted, that the +treasure was too considerable for a subject, and that he knew not how +to use it. Abuse it then, replied the monarch, with a good-natured +peevishness; for it is your own. Many will be of opinion, that Atticus +literally obeyed the emperor's last instructions; since he expended +the greatest part of his fortune, which was much increased by an +advantageous marriage, in the service of the public. He had obtained for +his son Herod the prefecture of the free cities of Asia; and the young +magistrate, observing that the town of Troas was indifferently supplied +with water, obtained from the munificence of Hadrian three hundred +myriads of drachms, (about a hundred thousand pounds,) for the +construction of a new aqueduct. But in the execution of the work, the +charge amounted to more than double the estimate, and the officers of +the revenue began to murmur, till the generous Atticus silenced their +complaints, by requesting that he might be permitted to take upon +himself the whole additional expense. + +The ablest preceptors of Greece and Asia had been invited by liberal +rewards to direct the education of young Herod. Their pupil soon became +a celebrated orator, according to the useless rhetoric of that age, +which, confining itself to the schools, disdained to visit either the +Forum or the Senate. He was honored with the consulship at Rome: but +the greatest part of his life was spent in a philosophic retirement at +Athens, and his adjacent villas; perpetually surrounded by sophists, who +acknowledged, without reluctance, the superiority of a rich and generous +rival. The monuments of his genius have perished; some considerable +ruins still preserve the fame of his taste and munificence: modern +travellers have measured the remains of the stadium which he constructed +at Athens. It was six hundred feet in length, built entirely of white +marble, capable of admitting the whole body of the people, and finished +in four years, whilst Herod was president of the Athenian games. To +the memory of his wife Regilla he dedicated a theatre, scarcely to be +paralleled in the empire: no wood except cedar, very curiously carved, +was employed in any part of the building. The Odeum, * designed by +Pericles for musical performances, and the rehearsal of new tragedies, +had been a trophy of the victory of the arts over barbaric greatness; as +the timbers employed in the construction consisted chiefly of the masts +of the Persian vessels. Notwithstanding the repairs bestowed on that +ancient edifice by a king of Cappadocia, it was again fallen to +decay. Herod restored its ancient beauty and magnificence. Nor was the +liberality of that illustrious citizen confined to the walls of Athens. +The most splendid ornaments bestowed on the temple of Neptune in +the Isthmus, a theatre at Corinth, a stadium at Delphi, a bath at +Thermopylæ, and an aqueduct at Canusium in Italy, were insufficient to +exhaust his treasures. The people of Epirus, Thessaly, Euboea, Boeotia, +and Peloponnesus, experienced his favors; and many inscriptions of the +cities of Greece and Asia gratefully style Herodes Atticus their patron +and benefactor. + +In the commonwealths of Athens and Rome, the modest simplicity of +private houses announced the equal condition of freedom; whilst the +sovereignty of the people was represented in the majestic edifices +designed to the public use; nor was this republican spirit totally +extinguished by the introduction of wealth and monarchy. It was in works +of national honor and benefit, that the most virtuous of the emperors +affected to display their magnificence. The golden palace of Nero +excited a just indignation, but the vast extent of ground which had been +usurped by his selfish luxury was more nobly filled under the succeeding +reigns by the Coliseum, the baths of Titus, the Claudian portico, and +the temples dedicated to the goddess of Peace, and to the genius of +Rome. These monuments of architecture, the property of the Roman people, +were adorned with the most beautiful productions of Grecian painting and +sculpture; and in the temple of Peace, a very curious library was open +to the curiosity of the learned. * At a small distance from thence was +situated the Forum of Trajan. It was surrounded by a lofty portico, +in the form of a quadrangle, into which four triumphal arches opened +a noble and spacious entrance: in the centre arose a column of marble, +whose height, of one hundred and ten feet, denoted the elevation of the +hill that had been cut away. This column, which still subsists in +its ancient beauty, exhibited an exact representation of the Dacian +victories of its founder. The veteran soldier contemplated the story +of his own campaigns, and by an easy illusion of national vanity, the +peaceful citizen associated himself to the honors of the triumph. All +the other quarters of the capital, and all the provinces of the empire, +were embellished by the same liberal spirit of public magnificence, and +were filled with amphi theatres, theatres, temples, porticoes, triumphal +arches, baths and aqueducts, all variously conducive to the health, the +devotion, and the pleasures of the meanest citizen. The last mentioned +of those edifices deserve our peculiar attention. The boldness of the +enterprise, the solidity of the execution, and the uses to which they +were subservient, rank the aqueducts among the noblest monuments of +Roman genius and power. The aqueducts of the capital claim a just +preeminence; but the curious traveller, who, without the light of +history, should examine those of Spoleto, of Metz, or of Segovia, would +very naturally conclude that those provincial towns had formerly been +the residence of some potent monarch. The solitudes of Asia and Africa +were once covered with flourishing cities, whose populousness, and +even whose existence, was derived from such artificial supplies of a +perennial stream of fresh water. + +We have computed the inhabitants, and contemplated the public works, +of the Roman empire. The observation of the number and greatness of its +cities will serve to confirm the former, and to multiply the latter. It +may not be unpleasing to collect a few scattered instances relative +to that subject without forgetting, however, that from the vanity of +nations and the poverty of language, the vague appellation of city has +been indifferently bestowed on Rome and upon Laurentum. + +I. Ancient Italy is said to have contained eleven hundred and +ninety-seven cities; and for whatsoever æra of antiquity the expression +might be intended, there is not any reason to believe the country less +populous in the age of the Antonines, than in that of Romulus. The petty +states of Latium were contained within the metropolis of the empire, by +whose superior influence they had been attracted. * Those parts of Italy +which have so long languished under the lazy tyranny of priests and +viceroys, had been afflicted only by the more tolerable calamities of +war; and the first symptoms of decay which they experienced, were +amply compensated by the rapid improvements of the Cisalpine Gaul. The +splendor of Verona may be traced in its remains: yet Verona was less +celebrated than Aquileia or Padua, Milan or Ravenna. II. The spirit +of improvement had passed the Alps, and been felt even in the woods +of Britain, which were gradually cleared away to open a free space for +convenient and elegant habitations. York was the seat of government; +London was already enriched by commerce; and Bath was celebrated for the +salutary effects of its medicinal waters. Gaul could boast of her twelve +hundred cities; and though, in the northern parts, many of them, without +excepting Paris itself, were little more than the rude and imperfect +townships of a rising people, the southern provinces imitated the wealth +and elegance of Italy. Many were the cities of Gaul, Marseilles, Arles, +Nismes, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Bourdeaux, Autun, Vienna, Lyons, Langres, +and Treves, whose ancient condition might sustain an equal, and perhaps +advantageous comparison with their present state. With regard to Spain, +that country flourished as a province, and has declined as a kingdom. +Exhausted by the abuse of her strength, by America, and by superstition, +her pride might possibly be confounded, if we required such a list of +three hundred and sixty cities, as Pliny has exhibited under the reign +of Vespasian. III. Three hundred African cities had once acknowledged +the authority of Carthage, nor is it likely that their numbers +diminished under the administration of the emperors: Carthage itself +rose with new splendor from its ashes; and that capital, as well as +Capua and Corinth, soon recovered all the advantages which can be +separated from independent sovereignty. IV. The provinces of the East +present the contrast of Roman magnificence with Turkish barbarism. The +ruins of antiquity scattered over uncultivated fields, and ascribed, +by ignorance to the power of magic, scarcely afford a shelter to the +oppressed peasant or wandering Arab. Under the reign of the Cæsars, the +proper Asia alone contained five hundred populous cities, enriched with +all the gifts of nature, and adorned with all the refinements of art. +Eleven cities of Asia had once disputed the honor of dedicating a temple +of Tiberius, and their respective merits were examined by the senate. +Four of them were immediately rejected as unequal to the burden; and +among these was Laodicea, whose splendor is still displayed in its +ruins. Laodicea collected a very considerable revenue from its flocks +of sheep, celebrated for the fineness of their wool, and had received, +a little before the contest, a legacy of above four hundred thousand +pounds by the testament of a generous citizen. If such was the poverty +of Laodicea, what must have been the wealth of those cities, whose claim +appeared preferable, and particularly of Pergamus, of Smyrna, and of +Ephesus, who so long disputed with each other the titular primacy of +Asia? The capitals of Syria and Egypt held a still superior rank in the +empire; Antioch and Alexandria looked down with disdain on a crowd of +dependent cities, and yielded, with reluctance, to the majesty of Rome +itself. + + + +Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.--Part +IV. + +All these cities were connected with each other, and with the capital, +by the public highways, which, issuing from the Forum of Rome, traversed +Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the frontiers +of the empire. If we carefully trace the distance from the wall of +Antoninus to Rome, and from thence to Jerusalem, it will be found that +the great chain of communication, from the north-west to the south-east +point of the empire, was drawn out to the length of four thousand +and eighty Roman miles. The public roads were accurately divided by +mile-stones, and ran in a direct line from one city to another, with +very little respect for the obstacles either of nature or private +property. Mountains were perforated, and bold arches thrown over the +broadest and most rapid streams. The middle part of the road was raised +into a terrace which commanded the adjacent country, consisted of +several strata of sand, gravel, and cement, and was paved with large +stones, or, in some places near the capital, with granite. Such was +the solid construction of the Roman highways, whose firmness has not +entirely yielded to the effort of fifteen centuries. They united +the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy and familiar +intercourse; out their primary object had been to facilitate the marches +of the legions; nor was any country considered as completely subdued, +till it had been rendered, in all its parts, pervious to the arms and +authority of the conqueror. The advantage of receiving the earliest +intelligence, and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the +emperors to establish, throughout their extensive dominions, the regular +institution of posts. Houses were every where erected at the distance +only of five or six miles; each of them was constantly provided with +forty horses, and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel +a hundred miles in a day along the Roman roads. * The use of posts +was allowed to those who claimed it by an Imperial mandate; but though +originally intended for the public service, it was sometimes indulged +to the business or conveniency of private citizens. Nor was the +communication of the Roman empire less free and open by sea than it was +by land. The provinces surrounded and enclosed the Mediterranean: and +Italy, in the shape of an immense promontory, advanced into the midst of +that great lake. The coasts of Italy are, in general, destitute of safe +harbors; but human industry had corrected the deficiencies of nature; +and the artificial port of Ostia, in particular, situate at the mouth of +the Tyber, and formed by the emperor Claudius, was a useful monument of +Roman greatness. From this port, which was only sixteen miles from the +capital, a favorable breeze frequently carried vessels in seven days to +the columns of Hercules, and in nine or ten, to Alexandria in Egypt. + +[See Remains Of Claudian Aquaduct] + +Whatever evils either reason or declamation have imputed to extensive +empire, the power of Rome was attended with some beneficial consequences +to mankind; and the same freedom of intercourse which extended the +vices, diffused likewise the improvements, of social life. In the more +remote ages of antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The East was +in the immemorial possession of arts and luxury; whilst the West +was inhabited by rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained +agriculture, or to whom it was totally unknown. Under the protection of +an established government, the productions of happier climates, and the +industry of more civilized nations, were gradually introduced into the +western countries of Europe; and the natives were encouraged, by an open +and profitable commerce, to multiply the former, as well as to improve +the latter. It would be almost impossible to enumerate all the articles, +either of the animal or the vegetable reign, which were successively +imported into Europe from Asia and Egypt: but it will not be unworthy +of the dignity, and much less of the utility, of an historical work, +slightly to touch on a few of the principal heads. 1. Almost all the +flowers, the herbs, and the fruits, that grow in our European gardens, +are of foreign extraction, which, in many cases, is betrayed even by +their names: the apple was a native of Italy, and when the Romans had +tasted the richer flavor of the apricot, the peach, the pomegranate, the +citron, and the orange, they contented themselves with applying to all +these new fruits the common denomination of apple, discriminating them +from each other by the additional epithet of their country. 2. In the +time of Homer, the vine grew wild in the island of Sicily, and most +probably in the adjacent continent; but it was not improved by the +skill, nor did it afford a liquor grateful to the taste, of the savage +inhabitants. A thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, that of the +fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, more than two thirds +were produced from her soil. The blessing was soon communicated to the +Narbonnese province of Gaul; but so intense was the cold to the north of +the Cevennes, that, in the time of Strabo, it was thought impossible to +ripen the grapes in those parts of Gaul. This difficulty, however, was +gradually vanquished; and there is some reason to believe, that the +vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of the Antonines. 3. The +olive, in the western world, followed the progress of peace, of which +it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the foundation of +Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful plant: it was +naturalized in those countries; and at length carried into the heart +of Spain and Gaul. The timid errors of the ancients, that it required a +certain degree of heat, and could only flourish in the neighborhood of +the sea, were insensibly exploded by industry and experience. 4. The +cultivation of flax was transported from Egypt to Gaul, and enriched the +whole country, however it might impoverish the particular lands on which +it was sown. 5. The use of artificial grasses became familiar to the +farmers both of Italy and the provinces, particularly the Lucerne, which +derived its name and origin from Media. The assured supply of wholesome +and plentiful food for the cattle during winter, multiplied the number +of the docks and herds, which in their turn contributed to the fertility +of the soil. To all these improvements may be added an assiduous +attention to mines and fisheries, which, by employing a multitude of +laborious hands, serve to increase the pleasures of the rich and the +subsistence of the poor. The elegant treatise of Columella describes the +advanced state of the Spanish husbandry under the reign of Tiberius; and +it may be observed, that those famines, which so frequently afflicted +the infant republic, were seldom or never experienced by the extensive +empire of Rome. The accidental scarcity, in any single province, was +immediately relieved by the plenty of its more fortunate neighbors. + +Agriculture is the foundation of manufactures; since the productions of +nature are the materials of art. Under the Roman empire, the labor of +an industrious and ingenious people was variously, but incessantly, +employed in the service of the rich. In their dress, their table, their +houses, and their furniture, the favorites of fortune united every +refinement of conveniency, of elegance, and of splendor, whatever could +soothe their pride or gratify their sensuality. Such refinements, under +the odious name of luxury, have been severely arraigned by the moralists +of every age; and it might perhaps be more conducive to the virtue, as +well as happiness, of mankind, if all possessed the necessaries, and +none the superfluities, of life. But in the present imperfect condition +of society, luxury, though it may proceed from vice or folly, seems to +be the only means that can correct the unequal distribution of property. +The diligent mechanic, and the skilful artist, who have obtained no +share in the division of the earth, receive a voluntary tax from the +possessors of land; and the latter are prompted, by a sense of +interest, to improve those estates, with whose produce they may purchase +additional pleasures. This operation, the particular effects of which +are felt in every society, acted with much more diffusive energy in +the Roman world. The provinces would soon have been exhausted of their +wealth, if the manufactures and commerce of luxury had not insensibly +restored to the industrious subjects the sums which were exacted from +them by the arms and authority of Rome. As long as the circulation was +confined within the bounds of the empire, it impressed the political +machine with a new degree of activity, and its consequences, sometimes +beneficial, could never become pernicious. + +But it is no easy task to confine luxury within the limits of an empire. +The most remote countries of the ancient world were ransacked to supply +the pomp and delicacy of Rome. The forests of Scythia afforded some +valuable furs. Amber was brought over land from the shores of the Baltic +to the Danube; and the barbarians were astonished at the price which +they received in exchange for so useless a commodity. There was a +considerable demand for Babylonian carpets, and other manufactures of +the East; but the most important and unpopular branch of foreign trade +was carried on with Arabia and India. Every year, about the time of the +summer solstice, a fleet of a hundred and twenty vessels sailed +from Myos-hormos, a port of Egypt, on the Red Sea. By the periodical +assistance of the monsoons, they traversed the ocean in about forty +days. The coast of Malabar, or the island of Ceylon, was the usual term +of their navigation, and it was in those markets that the merchants from +the more remote countries of Asia expected their arrival. The return of +the fleet of Egypt was fixed to the months of December or January; and +as soon as their rich cargo had been transported on the backs of camels, +from the Red Sea to the Nile, and had descended that river as far +as Alexandria, it was poured, without delay, into the capital of the +empire. The objects of oriental traffic were splendid and trifling; +silk, a pound of which was esteemed not inferior in value to a pound +of gold; precious stones, among which the pearl claimed the first rank +after the diamond; and a variety of aromatics, that were consumed in +religious worship and the pomp of funerals. The labor and risk of the +voyage was rewarded with almost incredible profit; but the profit was +made upon Roman subjects, and a few individuals were enriched at the +expense of the public. As the natives of Arabia and India were contented +with the productions and manufactures of their own country, silver, on +the side of the Romans, was the principal, if not the only * instrument +of commerce. It was a complaint worthy of the gravity of the senate, +that, in the purchase of female ornaments, the wealth of the state was +irrecoverably given away to foreign and hostile nations. The annual loss +is computed, by a writer of an inquisitive but censorious temper, at +upwards of eight hundred thousand pounds sterling. Such was the style of +discontent, brooding over the dark prospect of approaching poverty. And +yet, if we compare the proportion between gold and silver, as it stood +in the time of Pliny, and as it was fixed in the reign of Constantine, +we shall discover within that period a very considerable increase. There +is not the least reason to suppose that gold was become more scarce; it +is therefore evident that silver was grown more common; that whatever +might be the amount of the Indian and Arabian exports, they were far +from exhausting the wealth of the Roman world; and that the produce of +the mines abundantly supplied the demands of commerce. + +Notwithstanding the propensity of mankind to exalt the past, and to +depreciate the present, the tranquil and prosperous state of the empire +was warmly felt, and honestly confessed, by the provincials as well +as Romans. "They acknowledged that the true principles of social life, +laws, agriculture, and science, which had been first invented by the +wisdom of Athens, were now firmly established by the power of Rome, +under whose auspicious influence the fiercest barbarians were united +by an equal government and common language. They affirm, that with the +improvement of arts, the human species were visibly multiplied. They +celebrate the increasing splendor of the cities, the beautiful face of +the country, cultivated and adorned like an immense garden; and the long +festival of peace which was enjoyed by so many nations, forgetful of +the ancient animosities, and delivered from the apprehension of future +danger." Whatever suspicions may be suggested by the air of rhetoric and +declamation, which seems to prevail in these passages, the substance of +them is perfectly agreeable to historic truth. + +It was scarcely possible that the eyes of contemporaries should discover +in the public felicity the latent causes of decay and corruption. This +long peace, and the uniform government of the Romans, introduced a slow +and secret poison into the vitals of the empire. The minds of men +were gradually reduced to the same level, the fire of genius was +extinguished, and even the military spirit evaporated. The natives +of Europe were brave and robust. Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum +supplied the legions with excellent soldiers, and constituted the real +strength of the monarchy. Their personal valor remained, but they no +longer possessed that public courage which is nourished by the love of +independence, the sense of national honor, the presence of danger, and +the habit of command. They received laws and governors from the will of +their sovereign, and trusted for their defence to a mercenary army. +The posterity of their boldest leaders was contented with the rank of +citizens and subjects. The most aspiring spirits resorted to the court +or standard of the emperors; and the deserted provinces, deprived +of political strength or union, insensibly sunk into the languid +indifference of private life. + +The love of letters, almost inseparable from peace and refinement, was +fashionable among the subjects of Hadrian and the Antonines, who were +themselves men of learning and curiosity. It was diffused over the whole +extent of their empire; the most northern tribes of Britons had acquired +a taste for rhetoric; Homer as well as Virgil were transcribed and +studied on the banks of the Rhine and Danube; and the most liberal +rewards sought out the faintest glimmerings of literary merit. The +sciences of physic and astronomy were successfully cultivated by the +Greeks; the observations of Ptolemy and the writings of Galen are +studied by those who have improved their discoveries and corrected their +errors; but if we except the inimitable Lucian, this age of indolence +passed away without having produced a single writer of original genius, +or who excelled in the arts of elegant composition. ^! The authority of +Plato and Aristotle, of Zeno and Epicurus, still reigned in the schools; +and their systems, transmitted with blind deference from one generation +of disciples to another, precluded every generous attempt to exercise +the powers, or enlarge the limits, of the human mind. The beauties +of the poets and orators, instead of kindling a fire like their own, +inspired only cold and servile imitations: or if any ventured to deviate +from those models, they deviated at the same time from good sense +and propriety. On the revival of letters, the youthful vigor of the +imagination, after a long repose, national emulation, a new religion, +new languages, and a new world, called forth the genius of Europe. +But the provincials of Rome, trained by a uniform artificial foreign +education, were engaged in a very unequal competition with those bold +ancients, who, by expressing their genuine feelings in their native +tongue, had already occupied every place of honor. The name of Poet was +almost forgotten; that of Orator was usurped by the sophists. A cloud of +critics, of compilers, of commentators, darkened the face of learning, +and the decline of genius was soon followed by the corruption of taste. + +The sublime Longinus, who, in somewhat a later period, and in the court +of a Syrian queen, preserved the spirit of ancient Athens, observes +and laments this degeneracy of his contemporaries, which debased their +sentiments, enervated their courage, and depressed their talents. "In +the same manner," says he, "as some children always remain pygmies, +whose infant limbs have been too closely confined, thus our tender +minds, fettered by the prejudices and habits of a just servitude, +are unable to expand themselves, or to attain that well-proportioned +greatness which we admire in the ancients; who, living under a popular +government, wrote with the same freedom as they acted." This diminutive +stature of mankind, if we pursue the metaphor, was daily sinking below +the old standard, and the Roman world was indeed peopled by a race of +pygmies; when the fierce giants of the north broke in, and mended the +puny breed. They restored a manly spirit of freedom; and after the +revolution of ten centuries, freedom became the happy parent of taste +and science. + + + +Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.--Part I. + + Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The + Antonines. + +The obvious definition of a monarchy seems to be that of a state, in +which a single person, by whatsoever name he may be distinguished, is +intrusted with the execution of the laws, the management of the revenue, +and the command of the army. But, unless public liberty is protected +by intrepid and vigilant guardians, the authority of so formidable a +magistrate will soon degenerate into despotism. The influence of the +clergy, in an age of superstition, might be usefully employed to assert +the rights of mankind; but so intimate is the connection between the +throne and the altar, that the banner of the church has very seldom +been seen on the side of the people. * A martial nobility and stubborn +commons, possessed of arms, tenacious of property, and collected into +constitutional assemblies, form the only balance capable of preserving a +free constitution against enterprises of an aspiring prince. + +Every barrier of the Roman constitution had been levelled by the vast +ambition of the dictator; every fence had been extirpated by the cruel +hand of the triumvir. After the victory of Actium, the fate of the Roman +world depended on the will of Octavianus, surnamed Cæsar, by his uncle's +adoption, and afterwards Augustus, by the flattery of the senate. The +conqueror was at the head of forty-four veteran legions, conscious of +their own strength, and of the weakness of the constitution, habituated, +during twenty years' civil war, to every act of blood and violence, and +passionately devoted to the house of Cæsar, from whence alone they had +received, and expected the most lavish rewards. The provinces, long +oppressed by the ministers of the republic, sighed for the government of +a single person, who would be the master, not the accomplice, of those +petty tyrants. The people of Rome, viewing, with a secret pleasure, the +humiliation of the aristocracy, demanded only bread and public shows; +and were supplied with both by the liberal hand of Augustus. The rich +and polite Italians, who had almost universally embraced the philosophy +of Epicurus, enjoyed the present blessings of ease and tranquillity, and +suffered not the pleasing dream to be interrupted by the memory of their +old tumultuous freedom. With its power, the senate had lost its dignity; +many of the most noble families were extinct. The republicans of spirit +and ability had perished in the field of battle, or in the proscription +. The door of the assembly had been designedly left open, for a mixed +multitude of more than a thousand persons, who reflected disgrace upon +their rank, instead of deriving honor from it. + +The reformation of the senate was one of the first steps in which +Augustus laid aside the tyrant, and professed himself the father of +his country. He was elected censor; and, in concert with his faithful +Agrippa, he examined the list of the senators, expelled a few members, * +whose vices or whose obstinacy required a public example, persuaded near +two hundred to prevent the shame of an expulsion by a voluntary retreat, +raised the qualification of a senator to about ten thousand pounds, +created a sufficient number of patrician families, and accepted for +himself the honorable title of Prince of the Senate, which had always +been bestowed, by the censors, on the citizen the most eminent for +his honors and services. But whilst he thus restored the dignity, he +destroyed the independence, of the senate. The principles of a free +constitution are irrecoverably lost, when the legislative power is +nominated by the executive. + +Before an assembly thus modelled and prepared, Augustus pronounced +a studied oration, which displayed his patriotism, and disguised his +ambition. "He lamented, yet excused, his past conduct. Filial piety had +required at his hands the revenge of his father's murder; the humanity +of his own nature had sometimes given way to the stern laws of +necessity, and to a forced connection with two unworthy colleagues: +as long as Antony lived, the republic forbade him to abandon her to +a degenerate Roman, and a barbarian queen. He was now at liberty to +satisfy his duty and his inclination. He solemnly restored the senate +and people to all their ancient rights; and wished only to mingle with +the crowd of his fellow-citizens, and to share the blessings which he +had obtained for his country." + +It would require the pen of Tacitus (if Tacitus had assisted at this +assembly) to describe the various emotions of the senate, those that +were suppressed, and those that were affected. It was dangerous to +trust the sincerity of Augustus; to seem to distrust it was still more +dangerous. The respective advantages of monarchy and a republic have +often divided speculative inquirers; the present greatness of the Roman +state, the corruption of manners, and the license of the soldiers, +supplied new arguments to the advocates of monarchy; and these general +views of government were again warped by the hopes and fears of each +individual. Amidst this confusion of sentiments, the answer of +the senate was unanimous and decisive. They refused to accept the +resignation of Augustus; they conjured him not to desert the republic, +which he had saved. After a decent resistance, the crafty tyrant +submitted to the orders of the senate; and consented to receive the +government of the provinces, and the general command of the Roman +armies, under the well-known names of Proconsul and Imperator. But he +would receive them only for ten years. Even before the expiration +of that period, he hope that the wounds of civil discord would be +completely healed, and that the republic, restored to its pristine +health and vigor, would no longer require the dangerous interposition +of so extraordinary a magistrate. The memory of this comedy, repeated +several times during the life of Augustus, was preserved to the last +ages of the empire, by the peculiar pomp with which the perpetual +monarchs of Rome always solemnized the tenth years of their reign. + +Without any violation of the principles of the constitution, the general +of the Roman armies might receive and exercise an authority almost +despotic over the soldiers, the enemies, and the subjects of the +republic. With regard to the soldiers, the jealousy of freedom had, even +from the earliest ages of Rome, given way to the hopes of conquest, +and a just sense of military discipline. The dictator, or consul, had +a right to command the service of the Roman youth; and to punish an +obstinate or cowardly disobedience by the most severe and ignominious +penalties, by striking the offender out of the list of citizens, by +confiscating his property, and by selling his person into slavery. The +most sacred rights of freedom, confirmed by the Porcian and Sempronian +laws, were suspended by the military engagement. In his camp the general +exercised an absolute power of life and death; his jurisdiction was +not confined by any forms of trial, or rules of proceeding, and the +execution of the sentence was immediate and without appeal. The +choice of the enemies of Rome was regularly decided by the legislative +authority. The most important resolutions of peace and war were +seriously debated in the senate, and solemnly ratified by the people. +But when the arms of the legions were carried to a great distance +from Italy, the general assumed the liberty of directing them against +whatever people, and in whatever manner, they judged most advantageous +for the public service. It was from the success, not from the justice, +of their enterprises, that they expected the honors of a triumph. In the +use of victory, especially after they were no longer controlled by +the commissioners of the senate, they exercised the most unbounded +despotism. When Pompey commanded in the East, he rewarded his soldiers +and allies, dethroned princes, divided kingdoms, founded colonies, and +distributed the treasures of Mithridates. On his return to Rome, he +obtained, by a single act of the senate and people, the universal +ratification of all his proceedings. Such was the power over the +soldiers, and over the enemies of Rome, which was either granted to, or +assumed by, the generals of the republic. They were, at the same time, +the governors, or rather monarchs, of the conquered provinces, united +the civil with the military character, administered justice as well as +the finances, and exercised both the executive and legislative power of +the state. + +From what has already been observed in the first chapter of this work, +some notion may be formed of the armies and provinces thus intrusted +to the ruling hand of Augustus. But as it was impossible that he could +personally command the regions of so many distant frontiers, he was +indulged by the senate, as Pompey had already been, in the permission +of devolving the execution of his great office on a sufficient number of +lieutenants. In rank and authority these officers seemed not inferior to +the ancient proconsuls; but their station was dependent and precarious. +They received and held their commissions at the will of a superior, +to whose auspicious influence the merit of their action was legally +attributed. They were the representatives of the emperor. The emperor +alone was the general of the republic, and his jurisdiction, civil as +well as military, extended over all the conquests of Rome. It was some +satisfaction, however, to the senate, that he always delegated his power +to the members of their body. The imperial lieutenants were of consular +or prætorian dignity; the legions were commanded by senators, and the +præfecture of Egypt was the only important trust committed to a Roman +knight. + +Within six days after Augustus had been compelled to accept so very +liberal a grant, he resolved to gratify the pride of the senate by +an easy sacrifice. He represented to them, that they had enlarged +his powers, even beyond that degree which might be required by the +melancholy condition of the times. They had not permitted him to refuse +the laborious command of the armies and the frontiers; but he must +insist on being allowed to restore the more peaceful and secure +provinces to the mild administration of the civil magistrate. In the +division of the provinces, Augustus provided for his own power and for +the dignity of the republic. The proconsuls of the senate, particularly +those of Asia, Greece, and Africa, enjoyed a more honorable character +than the lieutenants of the emperor, who commanded in Gaul or Syria. +The former were attended by lictors, the latter by soldiers. * A law +was passed, that wherever the emperor was present, his extraordinary +commission should supersede the ordinary jurisdiction of the governor; +a custom was introduced, that the new conquests belonged to the imperial +portion; and it was soon discovered that the authority of the Prince, +the favorite epithet of Augustus, was the same in every part of the +empire. + +In return for this imaginary concession, Augustus obtained an important +privilege, which rendered him master of Rome and Italy. By a dangerous +exception to the ancient maxims, he was authorized to preserve his +military command, supported by a numerous body of guards, even in time +of peace, and in the heart of the capital. His command, indeed, was +confined to those citizens who were engaged in the service by the +military oath; but such was the propensity of the Romans to servitude, +that the oath was voluntarily taken by the magistrates, the senators, +and the equestrian order, till the homage of flattery was insensibly +converted into an annual and solemn protestation of fidelity. + +Although Augustus considered a military force as the firmest foundation, +he wisely rejected it, as a very odious instrument of government. It was +more agreeable to his temper, as well as to his policy, to reign under +the venerable names of ancient magistracy, and artfully to collect, in +his own person, all the scattered rays of civil jurisdiction. With this +view, he permitted the senate to confer upon him, for his life, the +powers of the consular and tribunitian offices, which were, in the same +manner, continued to all his successors. The consuls had succeeded +to the kings of Rome, and represented the dignity of the state. They +superintended the ceremonies of religion, levied and commanded the +legions, gave audience to foreign ambassadors, and presided in the +assemblies both of the senate and people. The general control of the +finances was intrusted to their care; and though they seldom had leisure +to administer justice in person, they were considered as the supreme +guardians of law, equity, and the public peace. Such was their ordinary +jurisdiction; but whenever the senate empowered the first magistrate +to consult the safety of the commonwealth, he was raised by that decree +above the laws, and exercised, in the defence of liberty, a temporary +despotism. The character of the tribunes was, in every respect, +different from that of the consuls. The appearance of the former was +modest and humble; but their persons were sacred and inviolable. Their +force was suited rather for opposition than for action. They were +instituted to defend the oppressed, to pardon offences, to arraign the +enemies of the people, and, when they judged it necessary, to stop, by +a single word, the whole machine of government. As long as the republic +subsisted, the dangerous influence, which either the consul or the +tribune might derive from their respective jurisdiction, was diminished +by several important restrictions. Their authority expired with the year +in which they were elected; the former office was divided between two, +the latter among ten persons; and, as both in their private and +public interest they were averse to each other, their mutual conflicts +contributed, for the most part, to strengthen rather than to destroy +the balance of the constitution. * But when the consular and tribunitian +powers were united, when they were vested for life in a single person, +when the general of the army was, at the same time, the minister of the +senate and the representative of the Roman people, it was impossible +to resist the exercise, nor was it easy to define the limits, of his +imperial prerogative. + +To these accumulated honors, the policy of Augustus soon added the +splendid as well as important dignities of supreme pontiff, and of +censor. By the former he acquired the management of the religion, and +by the latter a legal inspection over the manners and fortunes, of the +Roman people. If so many distinct and independent powers did not exactly +unite with each other, the complaisance of the senate was prepared to +supply every deficiency by the most ample and extraordinary concessions. +The emperors, as the first ministers of the republic, were exempted +from the obligation and penalty of many inconvenient laws: they were +authorized to convoke the senate, to make several motions in the same +day, to recommend candidates for the honors of the state, to enlarge +the bounds of the city, to employ the revenue at their discretion, to +declare peace and war, to ratify treaties; and by a most comprehensive +clause, they were empowered to execute whatsoever they should judge +advantageous to the empire, and agreeable to the majesty of things +private or public, human of divine. + +When all the various powers of executive government were committed to +the Imperial magistrate, the ordinary magistrates of the commonwealth +languished in obscurity, without vigor, and almost without business. The +names and forms of the ancient administration were preserved by Augustus +with the most anxious care. The usual number of consuls, prætors, +and tribunes, were annually invested with their respective ensigns +of office, and continued to discharge some of their least important +functions. Those honors still attracted the vain ambition of the Romans; +and the emperors themselves, though invested for life with the powers of +the consul ship, frequently aspired to the title of that annual dignity, +which they condescended to share with the most illustrious of their +fellow-citizens. In the election of these magistrates, the people, +during the reign of Augustus, were permitted to expose all the +inconveniences of a wild democracy. That artful prince, instead of +discovering the least symptom of impatience, humbly solicited their +suffrages for himself or his friends, and scrupulously practised all the +duties of an ordinary candidate. But we may venture to ascribe to +his councils the first measure of the succeeding reign, by which the +elections were transferred to the senate. The assemblies of the people +were forever abolished, and the emperors were delivered from a dangerous +multitude, who, without restoring liberty, might have disturbed, and +perhaps endangered, the established government. + +By declaring themselves the protectors of the people, Marius and Cæsar +had subverted the constitution of their country. But as soon as the +senate had been humbled and disarmed, such an assembly, consisting of +five or six hundred persons, was found a much more tractable and +useful instrument of dominion. It was on the dignity of the senate that +Augustus and his successors founded their new empire; and they affected, +on every occasion, to adopt the language and principles of Patricians. +In the administration of their own powers, they frequently consulted +the great national council, and seemed to refer to its decision the +most important concerns of peace and war. Rome, Italy, and the internal +provinces, were subject to the immediate jurisdiction of the senate. +With regard to civil objects, it was the supreme court of appeal; with +regard to criminal matters, a tribunal, constituted for the trial of +all offences that were committed by men in any public station, or that +affected the peace and majesty of the Roman people. The exercise of the +judicial power became the most frequent and serious occupation of the +senate; and the important causes that were pleaded before them afforded +a last refuge to the spirit of ancient eloquence. As a council of +state, and as a court of justice, the senate possessed very considerable +prerogatives; but in its legislative capacity, in which it was supposed +virtually to represent the people, the rights of sovereignty were +acknowledged to reside in that assembly. Every power was derived from +their authority, every law was ratified by their sanction. Their regular +meetings were held on three stated days in every month, the Calends, the +Nones, and the Ides. The debates were conducted with decent freedom; +and the emperors themselves, who gloried in the name of senators, sat, +voted, and divided with their equals. + +To resume, in a few words, the system of the Imperial government; as +it was instituted by Augustus, and maintained by those princes who +understood their own interest and that of the people, it may be defined +an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms of a commonwealth. The +masters of the Roman world surrounded their throne with darkness, +concealed their irresistible strength, and humbly professed themselves +the accountable ministers of the senate, whose supreme decrees they +dictated and obeyed. + +The face of the court corresponded with the forms of the administration. +The emperors, if we except those tyrants whose capricious folly violated +every law of nature and decency, disdained that pomp and ceremony which +might offend their countrymen, but could add nothing to their real +power. In all the offices of life, they affected to confound themselves +with their subjects, and maintained with them an equal intercourse of +visits and entertainments. Their habit, their palace, their table, were +suited only to the rank of an opulent senator. Their family, however +numerous or splendid, was composed entirely of their domestic slaves and +freedmen. Augustus or Trajan would have blushed at employing the meanest +of the Romans in those menial offices, which, in the household and +bedchamber of a limited monarch, are so eagerly solicited by the +proudest nobles of Britain. + +The deification of the emperors is the only instance in which they +departed from their accustomed prudence and modesty. The Asiatic Greeks +were the first inventors, the successors of Alexander the first +objects, of this servile and impious mode of adulation. * It was easily +transferred from the kings to the governors of Asia; and the Roman +magistrates very frequently were adored as provincial deities, with the +pomp of altars and temples, of festivals and sacrifices. It was natural +that the emperors should not refuse what the proconsuls had accepted; +and the divine honors which both the one and the other received from the +provinces, attested rather the despotism than the servitude of Rome. +But the conquerors soon imitated the vanquished nations in the arts +of flattery; and the imperious spirit of the first Cæsar too easily +consented to assume, during his lifetime, a place among the tutelar +deities of Rome. The milder temper of his successor declined so +dangerous an ambition, which was never afterwards revived, except by the +madness of Caligula and Domitian. Augustus permitted indeed some of the +provincial cities to erect temples to his honor, on condition that they +should associate the worship of Rome with that of the sovereign; he +tolerated private superstition, of which he might be the object; but he +contented himself with being revered by the senate and the people in his +human character, and wisely left to his successor the care of his public +deification. A regular custom was introduced, that on the decease of +every emperor who had neither lived nor died like a tyrant, the senate +by a solemn decree should place him in the number of the gods: and the +ceremonies of his apotheosis were blended with those of his funeral. +This legal, and, as it should seem, injudicious profanation, so +abhorrent to our stricter principles, was received with a very faint +murmur, by the easy nature of Polytheism; but it was received as an +institution, not of religion, but of policy. We should disgrace the +virtues of the Antonines by comparing them with the vices of Hercules or +Jupiter. Even the characters of Cæsar or Augustus were far superior to +those of the popular deities. But it was the misfortune of the former +to live in an enlightened age, and their actions were too faithfully +recorded to admit of such a mixture of fable and mystery, as the +devotion of the vulgar requires. As soon as their divinity was +established by law, it sunk into oblivion, without contributing either +to their own fame, or to the dignity of succeeding princes. + +In the consideration of the Imperial government, we have frequently +mentioned the artful founder, under his well-known title of Augustus, +which was not, however, conferred upon him till the edifice was almost +completed. The obscure name of Octavianus he derived from a mean family, +in the little town of Aricia. It was stained with the blood of the +proscription; and he was desirous, had it been possible, to erase all +memory of his former life. The illustrious surname of Cæsar he had +assumed, as the adopted son of the dictator: but he had too much good +sense, either to hope to be confounded, or to wish to be compared with +that extraordinary man. It was proposed in the senate to dignify their +minister with a new appellation; and after a serious discussion, that of +Augustus was chosen, among several others, as being the most expressive +of the character of peace and sanctity, which he uniformly affected. +Augustus was therefore a personal, Cæsar a family distinction. The +former should naturally have expired with the prince on whom it was +bestowed; and however the latter was diffused by adoption and female +alliance, Nero was the last prince who could allege any hereditary claim +to the honors of the Julian line. But, at the time of his death, the +practice of a century had inseparably connected those appellations with +the Imperial dignity, and they have been preserved by a long succession +of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from the fall of +the republic to the present time. A distinction was, however, soon +introduced. The sacred title of Augustus was always reserved for the +monarch, whilst the name of Cæsar was more freely communicated to his +relations; and, from the reign of Hadrian, at least, was appropriated +to the second person in the state, who was considered as the presumptive +heir of the empire. * + + + +Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.--Part II. + +The tender respect of Augustus for a free constitution which he had +destroyed, can only be explained by an attentive consideration of the +character of that subtle tyrant. A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a +cowardly disposition, prompted him at the age of nineteen to assume the +mask of hypocrisy, which he never afterwards laid aside. With the same +hand, and probably with the same temper, he signed the proscription of +Cicero, and the pardon of Cinna. His virtues, and even his vices, were +artificial; and according to the various dictates of his interest, he +was at first the enemy, and at last the father, of the Roman world. When +he framed the artful system of the Imperial authority, his moderation +was inspired by his fears. He wished to deceive the people by an image +of civil liberty, and the armies by an image of civil government. + +I. The death of Cæsar was ever before his eyes. He had lavished wealth +and honors on his adherents; but the most favored friends of his uncle +were in the number of the conspirators. The fidelity of the legions +might defend his authority against open rebellion; but their vigilance +could not secure his person from the dagger of a determined republican; +and the Romans, who revered the memory of Brutus, would applaud the +imitation of his virtue. Cæsar had provoked his fate, as much as by +the ostentation of his power, as by his power itself. The consul or the +tribune might have reigned in peace. The title of king had armed the +Romans against his life. Augustus was sensible that mankind is governed +by names; nor was he deceived in his expectation, that the senate and +people would submit to slavery, provided they were respectfully assured +that they still enjoyed their ancient freedom. A feeble senate and +enervated people cheerfully acquiesced in the pleasing illusion, as +long as it was supported by the virtue, or even by the prudence, of +the successors of Augustus. It was a motive of self-preservation, not a +principle of liberty, that animated the conspirators against Caligula, +Nero, and Domitian. They attacked the person of the tyrant, without +aiming their blow at the authority of the emperor. + +There appears, indeed, one memorable occasion, in which the senate, +after seventy years of patience, made an ineffectual attempt to +re-assume its long-forgotten rights. When the throne was vacant by the +murder of Caligula, the consuls convoked that assembly in the Capitol, +condemned the memory of the Cæsars, gave the watchword liberty to +the few cohorts who faintly adhered to their standard, and during +eight-and-forty hours acted as the independent chiefs of a free +commonwealth. But while they deliberated, the prætorian guards had +resolved. The stupid Claudius, brother of Germanicus, was already in +their camp, invested with the Imperial purple, and prepared to support +his election by arms. The dream of liberty was at an end; and the +senate awoke to all the horrors of inevitable servitude. Deserted by +the people, and threatened by a military force, that feeble assembly +was compelled to ratify the choice of the prætorians, and to embrace the +benefit of an amnesty, which Claudius had the prudence to offer, and the +generosity to observe. + +[See The Capitol: When the throne was vacant by the murder of Caligula, +the consuls convoked that assembly in the Capitol.] + +II. The insolence of the armies inspired Augustus with fears of a still +more alarming nature. The despair of the citizens could only attempt, +what the power of the soldiers was, at any time, able to execute. How +precarious was his own authority over men whom he had taught to violate +every social duty! He had heard their seditious clamors; he dreaded +their calmer moments of reflection. One revolution had been purchased by +immense rewards; but a second revolution might double those rewards. The +troops professed the fondest attachment to the house of Cæsar; but the +attachments of the multitude are capricious and inconstant. Augustus +summoned to his aid whatever remained in those fierce minds of Roman +prejudices; enforced the rigor of discipline by the sanction of law; +and, interposing the majesty of the senate between the emperor and the +army, boldly claimed their allegiance, as the first magistrate of the +republic. + +During a long period of two hundred and twenty years from the +establishment of this artful system to the death of Commodus, the +dangers inherent to a military government were, in a great measure, +suspended. The soldiers were seldom roused to that fatal sense of their +own strength, and of the weakness of the civil authority, which was, +before and afterwards, productive of such dreadful calamities. Caligula +and Domitian were assassinated in their palace by their own domestics: +* the convulsions which agitated Rome on the death of the former, were +confined to the walls of the city. But Nero involved the whole empire in +his ruin. In the space of eighteen months, four princes perished by +the sword; and the Roman world was shaken by the fury of the contending +armies. Excepting only this short, though violent eruption of military +license, the two centuries from Augustus to Commodus passed away +unstained with civil blood, and undisturbed by revolutions. The emperor +was elected by the authority of the senate, and the consent of the +soldiers. The legions respected their oath of fidelity; and it requires +a minute inspection of the Roman annals to discover three inconsiderable +rebellions, which were all suppressed in a few months, and without even +the hazard of a battle. + +In elective monarchies, the vacancy of the throne is a moment big with +danger and mischief. The Roman emperors, desirous to spare the legions +that interval of suspense, and the temptation of an irregular choice, +invested their designed successor with so large a share of present +power, as should enable him, after their decease, to assume the +remainder, without suffering the empire to perceive the change of +masters. Thus Augustus, after all his fairer prospects had been snatched +from him by untimely deaths, rested his last hopes on Tiberius, obtained +for his adopted son the censorial and tribunitian powers, and dictated a +law, by which the future prince was invested with an authority equal to +his own, over the provinces and the armies. Thus Vespasian subdued +the generous mind of his eldest son. Titus was adored by the eastern +legions, which, under his command, had recently achieved the conquest +of Judæa. His power was dreaded, and, as his virtues were clouded by the +intemperance of youth, his designs were suspected. Instead of listening +to such unworthy suspicions, the prudent monarch associated Titus to the +full powers of the Imperial dignity; and the grateful son ever approved +himself the humble and faithful minister of so indulgent a father. + +The good sense of Vespasian engaged him indeed to embrace every measure +that might confirm his recent and precarious elevation. The military +oath, and the fidelity of the troops, had been consecrated, by the +habits of a hundred years, to the name and family of the Cæsars; and +although that family had been continued only by the fictitious rite of +adoption, the Romans still revered, in the person of Nero, the grandson +of Germanicus, and the lineal successor of Augustus. It was not without +reluctance and remorse, that the prætorian guards had been persuaded to +abandon the cause of the tyrant. The rapid downfall of Galba, Otho, and +Vitellus, taught the armies to consider the emperors as the creatures of +their will, and the instruments of their license. The birth of Vespasian +was mean: his grandfather had been a private soldier, his father a petty +officer of the revenue; his own merit had raised him, in an advanced +age, to the empire; but his merit was rather useful than shining, and +his virtues were disgraced by a strict and even sordid parsimony. Such +a prince consulted his true interest by the association of a son, whose +more splendid and amiable character might turn the public attention from +the obscure origin, to the future glories, of the Flavian house. Under +the mild administration of Titus, the Roman world enjoyed a transient +felicity, and his beloved memory served to protect, above fifteen years, +the vices of his brother Domitian. + +Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of Domitian, +before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to stem the torrent +of public disorders, which had multiplied under the long tyranny of his +predecessor. His mild disposition was respected by the good; but the +degenerate Romans required a more vigorous character, whose justice +should strike terror into the guilty. Though he had several relations, +he fixed his choice on a stranger. He adopted Trajan, then about forty +years of age, and who commanded a powerful army in the Lower Germany; +and immediately, by a decree of the senate, declared him his colleague +and successor in the empire. It is sincerely to be lamented, that +whilst we are fatigued with the disgustful relation of Nero's crimes +and follies, we are reduced to collect the actions of Trajan from the +glimmerings of an abridgment, or the doubtful light of a panegyric. +There remains, however, one panegyric far removed beyond the suspicion +of flattery. Above two hundred and fifty years after the death of +Trajan, the senate, in pouring out the customary acclamations on the +accession of a new emperor, wished that he might surpass the felicity of +Augustus, and the virtue of Trajan. + +We may readily believe, that the father of his country hesitated whether +he ought to intrust the various and doubtful character of his kinsman +Hadrian with sovereign power. In his last moments the arts of the +empress Plotina either fixed the irresolution of Trajan, or boldly +supposed a fictitious adoption; the truth of which could not be +safely disputed, and Hadrian was peaceably acknowledged as his lawful +successor. Under his reign, as has been already mentioned, the empire +flourished in peace and prosperity. He encouraged the arts, reformed +the laws, asserted military discipline, and visited all his provinces +in person. His vast and active genius was equally suited to the most +enlarged views, and the minute details of civil policy. But the ruling +passions of his soul were curiosity and vanity. As they prevailed, and +as they were attracted by different objects, Hadrian was, by turns, +an excellent prince, a ridiculous sophist, and a jealous tyrant. +The general tenor of his conduct deserved praise for its equity and +moderation. Yet in the first days of his reign, he put to death four +consular senators, his personal enemies, and men who had been judged +worthy of empire; and the tediousness of a painful illness rendered +him, at last, peevish and cruel. The senate doubted whether they should +pronounce him a god or a tyrant; and the honors decreed to his memory +were granted to the prayers of the pious Antoninus. + +The caprice of Hadrian influenced his choice of a successor. After +revolving in his mind several men of distinguished merit, whom he +esteemed and hated, he adopted Ælius Verus a gay and voluptuous +nobleman, recommended by uncommon beauty to the lover of Antinous. But +whilst Hadrian was delighting himself with his own applause, and the +acclamations of the soldiers, whose consent had been secured by an +immense donative, the new Cæsar was ravished from his embraces by an +untimely death. He left only one son. Hadrian commended the boy to +the gratitude of the Antonines. He was adopted by Pius; and, on the +accession of Marcus, was invested with an equal share of sovereign +power. Among the many vices of this younger Verus, he possessed +one virtue; a dutiful reverence for his wiser colleague, to whom he +willingly abandoned the ruder cares of empire. The philosophic emperor +dissembled his follies, lamented his early death, and cast a decent veil +over his memory. + +As soon as Hadrian's passion was either gratified or disappointed, he +resolved to deserve the thanks of posterity, by placing the most exalted +merit on the Roman throne. His discerning eye easily discovered a +senator about fifty years of age, blameless in all the offices of life; +and a youth of about seventeen, whose riper years opened a fair prospect +of every virtue: the elder of these was declared the son and successor +of Hadrian, on condition, however, that he himself should immediately +adopt the younger. The two Antonines (for it is of them that we are +now speaking,) governed the Roman world forty-two years, with the same +invariable spirit of wisdom and virtue. Although Pius had two sons, he +preferred the welfare of Rome to the interest of his family, gave his +daughter Faustina, in marriage to young Marcus, obtained from the senate +the tribunitian and proconsular powers, and, with a noble disdain, +or rather ignorance of jealousy, associated him to all the labors of +government. Marcus, on the other hand, revered the character of his +benefactor, loved him as a parent, obeyed him as his sovereign, and, +after he was no more, regulated his own administration by the example +and maxims of his predecessor. Their united reigns are possibly the only +period of history in which the happiness of a great people was the sole +object of government. + +Titus Antoninus Pius has been justly denominated a second Numa. The +same love of religion, justice, and peace, was the distinguishing +characteristic of both princes. But the situation of the latter opened +a much larger field for the exercise of those virtues. Numa could +only prevent a few neighboring villages from plundering each other's +harvests. Antoninus diffused order and tranquillity over the greatest +part of the earth. His reign is marked by the rare advantage of +furnishing very few materials for history; which is, indeed, little more +than the register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. +In private life, he was an amiable, as well as a good man. The native +simplicity of his virtue was a stranger to vanity or affectation. +He enjoyed with moderation the conveniences of his fortune, and the +innocent pleasures of society; and the benevolence of his soul displayed +itself in a cheerful serenity of temper. + +The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was of severer and more +laborious kind. It was the well-earned harvest of many a learned +conference, of many a patient lecture, and many a midnight lucubration. +At the age of twelve years he embraced the rigid system of the Stoics, +which taught him to submit his body to his mind, his passions to his +reason; to consider virtue as the only good, vice as the only evil, all +things external as things indifferent. His meditations, composed in the +tumult of the camp, are still extant; and he even condescended to +give lessons of philosophy, in a more public manner than was perhaps +consistent with the modesty of sage, or the dignity of an emperor. But +his life was the noblest commentary on the precepts of Zeno. He was +severe to himself, indulgent to the imperfections of others, just +and beneficent to all mankind. He regretted that Avidius Cassius, who +excited a rebellion in Syria, had disappointed him, by a voluntary +death, * of the pleasure of converting an enemy into a friend; and he +justified the sincerity of that sentiment, by moderating the zeal of +the senate against the adherents of the traitor. War he detested, as the +disgrace and calamity of human nature; but when the necessity of a just +defence called upon him to take up arms, he readily exposed his person +to eight winter campaigns, on the frozen banks of the Danube, the +severity of which was at last fatal to the weakness of his constitution. +His memory was revered by a grateful posterity, and above a century +after his death, many persons preserved the image of Marcus Antoninus +among those of their household gods. + +If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world, +during which the condition of the human race was most happy and +prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from +the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus. The vast extent of +the Roman empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of +virtue and wisdom. The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle +hand of four successive emperors, whose characters and authority +commanded involuntary respect. The forms of the civil administration +were carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, +who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with considering +themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. Such princes +deserved the honor of restoring the republic, had the Romans of their +days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom. + +The labors of these monarchs were overpaid by the immense reward that +inseparably waited on their success; by the honest pride of virtue, and +by the exquisite delight of beholding the general happiness of which +they were the authors. A just but melancholy reflection imbittered, +however, the noblest of human enjoyments. They must often have +recollected the instability of a happiness which depended on the +character of single man. The fatal moment was perhaps approaching, +when some licentious youth, or some jealous tyrant, would abuse, to the +destruction, that absolute power, which they had exerted for the benefit +of their people. The ideal restraints of the senate and the laws might +serve to display the virtues, but could never correct the vices, of the +emperor. The military force was a blind and irresistible instrument +of oppression; and the corruption of Roman manners would always supply +flatterers eager to applaud, and ministers prepared to serve, the fear +or the avarice, the lust or the cruelty, of their master. + +These gloomy apprehensions had been already justified by the experience +of the Romans. The annals of the emperors exhibit a strong and various +picture of human nature, which we should vainly seek among the mixed and +doubtful characters of modern history. In the conduct of those monarchs +we may trace the utmost lines of vice and virtue; the most exalted +perfection, and the meanest degeneracy of our own species. The golden +age of Trajan and the Antonines had been preceded by an age of iron. It +is almost superfluous to enumerate the unworthy successors of Augustus. +Their unparalleled vices, and the splendid theatre on which they were +acted, have saved them from oblivion. The dark, unrelenting Tiberius, +the furious Caligula, the feeble Claudius, the profligate and cruel +Nero, the beastly Vitellius, and the timid, inhuman Domitian, are +condemned to everlasting infamy. During fourscore years (excepting +only the short and doubtful respite of Vespasian's reign) Rome groaned +beneath an unremitting tyranny, which exterminated the ancient families +of the republic, and was fatal to almost every virtue and every talent +that arose in that unhappy period. + +Under the reign of these monsters, the slavery of the Romans was +accompanied with two peculiar circumstances, the one occasioned by their +former liberty, the other by their extensive conquests, which rendered +their condition more completely wretched than that of the victims of +tyranny in any other age or country. From these causes were derived, 1. +The exquisite sensibility of the sufferers; and, 2. The impossibility of +escaping from the hand of the oppressor. + +I. When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a race of +princes whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, their table, and +their bed, with the blood of their favorites, there is a saying recorded +of a young nobleman, that he never departed from the sultan's presence, +without satisfying himself whether his head was still on his shoulders. +The experience of every day might almost justify the scepticism of +Rustan. Yet the fatal sword, suspended above him by a single +thread, seems not to have disturbed the slumbers, or interrupted the +tranquillity, of the Persian. The monarch's frown, he well knew, could +level him with the dust; but the stroke of lightning or apoplexy might +be equally fatal; and it was the part of a wise man to forget the +inevitable calamities of human life in the enjoyment of the fleeting +hour. He was dignified with the appellation of the king's slave; had, +perhaps, been purchased from obscure parents, in a country which he +had never known; and was trained up from his infancy in the severe +discipline of the seraglio. His name, his wealth, his honors, were +the gift of a master, who might, without injustice, resume what he had +bestowed. Rustan's knowledge, if he possessed any, could only serve to +confirm his habits by prejudices. His language afforded not words for +any form of government, except absolute monarchy. The history of the +East informed him, that such had ever been the condition of mankind. The +Koran, and the interpreters of that divine book, inculcated to him, +that the sultan was the descendant of the prophet, and the vicegerent of +heaven; that patience was the first virtue of a Mussulman, and unlimited +obedience the great duty of a subject. + +The minds of the Romans were very differently prepared for slavery. +Oppressed beneath the weight of their own corruption and of military +violence, they for a long while preserved the sentiments, or at least +the ideas, of their free-born ancestors. The education of Helvidius and +Thrasea, of Tacitus and Pliny, was the same as that of Cato and Cicero. +From Grecian philosophy, they had imbibed the justest and most liberal +notions of the dignity of human nature, and the origin of civil society. +The history of their own country had taught them to revere a free, a +virtuous, and a victorious commonwealth; to abhor the successful crimes +of Cæsar and Augustus; and inwardly to despise those tyrants whom they +adored with the most abject flattery. As magistrates and senators they +were admitted into the great council, which had once dictated laws +to the earth, whose authority was so often prostituted to the vilest +purposes of tyranny. Tiberius, and those emperors who adopted his +maxims, attempted to disguise their murders by the formalities of +justice, and perhaps enjoyed a secret pleasure in rendering the senate +their accomplice as well as their victim. By this assembly, the last of +the Romans were condemned for imaginary crimes and real virtues. Their +infamous accusers assumed the language of independent patriots, who +arraigned a dangerous citizen before the tribunal of his country; and +the public service was rewarded by riches and honors. The servile judges +professed to assert the majesty of the commonwealth, violated in the +person of its first magistrate, whose clemency they most applauded when +they trembled the most at his inexorable and impending cruelty. The +tyrant beheld their baseness with just contempt, and encountered their +secret sentiments of detestation with sincere and avowed hatred for the +whole body of the senate. + +II. The division of Europe into a number of independent states, +connected, however, with each other by the general resemblance of +religion, language, and manners, is productive of the most beneficial +consequences to the liberty of mankind. A modern tyrant, who should find +no resistance either in his own breast, or in his people, would soon +experience a gentle restrain from the example of his equals, the dread +of present censure, the advice of his allies, and the apprehension of +his enemies. The object of his displeasure, escaping from the narrow +limits of his dominions, would easily obtain, in a happier climate, +a secure refuge, a new fortune adequate to his merit, the freedom of +complaint, and perhaps the means of revenge. But the empire of the +Romans filled the world, and when the empire fell into the hands of +a single person, the world became a safe and dreary prison for his +enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether he was condemned to +drag his gilded chain in Rome and the senate, or to were out a life of +exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or the frozen bank of the Danube, +expected his fate in silent despair. To resist was fatal, and it was +impossible to fly. On every side he was encompassed with a vast extent +of sea and land, which he could never hope to traverse without being +discovered, seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the +frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the ocean, +inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of fierce manners +and unknown language, or dependent kings, who would gladly purchase +the emperor's protection by the sacrifice of an obnoxious fugitive. +"Wherever you are," said Cicero to the exiled Marcellus, "remember that +you are equally within the power of the conqueror." + + + +Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.--Part I. + + The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus. Election Of + Pertinax--His Attempts To Reform The State--His Assassination + By The Prætorian Guards. + +The mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the Stoics was +unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the most amiable, and the +only defective part of his character. His excellent understanding was +often deceived by the unsuspecting goodness of his heart. Artful men, +who study the passions of princes, and conceal their own, approached his +person in the disguise of philosophic sanctity, and acquired riches and +honors by affecting to despise them. His excessive indulgence to his +brother, * his wife, and his son, exceeded the bounds of private virtue, +and became a public injury, by the example and consequences of their +vices. + +Faustina, the daughter of Pius and the wife of Marcus, has been as much +celebrated for her gallantries as for her beauty. The grave simplicity +of the philosopher was ill calculated to engage her wanton levity, or to +fix that unbounded passion for variety, which often discovered personal +merit in the meanest of mankind. The Cupid of the ancients was, in +general, a very sensual deity; and the amours of an empress, as they +exact on her side the plainest advances, are seldom susceptible of much +sentimental delicacy. Marcus was the only man in the empire who seemed +ignorant or insensible of the irregularities of Faustina; which, +according to the prejudices of every age, reflected some disgrace on the +injured husband. He promoted several of her lovers to posts of honor +and profit, and during a connection of thirty years, invariably gave her +proofs of the most tender confidence, and of a respect which ended not +with her life. In his Meditations, he thanks the gods, who had bestowed +on him a wife so faithful, so gentle, and of such a wonderful simplicity +of manners. The obsequious senate, at his earnest request, declared her +a goddess. She was represented in her temples, with the attributes of +Juno, Venus, and Ceres; and it was decreed, that, on the day of their +nuptials, the youth of either sex should pay their vows before the altar +of their chaste patroness. + +The monstrous vices of the son have cast a shade on the purity of the +father's virtues. It has been objected to Marcus, that he sacrificed the +happiness of millions to a fond partiality for a worthless boy; and that +he chose a successor in his own family, rather than in the republic. +Nothing however, was neglected by the anxious father, and by the men of +virtue and learning whom he summoned to his assistance, to expand the +narrow mind of young Commodus, to correct his growing vices, and to +render him worthy of the throne for which he was designed. But the +power of instruction is seldom of much efficacy, except in those happy +dispositions where it is almost superfluous. The distasteful lesson of +a grave philosopher was, in a moment, obliterated by the whisper of +a profligate favorite; and Marcus himself blasted the fruits of this +labored education, by admitting his son, at the age of fourteen or +fifteen, to a full participation of the Imperial power. He lived +but four years afterwards: but he lived long enough to repent a rash +measure, which raised the impetuous youth above the restraint of reason +and authority. + +Most of the crimes which disturb the internal peace of society, are +produced by the restraints which the necessary but unequal laws of +property have imposed on the appetites of mankind, by confining to a +few the possession of those objects that are coveted by many. Of all our +passions and appetites, the love of power is of the most imperious and +unsociable nature, since the pride of one man requires the submission of +the multitude. In the tumult of civil discord, the laws of society lose +their force, and their place is seldom supplied by those of humanity. +The ardor of contention, the pride of victory, the despair of success, +the memory of past injuries, and the fear of future dangers, all +contribute to inflame the mind, and to silence the voice of pity. From +such motives almost every page of history has been stained with civil +blood; but these motives will not account for the unprovoked cruelties +of Commodus, who had nothing to wish and every thing to enjoy. The +beloved son of Marcus succeeded to his father, amidst the acclamations +of the senate and armies; and when he ascended the throne, the happy +youth saw round him neither competitor to remove, nor enemies to punish. +In this calm, elevated station, it was surely natural that he should +prefer the love of mankind to their detestation, the mild glories of his +five predecessors to the ignominious fate of Nero and Domitian. + +Yet Commodus was not, as he has been represented, a tiger born with an +insatiate thirst of human blood, and capable, from his infancy, of the +most inhuman actions. Nature had formed him of a weak rather than a +wicked disposition. His simplicity and timidity rendered him the slave +of his attendants, who gradually corrupted his mind. His cruelty, which +at first obeyed the dictates of others, degenerated into habit, and at +length became the ruling passion of his soul. + +Upon the death of his father, Commodus found himself embarrassed with +the command of a great army, and the conduct of a difficult war against +the Quadi and Marcomanni. The servile and profligate youths whom Marcus +had banished, soon regained their station and influence about the new +emperor. They exaggerated the hardships and dangers of a campaign in the +wild countries beyond the Danube; and they assured the indolent prince +that the terror of his name, and the arms of his lieutenants, would be +sufficient to complete the conquest of the dismayed barbarians, or to +impose such conditions as were more advantageous than any conquest. By +a dexterous application to his sensual appetites, they compared the +tranquillity, the splendor, the refined pleasures of Rome, with the +tumult of a Pannonian camp, which afforded neither leisure nor materials +for luxury. Commodus listened to the pleasing advice; but whilst +he hesitated between his own inclination and the awe which he still +retained for his father's counsellors, the summer insensibly elapsed, +and his triumphal entry into the capital was deferred till the autumn. +His graceful person, popular address, and imagined virtues, attracted +the public favor; the honorable peace which he had recently granted to +the barbarians, diffused a universal joy; his impatience to revisit Rome +was fondly ascribed to the love of his country; and his dissolute course +of amusements was faintly condemned in a prince of nineteen years of +age. + +During the three first years of his reign, the forms, and even the +spirit, of the old administration, were maintained by those faithful +counsellors, to whom Marcus had recommended his son, and for whose +wisdom and integrity Commodus still entertained a reluctant esteem. The +young prince and his profligate favorites revelled in all the license of +sovereign power; but his hands were yet unstained with blood; and he +had even displayed a generosity of sentiment, which might perhaps have +ripened into solid virtue. A fatal incident decided his fluctuating +character. + +One evening, as the emperor was returning to the palace, through a dark +and narrow portico in the amphitheatre, an assassin, who waited his +passage, rushed upon him with a drawn sword, loudly exclaiming, "The +senate sends you this." The menace prevented the deed; the assassin +was seized by the guards, and immediately revealed the authors of the +conspiracy. It had been formed, not in the state, but within the walls +of the palace. Lucilla, the emperor's sister, and widow of Lucius Verus, +impatient of the second rank, and jealous of the reigning empress, had +armed the murderer against her brother's life. She had not ventured to +communicate the black design to her second husband, Claudius Pompeiarus, +a senator of distinguished merit and unshaken loyalty; but among the +crowd of her lovers (for she imitated the manners of Faustina) she found +men of desperate fortunes and wild ambition, who were prepared to serve +her more violent, as well as her tender passions. The conspirators +experienced the rigor of justice, and the abandoned princess was +punished, first with exile, and afterwards with death. + +But the words of the assassin sunk deep into the mind of Commodus, and +left an indelible impression of fear and hatred against the whole body +of the senate. * Those whom he had dreaded as importunate ministers, +he now suspected as secret enemies. The Delators, a race of men +discouraged, and almost extinguished, under the former reigns, again +became formidable, as soon as they discovered that the emperor was +desirous of finding disaffection and treason in the senate. That +assembly, whom Marcus had ever considered as the great council of +the nation, was composed of the most distinguished of the Romans; and +distinction of every kind soon became criminal. The possession of wealth +stimulated the diligence of the informers; rigid virtue implied a tacit +censure of the irregularities of Commodus; important services implied a +dangerous superiority of merit; and the friendship of the father always +insured the aversion of the son. Suspicion was equivalent to proof; +trial to condemnation. The execution of a considerable senator was +attended with the death of all who might lament or revenge his fate; and +when Commodus had once tasted human blood, he became incapable of pity +or remorse. + +Of these innocent victims of tyranny, none died more lamented than the +two brothers of the Quintilian family, Maximus and Condianus; whose +fraternal love has saved their names from oblivion, and endeared their +memory to posterity. Their studies and their occupations, their pursuits +and their pleasures, were still the same. In the enjoyment of a great +estate, they never admitted the idea of a separate interest: some +fragments are now extant of a treatise which they composed in common; +and in every action of life it was observed that their two bodies were +animated by one soul. The Antonines, who valued their virtues, and +delighted in their union, raised them, in the same year, to the +consulship; and Marcus afterwards intrusted to their joint care the +civil administration of Greece, and a great military command, in which +they obtained a signal victory over the Germans. The kind cruelty of +Commodus united them in death. + +The tyrant's rage, after having shed the noblest blood of the senate, +at length recoiled on the principal instrument of his cruelty. Whilst +Commodus was immersed in blood and luxury, he devolved the detail of the +public business on Perennis, a servile and ambitious minister, who had +obtained his post by the murder of his predecessor, but who possessed a +considerable share of vigor and ability. By acts of extortion, and +the forfeited estates of the nobles sacrificed to his avarice, he had +accumulated an immense treasure. The Prætorian guards were under his +immediate command; and his son, who already discovered a military +genius, was at the head of the Illyrian legions. Perennis aspired to the +empire; or what, in the eyes of Commodus, amounted to the same crime, he +was capable of aspiring to it, had he not been prevented, surprised, and +put to death. The fall of a minister is a very trifling incident in the +general history of the empire; but it was hastened by an extraordinary +circumstance, which proved how much the nerves of discipline were +already relaxed. The legions of Britain, discontented with the +administration of Perennis, formed a deputation of fifteen hundred +select men, with instructions to march to Rome, and lay their complaints +before the emperor. These military petitioners, by their own determined +behaviour, by inflaming the divisions of the guards, by exaggerating +the strength of the British army, and by alarming the fears of Commodus, +exacted and obtained the minister's death, as the only redress of their +grievances. This presumption of a distant army, and their discovery +of the weakness of government, was a sure presage of the most dreadful +convulsions. + +The negligence of the public administration was betrayed, soon +afterwards, by a new disorder, which arose from the smallest beginnings. +A spirit of desertion began to prevail among the troops: and the +deserters, instead of seeking their safety in flight or concealment, +infested the highways. Maternus, a private soldier, of a daring boldness +above his station, collected these bands of robbers into a little army, +set open the prisons, invited the slaves to assert their freedom, and +plundered with impunity the rich and defenceless cities of Gaul and +Spain. The governors of the provinces, who had long been the spectators, +and perhaps the partners, of his depredations, were, at length, roused +from their supine indolence by the threatening commands of the emperor. +Maternus found that he was encompassed, and foresaw that he must be +overpowered. A great effort of despair was his last resource. He ordered +his followers to disperse, to pass the Alps in small parties and various +disguises, and to assemble at Rome, during the licentious tumult of the +festival of Cybele. To murder Commodus, and to ascend the vacant +throne, was the ambition of no vulgar robber. His measures were so ably +concerted that his concealed troops already filled the streets of +Rome. The envy of an accomplice discovered and ruined this singular +enterprise, in a moment when it was ripe for execution. + +Suspicious princes often promote the last of mankind, from a vain +persuasion, that those who have no dependence, except on their favor, +will have no attachment, except to the person of their benefactor. +Cleander, the successor of Perennis, was a Phrygian by birth; of +a nation over whose stubborn, but servile temper, blows only could +prevail. He had been sent from his native country to Rome, in the +capacity of a slave. As a slave he entered the Imperial palace, rendered +himself useful to his master's passions, and rapidly ascended to the +most exalted station which a subject could enjoy. His influence over +the mind of Commodus was much greater than that of his predecessor; for +Cleander was devoid of any ability or virtue which could inspire the +emperor with envy or distrust. Avarice was the reigning passion of his +soul, and the great principle of his administration. The rank of Consul, +of Patrician, of Senator, was exposed to public sale; and it would have +been considered as disaffection, if any one had refused to purchase +these empty and disgraceful honors with the greatest part of his +fortune. In the lucrative provincial employments, the minister shared +with the governor the spoils of the people. The execution of the laws +was penal and arbitrary. A wealthy criminal might obtain, not only the +reversal of the sentence by which he was justly condemned, but might +likewise inflict whatever punishment he pleased on the accuser, the +witnesses, and the judge. + +By these means, Cleander, in the space of three years, had accumulated +more wealth than had ever yet been possessed by any freedman. Commodus +was perfectly satisfied with the magnificent presents which the artful +courtier laid at his feet in the most seasonable moments. To divert +the public envy, Cleander, under the emperor's name, erected baths, +porticos, and places of exercise, for the use of the people. He +flattered himself that the Romans, dazzled and amused by this apparent +liberality, would be less affected by the bloody scenes which were daily +exhibited; that they would forget the death of Byrrhus, a senator to +whose superior merit the late emperor had granted one of his daughters; +and that they would forgive the execution of Arrius Antoninus, the last +representative of the name and virtues of the Antonines. The former, +with more integrity than prudence, had attempted to disclose, to his +brother-in-law, the true character of Cleander. An equitable sentence +pronounced by the latter, when proconsul of Asia, against a worthless +creature of the favorite, proved fatal to him. After the fall of +Perennis, the terrors of Commodus had, for a short time, assumed the +appearance of a return to virtue. He repealed the most odious of his +acts; loaded his memory with the public execration, and ascribed to +the pernicious counsels of that wicked minister all the errors of his +inexperienced youth. But his repentance lasted only thirty days; and, +under Cleander's tyranny, the administration of Perennis was often +regretted. + + + +Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.--Part II. + +Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure of the +calamities of Rome. The first could be only imputed to the just +indignation of the gods; but a monopoly of corn, supported by the riches +and power of the minister, was considered as the immediate cause of +the second. The popular discontent, after it had long circulated in +whispers, broke out in the assembled circus. The people quitted their +favorite amusements for the more delicious pleasure of revenge, +rushed in crowds towards a palace in the suburbs, one of the emperor's +retirements, and demanded, with angry clamors, the head of the public +enemy. Cleander, who commanded the Prætorian guards, ordered a body +of cavalry to sally forth, and disperse the seditious multitude. The +multitude fled with precipitation towards the city; several were slain, +and many more were trampled to death; but when the cavalry entered the +streets, their pursuit was checked by a shower of stones and darts from +the roofs and windows of the houses. The foot guards, who had been long +jealous of the prerogatives and insolence of the Prætorian cavalry, +embraced the party of the people. The tumult became a regular +engagement, and threatened a general massacre. The Prætorians, at +length, gave way, oppressed with numbers; and the tide of popular fury +returned with redoubled violence against the gates of the palace, where +Commodus lay, dissolved in luxury, and alone unconscious of the civil +war. It was death to approach his person with the unwelcome news. He +would have perished in this supine security, had not two women, his +eldest sister Fadilla, and Marcia, the most favored of his concubines, +ventured to break into his presence. Bathed in tears, and with +dishevelled hair, they threw themselves at his feet; and with all the +pressing eloquence of fear, discovered to the affrighted emperor the +crimes of the minister, the rage of the people, and the impending +ruin, which, in a few minutes, would burst over his palace and person. +Commodus started from his dream of pleasure, and commanded that the head +of Cleander should be thrown out to the people. The desired spectacle +instantly appeased the tumult; and the son of Marcus might even yet have +regained the affection and confidence of his subjects. + +But every sentiment of virtue and humanity was extinct in the mind of +Commodus. Whilst he thus abandoned the reins of empire to these unworthy +favorites, he valued nothing in sovereign power, except the unbounded +license of indulging his sensual appetites. His hours were spent in a +seraglio of three hundred beautiful women, and as many boys, of every +rank, and of every province; and, wherever the arts of seduction proved +ineffectual, the brutal lover had recourse to violence. The ancient +historians have expatiated on these abandoned scenes of prostitution, +which scorned every restraint of nature or modesty; but it would not be +easy to translate their too faithful descriptions into the decency of +modern language. The intervals of lust were filled up with the basest +amusements. The influence of a polite age, and the labor of an attentive +education, had never been able to infuse into his rude and brutish +mind the least tincture of learning; and he was the first of the Roman +emperors totally devoid of taste for the pleasures of the understanding. +Nero himself excelled, or affected to excel, in the elegant arts +of music and poetry: nor should we despise his pursuits, had he not +converted the pleasing relaxation of a leisure hour into the serious +business and ambition of his life. But Commodus, from his earliest +infancy, discovered an aversion to whatever was rational or liberal, and +a fond attachment to the amusements of the populace; the sports of the +circus and amphitheatre, the combats of gladiators, and the hunting +of wild beasts. The masters in every branch of learning, whom Marcus +provided for his son, were heard with inattention and disgust; whilst +the Moors and Parthians, who taught him to dart the javelin and to shoot +with the bow, found a disciple who delighted in his application, and +soon equalled the most skilful of his instructors in the steadiness of +the eye and the dexterity of the hand. + +The servile crowd, whose fortune depended on their master's vices, +applauded these ignoble pursuits. The perfidious voice of flattery +reminded him, that by exploits of the same nature, by the defeat of +the Nemæan lion, and the slaughter of the wild boar of Erymanthus, the +Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among the gods, and an immortal +memory among men. They only forgot to observe, that, in the first +ages of society, when the fiercer animals often dispute with man the +possession of an unsettled country, a successful war against those +savages is one of the most innocent and beneficial labors of heroism. In +the civilized state of the Roman empire, the wild beasts had long since +retired from the face of man, and the neighborhood of populous cities. +To surprise them in their solitary haunts, and to transport them to +Rome, that they might be slain in pomp by the hand of an emperor, was +an enterprise equally ridiculous for the prince and oppressive for the +people. Ignorant of these distinctions, Commodus eagerly embraced the +glorious resemblance, and styled himself (as we still read on his medals +) the Roman Hercules. * The club and the lion's hide were placed by the +side of the throne, amongst the ensigns of sovereignty; and statues were +erected, in which Commodus was represented in the character, and with +the attributes, of the god, whose valor and dexterity he endeavored to +emulate in the daily course of his ferocious amusements. + +Elated with these praises, which gradually extinguished the innate sense +of shame, Commodus resolved to exhibit before the eyes of the Roman +people those exercises, which till then he had decently confined within +the walls of his palace, and to the presence of a few favorites. On the +appointed day, the various motives of flattery, fear, and curiosity, +attracted to the amphitheatre an innumerable multitude of spectators; +and some degree of applause was deservedly bestowed on the uncommon +skill of the Imperial performer. Whether he aimed at the head or heart +of the animal, the wound was alike certain and mortal. With arrows whose +point was shaped into the form of crescent, Commodus often intercepted +the rapid career, and cut asunder the long, bony neck of the ostrich. A +panther was let loose; and the archer waited till he had leaped upon +a trembling malefactor. In the same instant the shaft flew, the beast +dropped dead, and the man remained unhurt. The dens of the amphitheatre +disgorged at once a hundred lions: a hundred darts from the unerring +hand of Commodus laid them dead as they run raging round the Arena. +Neither the huge bulk of the elephant, nor the scaly hide of the +rhinoceros, could defend them from his stroke. Æthiopia and India +yielded their most extraordinary productions; and several animals +were slain in the amphitheatre, which had been seen only in the +representations of art, or perhaps of fancy. In all these exhibitions, +the securest precautions were used to protect the person of the Roman +Hercules from the desperate spring of any savage, who might possibly +disregard the dignity of the emperor and the sanctity of the god. ^ + +But the meanest of the populace were affected with shame and indignation +when they beheld their sovereign enter the lists as a gladiator, and +glory in a profession which the laws and manners of the Romans had +branded with the justest note of infamy. He chose the habit and arms +of the Secutor, whose combat with the Retiarius formed one of the most +lively scenes in the bloody sports of the amphitheatre. The Secutor was +armed with a helmet, sword, and buckler; his naked antagonist had only +a large net and a trident; with the one he endeavored to entangle, with +the other to despatch his enemy. If he missed the first throw, he was +obliged to fly from the pursuit of the Secutor, till he had prepared +his net for a second cast. The emperor fought in this character seven +hundred and thirty-five several times. These glorious achievements were +carefully recorded in the public acts of the empire; and that he might +omit no circumstance of infamy, he received from the common fund +of gladiators a stipend so exorbitant that it became a new and most +ignominious tax upon the Roman people. It may be easily supposed, that +in these engagements the master of the world was always successful; in +the amphitheatre, his victories were not often sanguinary; but when he +exercised his skill in the school of gladiators, or his own palace, his +wretched antagonists were frequently honored with a mortal wound from +the hand of Commodus, and obliged to seal their flattery with their +blood. He now disdained the appellation of Hercules. The name of Paulus, +a celebrated Secutor, was the only one which delighted his ear. It +was inscribed on his colossal statues, and repeated in the redoubled +acclamations of the mournful and applauding senate. Claudius Pompeianus, +the virtuous husband of Lucilla, was the only senator who asserted the +honor of his rank. As a father, he permitted his sons to consult their +safety by attending the amphitheatre. As a Roman, he declared, that his +own life was in the emperor's hands, but that he would never behold the +son of Marcus prostituting his person and dignity. Notwithstanding his +manly resolution Pompeianus escaped the resentment of the tyrant, and, +with his honor, had the good fortune to preserve his life. + +Commodus had now attained the summit of vice and infamy. Amidst the +acclamations of a flattering court, he was unable to disguise from +himself, that he had deserved the contempt and hatred of every man of +sense and virtue in his empire. His ferocious spirit was irritated by +the consciousness of that hatred, by the envy of every kind of merit, by +the just apprehension of danger, and by the habit of slaughter, which he +contracted in his daily amusements. History has preserved a long list of +consular senators sacrificed to his wanton suspicion, which sought out, +with peculiar anxiety, those unfortunate persons connected, however +remotely, with the family of the Antonines, without sparing even the +ministers of his crimes or pleasures. His cruelty proved at last fatal +to himself. He had shed with impunity the noblest blood of Rome: he +perished as soon as he was dreaded by his own domestics. Marcia, his +favorite concubine, Eclectus, his chamberlain, and Lætus, his Prætorian +præfect, alarmed by the fate of their companions and predecessors, +resolved to prevent the destruction which every hour hung over their +heads, either from the mad caprice of the tyrant, * or the sudden +indignation of the people. Marcia seized the occasion of presenting a +draught of wine to her lover, after he had fatigued himself with hunting +some wild beasts. Commodus retired to sleep; but whilst he was +laboring with the effects of poison and drunkenness, a robust youth, by +profession a wrestler, entered his chamber, and strangled him without +resistance. The body was secretly conveyed out of the palace, before the +least suspicion was entertained in the city, or even in the court, of +the emperor's death. Such was the fate of the son of Marcus, and so +easy was it to destroy a hated tyrant, who, by the artificial powers of +government, had oppressed, during thirteen years, so many millions of +subjects, each of whom was equal to their master in personal strength +and personal abilities. + +The measures of the conspirators were conducted with the deliberate +coolness and celerity which the greatness of the occasion required. +They resolved instantly to fill the vacant throne with an emperor whose +character would justify and maintain the action that had been committed. +They fixed on Pertinax, præfect of the city, an ancient senator of +consular rank, whose conspicuous merit had broke through the obscurity +of his birth, and raised him to the first honors of the state. He had +successively governed most of the provinces of the empire; and in all +his great employments, military as well as civil, he had uniformly +distinguished himself by the firmness, the prudence, and the integrity +of his conduct. He now remained almost alone of the friends and +ministers of Marcus; and when, at a late hour of the night, he was +awakened with the news, that the chamberlain and the præfect were at his +door, he received them with intrepid resignation, and desired they would +execute their master's orders. Instead of death, they offered him the +throne of the Roman world. During some moments he distrusted their +intentions and assurances. Convinced at length of the death of Commodus, +he accepted the purple with a sincere reluctance, the natural effect of +his knowledge both of the duties and of the dangers of the supreme rank. + +Lætus conducted without delay his new emperor to the camp of the +Prætorians, diffusing at the same time through the city a seasonable +report that Commodus died suddenly of an apoplexy; and that the virtuous +Pertinax had already succeeded to the throne. The guards were rather +surprised than pleased with the suspicious death of a prince, whose +indulgence and liberality they alone had experienced; but the emergency +of the occasion, the authority of their præfect, the reputation of +Pertinax, and the clamors of the people, obliged them to stifle their +secret discontents, to accept the donative promised by the new emperor, +to swear allegiance to him, and with joyful acclamations and laurels +in their hands to conduct him to the senate house, that the military +consent might be ratified by the civil authority. + +This important night was now far spent; with the dawn of day, and the +commencement of the new year, the senators expected a summons to attend +an ignominious ceremony. * In spite of all remonstrances, even of those +of his creatures who yet preserved any regard for prudence or decency, +Commodus had resolved to pass the night in the gladiators' school, and +from thence to take possession of the consulship, in the habit and with +the attendance of that infamous crew. On a sudden, before the break of +day, the senate was called together in the temple of Concord, to meet +the guards, and to ratify the election of a new emperor. For a few +minutes they sat in silent suspense, doubtful of their unexpected +deliverance, and suspicious of the cruel artifices of Commodus: but when +at length they were assured that the tyrant was no more, they resigned +themselves to all the transports of joy and indignation. Pertinax, who +modestly represented the meanness of his extraction, and pointed out +several noble senators more deserving than himself of the empire, was +constrained by their dutiful violence to ascend the throne, and received +all the titles of Imperial power, confirmed by the most sincere vows of +fidelity. The memory of Commodus was branded with eternal infamy. The +names of tyrant, of gladiator, of public enemy resounded in every corner +of the house. They decreed in tumultuous votes, that his honors should +be reversed, his titles erased from the public monuments, his statues +thrown down, his body dragged with a hook into the stripping room of +the gladiators, to satiate the public fury; and they expressed some +indignation against those officious servants who had already presumed +to screen his remains from the justice of the senate. But Pertinax could +not refuse those last rites to the memory of Marcus, and the tears of +his first protector Claudius Pompeianus, who lamented the cruel fate of +his brother-in-law, and lamented still more that he had deserved it. + +These effusions of impotent rage against a dead emperor, whom the senate +had flattered when alive with the most abject servility, betrayed a just +but ungenerous spirit of revenge. The legality of these decrees was, +however, supported by the principles of the Imperial constitution. To +censure, to depose, or to punish with death, the first magistrate of +the republic, who had abused his delegated trust, was the ancient and +undoubted prerogative of the Roman senate; but the feeble assembly was +obliged to content itself with inflicting on a fallen tyrant that public +justice, from which, during his life and reign, he had been shielded by +the strong arm of military despotism. * + +Pertinax found a nobler way of condemning his predecessor's memory; by +the contrast of his own virtues with the vices of Commodus. On the day +of his accession, he resigned over to his wife and son his whole private +fortune; that they might have no pretence to solicit favors at the +expense of the state. He refused to flatter the vanity of the former +with the title of Augusta; or to corrupt the inexperienced youth of +the latter by the rank of Cæsar. Accurately distinguishing between the +duties of a parent and those of a sovereign, he educated his son with a +severe simplicity, which, while it gave him no assured prospect of the +throne, might in time have rendered him worthy of it. In public, the +behavior of Pertinax was grave and affable. He lived with the virtuous +part of the senate, (and, in a private station, he had been acquainted +with the true character of each individual,) without either pride or +jealousy; considered them as friends and companions, with whom he had +shared the danger of the tyranny, and with whom he wished to enjoy +the security of the present time. He very frequently invited them to +familiar entertainments, the frugality of which was ridiculed by those +who remembered and regretted the luxurious prodigality of Commodus. + +To heal, as far as it was possible, the wounds inflicted by the hand +of tyranny, was the pleasing, but melancholy, task of Pertinax. The +innocent victims, who yet survived, were recalled from exile, released +from prison, and restored to the full possession of their honors and +fortunes. The unburied bodies of murdered senators (for the cruelty of +Commodus endeavored to extend itself beyond death) were deposited in +the sepulchres of their ancestors; their memory was justified and every +consolation was bestowed on their ruined and afflicted families. Among +these consolations, one of the most grateful was the punishment of the +Delators; the common enemies of their master, of virtue, and of their +country. Yet even in the inquisition of these legal assassins, Pertinax +proceeded with a steady temper, which gave every thing to justice, and +nothing to popular prejudice and resentment. + +The finances of the state demanded the most vigilant care of the +emperor. Though every measure of injustice and extortion had been +adopted, which could collect the property of the subject into the +coffers of the prince, the rapaciousness of Commodus had been so very +inadequate to his extravagance, that, upon his death, no more than eight +thousand pounds were found in the exhausted treasury, to defray the +current expenses of government, and to discharge the pressing demand of +a liberal donative, which the new emperor had been obliged to promise to +the Prætorian guards. Yet under these distressed circumstances, Pertinax +had the generous firmness to remit all the oppressive taxes invented +by Commodus, and to cancel all the unjust claims of the treasury; +declaring, in a decree of the senate, "that he was better satisfied to +administer a poor republic with innocence, than to acquire riches by the +ways of tyranny and dishonor. "Economy and industry he considered as +the pure and genuine sources of wealth; and from them he soon derived a +copious supply for the public necessities. The expense of the household +was immediately reduced to one half. All the instruments of luxury +Pertinax exposed to public auction, gold and silver plate, chariots of +a singular construction, a superfluous wardrobe of silk and embroidery, +and a great number of beautiful slaves of both sexes; excepting only, +with attentive humanity, those who were born in a state of freedom, and +had been ravished from the arms of their weeping parents. At the same +time that he obliged the worthless favorites of the tyrant to resign a +part of their ill-gotten wealth, he satisfied the just creditors of the +state, and unexpectedly discharged the long arrears of honest services. +He removed the oppressive restrictions which had been laid upon +commerce, and granted all the uncultivated lands in Italy and the +provinces to those who would improve them; with an exemption from +tribute during the term of ten years. + +Such a uniform conduct had already secured to Pertinax the noblest +reward of a sovereign, the love and esteem of his people. Those who +remembered the virtues of Marcus were happy to contemplate in their new +emperor the features of that bright original; and flattered themselves, +that they should long enjoy the benign influence of his administration. +A hasty zeal to reform the corrupted state, accompanied with less +prudence than might have been expected from the years and experience +of Pertinax, proved fatal to himself and to his country. His honest +indiscretion united against him the servile crowd, who found their +private benefit in the public disorders, and who preferred the favor of +a tyrant to the inexorable equality of the laws. + +Amidst the general joy, the sullen and angry countenance of the +Prætorian guards betrayed their inward dissatisfaction. They had +reluctantly submitted to Pertinax; they dreaded the strictness of +the ancient discipline, which he was preparing to restore; and they +regretted the license of the former reign. Their discontents were +secretly fomented by Lætus, their præfect, who found, when it was too +late, that his new emperor would reward a servant, but would not be +ruled by a favorite. On the third day of his reign, the soldiers seized +on a noble senator, with a design to carry him to the camp, and to +invest him with the Imperial purple. Instead of being dazzled by the +dangerous honor, the affrighted victim escaped from their violence, and +took refuge at the feet of Pertinax. A short time afterwards, Sosius +Falco, one of the consuls of the year, a rash youth, but of an ancient +and opulent family, listened to the voice of ambition; and a conspiracy +was formed during a short absence of Pertinax, which was crushed by his +sudden return to Rome, and his resolute behavior. Falco was on the point +of being justly condemned to death as a public enemy had he not been +saved by the earnest and sincere entreaties of the injured emperor, who +conjured the senate, that the purity of his reign might not be stained +by the blood even of a guilty senator. + +These disappointments served only to irritate the rage of the Prætorian +guards. On the twenty-eighth of March, eighty-six days only after the +death of Commodus, a general sedition broke out in the camp, which the +officers wanted either power or inclination to suppress. Two or three +hundred of the most desperate soldiers marched at noonday, with arms in +their hands and fury in their looks, towards the Imperial palace. +The gates were thrown open by their companions upon guard, and by the +domestics of the old court, who had already formed a secret conspiracy +against the life of the too virtuous emperor. On the news of their +approach, Pertinax, disdaining either flight or concealment, advanced to +meet his assassins; and recalled to their minds his own innocence, +and the sanctity of their recent oath. For a few moments they stood +in silent suspense, ashamed of their atrocious design, and awed by +the venerable aspect and majestic firmness of their sovereign, till at +length, the despair of pardon reviving their fury, a barbarian of the +country of Tongress levelled the first blow against Pertinax, who was +instantly despatched with a multitude of wounds. His head, separated +from his body, and placed on a lance, was carried in triumph to the +Prætorian camp, in the sight of a mournful and indignant people, who +lamented the unworthy fate of that excellent prince, and the transient +blessings of a reign, the memory of which could serve only to aggravate +their approaching misfortunes. + + + +Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.--Part I. + + Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The + Prætorian Guards--Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius + Niger In Syria, And Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare + Against The Murderers Of Pertinax--Civil Wars And Victory Of + Severus Over His Three Rivals--Relaxation Of Discipline--New + Maxims Of Government. + +The power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive monarchy, +than in a small community. It has been calculated by the ablest +politicians, that no state, without being soon exhausted, can maintain +above the hundredth part of its members in arms and idleness. But +although this relative proportion may be uniform, the influence of the +army over the rest of the society will vary according to the degree of +its positive strength. The advantages of military science and discipline +cannot be exerted, unless a proper number of soldiers are united into +one body, and actuated by one soul. With a handful of men, such a union +would be ineffectual; with an unwieldy host, it would be impracticable; +and the powers of the machine would be alike destroyed by the extreme +minuteness or the excessive weight of its springs. To illustrate this +observation, we need only reflect, that there is no superiority of +natural strength, artificial weapons, or acquired skill, which could +enable one man to keep in constant subjection one hundred of his +fellow-creatures: the tyrant of a single town, or a small district, +would soon discover that a hundred armed followers were a weak defence +against ten thousand peasants or citizens; but a hundred thousand +well-disciplined soldiers will command, with despotic sway, ten millions +of subjects; and a body of ten or fifteen thousand guards will strike +terror into the most numerous populace that ever crowded the streets of +an immense capital. + +The Prætorian bands, whose licentious fury was the first symptom and +cause of the decline of the Roman empire, scarcely amounted to the +last-mentioned number They derived their institution from Augustus. That +crafty tyrant, sensible that laws might color, but that arms alone could +maintain, his usurped dominion, had gradually formed this powerful +body of guards, in constant readiness to protect his person, to awe +the senate, and either to prevent or to crush the first motions of +rebellion. He distinguished these favored troops by a double pay and +superior privileges; but, as their formidable aspect would at once +have alarmed and irritated the Roman people, three cohorts only were +stationed in the capital, whilst the remainder was dispersed in the +adjacent towns of Italy. But after fifty years of peace and servitude, +Tiberius ventured on a decisive measure, which forever rivetted the +fetters of his country. Under the fair pretences of relieving Italy from +the heavy burden of military quarters, and of introducing a stricter +discipline among the guards, he assembled them at Rome, in a permanent +camp, which was fortified with skilful care, and placed on a commanding +situation. + +Such formidable servants are always necessary, but often fatal to the +throne of despotism. By thus introducing the Prætorian guards as it were +into the palace and the senate, the emperors taught them to perceive +their own strength, and the weakness of the civil government; to view +the vices of their masters with familiar contempt, and to lay aside that +reverential awe, which distance only, and mystery, can preserve towards +an imaginary power. In the luxurious idleness of an opulent city, their +pride was nourished by the sense of their irresistible weight; nor was +it possible to conceal from them, that the person of the sovereign, the +authority of the senate, the public treasure, and the seat of empire, +were all in their hands. To divert the Prætorian bands from these +dangerous reflections, the firmest and best established princes were +obliged to mix blandishments with commands, rewards with punishments, +to flatter their pride, indulge their pleasures, connive at their +irregularities, and to purchase their precarious faith by a liberal +donative; which, since the elevation of Claudius, was enacted as a legal +claim, on the accession of every new emperor. + +The advocate of the guards endeavored to justify by arguments the power +which they asserted by arms; and to maintain that, according to the +purest principles of the constitution, their consent was essentially +necessary in the appointment of an emperor. The election of consuls, of +generals, and of magistrates, however it had been recently usurped by +the senate, was the ancient and undoubted right of the Roman people. +But where was the Roman people to be found? Not surely amongst the mixed +multitude of slaves and strangers that filled the streets of Rome; a +servile populace, as devoid of spirit as destitute of property. The +defenders of the state, selected from the flower of the Italian youth, +and trained in the exercise of arms and virtue, were the genuine +representatives of the people, and the best entitled to elect the +military chief of the republic. These assertions, however defective in +reason, became unanswerable when the fierce Prætorians increased their +weight, by throwing, like the barbarian conqueror of Rome, their swords +into the scale. + +The Prætorians had violated the sanctity of the throne by the atrocious +murder of Pertinax; they dishonored the majesty of it by their +subsequent conduct. The camp was without a leader, for even the præfect +Lætus, who had excited the tempest, prudently declined the public +indignation. Amidst the wild disorder, Sulpicianus, the emperor's +father-in-law, and governor of the city, who had been sent to the camp +on the first alarm of mutiny, was endeavoring to calm the fury of +the multitude, when he was silenced by the clamorous return of the +murderers, bearing on a lance the head of Pertinax. Though history has +accustomed us to observe every principle and every passion yielding to +the imperious dictates of ambition, it is scarcely credible that, in +these moments of horror, Sulpicianus should have aspired to ascend +a throne polluted with the recent blood of so near a relation and so +excellent a prince. He had already begun to use the only effectual +argument, and to treat for the Imperial dignity; but the more prudent of +the Prætorians, apprehensive that, in this private contract, they should +not obtain a just price for so valuable a commodity, ran out upon the +ramparts; and, with a loud voice, proclaimed that the Roman world was to +be disposed of to the best bidder by public auction. + +This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military license, +diffused a universal grief, shame, and indignation throughout the city. +It reached at length the ears of Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator, +who, regardless of the public calamities, was indulging himself in the +luxury of the table. His wife and his daughter, his freedmen and +his parasites, easily convinced him that he deserved the throne, and +earnestly conjured him to embrace so fortunate an opportunity. The vain +old man hastened to the Prætorian camp, where Sulpicianus was still in +treaty with the guards, and began to bid against him from the foot +of the rampart. The unworthy negotiation was transacted by faithful +emissaries, who passed alternately from one candidate to the other, and +acquainted each of them with the offers of his rival. Sulpicianus had +already promised a donative of five thousand drachms (above one hundred +and sixty pounds) to each soldier; when Julian, eager for the prize, +rose at once to the sum of six thousand two hundred and fifty drachms, +or upwards of two hundred pounds sterling. The gates of the camp were +instantly thrown open to the purchaser; he was declared emperor, and +received an oath of allegiance from the soldiers, who retained humanity +enough to stipulate that he should pardon and forget the competition of +Sulpicianus. * + +It was now incumbent on the Prætorians to fulfil the conditions of the +sale. They placed their new sovereign, whom they served and despised, +in the centre of their ranks, surrounded him on every side with their +shields, and conducted him in close order of battle through the deserted +streets of the city. The senate was commanded to assemble; and those who +had been the distinguished friends of Pertinax, or the personal enemies +of Julian, found it necessary to affect a more than common share of +satisfaction at this happy revolution. After Julian had filled the +senate house with armed soldiers, he expatiated on the freedom of +his election, his own eminent virtues, and his full assurance of the +affections of the senate. The obsequious assembly congratulated their +own and the public felicity; engaged their allegiance, and conferred +on him all the several branches of the Imperial power. From the +senate Julian was conducted, by the same military procession, to take +possession of the palace. The first objects that struck his eyes, were +the abandoned trunk of Pertinax, and the frugal entertainment prepared +for his supper. The one he viewed with indifference, the other with +contempt. A magnificent feast was prepared by his order, and he amused +himself, till a very late hour, with dice, and the performances of +Pylades, a celebrated dancer. Yet it was observed, that after the +crowd of flatterers dispersed, and left him to darkness, solitude, +and terrible reflection, he passed a sleepless night; revolving most +probably in his mind his own rash folly, the fate of his virtuous +predecessor, and the doubtful and dangerous tenure of an empire which +had not been acquired by merit, but purchased by money. + +He had reason to tremble. On the throne of the world he found himself +without a friend, and even without an adherent. The guards themselves +were ashamed of the prince whom their avarice had persuaded them to +accept; nor was there a citizen who did not consider his elevation +with horror, as the last insult on the Roman name. The nobility, whose +conspicuous station, and ample possessions, exacted the strictest +caution, dissembled their sentiments, and met the affected civility of +the emperor with smiles of complacency and professions of duty. But the +people, secure in their numbers and obscurity, gave a free vent to their +passions. The streets and public places of Rome resounded with clamors +and imprecations. The enraged multitude affronted the person of Julian, +rejected his liberality, and, conscious of the impotence of their own +resentment, they called aloud on the legions of the frontiers to assert +the violated majesty of the Roman empire. + +The public discontent was soon diffused from the centre to the frontiers +of the empire. The armies of Britain, of Syria, and of Illyricum, +lamented the death of Pertinax, in whose company, or under whose +command, they had so often fought and conquered. They received with +surprise, with indignation, and perhaps with envy, the extraordinary +intelligence, that the Prætorians had disposed of the empire by public +auction; and they sternly refused to ratify the ignominious bargain. +Their immediate and unanimous revolt was fatal to Julian, but it was +fatal at the same time to the public peace, as the generals of the +respective armies, Clodius Albinus, Pescennius Niger, and Septimius +Severus, were still more anxious to succeed than to revenge the murdered +Pertinax. Their forces were exactly balanced. Each of them was at the +head of three legions, with a numerous train of auxiliaries; and however +different in their characters, they were all soldiers of experience and +capacity. + +Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain, surpassed both his competitors in +the nobility of his extraction, which he derived from some of the most +illustrious names of the old republic. But the branch from which he +claimed his descent was sunk into mean circumstances, and transplanted +into a remote province. It is difficult to form a just idea of his true +character. Under the philosophic cloak of austerity, he stands accused +of concealing most of the vices which degrade human nature. But his +accusers are those venal writers who adored the fortune of Severus, +and trampled on the ashes of an unsuccessful rival. Virtue, or the +appearances of virtue, recommended Albinus to the confidence and good +opinion of Marcus; and his preserving with the son the same interest +which he had acquired with the father, is a proof at least that he was +possessed of a very flexible disposition. The favor of a tyrant does +not always suppose a want of merit in the object of it; he may, without +intending it, reward a man of worth and ability, or he may find such a +man useful to his own service. It does not appear that Albinus served +the son of Marcus, either as the minister of his cruelties, or even as +the associate of his pleasures. He was employed in a distant honorable +command, when he received a confidential letter from the emperor, +acquainting him of the treasonable designs of some discontented +generals, and authorizing him to declare himself the guardian and +successor of the throne, by assuming the title and ensigns of Cæsar. +The governor of Britain wisely declined the dangerous honor, which would +have marked him for the jealousy, or involved him in the approaching +ruin, of Commodus. He courted power by nobler, or, at least, by more +specious arts. On a premature report of the death of the emperor, +he assembled his troops; and, in an eloquent discourse, deplored the +inevitable mischiefs of despotism, described the happiness and glory +which their ancestors had enjoyed under the consular government, and +declared his firm resolution to reinstate the senate and people in +their legal authority. This popular harangue was answered by the loud +acclamations of the British legions, and received at Rome with a secret +murmur of applause. Safe in the possession of his little world, and in +the command of an army less distinguished indeed for discipline than for +numbers and valor, Albinus braved the menaces of Commodus, maintained +towards Pertinax a stately ambiguous reserve, and instantly declared +against the usurpation of Julian. The convulsions of the capital +added new weight to his sentiments, or rather to his professions of +patriotism. A regard to decency induced him to decline the lofty titles +of Augustus and Emperor; and he imitated perhaps the example of Galba, +who, on a similar occasion, had styled himself the Lieutenant of the +senate and people. + +Personal merit alone had raised Pescennius Niger, from an obscure birth +and station, to the government of Syria; a lucrative and important +command, which in times of civil confusion gave him a near prospect of +the throne. Yet his parts seem to have been better suited to the second +than to the first rank; he was an unequal rival, though he might have +approved himself an excellent lieutenant, to Severus, who afterwards +displayed the greatness of his mind by adopting several useful +institutions from a vanquished enemy. In his government Niger acquired +the esteem of the soldiers and the love of the provincials. His rigid +discipline fortified the valor and confirmed the obedience of the +former, whilst the voluptuous Syrians were less delighted with the mild +firmness of his administration, than with the affability of his manners, +and the apparent pleasure with which he attended their frequent and +pompous festivals. As soon as the intelligence of the atrocious murder +of Pertinax had reached Antioch, the wishes of Asia invited Niger to +assume the Imperial purple and revenge his death. The legions of the +eastern frontier embraced his cause; the opulent but unarmed provinces, +from the frontiers of Æthiopia to the Hadriatic, cheerfully submitted +to his power; and the kings beyond the Tigris and the Euphrates +congratulated his election, and offered him their homage and services. +The mind of Niger was not capable of receiving this sudden tide of +fortune: he flattered himself that his accession would be undisturbed by +competition and unstained by civil blood; and whilst he enjoyed the vain +pomp of triumph, he neglected to secure the means of victory. Instead of +entering into an effectual negotiation with the powerful armies of +the West, whose resolution might decide, or at least must balance, the +mighty contest; instead of advancing without delay towards Rome and +Italy, where his presence was impatiently expected, Niger trifled +away in the luxury of Antioch those irretrievable moments which were +diligently improved by the decisive activity of Severus. + +The country of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which occupied the space between +the Danube and the Hadriatic, was one of the last and most difficult +conquests of the Romans. In the defence of national freedom, two hundred +thousand of these barbarians had once appeared in the field, alarmed +the declining age of Augustus, and exercised the vigilant prudence +of Tiberius at the head of the collected force of the empire. The +Pannonians yielded at length to the arms and institutions of Rome. Their +recent subjection, however, the neighborhood, and even the mixture, of +the unconquered tribes, and perhaps the climate, adapted, as it has +been observed, to the production of great bodies and slow minds, all +contributed to preserve some remains of their original ferocity, and +under the tame and uniform countenance of Roman provincials, the hardy +features of the natives were still to be discerned. Their warlike youth +afforded an inexhaustible supply of recruits to the legions stationed on +the banks of the Danube, and which, from a perpetual warfare against the +Germans and Sarmazans, were deservedly esteemed the best troops in the +service. + +The Pannonian army was at this time commanded by Septimius Severus, +a native of Africa, who, in the gradual ascent of private honors, had +concealed his daring ambition, which was never diverted from its steady +course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or +the feelings of humanity. On the first news of the murder of Pertinax, +he assembled his troops, painted in the most lively colors the crime, +the insolence, and the weakness of the Prætorian guards, and animated +the legions to arms and to revenge. He concluded (and the peroration +was thought extremely eloquent) with promising every soldier about four +hundred pounds; an honorable donative, double in value to the infamous +bribe with which Julian had purchased the empire. The acclamations +of the army immediately saluted Severus with the names of Augustus, +Pertinax, and Emperor; and he thus attained the lofty station to which +he was invited, by conscious merit and a long train of dreams and omens, +the fruitful offsprings either of his superstition or policy. + +The new candidate for empire saw and improved the peculiar advantage of +his situation. His province extended to the Julian Alps, which gave an +easy access into Italy; and he remembered the saying of Augustus, That a +Pannonian army might in ten days appear in sight of Rome. By a celerity +proportioned to the greatness of the occasion, he might reasonably hope +to revenge Pertinax, punish Julian, and receive the homage of the senate +and people, as their lawful emperor, before his competitors, separated +from Italy by an immense tract of sea and land, were apprised of his +success, or even of his election. During the whole expedition, he +scarcely allowed himself any moments for sleep or food; marching on +foot, and in complete armor, at the head of his columns, he insinuated +himself into the confidence and affection of his troops, pressed their +diligence, revived their spirits, animated their hopes, and was well +satisfied to share the hardships of the meanest soldier, whilst he kept +in view the infinite superiority of his reward. + +The wretched Julian had expected, and thought himself prepared, to +dispute the empire with the governor of Syria; but in the invincible and +rapid approach of the Pannonian legions, he saw his inevitable ruin. The +hasty arrival of every messenger increased his just apprehensions. He +was successively informed, that Severus had passed the Alps; that the +Italian cities, unwilling or unable to oppose his progress, had received +him with the warmest professions of joy and duty; that the important +place of Ravenna had surrendered without resistance, and that the +Hadriatic fleet was in the hands of the conqueror. The enemy was now +within two hundred and fifty miles of Rome; and every moment diminished +the narrow span of life and empire allotted to Julian. + +He attempted, however, to prevent, or at least to protract, his ruin. +He implored the venal faith of the Prætorians, filled the city with +unavailing preparations for war, drew lines round the suburbs, and +even strengthened the fortifications of the palace; as if those last +intrenchments could be defended, without hope of relief, against a +victorious invader. Fear and shame prevented the guards from deserting +his standard; but they trembled at the name of the Pannonian legions, +commanded by an experienced general, and accustomed to vanquish +the barbarians on the frozen Danube. They quitted, with a sigh, the +pleasures of the baths and theatres, to put on arms, whose use they had +almost forgotten, and beneath the weight of which they were oppressed. +The unpractised elephants, whose uncouth appearance, it was hoped, would +strike terror into the army of the north, threw their unskilful riders; +and the awkward evolutions of the marines, drawn from the fleet of +Misenum, were an object of ridicule to the populace; whilst the senate +enjoyed, with secret pleasure, the distress and weakness of the usurper. + +Every motion of Julian betrayed his trembling perplexity. He insisted +that Severus should be declared a public enemy by the senate. He +entreated that the Pannonian general might be associated to the empire. +He sent public ambassadors of consular rank to negotiate with his rival; +he despatched private assassins to take away his life. He designed that +the Vestal virgins, and all the colleges of priests, in their sacerdotal +habits, and bearing before them the sacred pledges of the Roman +religion, should advance in solemn procession to meet the Pannonian +legions; and, at the same time, he vainly tried to interrogate, or to +appease, the fates, by magic ceremonies and unlawful sacrifices. + + + +Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.--Part II. + +Severus, who dreaded neither his arms nor his enchantments, guarded +himself from the only danger of secret conspiracy, by the faithful +attendance of six hundred chosen men, who never quitted his person or +their cuirasses, either by night or by day, during the whole march. +Advancing with a steady and rapid course, he passed, without difficulty, +the defiles of the Apennine, received into his party the troops and +ambassadors sent to retard his progress, and made a short halt at +Interamnia, about seventy miles from Rome. His victory was already +secure, but the despair of the Prætorians might have rendered it bloody; +and Severus had the laudable ambition of ascending the throne without +drawing the sword. His emissaries, dispersed in the capital, assured the +guards, that provided they would abandon their worthless prince, and the +perpetrators of the murder of Pertinax, to the justice of the conqueror, +he would no longer consider that melancholy event as the act of the +whole body. The faithless Prætorians, whose resistance was supported +only by sullen obstinacy, gladly complied with the easy conditions, +seized the greatest part of the assassins, and signified to the senate, +that they no longer defended the cause of Julian. That assembly, +convoked by the consul, unanimously acknowledged Severus as lawful +emperor, decreed divine honors to Pertinax, and pronounced a sentence +of deposition and death against his unfortunate successor. Julian was +conducted into a private apartment of the baths of the palace, and +beheaded as a common criminal, after having purchased, with an immense +treasure, an anxious and precarious reign of only sixty-six days. The +almost incredible expedition of Severus, who, in so short a space of +time, conducted a numerous army from the banks of the Danube to those +of the Tyber, proves at once the plenty of provisions produced by +agriculture and commerce, the goodness of the roads, the discipline of +the legions, and the indolent, subdued temper of the provinces. + +The first cares of Severus were bestowed on two measures the one +dictated by policy, the other by decency; the revenge, and the honors, +due to the memory of Pertinax. Before the new emperor entered Rome, he +issued his commands to the Prætorian guards, directing them to wait his +arrival on a large plain near the city, without arms, but in the habits +of ceremony, in which they were accustomed to attend their sovereign. He +was obeyed by those haughty troops, whose contrition was the effect of +their just terrors. A chosen part of the Illyrian army encompassed them +with levelled spears. Incapable of flight or resistance, they expected +their fate in silent consternation. Severus mounted the tribunal, +sternly reproached them with perfidy and cowardice, dismissed them with +ignominy from the trust which they had betrayed, despoiled them of their +splendid ornaments, and banished them, on pain of death, to the distance +of a hundred miles from the capital. During the transaction, another +detachment had been sent to seize their arms, occupy their camp, and +prevent the hasty consequences of their despair. + +The funeral and consecration of Pertinax was next solemnized with +every circumstance of sad magnificence. The senate, with a melancholy +pleasure, performed the last rites to that excellent prince, whom +they had loved, and still regretted. The concern of his successor was +probably less sincere; he esteemed the virtues of Pertinax, but those +virtues would forever have confined his ambition to a private station. +Severus pronounced his funeral oration with studied eloquence, inward +satisfaction, and well-acted sorrow; and by this pious regard to his +memory, convinced the credulous multitude, that he alone was worthy to +supply his place. Sensible, however, that arms, not ceremonies, must +assert his claim to the empire, he left Rome at the end of thirty +days, and without suffering himself to be elated by this easy victory, +prepared to encounter his more formidable rivals. + +The uncommon abilities and fortune of Severus have induced an elegant +historian to compare him with the first and greatest of the Cæsars. The +parallel is, at least, imperfect. Where shall we find, in the character +of Severus, the commanding superiority of soul, the generous clemency, +and the various genius, which could reconcile and unite the love of +pleasure, the thirst of knowledge, and the fire of ambition? In one +instance only, they may be compared, with some degree of propriety, in +the celerity of their motions, and their civil victories. In less than +four years, Severus subdued the riches of the East, and the valor of +the West. He vanquished two competitors of reputation and ability, and +defeated numerous armies, provided with weapons and discipline equal to +his own. In that age, the art of fortification, and the principles +of tactics, were well understood by all the Roman generals; and the +constant superiority of Severus was that of an artist, who uses the same +instruments with more skill and industry than his rivals. I shall not, +however, enter into a minute narrative of these military operations; but +as the two civil wars against Niger and against Albinus were almost the +same in their conduct, event, and consequences, I shall collect into one +point of view the most striking circumstances, tending to develop the +character of the conqueror and the state of the empire. + +Falsehood and insincerity, unsuitable as they seem to the dignity of +public transactions, offend us with a less degrading idea of meanness, +than when they are found in the intercourse of private life. In the +latter, they discover a want of courage; in the other, only a defect of +power: and, as it is impossible for the most able statesmen to subdue +millions of followers and enemies by their own personal strength, the +world, under the name of policy, seems to have granted them a very +liberal indulgence of craft and dissimulation. Yet the arts of Severus +cannot be justified by the most ample privileges of state reason. He +promised only to betray, he flattered only to ruin; and however he +might occasionally bind himself by oaths and treaties, his conscience, +obsequious to his interest, always released him from the inconvenient +obligation. + +If his two competitors, reconciled by their common danger, had advanced +upon him without delay, perhaps Severus would have sunk under their +united effort. Had they even attacked him, at the same time, with +separate views and separate armies, the contest might have been long and +doubtful. But they fell, singly and successively, an easy prey to the +arts as well as arms of their subtle enemy, lulled into security by the +moderation of his professions, and overwhelmed by the rapidity of his +action. He first marched against Niger, whose reputation and power he +the most dreaded: but he declined any hostile declarations, suppressed +the name of his antagonist, and only signified to the senate and people +his intention of regulating the eastern provinces. In private, he +spoke of Niger, his old friend and intended successor, with the most +affectionate regard, and highly applauded his generous design of +revenging the murder of Pertinax. To punish the vile usurper of the +throne, was the duty of every Roman general. To persevere in arms, and +to resist a lawful emperor, acknowledged by the senate, would alone +render him criminal. The sons of Niger had fallen into his hands among +the children of the provincial governors, detained at Rome as pledges +for the loyalty of their parents. As long as the power of Niger inspired +terror, or even respect, they were educated with the most tender care, +with the children of Severus himself; but they were soon involved in +their father's ruin, and removed first by exile, and afterwards by +death, from the eye of public compassion. + +Whilst Severus was engaged in his eastern war, he had reason to +apprehend that the governor of Britain might pass the sea and the +Alps, occupy the vacant seat of empire, and oppose his return with +the authority of the senate and the forces of the West. The ambiguous +conduct of Albinus, in not assuming the Imperial title, left room for +negotiation. Forgetting, at once, his professions of patriotism, and the +jealousy of sovereign power, he accepted the precarious rank of Cæsar, +as a reward for his fatal neutrality. Till the first contest was +decided, Severus treated the man, whom he had doomed to destruction, +with every mark of esteem and regard. Even in the letter, in which he +announced his victory over Niger, he styles Albinus the brother of his +soul and empire, sends him the affectionate salutations of his wife +Julia, and his young family, and entreats him to preserve the armies and +the republic faithful to their common interest. The messengers charged +with this letter were instructed to accost the Cæsar with respect, to +desire a private audience, and to plunge their daggers into his heart. +The conspiracy was discovered, and the too credulous Albinus, at length, +passed over to the continent, and prepared for an unequal contest with +his rival, who rushed upon him at the head of a veteran and victorious +army. + +The military labors of Severus seem inadequate to the importance of his +conquests. Two engagements, * the one near the Hellespont, the other +in the narrow defiles of Cilicia, decided the fate of his Syrian +competitor; and the troops of Europe asserted their usual ascendant over +the effeminate natives of Asia. The battle of Lyons, where one hundred +and fifty thousand Romans were engaged, was equally fatal to Albinus. +The valor of the British army maintained, indeed, a sharp and doubtful +contest, with the hardy discipline of the Illyrian legions. The fame and +person of Severus appeared, during a few moments, irrecoverably lost, +till that warlike prince rallied his fainting troops, and led them on to +a decisive victory. The war was finished by that memorable day. + +The civil wars of modern Europe have been distinguished, not only by +the fierce animosity, but likewise by the obstinate perseverance, of +the contending factions. They have generally been justified by some +principle, or, at least, colored by some pretext, of religion, freedom, +or loyalty. The leaders were nobles of independent property and +hereditary influence. The troops fought like men interested in the +decision of the quarrel; and as military spirit and party zeal were +strongly diffused throughout the whole community, a vanquished chief was +immediately supplied with new adherents, eager to shed their blood in +the same cause. But the Romans, after the fall of the republic, +combated only for the choice of masters. Under the standard of a popular +candidate for empire, a few enlisted from affection, some from fear, +many from interest, none from principle. The legions, uninflamed by +party zeal, were allured into civil war by liberal donatives, and +still more liberal promises. A defeat, by disabling the chief from the +performance of his engagements, dissolved the mercenary allegiance of +his followers, and left them to consult their own safety by a timely +desertion of an unsuccessful cause. It was of little moment to the +provinces, under whose name they were oppressed or governed; they were +driven by the impulsion of the present power, and as soon as that power +yielded to a superior force, they hastened to implore the clemency of +the conqueror, who, as he had an immense debt to discharge, was obliged +to sacrifice the most guilty countries to the avarice of his soldiers. +In the vast extent of the Roman empire, there were few fortified cities +capable of protecting a routed army; nor was there any person, or +family, or order of men, whose natural interest, unsupported by the +powers of government, was capable of restoring the cause of a sinking +party. + +Yet, in the contest between Niger and Severus, a single city deserves an +honorable exception. As Byzantium was one of the greatest passages from +Europe into Asia, it had been provided with a strong garrison, and +a fleet of five hundred vessels was anchored in the harbor. The +impetuosity of Severus disappointed this prudent scheme of defence; he +left to his generals the siege of Byzantium, forced the less guarded +passage of the Hellespont, and, impatient of a meaner enemy, pressed +forward to encounter his rival. Byzantium, attacked by a numerous and +increasing army, and afterwards by the whole naval power of the empire, +sustained a siege of three years, and remained faithful to the name and +memory of Niger. The citizens and soldiers (we know not from what cause) +were animated with equal fury; several of the principal officers +of Niger, who despaired of, or who disdained, a pardon, had thrown +themselves into this last refuge: the fortifications were esteemed +impregnable, and, in the defence of the place, a celebrated engineer +displayed all the mechanic powers known to the ancients. Byzantium, at +length, surrendered to famine. The magistrates and soldiers were put +to the sword, the walls demolished, the privileges suppressed, and the +destined capital of the East subsisted only as an open village, subject +to the insulting jurisdiction of Perinthus. The historian Dion, who had +admired the flourishing, and lamented the desolate, state of Byzantium, +accused the revenge of Severus, for depriving the Roman people of the +strongest bulwark against the barbarians of Pontus and Asia The truth of +this observation was but too well justified in the succeeding age, when +the Gothic fleets covered the Euxine, and passed through the undefined +Bosphorus into the centre of the Mediterranean. + +Both Niger and Albinus were discovered and put to death in their flight +from the field of battle. Their fate excited neither surprise nor +compassion. They had staked their lives against the chance of empire, +and suffered what they would have inflicted; nor did Severus claim +the arrogant superiority of suffering his rivals to live in a private +station. But his unforgiving temper, stimulated by avarice, indulged a +spirit of revenge, where there was no room for apprehension. The +most considerable of the provincials, who, without any dislike to the +fortunate candidate, had obeyed the governor under whose authority they +were accidentally placed, were punished by death, exile, and especially +by the confiscation of their estates. Many cities of the East were +stripped of their ancient honors, and obliged to pay, into the treasury +of Severus, four times the amount of the sums contributed by them for +the service of Niger. + +Till the final decision of the war, the cruelty of Severus was, in some +measure, restrained by the uncertainty of the event, and his pretended +reverence for the senate. The head of Albinus, accompanied with a +menacing letter, announced to the Romans that he was resolved to spare +none of the adherents of his unfortunate competitors. He was irritated +by the just suspicion that he had never possessed the affections of the +senate, and he concealed his old malevolence under the recent discovery +of some treasonable correspondences. Thirty-five senators, however, +accused of having favored the party of Albinus, he freely pardoned, and, +by his subsequent behavior, endeavored to convince them, that he had +forgotten, as well as forgiven, their supposed offences. But, at the +same time, he condemned forty-one other senators, whose names history +has recorded; their wives, children, and clients attended them in death, +* and the noblest provincials of Spain and Gaul were involved in the +same ruin. Such rigid justice--for so he termed it--was, in the opinion +of Severus, the only conduct capable of insuring peace to the people or +stability to the prince; and he condescended slightly to lament, that to +be mild, it was necessary that he should first be cruel. + +The true interest of an absolute monarch generally coincides with that +of his people. Their numbers, their wealth, their order, and their +security, are the best and only foundations of his real greatness; and +were he totally devoid of virtue, prudence might supply its place, and +would dictate the same rule of conduct. Severus considered the Roman +empire as his property, and had no sooner secured the possession, than +he bestowed his care on the cultivation and improvement of so valuable +an acquisition. Salutary laws, executed with inflexible firmness, soon +corrected most of the abuses with which, since the death of Marcus, +every part of the government had been infected. In the administration of +justice, the judgments of the emperor were characterized by attention, +discernment, and impartiality; and whenever he deviated from the strict +line of equity, it was generally in favor of the poor and oppressed; +not so much indeed from any sense of humanity, as from the natural +propensity of a despot to humble the pride of greatness, and to sink +all his subjects to the same common level of absolute dependence. +His expensive taste for building, magnificent shows, and above all +a constant and liberal distribution of corn and provisions, were the +surest means of captivating the affection of the Roman people. The +misfortunes of civil discord were obliterated. The calm of peace and +prosperity was once more experienced in the provinces; and many cities, +restored by the munificence of Severus, assumed the title of his +colonies, and attested by public monuments their gratitude and felicity. +The fame of the Roman arms was revived by that warlike and successful +emperor, and he boasted, with a just pride, that, having received the +empire oppressed with foreign and domestic wars, he left it established +in profound, universal, and honorable peace. + +Although the wounds of civil war appeared completely healed, its mortal +poison still lurked in the vitals of the constitution. Severus possessed +a considerable share of vigor and ability; but the daring soul of the +first Cæsar, or the deep policy of Augustus, were scarcely equal to the +task of curbing the insolence of the victorious legions. By gratitude, +by misguided policy, by seeming necessity, Severus was reduced to relax +the nerves of discipline. The vanity of his soldiers was flattered +with the honor of wearing gold rings their ease was indulged in the +permission of living with their wives in the idleness of quarters. He +increased their pay beyond the example of former times, and taught them +to expect, and soon to claim, extraordinary donatives on every public +occasion of danger or festivity. Elated by success, enervated by luxury, +and raised above the level of subjects by their dangerous privileges, +they soon became incapable of military fatigue, oppressive to the +country, and impatient of a just subordination. Their officers asserted +the superiority of rank by a more profuse and elegant luxury. There is +still extant a letter of Severus, lamenting the licentious stage of +the army, * and exhorting one of his generals to begin the necessary +reformation from the tribunes themselves; since, as he justly observes, +the officer who has forfeited the esteem, will never command the +obedience, of his soldiers. Had the emperor pursued the train of +reflection, he would have discovered, that the primary cause of this +general corruption might be ascribed, not indeed to the example, but to +the pernicious indulgence, however, of the commander-in-chief. + +The Prætorians, who murdered their emperor and sold the empire, had +received the just punishment of their treason; but the necessary, though +dangerous, institution of guards was soon restored on a new model by +Severus, and increased to four times the ancient number. Formerly +these troops had been recruited in Italy; and as the adjacent provinces +gradually imbibed the softer manners of Rome, the levies were extended +to Macedonia, Noricum, and Spain. In the room of these elegant troops, +better adapted to the pomp of courts than to the uses of war, it was +established by Severus, that from all the legions of the frontiers, the +soldiers most distinguished for strength, valor, and fidelity, should be +occasionally draughted; and promoted, as an honor and reward, into +the more eligible service of the guards. By this new institution, the +Italian youth were diverted from the exercise of arms, and the capital +was terrified by the strange aspect and manners of a multitude of +barbarians. But Severus flattered himself, that the legions would +consider these chosen Prætorians as the representatives of the whole +military order; and that the present aid of fifty thousand men, superior +in arms and appointments to any force that could be brought into the +field against them, would forever crush the hopes of rebellion, and +secure the empire to himself and his posterity. + +The command of these favored and formidable troops soon became the +first office of the empire. As the government degenerated into military +despotism, the Prætorian Præfect, who in his origin had been a simple +captain of the guards, * was placed not only at the head of the army, +but of the finances, and even of the law. In every department of +administration, he represented the person, and exercised the authority, +of the emperor. The first præfect who enjoyed and abused this immense +power was Plautianus, the favorite minister of Severus. His reign lasted +above ten years, till the marriage of his daughter with the eldest son +of the emperor, which seemed to assure his fortune, proved the occasion +of his ruin. The animosities of the palace, by irritating the +ambition and alarming the fears of Plautianus, threatened to produce +a revolution, and obliged the emperor, who still loved him, to consent +with reluctance to his death. After the fall of Plautianus, an eminent +lawyer, the celebrated Papinian, was appointed to execute the motley +office of Prætorian Præfect. + +Till the reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good sense of the +emperors had been distinguished by their zeal or affected reverence for +the senate, and by a tender regard to the nice frame of civil policy +instituted by Augustus. But the youth of Severus had been trained in the +implicit obedience of camps, and his riper years spent in the despotism +of military command. His haughty and inflexible spirit could not +discover, or would not acknowledge, the advantage of preserving an +intermediate power, however imaginary, between the emperor and the army. +He disdained to profess himself the servant of an assembly that detested +his person and trembled at his frown; he issued his commands, where his +requests would have proved as effectual; assumed the conduct and style +of a sovereign and a conqueror, and exercised, without disguise, the +whole legislative, as well as the executive power. + +The victory over the senate was easy and inglorious. Every eye and every +passion were directed to the supreme magistrate, who possessed the arms +and treasure of the state; whilst the senate, neither elected by the +people, nor guarded by military force, nor animated by public spirit, +rested its declining authority on the frail and crumbling basis of +ancient opinion. The fine theory of a republic insensibly vanished, and +made way for the more natural and substantial feelings of monarchy. As +the freedom and honors of Rome were successively communicated to the +provinces, in which the old government had been either unknown, or +was remembered with abhorrence, the tradition of republican maxims was +gradually obliterated. The Greek historians of the age of the Antonines +observe, with a malicious pleasure, that although the sovereign of Rome, +in compliance with an obsolete prejudice, abstained from the name of +king, he possessed the full measure of regal power. In the reign of +Severus, the senate was filled with polished and eloquent slaves from +the eastern provinces, who justified personal flattery by speculative +principles of servitude. These new advocates of prerogative were heard +with pleasure by the court, and with patience by the people, when +they inculcated the duty of passive obedience, and descanted on the +inevitable mischiefs of freedom. The lawyers and historians concurred +in teaching, that the Imperial authority was held, not by the delegated +commission, but by the irrevocable resignation of the senate; that the +emperor was freed from the restraint of civil laws, could command by his +arbitrary will the lives and fortunes of his subjects, and might dispose +of the empire as of his private patrimony. The most eminent of the civil +lawyers, and particularly Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, flourished under +the house of Severus; and the Roman jurisprudence, having closely united +itself with the system of monarchy, was supposed to have attained its +full majority and perfection. + +The contemporaries of Severus in the enjoyment of the peace and glory +of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. +Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, +justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the +Roman empire. + + + +Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation +Of Macrinus.--Part I. + + The Death Of Severus.--Tyranny Of Caracalla.--Usurpation Of + Macrinus.--Follies Of Elagabalus.--Virtues Of Alexander + Severus.--Licentiousness Of The Army.--General State Of The + Roman Finances. + +The ascent to greatness, however steep and dangerous, may entertain an +active spirit with the consciousness and exercise of its own powers: but +the possession of a throne could never yet afford a lasting satisfaction +to an ambitious mind. This melancholy truth was felt and acknowledged by +Severus. Fortune and merit had, from an humble station, elevated him +to the first place among mankind. "He had been all things," as he said +himself, "and all was of little value" Distracted with the care, not +of acquiring, but of preserving an empire, oppressed with age and +infirmities, careless of fame, and satiated with power, all his +prospects of life were closed. The desire of perpetuating the greatness +of his family was the only remaining wish of his ambition and paternal +tenderness. + +Like most of the Africans, Severus was passionately addicted to the vain +studies of magic and divination, deeply versed in the interpretation of +dreams and omens, and perfectly acquainted with the science of judicial +astrology; which, in almost every age except the present, has maintained +its dominion over the mind of man. He had lost his first wife, while he +was governor of the Lionnese Gaul. In the choice of a second, he sought +only to connect himself with some favorite of fortune; and as soon as +he had discovered that the young lady of Emesa in Syria had a royal +nativity, he solicited and obtained her hand. Julia Domna (for that was +her name) deserved all that the stars could promise her. She possessed, +even in advanced age, the attractions of beauty, and united to a +lively imagination a firmness of mind, and strength of judgment, +seldom bestowed on her sex. Her amiable qualities never made any deep +impression on the dark and jealous temper of her husband; but in her +son's reign, she administered the principal affairs of the empire, with +a prudence that supported his authority, and with a moderation that +sometimes corrected his wild extravagancies. Julia applied herself to +letters and philosophy, with some success, and with the most splendid +reputation. She was the patroness of every art, and the friend of every +man of genius. The grateful flattery of the learned has celebrated her +virtues; but, if we may credit the scandal of ancient history, chastity +was very far from being the most conspicuous virtue of the empress +Julia. + +Two sons, Caracalla and Geta, were the fruit of this marriage, and the +destined heirs of the empire. The fond hopes of the father, and of the +Roman world, were soon disappointed by these vain youths, who displayed +the indolent security of hereditary princes; and a presumption that +fortune would supply the place of merit and application. Without any +emulation of virtue or talents, they discovered, almost from their +infancy, a fixed and implacable antipathy for each other. + +Their aversion, confirmed by years, and fomented by the arts of their +interested favorites, broke out in childish, and gradually in more +serious competitions; and, at length, divided the theatre, the circus, +and the court, into two factions, actuated by the hopes and fears of +their respective leaders. The prudent emperor endeavored, by every +expedient of advice and authority, to allay this growing animosity. The +unhappy discord of his sons clouded all his prospects, and threatened +to overturn a throne raised with so much labor, cemented with so much +blood, and guarded with every defence of arms and treasure. With an +impartial hand he maintained between them an exact balance of favor, +conferred on both the rank of Augustus, with the revered name of +Antoninus; and for the first time the Roman world beheld three emperors. +Yet even this equal conduct served only to inflame the contest, whilst +the fierce Caracalla asserted the right of primogeniture, and the milder +Geta courted the affections of the people and the soldiers. In the +anguish of a disappointed father, Severus foretold that the weaker of +his sons would fall a sacrifice to the stronger; who, in his turn, would +be ruined by his own vices. + +In these circumstances the intelligence of a war in Britain, and of an +invasion of the province by the barbarians of the North, was received +with pleasure by Severus. Though the vigilance of his lieutenants might +have been sufficient to repel the distant enemy, he resolved to embrace +the honorable pretext of withdrawing his sons from the luxury of Rome, +which enervated their minds and irritated their passions; and of inuring +their youth to the toils of war and government. Notwithstanding his +advanced age, (for he was above threescore,) and his gout, which obliged +him to be carried in a litter, he transported himself in person into +that remote island, attended by his two sons, his whole court, and +a formidable army. He immediately passed the walls of Hadrian and +Antoninus, and entered the enemy's country, with a design of completing +the long attempted conquest of Britain. He penetrated to the northern +extremity of the island, without meeting an enemy. But the concealed +ambuscades of the Caledonians, who hung unseen on the rear and flanks of +his army, the coldness of the climate and the severity of a winter march +across the hills and morasses of Scotland, are reported to have cost the +Romans above fifty thousand men. The Caledonians at length yielded to +the powerful and obstinate attack, sued for peace, and surrendered a +part of their arms, and a large tract of territory. But their apparent +submission lasted no longer than the present terror. As soon as the +Roman legions had retired, they resumed their hostile independence. +Their restless spirit provoked Severus to send a new army into +Caledonia, with the most bloody orders, not to subdue, but to extirpate +the natives. They were saved by the death of their haughty enemy. + +This Caledonian war, neither marked by decisive events, nor attended +with any important consequences, would ill deserve our attention; but it +is supposed, not without a considerable degree of probability, that the +invasion of Severus is connected with the most shining period of the +British history or fable. Fingal, whose fame, with that of his heroes +and bards, has been revived in our language by a recent publication, is +said to have commanded the Caledonians in that memorable juncture, to +have eluded the power of Severus, and to have obtained a signal victory +on the banks of the Carun, in which the son of the King of the World, +Caracul, fled from his arms along the fields of his pride. Something of +a doubtful mist still hangs over these Highland traditions; nor can +it be entirely dispelled by the most ingenious researches of modern +criticism; but if we could, with safety, indulge the pleasing +supposition, that Fingal lived, and that Ossian sung, the striking +contrast of the situation and manners of the contending nations might +amuse a philosophic mind. The parallel would be little to the advantage +of the more civilized people, if we compared the unrelenting revenge +of Severus with the generous clemency of Fingal; the timid and brutal +cruelty of Caracalla with the bravery, the tenderness, the elegant +genius of Ossian; the mercenary chiefs, who, from motives of fear +or interest, served under the imperial standard, with the free-born +warriors who started to arms at the voice of the king of Morven; if, in +a word, we contemplated the untutored Caledonians, glowing with the warm +virtues of nature, and the degenerate Romans, polluted with the mean +vices of wealth and slavery. + +The declining health and last illness of Severus inflamed the wild +ambition and black passions of Caracalla's soul. Impatient of any delay +or division of empire, he attempted, more than once, to shorten the +small remainder of his father's days, and endeavored, but without +success, to excite a mutiny among the troops. The old emperor had +often censured the misguided lenity of Marcus, who, by a single act of +justice, might have saved the Romans from the tyranny of his worthless +son. Placed in the same situation, he experienced how easily the rigor +of a judge dissolves away in the tenderness of a parent. He deliberated, +he threatened, but he could not punish; and this last and only instance +of mercy was more fatal to the empire than a long series of cruelty. +The disorder of his mind irritated the pains of his body; he wished +impatiently for death, and hastened the instant of it by his impatience. +He expired at York in the sixty-fifth year of his life, and in the +eighteenth of a glorious and successful reign. In his last moments he +recommended concord to his sons, and his sons to the army. The salutary +advice never reached the heart, or even the understanding, of the +impetuous youths; but the more obedient troops, mindful of their oath of +allegiance, and of the authority of their deceased master, resisted the +solicitations of Caracalla, and proclaimed both brothers emperors of +Rome. The new princes soon left the Caledonians in peace, returned to +the capital, celebrated their father's funeral with divine honors, and +were cheerfully acknowledged as lawful sovereigns, by the senate, the +people, and the provinces. Some preeminence of rank seems to have been +allowed to the elder brother; but they both administered the empire with +equal and independent power. + +Such a divided form of government would have proved a source of discord +between the most affectionate brothers. It was impossible that it could +long subsist between two implacable enemies, who neither desired nor +could trust a reconciliation. It was visible that one only could reign, +and that the other must fall; and each of them, judging of his rival's +designs by his own, guarded his life with the most jealous vigilance +from the repeated attacks of poison or the sword. Their rapid journey +through Gaul and Italy, during which they never ate at the same table, +or slept in the same house, displayed to the provinces the odious +spectacle of fraternal discord. On their arrival at Rome, they +immediately divided the vast extent of the imperial palace. No +communication was allowed between their apartments; the doors and +passages were diligently fortified, and guards posted and relieved with +the same strictness as in a besieged place. The emperors met only in +public, in the presence of their afflicted mother; and each surrounded +by a numerous train of armed followers. Even on these occasions of +ceremony, the dissimulation of courts could ill disguise the rancor of +their hearts. + +This latent civil war already distracted the whole government, when +a scheme was suggested that seemed of mutual benefit to the hostile +brothers. It was proposed, that since it was impossible to reconcile +their minds, they should separate their interest, and divide the empire +between them. The conditions of the treaty were already drawn with some +accuracy. It was agreed that Caracalla, as the elder brother should +remain in possession of Europe and the western Africa; and that he +should relinquish the sovereignty of Asia and Egypt to Geta, who might +fix his residence at Alexandria or Antioch, cities little inferior to +Rome itself in wealth and greatness; that numerous armies should be +constantly encamped on either side of the Thracian Bosphorus, to guard +the frontiers of the rival monarchies; and that the senators of European +extraction should acknowledge the sovereign of Rome, whilst the natives +of Asia followed the emperor of the East. The tears of the empress Julia +interrupted the negotiation, the first idea of which had filled every +Roman breast with surprise and indignation. The mighty mass of conquest +was so intimately united by the hand of time and policy, that it +required the most forcible violence to rend it asunder. The Romans had +reason to dread, that the disjointed members would soon be reduced by +a civil war under the dominion of one master; but if the separation +was permanent, the division of the provinces must terminate in the +dissolution of an empire whose unity had hitherto remained inviolate. + +Had the treaty been carried into execution, the sovereign of Europe +might soon have been the conqueror of Asia; but Caracalla obtained +an easier, though a more guilty, victory. He artfully listened to his +mother's entreaties, and consented to meet his brother in her +apartment, on terms of peace and reconciliation. In the midst of their +conversation, some centurions, who had contrived to conceal themselves, +rushed with drawn swords upon the unfortunate Geta. His distracted +mother strove to protect him in her arms; but, in the unavailing +struggle, she was wounded in the hand, and covered with the blood of her +younger son, while she saw the elder animating and assisting the fury +of the assassins. As soon as the deed was perpetrated, Caracalla, with +hasty steps, and horror in his countenance, ran towards the Prætorian +camp, as his only refuge, and threw himself on the ground before the +statues of the tutelar deities. The soldiers attempted to raise and +comfort him. In broken and disordered words he informed them of his +imminent danger, and fortunate escape; insinuating that he had prevented +the designs of his enemy, and declared his resolution to live and die +with his faithful troops. Geta had been the favorite of the soldiers; +but complaint was useless, revenge was dangerous, and they still +reverenced the son of Severus. Their discontent died away in idle +murmurs, and Caracalla soon convinced them of the justice of his cause, +by distributing in one lavish donative the accumulated treasures of +his father's reign. The real sentiments of the soldiers alone were +of importance to his power or safety. Their declaration in his favor +commanded the dutiful professions of the senate. The obsequious +assembly was always prepared to ratify the decision of fortune; * but +as Caracalla wished to assuage the first emotions of public indignation, +the name of Geta was mentioned with decency, and he received the funeral +honors of a Roman emperor. Posterity, in pity to his misfortune, +has cast a veil over his vices. We consider that young prince as the +innocent victim of his brother's ambition, without recollecting that he +himself wanted power, rather than inclination, to consummate the same +attempts of revenge and murder. + +The crime went not unpunished. Neither business, nor pleasure, nor +flattery, could defend Caracalla from the stings of a guilty conscience; +and he confessed, in the anguish of a tortured mind, that his disordered +fancy often beheld the angry forms of his father and his brother rising +into life, to threaten and upbraid him. The consciousness of his crime +should have induced him to convince mankind, by the virtues of his +reign, that the bloody deed had been the involuntary effect of fatal +necessity. But the repentance of Caracalla only prompted him to remove +from the world whatever could remind him of his guilt, or recall the +memory of his murdered brother. On his return from the senate to the +palace, he found his mother in the company of several noble matrons, +weeping over the untimely fate of her younger son. The jealous emperor +threatened them with instant death; the sentence was executed against +Fadilla, the last remaining daughter of the emperor Marcus; * and even +the afflicted Julia was obliged to silence her lamentations, to +suppress her sighs, and to receive the assassin with smiles of joy and +approbation. It was computed that, under the vague appellation of the +friends of Geta, above twenty thousand persons of both sexes suffered +death. His guards and freedmen, the ministers of his serious business, +and the companions of his looser hours, those who by his interest had +been promoted to any commands in the army or provinces, with the long +connected chain of their dependants, were included in the proscription; +which endeavored to reach every one who had maintained the smallest +correspondence with Geta, who lamented his death, or who even mentioned +his name. Helvius Pertinax, son to the prince of that name, lost his +life by an unseasonable witticism. It was a sufficient crime of Thrasea +Priscus to be descended from a family in which the love of liberty +seemed an hereditary quality. The particular causes of calumny and +suspicion were at length exhausted; and when a senator was accused of +being a secret enemy to the government, the emperor was satisfied with +the general proof that he was a man of property and virtue. From this +well-grounded principle he frequently drew the most bloody inferences. + + + +Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of +Macrinus.--Part II. + +The execution of so many innocent citizens was bewailed by the secret +tears of their friends and families. The death of Papinian, the +Prætorian Præfect, was lamented as a public calamity. During the last +seven years of Severus, he had exercised the most important offices of +the state, and, by his salutary influence, guided the emperor's steps in +the paths of justice and moderation. In full assurance of his virtue and +abilities, Severus, on his death-bed, had conjured him to watch over +the prosperity and union of the Imperial family. The honest labors of +Papinian served only to inflame the hatred which Caracalla had already +conceived against his father's minister. After the murder of Geta, the +Præfect was commanded to exert the powers of his skill and eloquence in +a studied apology for that atrocious deed. The philosophic Seneca had +condescended to compose a similar epistle to the senate, in the name of +the son and assassin of Agrippina. "That it was easier to commit than +to justify a parricide," was the glorious reply of Papinian; who did +not hesitate between the loss of life and that of honor. Such intrepid +virtue, which had escaped pure and unsullied from the intrigues courts, +the habits of business, and the arts of his profession, reflects more +lustre on the memory of Papinian, than all his great employments, his +numerous writings, and the superior reputation as a lawyer, which he has +preserved through every age of the Roman jurisprudence. + +It had hitherto been the peculiar felicity of the Romans, and in the +worst of times the consolation, that the virtue of the emperors was +active, and their vice indolent. Augustus, Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus +visited their extensive dominions in person, and their progress was +marked by acts of wisdom and beneficence. The tyranny of Tiberius, Nero, +and Domitian, who resided almost constantly at Rome, or in the adjacent +was confined to the senatorial and equestrian orders. But Caracalla was +the common enemy of mankind. He left capital (and he never returned to +it) about a year after the murder of Geta. The rest of his reign was +spent in the several provinces of the empire, particularly those of the +East, and province was by turns the scene of his rapine and cruelty. +The senators, compelled by fear to attend his capricious motions, were +obliged to provide daily entertainments at an immense expense, which +he abandoned with contempt to his guards; and to erect, in every city, +magnificent palaces and theatres, which he either disdained to visit, +or ordered immediately thrown down. The most wealthy families ruined +by partial fines and confiscations, and the great body of his subjects +oppressed by ingenious and aggravated taxes. In the midst of peace, and +upon the slightest provocation, he issued his commands, at Alexandria, +in Egypt for a general massacre. From a secure post in the temple of +Serapis, he viewed and directed the slaughter of many thousand citizens, +as well as strangers, without distinguishing the number or the crime +of the sufferers; since as he coolly informed the senate, all the +Alexandrians, those who perished, and those who had escaped, were alike +guilty. + +The wise instructions of Severus never made any lasting impression on +the mind of his son, who, although not destitute of imagination and +eloquence, was equally devoid of judgment and humanity. One dangerous +maxim, worthy of a tyrant, was remembered and abused by Caracalla. +"To secure the affections of the army, and to esteem the rest of his +subjects as of little moment." But the liberality of the father had been +restrained by prudence, and his indulgence to the troops was tempered by +firmness and authority. The careless profusion of the son was the +policy of one reign, and the inevitable ruin both of the army and of +the empire. The vigor of the soldiers, instead of being confirmed by +the severe discipline of camps, melted away in the luxury of cities. +The excessive increase of their pay and donatives exhausted the state to +enrich the military order, whose modesty in peace, and service in war, +is best secured by an honorable poverty. The demeanor of Caracalla was +haughty and full of pride; but with the troops he forgot even the +proper dignity of his rank, encouraged their insolent familiarity, and, +neglecting the essential duties of a general, affected to imitate the +dress and manners of a common soldier. + +It was impossible that such a character, and such conduct as that of +Caracalla, could inspire either love or esteem; but as long as his +vices were beneficial to the armies, he was secure from the danger of +rebellion. A secret conspiracy, provoked by his own jealousy, was +fatal to the tyrant. The Prætorian præfecture was divided between +two ministers. The military department was intrusted to Adventus, +an experienced rather than able soldier; and the civil affairs were +transacted by Opilius Macrinus, who, by his dexterity in business, had +raised himself, with a fair character, to that high office. But his +favor varied with the caprice of the emperor, and his life might depend +on the slightest suspicion, or the most casual circumstance. Malice or +fanaticism had suggested to an African, deeply skilled in the knowledge +of futurity, a very dangerous prediction, that Macrinus and his son were +destined to reign over the empire. The report was soon diffused through +the province; and when the man was sent in chains to Rome, he still +asserted, in the presence of the præfect of the city, the faith of +his prophecy. That magistrate, who had received the most pressing +instructions to inform himself of the successors of Caracalla, +immediately communicated the examination of the African to the Imperial +court, which at that time resided in Syria. But, notwithstanding the +diligence of the public messengers, a friend of Macrinus found means to +apprise him of the approaching danger. The emperor received the letters +from Rome; and as he was then engaged in the conduct of a chariot race, +he delivered them unopened to the Prætorian Præfect, directing him to +despatch the ordinary affairs, and to report the more important business +that might be contained in them. Macrinus read his fate, and resolved to +prevent it. He inflamed the discontents of some inferior officers, +and employed the hand of Martialis, a desperate soldier, who had been +refused the rank of centurion. The devotion of Caracalla prompted him +to make a pilgrimage from Edessa to the celebrated temple of the Moon +at Carrhæ. * He was attended by a body of cavalry: but having stopped on +the road for some necessary occasion, his guards preserved a respectful +distance, and Martialis, approaching his person under a presence of +duty, stabbed him with a dagger. The bold assassin was instantly killed +by a Scythian archer of the Imperial guard. Such was the end of a +monster whose life disgraced human nature, and whose reign accused +the patience of the Romans. The grateful soldiers forgot his vices, +remembered only his partial liberality, and obliged the senate to +prostitute their own dignity and that of religion, by granting him a +place among the gods. Whilst he was upon earth, Alexander the Great was +the only hero whom this god deemed worthy his admiration. He assumed the +name and ensigns of Alexander, formed a Macedonian phalanx of guards, +persecuted the disciples of Aristotle, and displayed, with a puerile +enthusiasm, the only sentiment by which he discovered any regard for +virtue or glory. We can easily conceive, that after the battle of Narva, +and the conquest of Poland, Charles XII. (though he still wanted the +more elegant accomplishments of the son of Philip) might boast of having +rivalled his valor and magnanimity; but in no one action of his life +did Caracalla express the faintest resemblance of the Macedonian hero, +except in the murder of a great number of his own and of his father's +friends. + +After the extinction of the house of Severus, the Roman world remained +three days without a master. The choice of the army (for the authority +of a distant and feeble senate was little regarded) hung in anxious +suspense, as no candidate presented himself whose distinguished birth +and merit could engage their attachment and unite their suffrages. The +decisive weight of the Prætorian guards elevated the hopes of their +præfects, and these powerful ministers began to assert their legal +claim to fill the vacancy of the Imperial throne. Adventus, however, +the senior præfect, conscious of his age and infirmities, of his small +reputation, and his smaller abilities, resigned the dangerous honor to +the crafty ambition of his colleague Macrinus, whose well-dissembled +grief removed all suspicion of his being accessary to his master's +death. The troops neither loved nor esteemed his character. They cast +their eyes around in search of a competitor, and at last yielded with +reluctance to his promises of unbounded liberality and indulgence. A +short time after his accession, he conferred on his son Diadumenianus, +at the age of only ten years, the Imperial title, and the popular +name of Antoninus. The beautiful figure of the youth, assisted by an +additional donative, for which the ceremony furnished a pretext, might +attract, it was hoped, the favor of the army, and secure the doubtful +throne of Macrinus. + +The authority of the new sovereign had been ratified by the cheerful +submission of the senate and provinces. They exulted in their unexpected +deliverance from a hated tyrant, and it seemed of little consequence to +examine into the virtues of the successor of Caracalla. But as soon as +the first transports of joy and surprise had subsided, they began to +scrutinize the merits of Macrinus with a critical severity, and to +arraign the hasty choice of the army. It had hitherto been considered as +a fundamental maxim of the constitution, that the emperor must be always +chosen in the senate, and the sovereign power, no longer exercised by +the whole body, was always delegated to one of its members. But Macrinus +was not a senator. The sudden elevation of the Prætorian præfects +betrayed the meanness of their origin; and the equestrian order was +still in possession of that great office, which commanded with arbitrary +sway the lives and fortunes of the senate. A murmur of indignation was +heard, that a man, whose obscure extraction had never been illustrated +by any signal service, should dare to invest himself with the purple, +instead of bestowing it on some distinguished senator, equal in birth +and dignity to the splendor of the Imperial station. As soon as the +character of Macrinus was surveyed by the sharp eye of discontent, +some vices, and many defects, were easily discovered. The choice of his +ministers was in many instances justly censured, and the dissatisfied +people, with their usual candor, accused at once his indolent tameness +and his excessive severity. + +His rash ambition had climbed a height where it was difficult to stand +with firmness, and impossible to fall without instant destruction. +Trained in the arts of courts and the forms of civil business, he +trembled in the presence of the fierce and undisciplined multitude, over +whom he had assumed the command; his military talents were despised, and +his personal courage suspected; a whisper that circulated in the camp, +disclosed the fatal secret of the conspiracy against the late emperor, +aggravated the guilt of murder by the baseness of hypocrisy, and +heightened contempt by detestation. To alienate the soldiers, and to +provoke inevitable ruin, the character of a reformer was only wanting; +and such was the peculiar hardship of his fate, that Macrinus was +compelled to exercise that invidious office. The prodigality of +Caracalla had left behind it a long train of ruin and disorder; and +if that worthless tyrant had been capable of reflecting on the sure +consequences of his own conduct, he would perhaps have enjoyed the +dark prospect of the distress and calamities which he bequeathed to his +successors. + +In the management of this necessary reformation, Macrinus proceeded with +a cautious prudence, which would have restored health and vigor to the +Roman army in an easy and almost imperceptible manner. To the soldiers +already engaged in the service, he was constrained to leave the +dangerous privileges and extravagant pay given by Caracalla; but the new +recruits were received on the more moderate though liberal establishment +of Severus, and gradually formed to modesty and obedience. One fatal +error destroyed the salutary effects of this judicious plan. The +numerous army, assembled in the East by the late emperor, instead of +being immediately dispersed by Macrinus through the several provinces, +was suffered to remain united in Syria, during the winter that followed +his elevation. In the luxurious idleness of their quarters, the troops +viewed their strength and numbers, communicated their complaints, +and revolved in their minds the advantages of another revolution. The +veterans, instead of being flattered by the advantageous distinction, +were alarmed by the first steps of the emperor, which they considered +as the presage of his future intentions. The recruits, with sullen +reluctance, entered on a service, whose labors were increased while +its rewards were diminished by a covetous and unwarlike sovereign. The +murmurs of the army swelled with impunity into seditious clamors; and +the partial mutinies betrayed a spirit of discontent and disaffection +that waited only for the slightest occasion to break out on every side +into a general rebellion. To minds thus disposed, the occasion soon +presented itself. + +The empress Julia had experienced all the vicissitudes of fortune. From +an humble station she had been raised to greatness, only to taste the +superior bitterness of an exalted rank. She was doomed to weep over the +death of one of her sons, and over the life of the other. The cruel fate +of Caracalla, though her good sense must have long taught her to expect +it, awakened the feelings of a mother and of an empress. Notwithstanding +the respectful civility expressed by the usurper towards the widow of +Severus, she descended with a painful struggle into the condition of +a subject, and soon withdrew herself, by a voluntary death, from the +anxious and humiliating dependence. * Julia Mæsa, her sister, was +ordered to leave the court and Antioch. She retired to Emesa with an +immense fortune, the fruit of twenty years' favor accompanied by her two +daughters, Soæmias and Mamæ, each of whom was a widow, and each had an +only son. Bassianus, for that was the name of the son of Soæmias, was +consecrated to the honorable ministry of high priest of the Sun; and +this holy vocation, embraced either from prudence or superstition, +contributed to raise the Syrian youth to the empire of Rome. A numerous +body of troops was stationed at Emesa; and as the severe discipline of +Macrinus had constrained them to pass the winter encamped, they were +eager to revenge the cruelty of such unaccustomed hardships. The +soldiers, who resorted in crowds to the temple of the Sun, beheld +with veneration and delight the elegant dress and figure of the young +pontiff; they recognized, or they thought that they recognized, the +features of Caracalla, whose memory they now adored. The artful Mæsa +saw and cherished their rising partiality, and readily sacrificing her +daughter's reputation to the fortune of her grandson, she insinuated +that Bassianus was the natural son of their murdered sovereign. The +sums distributed by her emissaries with a lavish hand silenced every +objection, and the profusion sufficiently proved the affinity, or at +least the resemblance, of Bassianus with the great original. The young +Antoninus (for he had assumed and polluted that respectable name) was +declared emperor by the troops of Emesa, asserted his hereditary right, +and called aloud on the armies to follow the standard of a young and +liberal prince, who had taken up arms to revenge his father's death and +the oppression of the military order. + +Whilst a conspiracy of women and eunuchs was concerted with prudence, +and conducted with rapid vigor, Macrinus, who, by a decisive motion, +might have crushed his infant enemy, floated between the opposite +extremes of terror and security, which alike fixed him inactive at +Antioch. A spirit of rebellion diffused itself through all the camps and +garrisons of Syria, successive detachments murdered their officers, and +joined the party of the rebels; and the tardy restitution of military +pay and privileges was imputed to the acknowledged weakness of Macrinus. +At length he marched out of Antioch, to meet the increasing and zealous +army of the young pretender. His own troops seemed to take the field +with faintness and reluctance; but, in the heat of the battle, the +Prætorian guards, almost by an involuntary impulse, asserted the +superiority of their valor and discipline. The rebel ranks were broken; +when the mother and grandmother of the Syrian prince, who, according to +their eastern custom, had attended the army, threw themselves from +their covered chariots, and, by exciting the compassion of the soldiers, +endeavored to animate their drooping courage. Antoninus himself, who, in +the rest of his life, never acted like a man, in this important crisis +of his fate, approved himself a hero, mounted his horse, and, at the +head of his rallied troops, charged sword in hand among the thickest +of the enemy; whilst the eunuch Gannys, * whose occupations had been +confined to female cares and the soft luxury of Asia, displayed the +talents of an able and experienced general. The battle still raged with +doubtful violence, and Macrinus might have obtained the victory, had +he not betrayed his own cause by a shameful and precipitate flight. +His cowardice served only to protract his life a few days, and to stamp +deserved ignominy on his misfortunes. It is scarcely necessary to add, +that his son Diadumenianus was involved in the same fate. As soon as the +stubborn Prætorians could be convinced that they fought for a prince +who had basely deserted them, they surrendered to the conqueror: +the contending parties of the Roman army, mingling tears of joy and +tenderness, united under the banners of the imagined son of Caracalla, +and the East acknowledged with pleasure the first emperor of Asiatic +extraction. + +The letters of Macrinus had condescended to inform the senate of the +slight disturbance occasioned by an impostor in Syria, and a decree +immediately passed, declaring the rebel and his family public enemies; +with a promise of pardon, however, to such of his deluded adherents as +should merit it by an immediate return to their duty. During the twenty +days that elapsed from the declaration of the victory of Antoninus, (for +in so short an interval was the fate of the Roman world decided,) the +capital and the provinces, more especially those of the East, were +distracted with hopes and fears, agitated with tumult, and stained +with a useless effusion of civil blood, since whosoever of the rivals +prevailed in Syria must reign over the empire. The specious letters in +which the young conqueror announced his victory to the obedient senate +were filled with professions of virtue and moderation; the shining +examples of Marcus and Augustus, he should ever consider as the great +rule of his administration; and he affected to dwell with pride on the +striking resemblance of his own age and fortunes with those of Augustus, +who in the earliest youth had revenged, by a successful war, the murder +of his father. By adopting the style of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, son +of Antoninus and grandson of Severus, he tacitly asserted his hereditary +claim to the empire; but, by assuming the tribunitian and proconsular +powers before they had been conferred on him by a decree of the senate, +he offended the delicacy of Roman prejudice. This new and injudicious +violation of the constitution was probably dictated either by the +ignorance of his Syrian courtiers, or the fierce disdain of his military +followers. + +As the attention of the new emperor was diverted by the most trifling +amusements, he wasted many months in his luxurious progress from Syria +to Italy, passed at Nicomedia his first winter after his victory, and +deferred till the ensuing summer his triumphal entry into the capital. A +faithful picture, however, which preceded his arrival, and was placed +by his immediate order over the altar of Victory in the senate house, +conveyed to the Romans the just but unworthy resemblance of his person +and manners. He was drawn in his sacerdotal robes of silk and gold, +after the loose flowing fashion of the Medes and Phoenicians; his head +was covered with a lofty tiara, his numerous collars and bracelets were +adorned with gems of an inestimable value. His eyebrows were tinged +with black, and his cheeks painted with an artificial red and white. +The grave senators confessed with a sigh, that, after having long +experienced the stern tyranny of their own countrymen, Rome was at +length humbled beneath the effeminate luxury of Oriental despotism. + +The Sun was worshipped at Emesa, under the name of Elagabalus, and +under the form of a black conical stone, which, as it was universally +believed, had fallen from heaven on that sacred place. To this +protecting deity, Antoninus, not without some reason, ascribed his +elevation to the throne. The display of superstitious gratitude was the +only serious business of his reign. The triumph of the god of Emesa over +all the religions of the earth, was the great object of his zeal and +vanity; and the appellation of Elagabalus (for he presumed as pontiff +and favorite to adopt that sacred name) was dearer to him than all the +titles of Imperial greatness. In a solemn procession through the streets +of Rome, the way was strewed with gold dust; the black stone, set in +precious gems, was placed on a chariot drawn by six milk-white horses +richly caparisoned. The pious emperor held the reins, and, supported by +his ministers, moved slowly backwards, that he might perpetually enjoy +the felicity of the divine presence. In a magnificent temple raised on +the Palatine Mount, the sacrifices of the god Elagabalus were celebrated +with every circumstance of cost and solemnity. The richest wines, the +most extraordinary victims, and the rarest aromatics, were profusely +consumed on his altar. Around the altar, a chorus of Syrian damsels +performed their lascivious dances to the sound of barbarian music, +whilst the gravest personages of the state and army, clothed in long +Phnician tunics, officiated in the meanest functions, with affected zeal +and secret indignation. + + + +Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of +Macrinus.--Part III. + +To this temple, as to the common centre of religious worship, the +Imperial fanatic attempted to remove the Ancilia, the Palladium, and +all the sacred pledges of the faith of Numa. A crowd of inferior deities +attended in various stations the majesty of the god of Emesa; but his +court was still imperfect, till a female of distinguished rank was +admitted to his bed. Pallas had been first chosen for his consort; +but as it was dreaded lest her warlike terrors might affright the soft +delicacy of a Syrian deity, the Moon, adorned by the Africans under the +name of Astarte, was deemed a more suitable companion for the Sun. Her +image, with the rich offerings of her temple as a marriage portion, was +transported with solemn pomp from Carthage to Rome, and the day of these +mystic nuptials was a general festival in the capital and throughout the +empire. + +A rational voluptuary adheres with invariable respect to the temperate +dictates of nature, and improves the gratifications of sense by social +intercourse, endearing connections, and the soft coloring of taste and +the imagination. But Elagabalus, (I speak of the emperor of that name,) +corrupted by his youth, his country, and his fortune, abandoned himself +to the grossest pleasures with ungoverned fury, and soon found disgust +and satiety in the midst of his enjoyments. The inflammatory powers of +art were summoned to his aid: the confused multitude of women, of wines, +and of dishes, and the studied variety of attitude and sauces, served +to revive his languid appetites. New terms and new inventions in these +sciences, the only ones cultivated and patronized by the monarch, +signalized his reign, and transmitted his infamy to succeeding times. +A capricious prodigality supplied the want of taste and elegance; and +whilst Elagabalus lavished away the treasures of his people in the +wildest extravagance, his own voice and that of his flatterers applauded +a spirit of magnificence unknown to the tameness of his predecessors. To +confound the order of seasons and climates, to sport with the passions +and prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law of nature and +decency, were in the number of his most delicious amusements. A long +train of concubines, and a rapid succession of wives, among whom was +a vestal virgin, ravished by force from her sacred asylum, were +insufficient to satisfy the impotence of his passions. The master of the +Roman world affected to copy the dress and manners of the female sex, +preferred the distaff to the sceptre, and dishonored the principal +dignities of the empire by distributing them among his numerous lovers; +one of whom was publicly invested with the title and authority of the +emperor's, or, as he more properly styled himself, of the empress's +husband. + +It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have been +adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. Yet, confining ourselves +to the public scenes displayed before the Roman people, and attested by +grave and contemporary historians, their inexpressible infamy surpasses +that of any other age or country. The license of an eastern monarch +is secluded from the eye of curiosity by the inaccessible walls of +his seraglio. The sentiments of honor and gallantry have introduced +a refinement of pleasure, a regard for decency, and a respect for the +public opinion, into the modern courts of Europe; * but the corrupt and +opulent nobles of Rome gratified every vice that could be collected from +the mighty conflux of nations and manners. Secure of impunity, careless +of censure, they lived without restraint in the patient and humble +society of their slaves and parasites. The emperor, in his turn, viewing +every rank of his subjects with the same contemptuous indifference, +asserted without control his sovereign privilege of lust and luxury. + +The most worthless of mankind are not afraid to condemn in others the +same disorders which they allow in themselves; and can readily discover +some nice difference of age, character, or station, to justify the +partial distinction. The licentious soldiers, who had raised to the +throne the dissolute son of Caracalla, blushed at their ignominious +choice, and turned with disgust from that monster, to contemplate with +pleasure the opening virtues of his cousin Alexander, the son of Mamæa. +The crafty Mæsa, sensible that her grandson Elagabalus must inevitably +destroy himself by his own vices, had provided another and surer support +of her family. Embracing a favorable moment of fondness and devotion, +she had persuaded the young emperor to adopt Alexander, and to invest +him with the title of Cæsar, that his own divine occupations might be +no longer interrupted by the care of the earth. In the second rank that +amiable prince soon acquired the affections of the public, and +excited the tyrant's jealousy, who resolved to terminate the dangerous +competition, either by corrupting the manners, or by taking away the +life, of his rival. His arts proved unsuccessful; his vain designs were +constantly discovered by his own loquacious folly, and disappointed +by those virtuous and faithful servants whom the prudence of Mamæa +had placed about the person of her son. In a hasty sally of passion, +Elagabalus resolved to execute by force what he had been unable to +compass by fraud, and by a despotic sentence degraded his cousin from +the rank and honors of Cæsar. The message was received in the senate +with silence, and in the camp with fury. The Prætorian guards swore to +protect Alexander, and to revenge the dishonored majesty of the throne. +The tears and promises of the trembling Elagabalus, who only begged them +to spare his life, and to leave him in the possession of his beloved +Hierocles, diverted their just indignation; and they contented +themselves with empowering their præfects to watch over the safety of +Alexander, and the conduct of the emperor. + +It was impossible that such a reconciliation should last, or that even +the mean soul of Elagabalus could hold an empire on such humiliating +terms of dependence. He soon attempted, by a dangerous experiment, to +try the temper of the soldiers. The report of the death of Alexander, +and the natural suspicion that he had been murdered, inflamed their +passions into fury, and the tempest of the camp could only be appeased +by the presence and authority of the popular youth. Provoked at this new +instance of their affection for his cousin, and their contempt for +his person, the emperor ventured to punish some of the leaders of the +mutiny. His unseasonable severity proved instantly fatal to his minions, +his mother, and himself. Elagabalus was massacred by the indignant +Prætorians, his mutilated corpse dragged through the streets of the +city, and thrown into the Tiber. His memory was branded with eternal +infamy by the senate; the justice of whose decree has been ratified by +posterity. + +[See Island In The Tiber: Elagabalus was thrown into the Tiber]? + +In the room of Elagabalus, his cousin Alexander was raised to the throne +by the Prætorian guards. His relation to the family of Severus, whose +name he assumed, was the same as that of his predecessor; his virtue +and his danger had already endeared him to the Romans, and the eager +liberality of the senate conferred upon him, in one day, the various +titles and powers of the Imperial dignity. But as Alexander was a +modest and dutiful youth, of only seventeen years of age, the reins of +government were in the hands of two women, of his mother, Mamæa, and of +Mæsa, his grandmother. After the death of the latter, who survived but a +short time the elevation of Alexander, Mamæa remained the sole regent of +her son and of the empire. + +In every age and country, the wiser, or at least the stronger, of the +two sexes, has usurped the powers of the state, and confined the other +to the cares and pleasures of domestic life. In hereditary monarchies, +however, and especially in those of modern Europe, the gallant spirit +of chivalry, and the law of succession, have accustomed us to allow +a singular exception; and a woman is often acknowledged the absolute +sovereign of a great kingdom, in which she would be deemed incapable of +exercising the smallest employment, civil or military. But as the Roman +emperors were still considered as the generals and magistrates of the +republic, their wives and mothers, although distinguished by the name +of Augusta were never associated to their personal honors; and a female +reign would have appeared an inexpiable prodigy in the eyes of those +primitive Romans, who married without love, or loved without delicacy +and respect. The haughty Agripina aspired, indeed, to share the honors +of the empire which she had conferred on her son; but her mad ambition, +detested by every citizen who felt for the dignity of Rome, was +disappointed by the artful firmness of Seneca and Burrhus. The good +sense, or the indifference, of succeeding princes, restrained them from +offending the prejudices of their subjects; and it was reserved for the +profligate Elagabalus to discharge the acts of the senate with the name +of his mother Soæmias, who was placed by the side of the consuls, +and subscribed, as a regular member, the decrees of the legislative +assembly. Her more prudent sister, Mamæa, declined the useless and +odious prerogative, and a solemn law was enacted, excluding women +forever from the senate, and devoting to the infernal gods the head of +the wretch by whom this sanction should be violated. The substance, not +the pageantry, of power, was the object of Mamæa's manly ambition. She +maintained an absolute and lasting empire over the mind of her son, and +in his affection the mother could not brook a rival. Alexander, with her +consent, married the daughter of a patrician; but his respect for his +father-in-law, and love for the empress, were inconsistent with the +tenderness of interest of Mamæa. The patrician was executed on the ready +accusation of treason, and the wife of Alexander driven with ignominy +from the palace, and banished into Africa. + +Notwithstanding this act of jealous cruelty, as well as some instances +of avarice, with which Mamæa is charged, the general tenor of her +administration was equally for the benefit of her son and of the empire. +With the approbation of the senate, she chose sixteen of the wisest +and most virtuous senators as a perpetual council of state, before +whom every public business of moment was debated and determined. The +celebrated Ulpian, equally distinguished by his knowledge of, and +his respect for, the laws of Rome, was at their head; and the prudent +firmness of this aristocracy restored order and authority to +the government. As soon as they had purged the city from foreign +superstition and luxury, the remains of the capricious tyranny of +Elagabalus, they applied themselves to remove his worthless creatures +from every department of the public administration, and to supply +their places with men of virtue and ability. Learning, and the love of +justice, became the only recommendations for civil offices; valor, +and the love of discipline, the only qualifications for military +employments. + +But the most important care of Mamæa and her wise counsellors, was to +form the character of the young emperor, on whose personal qualities +the happiness or misery of the Roman world must ultimately depend. The +fortunate soil assisted, and even prevented, the hand of cultivation. +An excellent understanding soon convinced Alexander of the advantages of +virtue, the pleasure of knowledge, and the necessity of labor. A natural +mildness and moderation of temper preserved him from the assaults of +passion, and the allurements of vice. His unalterable regard for his +mother, and his esteem for the wise Ulpian, guarded his unexperienced +youth from the poison of flattery. * + +The simple journal of his ordinary occupations exhibits a pleasing +picture of an accomplished emperor, and, with some allowance for the +difference of manners, might well deserve the imitation of modern +princes. Alexander rose early: the first moments of the day were +consecrated to private devotion, and his domestic chapel was filled with +the images of those heroes, who, by improving or reforming human life, +had deserved the grateful reverence of posterity. But as he deemed the +service of mankind the most acceptable worship of the gods, the +greatest part of his morning hours was employed in his council, where he +discussed public affairs, and determined private causes, with a patience +and discretion above his years. The dryness of business was relieved by +the charms of literature; and a portion of time was always set apart for +his favorite studies of poetry, history, and philosophy. The works of +Virgil and Horace, the republics of Plato and Cicero, formed his taste, +enlarged his understanding, and gave him the noblest ideas of man and +government. The exercises of the body succeeded to those of the mind; +and Alexander, who was tall, active, and robust, surpassed most of his +equals in the gymnastic arts. Refreshed by the use of the bath and a +slight dinner, he resumed, with new vigor, the business of the day; +and, till the hour of supper, the principal meal of the Romans, he +was attended by his secretaries, with whom he read and answered the +multitude of letters, memorials, and petitions, that must have been +addressed to the master of the greatest part of the world. His table was +served with the most frugal simplicity, and whenever he was at liberty +to consult his own inclination, the company consisted of a few select +friends, men of learning and virtue, amongst whom Ulpian was constantly +invited. Their conversation was familiar and instructive; and the pauses +were occasionally enlivened by the recital of some pleasing composition, +which supplied the place of the dancers, comedians, and even gladiators, +so frequently summoned to the tables of the rich and luxurious Romans. +The dress of Alexander was plain and modest, his demeanor courteous and +affable: at the proper hours his palace was open to all his subjects, +but the voice of a crier was heard, as in the Eleusinian mysteries, +pronouncing the same salutary admonition: "Let none enter these holy +walls, unless he is conscious of a pure and innocent mind." + +Such a uniform tenor of life, which left not a moment for vice or folly, +is a better proof of the wisdom and justice of Alexander's government, +than all the trifling details preserved in the compilation of +Lampridius. Since the accession of Commodus, the Roman world had +experienced, during the term of forty years, the successive and various +vices of four tyrants. From the death of Elagabalus, it enjoyed an +auspicious calm of thirteen years. * The provinces, relieved from the +oppressive taxes invented by Caracalla and his pretended son, flourished +in peace and prosperity, under the administration of magistrates, who +were convinced by experience that to deserve the love of the subjects, +was their best and only method of obtaining the favor of their +sovereign. While some gentle restraints were imposed on the innocent +luxury of the Roman people, the price of provisions and the interest +of money, were reduced by the paternal care of Alexander, whose prudent +liberality, without distressing the industrious, supplied the wants and +amusements of the populace. The dignity, the freedom, the authority of +the senate was restored; and every virtuous senator might approach the +person of the emperor without a fear and without a blush. + +The name of Antoninus, ennobled by the virtues of Pius and Marcus, had +been communicated by adoption to the dissolute Verus, and by descent to +the cruel Commodus. It became the honorable appellation of the sons of +Severus, was bestowed on young Diadumenianus, and at length prostituted +to the infamy of the high priest of Emesa. Alexander, though pressed +by the studied, and, perhaps, sincere importunity of the senate, nobly +refused the borrowed lustre of a name; whilst in his whole conduct he +labored to restore the glories and felicity of the age of the genuine +Antonines. + +In the civil administration of Alexander, wisdom was enforced by power, +and the people, sensible of the public felicity, repaid their benefactor +with their love and gratitude. There still remained a greater, a more +necessary, but a more difficult enterprise; the reformation of the +military order, whose interest and temper, confirmed by long impunity, +rendered them impatient of the restraints of discipline, and careless +of the blessings of public tranquillity. In the execution of his design, +the emperor affected to display his love, and to conceal his fear of the +army. The most rigid economy in every other branch of the administration +supplied a fund of gold and silver for the ordinary pay and the +extraordinary rewards of the troops. In their marches he relaxed +the severe obligation of carrying seventeen days' provision on their +shoulders. Ample magazines were formed along the public roads, and as +soon as they entered the enemy's country, a numerous train of mules +and camels waited on their haughty laziness. As Alexander despaired of +correcting the luxury of his soldiers, he attempted, at least, to direct +it to objects of martial pomp and ornament, fine horses, splendid armor, +and shields enriched with silver and gold. He shared whatever fatigues +he was obliged to impose, visited, in person, the sick and wounded, +preserved an exact register of their services and his own gratitude, and +expressed on every occasion, the warmest regard for a body of men, whose +welfare, as he affected to declare, was so closely connected with that +of the state. By the most gentle arts he labored to inspire the fierce +multitude with a sense of duty, and to restore at least a faint image of +that discipline to which the Romans owed their empire over so many other +nations, as warlike and more powerful than themselves. But his prudence +was vain, his courage fatal, and the attempt towards a reformation +served only to inflame the ills it was meant to cure. + +The Prætorian guards were attached to the youth of Alexander. They loved +him as a tender pupil, whom they had saved from a tyrant's fury, and +placed on the Imperial throne. That amiable prince was sensible of the +obligation; but as his gratitude was restrained within the limits of +reason and justice, they soon were more dissatisfied with the virtues of +Alexander, than they had ever been with the vices of Elagabalus. Their +præfect, the wise Ulpian, was the friend of the laws and of the people; +he was considered as the enemy of the soldiers, and to his pernicious +counsels every scheme of reformation was imputed. Some trifling accident +blew up their discontent into a furious mutiny; and the civil war raged, +during three days, in Rome, whilst the life of that excellent minister +was defended by the grateful people. Terrified, at length, by the sight +of some houses in flames, and by the threats of a general conflagration, +the people yielded with a sigh, and left the virtuous but unfortunate +Ulpian to his fate. He was pursued into the Imperial palace, and +massacred at the feet of his master, who vainly strove to cover him with +the purple, and to obtain his pardon from the inexorable soldiers. * +Such was the deplorable weakness of government, that the emperor was +unable to revenge his murdered friend and his insulted dignity, without +stooping to the arts of patience and dissimulation. Epagathus, the +principal leader of the mutiny, was removed from Rome, by the honorable +employment of præfect of Egypt: from that high rank he was gently +degraded to the government of Crete; and when at length, his popularity +among the guards was effaced by time and absence, Alexander ventured to +inflict the tardy but deserved punishment of his crimes. Under the reign +of a just and virtuous prince, the tyranny of the army threatened with +instant death his most faithful ministers, who were suspected of an +intention to correct their intolerable disorders. The historian Dion +Cassius had commanded the Pannonian legions with the spirit of ancient +discipline. Their brethren of Rome, embracing the common cause of +military license, demanded the head of the reformer. Alexander, however, +instead of yielding to their seditious clamors, showed a just sense +of his merit and services, by appointing him his colleague in the +consulship, and defraying from his own treasury the expense of that vain +dignity: but as was justly apprehended, that if the soldiers beheld him +with the ensigns of his office, they would revenge the insult in +his blood, the nominal first magistrate of the state retired, by the +emperor's advice, from the city, and spent the greatest part of his +consulship at his villas in Campania. + + + +Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of +Macrinus.--Part IV. + +The lenity of the emperor confirmed the insolence of the troops; +the legions imitated the example of the guards, and defended their +prerogative of licentiousness with the same furious obstinacy. The +administration of Alexander was an unavailing struggle against the +corruption of his age. In llyricum, in Mauritania, in Armenia, in +Mesopotamia, in Germany, fresh mutinies perpetually broke out; his +officers were murdered, his authority was insulted, and his life at last +sacrificed to the fierce discontents of the army. One particular fact +well deserves to be recorded, as it illustrates the manners of the +troops, and exhibits a singular instance of their return to a sense of +duty and obedience. Whilst the emperor lay at Antioch, in his Persian +expedition, the particulars of which we shall hereafter relate, the +punishment of some soldiers, who had been discovered in the baths +of women, excited a sedition in the legion to which they belonged. +Alexander ascended his tribunal, and with a modest firmness represented +to the armed multitude the absolute necessity, as well as his +inflexible resolution, of correcting the vices introduced by his impure +predecessor, and of maintaining the discipline, which could not be +relaxed without the ruin of the Roman name and empire. Their clamors +interrupted his mild expostulation. "Reserve your shout," said the +undaunted emperor, "till you take the field against the Persians, the +Germans, and the Sarmatians. Be silent in the presence of your sovereign +and benefactor, who bestows upon you the corn, the clothing, and the +money of the provinces. Be silent, or I shall no longer style you +soldiers , but citizens, if those indeed who disclaim the laws of Rome +deserve to be ranked among the meanest of the people." His menaces +inflamed the fury of the legion, and their brandished arms already +threatened his person. "Your courage," resumed the intrepid Alexander, +"would be more nobly displayed in the field of battle; me you may +destroy, you cannot intimidate; and the severe justice of the republic +would punish your crime and revenge my death." The legion still +persisted in clamorous sedition, when the emperor pronounced, with a loud +voice, the decisive sentence, "Citizens! lay down your arms, and depart +in peace to your respective habitations." The tempest was instantly +appeased: the soldiers, filled with grief and shame, silently confessed +the justice of their punishment, and the power of discipline, yielded up +their arms and military ensigns, and retired in confusion, not to their +camp, but to the several inns of the city. Alexander enjoyed, during +thirty days, the edifying spectacle of their repentance; nor did he +restore them to their former rank in the army, till he had punished with +death those tribunes whose connivance had occasioned the mutiny. The +grateful legion served the emperor whilst living, and revenged him when +dead. + +The resolutions of the multitude generally depend on a moment; and the +caprice of passion might equally determine the seditious legion to +lay down their arms at the emperor's feet, or to plunge them into his +breast. Perhaps, if this singular transaction had been investigated by +the penetration of a philosopher, we should discover the secret causes +which on that occasion authorized the boldness of the prince, and +commanded the obedience of the troops; and perhaps, if it had been +related by a judicious historian, we should find this action, worthy of +Cæsar himself, reduced nearer to the level of probability and the common +standard of the character of Alexander Severus. The abilities of that +amiable prince seem to have been inadequate to the difficulties of his +situation, the firmness of his conduct inferior to the purity of his +intentions. His virtues, as well as the vices of Elagabalus, contracted +a tincture of weakness and effeminacy from the soft climate of Syria, +of which he was a native; though he blushed at his foreign origin, and +listened with a vain complacency to the flattering genealogists, who +derived his race from the ancient stock of Roman nobility. The pride and +avarice of his mother cast a shade on the glories of his reign; an by +exacting from his riper years the same dutiful obedience which she had +justly claimed from his unexperienced youth, Mamæa exposed to public +ridicule both her son's character and her own. The fatigues of the +Persian war irritated the military discontent; the unsuccessful event +* degraded the reputation of the emperor as a general, and even as +a soldier. Every cause prepared, and every circumstance hastened, a +revolution, which distracted the Roman empire with a long series of +intestine calamities. + +The dissolute tyranny of Commodus, the civil wars occasioned by his +death, and the new maxims of policy introduced by the house of Severus, +had all contributed to increase the dangerous power of the army, and to +obliterate the faint image of laws and liberty that was still impressed +on the minds of the Romans. The internal change, which undermined the +foundations of the empire, we have endeavored to explain with some +degree of order and perspicuity. The personal characters of the +emperors, their victories, laws, follies, and fortunes, can interest us +no farther than as they are connected with the general history of the +Decline and Fall of the monarchy. Our constant attention to that +great object will not suffer us to overlook a most important edict of +Antoninus Caracalla, which communicated to all the free inhabitants +of the empire the name and privileges of Roman citizens. His unbounded +liberality flowed not, however, from the sentiments of a generous mind; +it was the sordid result of avarice, and will naturally be illustrated +by some observations on the finances of that state, from the victorious +ages of the commonwealth to the reign of Alexander Severus. + +The siege of Veii in Tuscany, the first considerable enterprise of the +Romans, was protracted to the tenth year, much less by the strength of +the place than by the unskillfulness of the besiegers. The unaccustomed +hardships of so many winter campaigns, at the distance of near twenty +miles from home, required more than common encouragements; and the +senate wisely prevented the clamors of the people, by the institution of +a regular pay for the soldiers, which was levied by a general tribute, +assessed according to an equitable proportion on the property of the +citizens. During more than two hundred years after the conquest of Veii, +the victories of the republic added less to the wealth than to the power +of Rome. The states of Italy paid their tribute in military service +only, and the vast force, both by sea and land, which was exerted in the +Punic wars, was maintained at the expense of the Romans themselves. That +high-spirited people (such is often the generous enthusiasm of freedom) +cheerfully submitted to the most excessive but voluntary burdens, in +the just confidence that they should speedily enjoy the rich harvest of +their labors. Their expectations were not disappointed. In the course of +a few years, the riches of Syracuse, of Carthage, of Macedonia, and of +Asia, were brought in triumph to Rome. The treasures of Perseus alone +amounted to near two millions sterling, and the Roman people, the +sovereign of so many nations, was forever delivered from the weight of +taxes. The increasing revenue of the provinces was found sufficient +to defray the ordinary establishment of war and government, and the +superfluous mass of gold and silver was deposited in the temple of +Saturn, and reserved for any unforeseen emergency of the state. + +History has never, perhaps, suffered a greater or more irreparable +injury than in the loss of the curious register * bequeathed by Augustus +to the senate, in which that experienced prince so accurately balanced +the revenues and expenses of the Roman empire. Deprived of this clear +and comprehensive estimate, we are reduced to collect a few imperfect +hints from such of the ancients as have accidentally turned aside from +the splendid to the more useful parts of history. We are informed that, +by the conquests of Pompey, the tributes of Asia were raised from +fifty to one hundred and thirty-five millions of drachms; or about four +millions and a half sterling. Under the last and most indolent of the +Ptolemies, the revenue of Egypt is said to have amounted to twelve +thousand five hundred talents; a sum equivalent to more than two +millions and a half of our money, but which was afterwards considerably +improved by the more exact economy of the Romans, and the increase of +the trade of Æthiopia and India. Gaul was enriched by rapine, as Egypt +was by commerce, and the tributes of those two great provinces have been +compared as nearly equal to each other in value. The ten thousand Euboic +or Phnician talents, about four millions sterling, which vanquished +Carthage was condemned to pay within the term of fifty years, were a +slight acknowledgment of the superiority of Rome, and cannot bear the +least proportion with the taxes afterwards raised both on the lands and +on the persons of the inhabitants, when the fertile coast of Africa was +reduced into a province. + +Spain, by a very singular fatality, was the Peru and Mexico of the old +world. The discovery of the rich western continent by the Phoenicians, +and the oppression of the simple natives, who were compelled to labor in +their own mines for the benefit of strangers, form an exact type of the +more recent history of Spanish America. The Phoenicians were acquainted +only with the sea-coast of Spain; avarice, as well as ambition, carried +the arms of Rome and Carthage into the heart of the country, and almost +every part of the soil was found pregnant with copper, silver, and gold. +* Mention is made of a mine near Carthagena which yielded every day +twenty-five thousand drachmas of silver, or about three hundred thousand +pounds a year. Twenty thousand pound weight of gold was annually +received from the provinces of Asturia, Gallicia, and Lusitania. + +We want both leisure and materials to pursue this curious inquiry +through the many potent states that were annihilated in the Roman +empire. Some notion, however, may be formed of the revenue of the +provinces where considerable wealth had been deposited by nature, or +collected by man, if we observe the severe attention that was directed +to the abodes of solitude and sterility. Augustus once received a +petition from the inhabitants of Gyarus, humbly praying that they might +be relieved from one third of their excessive impositions. Their whole +tax amounted indeed to no more than one hundred and fifty drachms, or +about five pounds: but Gyarus was a little island, or rather a rock, of +the Ægean Sea, destitute of fresh water and every necessary of life, and +inhabited only by a few wretched fishermen. + +From the faint glimmerings of such doubtful and scattered lights, we +should be inclined to believe, 1st, That (with every fair allowance for +the differences of times and circumstances) the general income of the +Roman provinces could seldom amount to less than fifteen or twenty +millions of our money; and, 2dly, That so ample a revenue must have been +fully adequate to all the expenses of the moderate government instituted +by Augustus, whose court was the modest family of a private senator, +and whose military establishment was calculated for the defence of +the frontiers, without any aspiring views of conquest, or any serious +apprehension of a foreign invasion. + +Notwithstanding the seeming probability of both these conclusions, +the latter of them at least is positively disowned by the language +and conduct of Augustus. It is not easy to determine whether, on this +occasion, he acted as the common father of the Roman world, or as the +oppressor of liberty; whether he wished to relieve the provinces, or +to impoverish the senate and the equestrian order. But no sooner had +he assumed the reins of government, than he frequently intimated +the insufficiency of the tributes, and the necessity of throwing an +equitable proportion of the public burden upon Rome and Italy. In the +prosecution of this unpopular design, he advanced, however, by cautious +and well-weighed steps. The introduction of customs was followed by the +establishment of an excise, and the scheme of taxation was completed +by an artful assessment on the real and personal property of the Roman +citizens, who had been exempted from any kind of contribution above a +century and a half. + +I. In a great empire like that of Rome, a natural balance of money must +have gradually established itself. It has been already observed, that as +the wealth of the provinces was attracted to the capital by the strong +hand of conquest and power, so a considerable part of it was restored to +the industrious provinces by the gentle influence of commerce and arts. +In the reign of Augustus and his successors, duties were imposed on +every kind of merchandise, which through a thousand channels flowed to +the great centre of opulence and luxury; and in whatsoever manner the +law was expressed, it was the Roman purchaser, and not the provincial +merchant, who paid the tax. The rate of the customs varied from the +eighth to the fortieth part of the value of the commodity; and we have +a right to suppose that the variation was directed by the unalterable +maxims of policy; that a higher duty was fixed on the articles of +luxury than on those of necessity, and that the productions raised or +manufactured by the labor of the subjects of the empire were treated +with more indulgence than was shown to the pernicious, or at least the +unpopular commerce of Arabia and India. There is still extant a long +but imperfect catalogue of eastern commodities, which about the time +of Alexander Severus were subject to the payment of duties; cinnamon, +myrrh, pepper, ginger, and the whole tribe of aromatics a great variety +of precious stones, among which the diamond was the most remarkable +for its price, and the emerald for its beauty; Parthian and Babylonian +leather, cottons, silks, both raw and manufactured, ebony ivory, and +eunuchs. We may observe that the use and value of those effeminate +slaves gradually rose with the decline of the empire. + +II. The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, was +extremely moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded one per +cent.; but it comprehended whatever was sold in the markets or by public +auction, from the most considerable purchases of lands and houses, to +those minute objects which can only derive a value from their infinite +multitude and daily consumption. Such a tax, as it affects the body +of the people, has ever been the occasion of clamor and discontent. An +emperor well acquainted with the wants and resources of the state was +obliged to declare, by a public edict, that the support of the army +depended in a great measure on the produce of the excise. 1 + +III. When Augustus resolved to establish a permanent military force for +the defence of his government against foreign and domestic enemies, he +instituted a peculiar treasury for the pay of the soldiers, the rewards +of the veterans, and the extra-ordinary expenses of war. The ample +revenue of the excise, though peculiarly appropriated to those uses, was +found inadequate. To supply the deficiency, the emperor suggested a new +tax of five per cent. on all legacies and inheritances. But the nobles +of Rome were more tenacious of property than of freedom. Their indignant +murmurs were received by Augustus with his usual temper. He candidly +referred the whole business to the senate, and exhorted them to provide +for the public service by some other expedient of a less odious nature. +They were divided and perplexed. He insinuated to them, that their +obstinacy would oblige him to propose a general land tax and capitation. +They acquiesced in silence. . The new imposition on legacies and +inheritances was, however, mitigated by some restrictions. It did not +take place unless the object was of a certain value, most probably of +fifty or a hundred pieces of gold; nor could it be exacted from the +nearest of kin on the father's side. When the rights of nature and +property were thus secured, it seemed reasonable, that a stranger, or +a distant relation, who acquired an unexpected accession of fortune, +should cheerfully resign a twentieth part of it, for the benefit of the +state. + +Such a tax, plentiful as it must prove in every wealthy community, was +most happily suited to the situation of the Romans, who could frame +their arbitrary wills, according to the dictates of reason or +caprice, without any restraint from the modern fetters of entails and +settlements. From various causes, the partiality of paternal affection +often lost its influence over the stern patriots of the commonwealth, +and the dissolute nobles of the empire; and if the father bequeathed to +his son the fourth part of his estate, he removed all ground of legal +complaint. But a rich childish old man was a domestic tyrant, and his +power increased with his years and infirmities. A servile crowd, in +which he frequently reckoned prætors and consuls, courted his smiles, +pampered his avarice, applauded his follies, served his passions, +and waited with impatience for his death. The arts of attendance and +flattery were formed into a most lucrative science; those who professed +it acquired a peculiar appellation; and the whole city, according to +the lively descriptions of satire, was divided between two parties, the +hunters and their game. Yet, while so many unjust and extravagant wills +were every day dictated by cunning and subscribed by folly, a few were +the result of rational esteem and virtuous gratitude. Cicero, who had +so often defended the lives and fortunes of his fellow-citizens, was +rewarded with legacies to the amount of a hundred and seventy thousand +pounds; nor do the friends of the younger Pliny seem to have been +less generous to that amiable orator. Whatever was the motive of the +testator, the treasury claimed, without distinction, the twentieth part +of his estate: and in the course of two or three generations, the whole +property of the subject must have gradually passed through the coffers +of the state. + +In the first and golden years of the reign of Nero, that prince, from a +desire of popularity, and perhaps from a blind impulse of benevolence, +conceived a wish of abolishing the oppression of the customs and excise. +The wisest senators applauded his magnanimity: but they diverted him +from the execution of a design which would have dissolved the strength +and resources of the republic. Had it indeed been possible to realize +this dream of fancy, such princes as Trajan and the Antonines would +surely have embraced with ardor the glorious opportunity of conferring +so signal an obligation on mankind. Satisfied, however, with alleviating +the public burden, they attempted not to remove it. The mildness and +precision of their laws ascertained the rule and measure of +taxation, and protected the subject of every rank against arbitrary +interpretations, antiquated claims, and the insolent vexation of the +farmers of the revenue. For it is somewhat singular, that, in every age, +the best and wisest of the Roman governors persevered in this pernicious +method of collecting the principal branches at least of the excise and +customs. + +The sentiments, and, indeed, the situation, of Caracalla were very +different from those of the Antonines. Inattentive, or rather averse, +to the welfare of his people, he found himself under the necessity of +gratifying the insatiate avarice which he had excited in the army. +Of the several impositions introduced by Augustus, the twentieth on +inheritances and legacies was the most fruitful, as well as the most +comprehensive. As its influence was not confined to Rome or Italy, the +produce continually increased with the gradual extension of the Roman +City. The new citizens, though charged, on equal terms, with the payment +of new taxes, which had not affected them as subjects, derived an ample +compensation from the rank they obtained, the privileges they acquired, +and the fair prospect of honors and fortune that was thrown open to +their ambition. But the favor which implied a distinction was lost +in the prodigality of Caracalla, and the reluctant provincials were +compelled to assume the vain title, and the real obligations, of Roman +citizens. * Nor was the rapacious son of Severus contented with such +a measure of taxation as had appeared sufficient to his moderate +predecessors. Instead of a twentieth, he exacted a tenth of all legacies +and inheritances; and during his reign (for the ancient proportion was +restored after his death) he crushed alike every part of the empire +under the weight of his iron sceptre. + +When all the provincials became liable to the peculiar impositions +of Roman citizens, they seemed to acquire a legal exemption from the +tributes which they had paid in their former condition of subjects. Such +were not the maxims of government adopted by Caracalla and his pretended +son. The old as well as the new taxes were, at the same time, levied in +the provinces. It was reserved for the virtue of Alexander to relieve +them in a great measure from this intolerable grievance, by reducing +the tributes to a thirteenth part of the sum exacted at the time of his +accession. It is impossible to conjecture the motive that engaged him +to spare so trifling a remnant of the public evil; but the noxious weed, +which had not been totally eradicated, again sprang up with the most +luxuriant growth, and in the succeeding age darkened the Roman world +with its deadly shade. In the course of this history, we shall be too +often summoned to explain the land tax, the capitation, and the heavy +contributions of corn, wine, oil, and meat, which were exacted from the +provinces for the use of the court, the army, and the capital. + +As long as Rome and Italy were respected as the centre of government, a +national spirit was preserved by the ancient, and insensibly imbibed by +the adopted, citizens. The principal commands of the army were filled +by men who had received a liberal education, were well instructed in +the advantages of laws and letters, and who had risen, by equal steps, +through the regular succession of civil and military honors. To their +influence and example we may partly ascribe the modest obedience of the +legions during the two first centuries of the Imperial history. + +But when the last enclosure of the Roman constitution was trampled down +by Caracalla, the separation of professions gradually succeeded to +the distinction of ranks. The more polished citizens of the internal +provinces were alone qualified to act as lawyers and magistrates. The +rougher trade of arms was abandoned to the peasants and barbarians of +the frontiers, who knew no country but their camp, no science but that +of war no civil laws, and scarcely those of military discipline. With +bloody hands, savage manners, and desperate resolutions, they sometimes +guarded, but much oftener subverted, the throne of the emperors. + + + +Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of +Maximin.--Part I. + + The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.--Rebellion In Africa + And Italy, Under The Authority Of The Senate.--Civil Wars + And Seditions.--Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of + Maximus And Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians.--Usurpation + And Secular Games Of Philip. + +Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the world, an +hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope for ridicule. Is +it possible to relate without an indignant smile, that, on the father's +decease, the property of a nation, like that of a drove of oxen, +descends to his infant son, as yet unknown to mankind and to himself; +and that the bravest warriors and the wisest statesmen, relinquishing +their natural right to empire, approach the royal cradle with bended +knees and protestations of inviolable fidelity? Satire and declamation +may paint these obvious topics in the most dazzling colors, but our more +serious thoughts will respect a useful prejudice, that establishes a +rule of succession, independent of the passions of mankind; and we shall +cheerfully acquiesce in any expedient which deprives the multitude +of the dangerous, and indeed the ideal, power of giving themselves a +master. + +In the cool shade of retirement, we may easily devise imaginary forms +of government, in which the sceptre shall be constantly bestowed on the +most worthy, by the free and incorrupt suffrage of the whole community. +Experience overturns these airy fabrics, and teaches us, that in a large +society, the election of a monarch can never devolve to the wisest, or +to the most numerous part of the people. The army is the only order of +men sufficiently united to concur in the same sentiments, and powerful +enough to impose them on the rest of their fellow-citizens; but the +temper of soldiers, habituated at once to violence and to slavery, +renders them very unfit guardians of a legal, or even a civil +constitution. Justice, humanity, or political wisdom, are qualities +they are too little acquainted with in themselves, to appreciate them +in others. Valor will acquire their esteem, and liberality will purchase +their suffrage; but the first of these merits is often lodged in the +most savage breasts; the latter can only exert itself at the expense of +the public; and both may be turned against the possessor of the throne, +by the ambition of a daring rival. + +The superior prerogative of birth, when it has obtained the sanction +of time and popular opinion, is the plainest and least invidious of +all distinctions among mankind. The acknowledged right extinguishes the +hopes of faction, and the conscious security disarms the cruelty of +the monarch. To the firm establishment of this idea we owe the peaceful +succession and mild administration of European monarchies. To the +defect of it we must attribute the frequent civil wars, through which an +Asiatic despot is obliged to cut his way to the throne of his fathers. +Yet, even in the East, the sphere of contention is usually limited to +the princes of the reigning house, and as soon as the more fortunate +competitor has removed his brethren by the sword and the bowstring, he +no longer entertains any jealousy of his meaner subjects. But the Roman +empire, after the authority of the senate had sunk into contempt, was +a vast scene of confusion. The royal, and even noble, families of the +provinces had long since been led in triumph before the car of the +haughty republicans. The ancient families of Rome had successively +fallen beneath the tyranny of the Cæsars; and whilst those princes +were shackled by the forms of a commonwealth, and disappointed by the +repeated failure of their posterity, it was impossible that any idea +of hereditary succession should have taken root in the minds of their +subjects. The right to the throne, which none could claim from birth, +every one assumed from merit. The daring hopes of ambition were set +loose from the salutary restraints of law and prejudice; and the meanest +of mankind might, without folly, entertain a hope of being raised by +valor and fortune to a rank in the army, in which a single crime +would enable him to wrest the sceptre of the world from his feeble +and unpopular master. After the murder of Alexander Severus, and the +elevation of Maximin, no emperor could think himself safe upon the +throne, and every barbarian peasant of the frontier might aspire to that +august, but dangerous station. + +About thirty-two years before that event, the emperor Severus, returning +from an eastern expedition, halted in Thrace, to celebrate, with +military games, the birthday of his younger son, Geta. The country +flocked in crowds to behold their sovereign, and a young barbarian of +gigantic stature earnestly solicited, in his rude dialect, that he +might be allowed to contend for the prize of wrestling. As the pride of +discipline would have been disgraced in the overthrow of a Roman soldier +by a Thracian peasant, he was matched with the stoutest followers of the +camp, sixteen of whom he successively laid on the ground. His victory +was rewarded by some trifling gifts, and a permission to enlist in the +troops. The next day, the happy barbarian was distinguished above +a crowd of recruits, dancing and exulting after the fashion of his +country. As soon as he perceived that he had attracted the emperor's +notice, he instantly ran up to his horse, and followed him on foot, +without the least appearance of fatigue, in a long and rapid career. +"Thracian," said Severus with astonishment, "art thou disposed to +wrestle after thy race?" "Most willingly, sir," replied the unwearied +youth; and, almost in a breath, overthrew seven of the strongest +soldiers in the army. A gold collar was the prize of his matchless +vigor and activity, and he was immediately appointed to serve in the +horseguards who always attended on the person of the sovereign. + +Maximin, for that was his name, though born on the territories of the +empire, descended from a mixed race of barbarians. His father was a +Goth, and his mother of the nation of the Alani. He displayed on every +occasion a valor equal to his strength; and his native fierceness was +soon tempered or disguised by the knowledge of the world. Under the +reign of Severus and his son, he obtained the rank of centurion, with +the favor and esteem of both those princes, the former of whom was an +excellent judge of merit. Gratitude forbade Maximin to serve under +the assassin of Caracalla. Honor taught him to decline the effeminate +insults of Elagabalus. On the accession of Alexander he returned to +court, and was placed by that prince in a station useful to the service, +and honorable to himself. The fourth legion, to which he was appointed +tribune, soon became, under his care, the best disciplined of the whole +army. With the general applause of the soldiers, who bestowed on their +favorite hero the names of Ajax and Hercules, he was successively +promoted to the first military command; and had not he still retained +too much of his savage origin, the emperor might perhaps have given his +own sister in marriage to the son of Maximin. + +Instead of securing his fidelity, these favors served only to inflame +the ambition of the Thracian peasant, who deemed his fortune inadequate +to his merit, as long as he was constrained to acknowledge a superior. +Though a stranger to real wisdom, he was not devoid of a selfish +cunning, which showed him that the emperor had lost the affection of the +army, and taught him to improve their discontent to his own advantage. +It is easy for faction and calumny to shed their poison on the +administration of the best of princes, and to accuse even their virtues +by artfully confounding them with those vices to which they bear the +nearest affinity. The troops listened with pleasure to the emissaries of +Maximin. They blushed at their own ignominious patience, which, during +thirteen years, had supported the vexatious discipline imposed by an +effeminate Syrian, the timid slave of his mother and of the senate. It +was time, they cried, to cast away that useless phantom of the civil +power, and to elect for their prince and general a real soldier, +educated in camps, exercised in war, who would assert the glory, and +distribute among his companions the treasures, of the empire. A great +army was at that time assembled on the banks of the Rhine, under the +command of the emperor himself, who, almost immediately after his return +from the Persian war, had been obliged to march against the barbarians +of Germany. The important care of training and reviewing the new levies +was intrusted to Maximin. One day, as he entered the field of exercise, +the troops either from a sudden impulse, or a formed conspiracy, saluted +him emperor, silenced by their loud acclamations his obstinate refusal, +and hastened to consummate their rebellion by the murder of Alexander +Severus. + +The circumstances of his death are variously related. The writers, who +suppose that he died in ignorance of the ingratitude and ambition of +Maximin, affirm, that, after taking a frugal repast in the sight of the +army, he retired to sleep, and that, about the seventh hour of the day, +a part of his own guards broke into the imperial tent, and, with many +wounds, assassinated their virtuous and unsuspecting prince. If we +credit another, and indeed a more probable account, Maximin was invested +with the purple by a numerous detachment, at the distance of several +miles from the head-quarters; and he trusted for success rather to +the secret wishes than to the public declarations of the great army. +Alexander had sufficient time to awaken a faint sense of loyalty among +the troops; but their reluctant professions of fidelity quickly vanished +on the appearance of Maximin, who declared himself the friend and +advocate of the military order, and was unanimously acknowledged emperor +of the Romans by the applauding legions. The son of Mamæa, betrayed +and deserted, withdrew into his tent, desirous at least to conceal his +approaching fate from the insults of the multitude. He was soon followed +by a tribune and some centurions, the ministers of death; but instead +of receiving with manly resolution the inevitable stroke, his unavailing +cries and entreaties disgraced the last moments of his life, and +converted into contempt some portion of the just pity which his +innocence and misfortunes must inspire. His mother, Mamæa, whose pride +and avarice he loudly accused as the cause of his ruin, perished with +her son. The most faithful of his friends were sacrificed to the first +fury of the soldiers. Others were reserved for the more deliberate +cruelty of the usurper; and those who experienced the mildest treatment, +were stripped of their employments, and ignominiously driven from the +court and army. + +The former tyrants, Caligula and Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla, were +all dissolute and unexperienced youths, educated in the purple, and +corrupted by the pride of empire, the luxury of Rome, and the perfidious +voice of flattery. The cruelty of Maximin was derived from a different +source, the fear of contempt. Though he depended on the attachment of +the soldiers, who loved him for virtues like their own, he was conscious +that his mean and barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his total +ignorance of the arts and institutions of civil life, formed a very +unfavorable contrast with the amiable manners of the unhappy Alexander. +He remembered, that, in his humbler fortune, he had often waited before +the door of the haughty nobles of Rome, and had been denied admittance +by the insolence of their slaves. He recollected too the friendship of +a few who had relieved his poverty, and assisted his rising hopes. But +those who had spurned, and those who had protected, the Thracian, were +guilty of the same crime, the knowledge of his original obscurity. For +this crime many were put to death; and by the execution of several +of his benefactors, Maximin published, in characters of blood, the +indelible history of his baseness and ingratitude. + +The dark and sanguinary soul of the tyrant was open to every suspicion +against those among his subjects who were the most distinguished by +their birth or merit. Whenever he was alarmed with the sound of treason, +his cruelty was unbounded and unrelenting. A conspiracy against his life +was either discovered or imagined, and Magnus, a consular senator, was +named as the principal author of it. Without a witness, without a trial, +and without an opportunity of defence, Magnus, with four thousand of his +supposed accomplices, was put to death. Italy and the whole empire +were infested with innumerable spies and informers. On the slightest +accusation, the first of the Roman nobles, who had governed provinces, +commanded armies, and been adorned with the consular and triumphal +ornaments, were chained on the public carriages, and hurried away to the +emperor's presence. Confiscation, exile, or simple death, were esteemed +uncommon instances of his lenity. Some of the unfortunate sufferers he +ordered to be sewed up in the hides of slaughtered animals, others to be +exposed to wild beasts, others again to be beaten to death with clubs. +During the three years of his reign, he disdained to visit either Rome +or Italy. His camp, occasionally removed from the banks of the Rhine to +those of the Danube, was the seat of his stern despotism, which trampled +on every principle of law and justice, and was supported by the avowed +power of the sword. No man of noble birth, elegant accomplishments, or +knowledge of civil business, was suffered near his person; and the court +of a Roman emperor revived the idea of those ancient chiefs of slaves +and gladiators, whose savage power had left a deep impression of terror +and detestation. + +As long as the cruelty of Maximin was confined to the illustrious +senators, or even to the bold adventurers, who in the court or army +expose themselves to the caprice of fortune, the body of the people +viewed their sufferings with indifference, or perhaps with pleasure. +But the tyrant's avarice, stimulated by the insatiate desires of the +soldiers, at length attacked the public property. Every city of the +empire was possessed of an independent revenue, destined to purchase +corn for the multitude, and to supply the expenses of the games and +entertainments. By a single act of authority, the whole mass of wealth +was at once confiscated for the use of the Imperial treasury. The +temples were stripped of their most valuable offerings of gold and +silver, and the statues of gods, heroes, and emperors, were melted +down and coined into money. These impious orders could not be executed +without tumults and massacres, as in many places the people chose rather +to die in the defence of their altars, than to behold in the midst +of peace their cities exposed to the rapine and cruelty of war. +The soldiers themselves, among whom this sacrilegious plunder was +distributed, received it with a blush; and hardened as they were in +acts of violence, they dreaded the just reproaches of their friends and +relations. Throughout the Roman world a general cry of indignation was +heard, imploring vengeance on the common enemy of human kind; and at +length, by an act of private oppression, a peaceful and unarmed province +was driven into rebellion against him. + +The procurator of Africa was a servant worthy of such a master, who +considered the fines and confiscations of the rich as one of the most +fruitful branches of the Imperial revenue. An iniquitous sentence +had been pronounced against some opulent youths of that country, the +execution of which would have stripped them of far the greater part +of their patrimony. In this extremity, a resolution that must either +complete or prevent their ruin, was dictated by despair. A respite of +three days, obtained with difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was +employed in collecting from their estates a great number of slaves and +peasants blindly devoted to the commands of their lords, and armed with +the rustic weapons of clubs and axes. The leaders of the conspiracy, as +they were admitted to the audience of the procurator, stabbed him with +the daggers concealed under their garments, and, by the assistance +of their tumultuary train, seized on the little town of Thysdrus, and +erected the standard of rebellion against the sovereign of the Roman +empire. They rested their hopes on the hatred of mankind against +Maximin, and they judiciously resolved to oppose to that detested tyrant +an emperor whose mild virtues had already acquired the love and esteem +of the Romans, and whose authority over the province would give weight +and stability to the enterprise. Gordianus, their proconsul, and +the object of their choice, refused, with unfeigned reluctance, the +dangerous honor, and begged with tears, that they would suffer him to +terminate in peace a long and innocent life, without staining his feeble +age with civil blood. Their menaces compelled him to accept the Imperial +purple, his only refuge, indeed, against the jealous cruelty of Maximin; +since, according to the reasoning of tyrants, those who have been +esteemed worthy of the throne deserve death, and those who deliberate +have already rebelled. + +The family of Gordianus was one of the most illustrious of the Roman +senate. On the father's side he was descended from the Gracchi; on his +mother's, from the emperor Trajan. A great estate enabled him to support +the dignity of his birth, and in the enjoyment of it, he displayed an +elegant taste and beneficent disposition. The palace in Rome, formerly +inhabited by the great Pompey, had been, during several generations, +in the possession of Gordian's family. It was distinguished by ancient +trophies of naval victories, and decorated with the works of modern +painting. His villa on the road to Præneste was celebrated for baths of +singular beauty and extent, for three stately rooms of a hundred feet in +length, and for a magnificent portico, supported by two hundred columns +of the four most curious and costly sorts of marble. The public shows +exhibited at his expense, and in which the people were entertained with +many hundreds of wild beasts and gladiators, seem to surpass the +fortune of a subject; and whilst the liberality of other magistrates was +confined to a few solemn festivals at Rome, the magnificence of Gordian +was repeated, when he was ædile, every month in the year, and extended, +during his consulship, to the principal cities of Italy. He was twice +elevated to the last-mentioned dignity, by Caracalla and by Alexander; +for he possessed the uncommon talent of acquiring the esteem of virtuous +princes, without alarming the jealousy of tyrants. His long life was +innocently spent in the study of letters and the peaceful honors of +Rome; and, till he was named proconsul of Africa by the voice of the +senate and the approbation of Alexander, he appears prudently to have +declined the command of armies and the government of provinces. * As +long as that emperor lived, Africa was happy under the administration of +his worthy representative: after the barbarous Maximin had usurped +the throne, Gordianus alleviated the miseries which he was unable to +prevent. When he reluctantly accepted the purple, he was above +fourscore years old; a last and valuable remains of the happy age of the +Antonines, whose virtues he revived in his own conduct, and celebrated +in an elegant poem of thirty books. With the venerable proconsul, his +son, who had accompanied him into Africa as his lieutenant, was likewise +declared emperor. His manners were less pure, but his character was +equally amiable with that of his father. Twenty-two acknowledged +concubines, and a library of sixty-two thousand volumes, attested the +variety of his inclinations; and from the productions which he left +behind him, it appears that the former as well as the latter were +designed for use rather than for ostentation. The Roman people +acknowledged in the features of the younger Gordian the resemblance +of Scipio Africanus, recollected with pleasure that his mother was the +granddaughter of Antoninus Pius, and rested the public hope on those +latent virtues which had hitherto, as they fondly imagined, lain +concealed in the luxurious indolence of private life. + +As soon as the Gordians had appeased the first tumult of a popular +election, they removed their court to Carthage. They were received with +the acclamations of the Africans, who honored their virtues, and who, +since the visit of Hadrian, had never beheld the majesty of a Roman +emperor. But these vain acclamations neither strengthened nor confirmed +the title of the Gordians. They were induced by principle, as well as +interest, to solicit the approbation of the senate; and a deputation of +the noblest provincials was sent, without delay, to Rome, to relate and +justify the conduct of their countrymen, who, having long suffered with +patience, were at length resolved to act with vigor. The letters of the +new princes were modest and respectful, excusing the necessity which had +obliged them to accept the Imperial title; but submitting their election +and their fate to the supreme judgment of the senate. + +The inclinations of the senate were neither doubtful nor divided. The +birth and noble alliances of the Gordians had intimately connected them +with the most illustrious houses of Rome. Their fortune had created +many dependants in that assembly, their merit had acquired many +friends. Their mild administration opened the flattering prospect of +the restoration, not only of the civil but even of the republican +government. The terror of military violence, which had first obliged the +senate to forget the murder of Alexander, and to ratify the election of +a barbarian peasant, now produced a contrary effect, and provoked them +to assert the injured rights of freedom and humanity. The hatred of +Maximin towards the senate was declared and implacable; the tamest +submission had not appeased his fury, the most cautious innocence would +not remove his suspicions; and even the care of their own safety urged +them to share the fortune of an enterprise, of which (if unsuccessful) +they were sure to be the first victims. These considerations, and +perhaps others of a more private nature, were debated in a previous +conference of the consuls and the magistrates. As soon as their +resolution was decided, they convoked in the temple of Castor the whole +body of the senate, according to an ancient form of secrecy, calculated +to awaken their attention, and to conceal their decrees. "Conscript +fathers," said the consul Syllanus, "the two Gordians, both of consular +dignity, the one your proconsul, the other your lieutenant, have been +declared emperors by the general consent of Africa. Let us return +thanks," he boldly continued, "to the youth of Thysdrus; let us return +thanks to the faithful people of Carthage, our generous deliverers from +a horrid monster--Why do you hear me thus coolly, thus timidly? Why do +you cast those anxious looks on each other? Why hesitate? Maximin is a +public enemy! may his enmity soon expire with him, and may we long enjoy +the prudence and felicity of Gordian the father, the valor and constancy +of Gordian the son!" The noble ardor of the consul revived the languid +spirit of the senate. By a unanimous decree, the election of the +Gordians was ratified, Maximin, his son, and his adherents, were +pronounced enemies of their country, and liberal rewards were offered to +whomsoever had the courage and good fortune to destroy them. + +[See Temple Of Castor and Pollux] + +During the emperor's absence, a detachment of the Prætorian guards +remained at Rome, to protect, or rather to command, the capital. The +præfect Vitalianus had signalized his fidelity to Maximin, by the +alacrity with which he had obeyed, and even prevented the cruel mandates +of the tyrant. His death alone could rescue the authority of the senate, +and the lives of the senators from a state of danger and suspense. +Before their resolves had transpired, a quæstor and some tribunes were +commissioned to take his devoted life. They executed the order with +equal boldness and success; and, with their bloody daggers in their +hands, ran through the streets, proclaiming to the people and the +soldiers the news of the happy revolution. The enthusiasm of liberty +was seconded by the promise of a large donative, in lands and money; +the statues of Maximin were thrown down; the capital of the empire +acknowledged, with transport, the authority of the two Gordians and the +senate; and the example of Rome was followed by the rest of Italy. + +A new spirit had arisen in that assembly, whose long patience had been +insulted by wanton despotism and military license. The senate assumed +the reins of government, and, with a calm intrepidity, prepared to +vindicate by arms the cause of freedom. Among the consular senators +recommended by their merit and services to the favor of the emperor +Alexander, it was easy to select twenty, not unequal to the command of +an army, and the conduct of a war. To these was the defence of Italy +intrusted. Each was appointed to act in his respective department, +authorized to enroll and discipline the Italian youth; and instructed +to fortify the ports and highways, against the impending invasion of +Maximin. A number of deputies, chosen from the most illustrious of the +senatorian and equestrian orders, were despatched at the same time to +the governors of the several provinces, earnestly conjuring them to fly +to the assistance of their country, and to remind the nations of their +ancient ties of friendship with the Roman senate and people. The general +respect with which these deputies were received, and the zeal of Italy +and the provinces in favor of the senate, sufficiently prove that the +subjects of Maximin were reduced to that uncommon distress, in which +the body of the people has more to fear from oppression than from +resistance. The consciousness of that melancholy truth, inspires a +degree of persevering fury, seldom to be found in those civil wars +which are artificially supported for the benefit of a few factious and +designing leaders. + +For while the cause of the Gordians was embraced with such diffusive +ardor, the Gordians themselves were no more. The feeble court of +Carthage was alarmed by the rapid approach of Capelianus, governor of +Mauritania, who, with a small band of veterans, and a fierce host of +barbarians, attacked a faithful, but unwarlike province. The younger +Gordian sallied out to meet the enemy at the head of a few guards, and +a numerous undisciplined multitude, educated in the peaceful luxury +of Carthage. His useless valor served only to procure him an honorable +death on the field of battle. His aged father, whose reign had not +exceeded thirty-six days, put an end to his life on the first news of +the defeat. Carthage, destitute of defence, opened her gates to the +conqueror, and Africa was exposed to the rapacious cruelty of a slave, +obliged to satisfy his unrelenting master with a large account of blood +and treasure. + +The fate of the Gordians filled Rome with just but unexpected terror. +The senate, convoked in the temple of Concord, affected to transact +the common business of the day; and seemed to decline, with trembling +anxiety, the consideration of their own and the public danger. A silent +consternation prevailed in the assembly, till a senator, of the name and +family of Trajan, awakened his brethren from their fatal lethargy. He +represented to them that the choice of cautious, dilatory measures had +been long since out of their power; that Maximin, implacable by nature, +and exasperated by injuries, was advancing towards Italy, at the head +of the military force of the empire; and that their only remaining +alternative was either to meet him bravely in the field, or tamely to +expect the tortures and ignominious death reserved for unsuccessful +rebellion. "We have lost," continued he, "two excellent princes; but +unless we desert ourselves, the hopes of the republic have not perished +with the Gordians. Many are the senators whose virtues have deserved, +and whose abilities would sustain, the Imperial dignity. Let us elect +two emperors, one of whom may conduct the war against the public enemy, +whilst his colleague remains at Rome to direct the civil administration. +I cheerfully expose myself to the danger and envy of the nomination, +and give my vote in favor of Maximus and Balbinus. Ratify my choice, +conscript fathers, or appoint in their place, others more worthy of the +empire." The general apprehension silenced the whispers of jealousy; +the merit of the candidates was universally acknowledged; and the house +resounded with the sincere acclamations of "Long life and victory to +the emperors Maximus and Balbinus. You are happy in the judgment of the +senate; may the republic be happy under your administration!" + + + +Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of +Maximin.--Part II. + +The virtues and the reputation of the new emperors justified the most +sanguine hopes of the Romans. The various nature of their talents seemed +to appropriate to each his peculiar department of peace and war, without +leaving room for jealous emulation. Balbinus was an admired orator, a +poet of distinguished fame, and a wise magistrate, who had exercised +with innocence and applause the civil jurisdiction in almost all the +interior provinces of the empire. His birth was noble, his fortune +affluent, his manners liberal and affable. In him the love of pleasure +was corrected by a sense of dignity, nor had the habits of ease deprived +him of a capacity for business. The mind of Maximus was formed in a +rougher mould. By his valor and abilities he had raised himself from +the meanest origin to the first employments of the state and army. His +victories over the Sarmatians and the Germans, the austerity of his +life, and the rigid impartiality of his justice, while he was a Præfect +of the city, commanded the esteem of a people whose affections were +engaged in favor of the more amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had +both been consuls, (Balbinus had twice enjoyed that honorable office,) +both had been named among the twenty lieutenants of the senate; and +since the one was sixty and the other seventy-four years old, they had +both attained the full maturity of age and experience. + +After the senate had conferred on Maximus and Balbinus an equal portion +of the consular and tribunitian powers, the title of Fathers of their +country, and the joint office of Supreme Pontiff, they ascended to the +Capitol to return thanks to the gods, protectors of Rome. The solemn +rites of sacrifice were disturbed by a sedition of the people. The +licentious multitude neither loved the rigid Maximus, nor did they +sufficiently fear the mild and humane Balbinus. Their increasing numbers +surrounded the temple of Jupiter; with obstinate clamors they asserted +their inherent right of consenting to the election of their sovereign; +and demanded, with an apparent moderation, that, besides the two +emperors, chosen by the senate, a third should be added of the family +of the Gordians, as a just return of gratitude to those princes who had +sacrificed their lives for the republic. At the head of the city-guards, +and the youth of the equestrian order, Maximus and Balbinus attempted to +cut their way through the seditious multitude. The multitude, armed with +sticks and stones, drove them back into the Capitol. It is prudent to +yield when the contest, whatever may be the issue of it, must be fatal +to both parties. A boy, only thirteen years of age, the grandson of the +elder, and nephew * of the younger Gordian, was produced to the people, +invested with the ornaments and title of Cæsar. The tumult was appeased +by this easy condescension; and the two emperors, as soon as they had +been peaceably acknowledged in Rome, prepared to defend Italy against +the common enemy. + +Whilst in Rome and Africa, revolutions succeeded each other with such +amazing rapidity, that the mind of Maximin was agitated by the most +furious passions. He is said to have received the news of the rebellion +of the Gordians, and of the decree of the senate against him, not with +the temper of a man, but the rage of a wild beast; which, as it could +not discharge itself on the distant senate, threatened the life of his +son, of his friends, and of all who ventured to approach his person. The +grateful intelligence of the death of the Gordians was quickly followed +by the assurance that the senate, laying aside all hopes of pardon or +accommodation, had substituted in their room two emperors, with whose +merit he could not be unacquainted. Revenge was the only consolation +left to Maximin, and revenge could only be obtained by arms. The +strength of the legions had been assembled by Alexander from all parts +of the empire. Three successful campaigns against the Germans and the +Sarmatians, had raised their fame, confirmed their discipline, and even +increased their numbers, by filling the ranks with the flower of the +barbarian youth. The life of Maximin had been spent in war, and the +candid severity of history cannot refuse him the valor of a soldier, +or even the abilities of an experienced general. It might naturally be +expected, that a prince of such a character, instead of suffering the +rebellion to gain stability by delay, should immediately have marched +from the banks of the Danube to those of the Tyber, and that his +victorious army, instigated by contempt for the senate, and eager to +gather the spoils of Italy, should have burned with impatience to finish +the easy and lucrative conquest. Yet as far as we can trust to the +obscure chronology of that period, it appears that the operations +of some foreign war deferred the Italian expedition till the ensuing +spring. From the prudent conduct of Maximin, we may learn that the +savage features of his character have been exaggerated by the pencil of +party, that his passions, however impetuous, submitted to the force +of reason, and that the barbarian possessed something of the generous +spirit of Sylla, who subdued the enemies of Rome before he suffered +himself to revenge his private injuries. + +When the troops of Maximin, advancing in excellent order, arrived at +the foot of the Julian Alps, they were terrified by the silence and +desolation that reigned on the frontiers of Italy. The villages and +open towns had been abandoned on their approach by the inhabitants, the +cattle was driven away, the provisions removed or destroyed, the bridges +broken down, nor was any thing left which could afford either shelter or +subsistence to an invader. Such had been the wise orders of the generals +of the senate: whose design was to protract the war, to ruin the army of +Maximin by the slow operation of famine, and to consume his strength in +the sieges of the principal cities of Italy, which they had plentifully +stored with men and provisions from the deserted country. Aquileia +received and withstood the first shock of the invasion. The streams that +issue from the head of the Hadriatic Gulf, swelled by the melting of the +winter snows, opposed an unexpected obstacle to the arms of Maximin. At +length, on a singular bridge, constructed with art and difficulty, of +large hogsheads, he transported his army to the opposite bank, rooted up +the beautiful vineyards in the neighborhood of Aquileia, demolished the +suburbs, and employed the timber of the buildings in the engines and +towers, with which on every side he attacked the city. The walls, fallen +to decay during the security of a long peace, had been hastily repaired +on this sudden emergency: but the firmest defence of Aquileia consisted +in the constancy of the citizens; all ranks of whom, instead of being +dismayed, were animated by the extreme danger, and their knowledge +of the tyrant's unrelenting temper. Their courage was supported and +directed by Crispinus and Menophilus, two of the twenty lieutenants +of the senate, who, with a small body of regular troops, had thrown +themselves into the besieged place. The army of Maximin was repulsed in +repeated attacks, his machines destroyed by showers of artificial +fire; and the generous enthusiasm of the Aquileians was exalted into a +confidence of success, by the opinion that Belenus, their tutelar deity, +combated in person in the defence of his distressed worshippers. + +The emperor Maximus, who had advanced as far as Ravenna, to secure that +important place, and to hasten the military preparations, beheld the +event of the war in the more faithful mirror of reason and policy. He +was too sensible, that a single town could not resist the persevering +efforts of a great army; and he dreaded, lest the enemy, tired with +the obstinate resistance of Aquileia, should on a sudden relinquish the +fruitless siege, and march directly towards Rome. The fate of the empire +and the cause of freedom must then be committed to the chance of a +battle; and what arms could he oppose to the veteran legions of the +Rhine and Danube? Some troops newly levied among the generous but +enervated youth of Italy; and a body of German auxiliaries, on whose +firmness, in the hour of trial, it was dangerous to depend. In the midst +of these just alarms, the stroke of domestic conspiracy punished the +crimes of Maximin, and delivered Rome and the senate from the calamities +that would surely have attended the victory of an enraged barbarian. + +The people of Aquileia had scarcely experienced any of the common +miseries of a siege; their magazines were plentifully supplied, and +several fountains within the walls assured them of an inexhaustible +resource of fresh water. The soldiers of Maximin were, on the contrary, +exposed to the inclemency of the season, the contagion of disease, and +the horrors of famine. The open country was ruined, the rivers filled +with the slain, and polluted with blood. A spirit of despair and +disaffection began to diffuse itself among the troops; and as they +were cut off from all intelligence, they easily believed that the whole +empire had embraced the cause of the senate, and that they were left as +devoted victims to perish under the impregnable walls of Aquileia. The +fierce temper of the tyrant was exasperated by disappointments, which +he imputed to the cowardice of his army; and his wanton and ill-timed +cruelty, instead of striking terror, inspired hatred, and a just desire +of revenge. A party of Prætorian guards, who trembled for their wives +and children in the camp of Alba, near Rome, executed the sentence of +the senate. Maximin, abandoned by his guards, was slain in his tent, +with his son, (whom he had associated to the honors of the purple,) +Anulinus the præfect, and the principal ministers of his tyranny. +The sight of their heads, borne on the point of spears, convinced the +citizens of Aquileia that the siege was at an end; the gates of the city +were thrown open, a liberal market was provided for the hungry troops of +Maximin, and the whole army joined in solemn protestations of fidelity +to the senate and the people of Rome, and to their lawful emperors +Maximus and Balbinus. Such was the deserved fate of a brutal savage, +destitute, as he has generally been represented, of every sentiment that +distinguishes a civilized, or even a human being. The body was suited to +the soul. The stature of Maximin exceeded the measure of eight feet, and +circumstances almost incredible are related of his matchless strength +and appetite. Had he lived in a less enlightened age, tradition and +poetry might well have described him as one of those monstrous giants, +whose supernatural power was constantly exerted for the destruction of +mankind. + +It is easier to conceive than to describe the universal joy of the Roman +world on the fall of the tyrant, the news of which is said to have been +carried in four days from Aquileia to Rome. The return of Maximus was a +triumphal procession; his colleague and young Gordian went out to meet +him, and the three princes made their entry into the capital, attended +by the ambassadors of almost all the cities of Italy, saluted with the +splendid offerings of gratitude and superstition, and received with +the unfeigned acclamations of the senate and people, who persuaded +themselves that a golden age would succeed to an age of iron. The +conduct of the two emperors corresponded with these expectations. They +administered justice in person; and the rigor of the one was tempered by +the other's clemency. The oppressive taxes with which Maximin had loaded +the rights of inheritance and succession, were repealed, or at least +moderated. Discipline was revived, and with the advice of the senate +many wise laws were enacted by their imperial ministers, who endeavored +to restore a civil constitution on the ruins of military tyranny. +"What reward may we expect for delivering Rome from a monster?" was +the question asked by Maximus, in a moment of freedom and confidence. +Balbinus answered it without hesitation--"The love of the senate, of +the people, and of all mankind." "Alas!" replied his more penetrating +colleague--"alas! I dread the hatred of the soldiers, and the fatal +effects of their resentment." His apprehensions were but too well +justified by the event. + +Whilst Maximus was preparing to defend Italy against the common foe, +Balbinus, who remained at Rome, had been engaged in scenes of blood and +intestine discord. Distrust and jealousy reigned in the senate; and even +in the temples where they assembled, every senator carried either open +or concealed arms. In the midst of their deliberations, two veterans +of the guards, actuated either by curiosity or a sinister motive, +audaciously thrust themselves into the house, and advanced by degrees +beyond the altar of Victory. Gallicanus, a consular, and Mæcenas, a +Prætorian senator, viewed with indignation their insolent intrusion: +drawing their daggers, they laid the spies (for such they deemed them) +dead at the foot of the altar, and then, advancing to the door of the +senate, imprudently exhorted the multitude to massacre the Prætorians, +as the secret adherents of the tyrant. Those who escaped the first fury +of the tumult took refuge in the camp, which they defended with superior +advantage against the reiterated attacks of the people, assisted by the +numerous bands of gladiators, the property of opulent nobles. The civil +war lasted many days, with infinite loss and confusion on both sides. +When the pipes were broken that supplied the camp with water, the +Prætorians were reduced to intolerable distress; but in their turn they +made desperate sallies into the city, set fire to a great number of +houses, and filled the streets with the blood of the inhabitants. The +emperor Balbinus attempted, by ineffectual edicts and precarious truces, +to reconcile the factions at Rome. But their animosity, though smothered +for a while, burnt with redoubled violence. The soldiers, detesting the +senate and the people, despised the weakness of a prince, who wanted +either the spirit or the power to command the obedience of his subjects. + +After the tyrant's death, his formidable army had acknowledged, from +necessity rather than from choice, the authority of Maximus, who +transported himself without delay to the camp before Aquileia. As soon +as he had received their oath of fidelity, he addressed them in terms +full of mildness and moderation; lamented, rather than arraigned the +wild disorders of the times, and assured the soldiers, that of all their +past conduct the senate would remember only their generous desertion of +the tyrant, and their voluntary return to their duty. Maximus enforced +his exhortations by a liberal donative, purified the camp by a solemn +sacrifice of expiation, and then dismissed the legions to their several +provinces, impressed, as he hoped, with a lively sense of gratitude +and obedience. But nothing could reconcile the haughty spirit of the +Prætorians. They attended the emperors on the memorable day of their +public entry into Rome; but amidst the general acclamations, the sullen, +dejected countenance of the guards sufficiently declared that they +considered themselves as the object, rather than the partners, of the +triumph. When the whole body was united in their camp, those who had +served under Maximin, and those who had remained at Rome, insensibly +communicated to each other their complaints and apprehensions. The +emperors chosen by the army had perished with ignominy; those elected by +the senate were seated on the throne. The long discord between the +civil and military powers was decided by a war, in which the former had +obtained a complete victory. The soldiers must now learn a new doctrine +of submission to the senate; and whatever clemency was affected by that +politic assembly, they dreaded a slow revenge, colored by the name of +discipline, and justified by fair pretences of the public good. But +their fate was still in their own hands; and if they had courage +to despise the vain terrors of an impotent republic, it was easy to +convince the world, that those who were masters of the arms, were +masters of the authority, of the state. + +When the senate elected two princes, it is probable that, besides the +declared reason of providing for the various emergencies of peace and +war, they were actuated by the secret desire of weakening by division +the despotism of the supreme magistrate. Their policy was effectual, but +it proved fatal both to their emperors and to themselves. The jealousy +of power was soon exasperated by the difference of character. Maximus +despised Balbinus as a luxurious noble, and was in his turn disdained by +his colleague as an obscure soldier. Their silent discord was understood +rather than seen; but the mutual consciousness prevented them from +uniting in any vigorous measures of defence against their common enemies +of the Prætorian camp. The whole city was employed in the Capitoline +games, and the emperors were left almost alone in the palace. On a +sudden, they were alarmed by the approach of a troop of desperate +assassins. Ignorant of each other's situation or designs, (for they +already occupied very distant apartments,) afraid to give or to receive +assistance, they wasted the important moments in idle debates and +fruitless recriminations. The arrival of the guards put an end to the +vain strife. They seized on these emperors of the senate, for such they +called them with malicious contempt, stripped them of their garments, +and dragged them in insolent triumph through the streets of Rome, with +the design of inflicting a slow and cruel death on these unfortunate +princes. The fear of a rescue from the faithful Germans of the Imperial +guards, shortened their tortures; and their bodies, mangled with a +thousand wounds, were left exposed to the insults or to the pity of the +populace. + +In the space of a few months, six princes had been cut off by the sword. +Gordian, who had already received the title of Cæsar, was the only +person that occurred to the soldiers as proper to fill the vacant +throne. They carried him to the camp, and unanimously saluted him +Augustus and Emperor. His name was dear to the senate and people; +his tender age promised a long impunity of military license; and the +submission of Rome and the provinces to the choice of the Prætorian +guards, saved the republic, at the expense indeed of its freedom +and dignity, from the horrors of a new civil war in the heart of the +capital. + +As the third Gordian was only nineteen years of age at the time of +his death, the history of his life, were it known to us with greater +accuracy than it really is, would contain little more than the account +of his education, and the conduct of the ministers, who by turns abused +or guided the simplicity of his unexperienced youth. Immediately after +his accession, he fell into the hands of his mother's eunuchs, that +pernicious vermin of the East, who, since the days of Elagabalus, had +infested the Roman palace. By the artful conspiracy of these wretches, +an impenetrable veil was drawn between an innocent prince and his +oppressed subjects, the virtuous disposition of Gordian was deceived, +and the honors of the empire sold without his knowledge, though in a +very public manner, to the most worthless of mankind. We are ignorant +by what fortunate accident the emperor escaped from this ignominious +slavery, and devolved his confidence on a minister, whose wise counsels +had no object except the glory of his sovereign and the happiness of the +people. It should seem that love and learning introduced Misitheus +to the favor of Gordian. The young prince married the daughter of his +master of rhetoric, and promoted his father-in-law to the first offices +of the empire. Two admirable letters that passed between them are +still extant. The minister, with the conscious dignity of virtue, +congratulates Gordian that he is delivered from the tyranny of the +eunuchs, and still more that he is sensible of his deliverance. The +emperor acknowledges, with an amiable confusion, the errors of his +past conduct; and laments, with singular propriety, the misfortune of +a monarch, from whom a venal tribe of courtiers perpetually labor to +conceal the truth. + +The life of Misitheus had been spent in the profession of letters, not +of arms; yet such was the versatile genius of that great man, that, when +he was appointed Prætorian Præfect, he discharged the military duties of +his place with vigor and ability. The Persians had invaded Mesopotamia, +and threatened Antioch. By the persuasion of his father-in-law, the +young emperor quitted the luxury of Rome, opened, for the last time +recorded in history, the temple of Janus, and marched in person into the +East. On his approach, with a great army, the Persians withdrew their +garrisons from the cities which they had already taken, and retired from +the Euphrates to the Tigris. Gordian enjoyed the pleasure of announcing +to the senate the first success of his arms, which he ascribed, with a +becoming modesty and gratitude, to the wisdom of his father and Præfect. +During the whole expedition, Misitheus watched over the safety and +discipline of the army; whilst he prevented their dangerous murmurs +by maintaining a regular plenty in the camp, and by establishing ample +magazines of vinegar, bacon, straw, barley, and wheat in all the cities +of the frontier. But the prosperity of Gordian expired with Misitheus, +who died of a flux, not with out very strong suspicions of poison. +Philip, his successor in the præfecture, was an Arab by birth, and +consequently, in the earlier part of his life, a robber by profession. +His rise from so obscure a station to the first dignities of the empire, +seems to prove that he was a bold and able leader. But his boldness +prompted him to aspire to the throne, and his abilities were employed to +supplant, not to serve, his indulgent master. The minds of the soldiers +were irritated by an artificial scarcity, created by his contrivance in +the camp; and the distress of the army was attributed to the youth and +incapacity of the prince. It is not in our power to trace the successive +steps of the secret conspiracy and open sedition, which were at length +fatal to Gordian. A sepulchral monument was erected to his memory on +the spot where he was killed, near the conflux of the Euphrates with the +little river Aboras. The fortunate Philip, raised to the empire by the +votes of the soldiers, found a ready obedience from the senate and the +provinces. + +We cannot forbear transcribing the ingenious, though somewhat fanciful +description, which a celebrated writer of our own times has traced +of the military government of the Roman empire. "What in that age was +called the Roman empire, was only an irregular republic, not unlike the +aristocracy of Algiers, where the militia, possessed of the sovereignty, +creates and deposes a magistrate, who is styled a Dey. Perhaps, indeed, +it may be laid down as a general rule, that a military government is, in +some respects, more republican than monarchical. Nor can it be said that +the soldiers only partook of the government by their disobedience and +rebellions. The speeches made to them by the emperors, were they not at +length of the same nature as those formerly pronounced to the people +by the consuls and the tribunes? And although the armies had no regular +place or forms of assembly; though their debates were short, their +action sudden, and their resolves seldom the result of cool reflection, +did they not dispose, with absolute sway, of the public fortune? What +was the emperor, except the minister of a violent government, elected +for the private benefit of the soldiers? + +"When the army had elected Philip, who was Prætorian præfect to the +third Gordian, the latter demanded that he might remain sole emperor; +he was unable to obtain it. He requested that the power might be equally +divided between them; the army would not listen to his speech. He +consented to be degraded to the rank of Cæsar; the favor was refused +him. He desired, at least, he might be appointed Prætorian præfect; +his prayer was rejected. Finally, he pleaded for his life. The army, in +these several judgments, exercised the supreme magistracy." According to +the historian, whose doubtful narrative the President De Montesquieu +has adopted, Philip, who, during the whole transaction, had preserved +a sullen silence, was inclined to spare the innocent life of his +benefactor; till, recollecting that his innocence might excite a +dangerous compassion in the Roman world, he commanded, without regard to +his suppliant cries, that he should be seized, stripped, and led away +to instant death. After a moment's pause, the inhuman sentence was +executed. + + + +Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of +Maximin.--Part III. + +On his return from the East to Rome, Philip, desirous of obliterating +the memory of his crimes, and of captivating the affections of +the people, solemnized the secular games with infinite pomp and +magnificence. Since their institution or revival by Augustus, they had +been celebrated by Claudius, by Domitian, and by Severus, and were now +renewed the fifth time, on the accomplishment of the full period of a +thousand years from the foundation of Rome. Every circumstance of the +secular games was skillfully adapted to inspire the superstitious mind +with deep and solemn reverence. The long interval between them exceeded +the term of human life; and as none of the spectators had already seen +them, none could flatter themselves with the expectation of beholding +them a second time. The mystic sacrifices were performed, during three +nights, on the banks of the Tyber; and the Campus Martius resounded +with music and dances, and was illuminated with innumerable lamps and +torches. Slaves and strangers were excluded from any participation in +these national ceremonies. A chorus of twenty-seven youths, and as many +virgins, of noble families, and whose parents were both alive, implored +the propitious gods in favor of the present, and for the hope of the +rising generation; requesting, in religious hymns, that according to the +faith of their ancient oracles, they would still maintain the virtue, +the felicity, and the empire of the Roman people. The magnificence of +Philip's shows and entertainments dazzled the eyes of the multitude. The +devout were employed in the rites of superstition, whilst the reflecting +few revolved in their anxious minds the past history and the future fate +of the empire. + +Since Romulus, with a small band of shepherds and outlaws, fortified +himself on the hills near the Tyber, ten centuries had already elapsed. +During the four first ages, the Romans, in the laborious school of +poverty, had acquired the virtues of war and government: by the vigorous +exertion of those virtues, and by the assistance of fortune, they had +obtained, in the course of the three succeeding centuries, an absolute +empire over many countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The last three +hundred years had been consumed in apparent prosperity and internal +decline. The nation of soldiers, magistrates, and legislators, who +composed the thirty-five tribes of the Roman people, were dissolved into +the common mass of mankind, and confounded with the millions of servile +provincials, who had received the name, without adopting the spirit, of +Romans. A mercenary army, levied among the subjects and barbarians of +the frontier, was the only order of men who preserved and abused their +independence. By their tumultuary election, a Syrian, a Goth, or an +Arab, was exalted to the throne of Rome, and invested with despotic +power over the conquests and over the country of the Scipios. + +The limits of the Roman empire still extended from the Western Ocean +to the Tigris, and from Mount Atlas to the Rhine and the Danube. To +the undiscerning eye of the vulgar, Philip appeared a monarch no less +powerful than Hadrian or Augustus had formerly been. The form was still +the same, but the animating health and vigor were fled. The industry of +the people was discouraged and exhausted by a long series of oppression. +The discipline of the legions, which alone, after the extinction +of every other virtue, had propped the greatness of the state, was +corrupted by the ambition, or relaxed by the weakness, of the emperors. +The strength of the frontiers, which had always consisted in arms rather +than in fortifications, was insensibly undermined; and the fairest +provinces were left exposed to the rapaciousness or ambition of the +barbarians, who soon discovered the decline of the Roman empire. + + + +Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.--Part +I. Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy By +Artaxerxes. + +Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those beautiful episodes, in which +he relates some domestic transaction of the Germans or of the Parthians, +his principal object is to relieve the attention of the reader from a +uniform scene of vice and misery. From the reign of Augustus to the time +of Alexander Severus, the enemies of Rome were in her bosom--the tyrants +and the soldiers; and her prosperity had a very distant and feeble +interest in the revolutions that might happen beyond the Rhine and the +Euphrates. But when the military order had levelled, in wild anarchy, +the power of the prince, the laws of the senate, and even the discipline +of the camp, the barbarians of the North and of the East, who had long +hovered on the frontier, boldly attacked the provinces of a declining +monarchy. Their vexatious inroads were changed into formidable +irruptions, and, after a long vicissitude of mutual calamities, +many tribes of the victorious invaders established themselves in the +provinces of the Roman Empire. To obtain a clearer knowledge of +these great events, we shall endeavor to form a previous idea of the +character, forces, and designs of those nations who avenged the cause of +Hannibal and Mithridates. + +In the more early ages of the world, whilst the forest that covered +Europe afforded a retreat to a few wandering savages, the inhabitants +of Asia were already collected into populous cities, and reduced under +extensive empires, the seat of the arts, of luxury, and of despotism. +The Assyrians reigned over the East, till the sceptre of Ninus and +Semiramis dropped from the hands of their enervated successors. The +Medes and the Babylonians divided their power, and were themselves +swallowed up in the monarchy of the Persians, whose arms could not be +confined within the narrow limits of Asia. Followed, as it is said, by +two millions of men, Xerxes, the descendant of Cyrus, invaded Greece. +Thirty thousand soldiers, under the command of Alexander, the son of +Philip, who was intrusted by the Greeks with their glory and revenge, +were sufficient to subdue Persia. The princes of the house of Seleucus +usurped and lost the Macedonian command over the East. About the same +time, that, by an ignominious treaty, they resigned to the Romans the +country on this side Mount Tarus, they were driven by the Parthians, +* an obscure horde of Scythian origin, from all the provinces of Upper +Asia. The formidable power of the Parthians, which spread from India +to the frontiers of Syria, was in its turn subverted by Ardshir, or +Artaxerxes; the founder of a new dynasty, which, under the name of +Sassanides, governed Persia till the invasion of the Arabs. This great +revolution, whose fatal influence was soon experienced by the Romans, +happened in the fourth year of Alexander Severus, two hundred and +twenty-six years after the Christian era. + +Artaxerxes had served with great reputation in the armies of Artaban, +the last king of the Parthians, and it appears that he was driven into +exile and rebellion by royal ingratitude, the customary reward for +superior merit. His birth was obscure, and the obscurity equally +gave room to the aspersions of his enemies, and the flattery of his +adherents. If we credit the scandal of the former, Artaxerxes sprang +from the illegitimate commerce of a tanner's wife with a common soldier. +The latter represent him as descended from a branch of the ancient +kings of Persia, though time and misfortune had gradually reduced his +ancestors to the humble station of private citizens. As the lineal heir +of the monarchy, he asserted his right to the throne, and challenged the +noble task of delivering the Persians from the oppression under which +they groaned above five centuries since the death of Darius. The +Parthians were defeated in three great battles. * In the last of these +their king Artaban was slain, and the spirit of the nation was forever +broken. The authority of Artaxerxes was solemnly acknowledged in a great +assembly held at Balch in Khorasan. Two younger branches of the royal +house of Arsaces were confounded among the prostrate satraps. A third, +more mindful of ancient grandeur than of present necessity, attempted +to retire, with a numerous train of vessels, towards their kinsman, the +king of Armenia; but this little army of deserters was intercepted, +and cut off, by the vigilance of the conqueror, who boldly assumed the +double diadem, and the title of King of Kings, which had been enjoyed +by his predecessor. But these pompous titles, instead of gratifying the +vanity of the Persian, served only to admonish him of his duty, and to +inflame in his soul and should the ambition of restoring in their full +splendor, the religion and empire of Cyrus. + +I. During the long servitude of Persia under the Macedonian and the +Parthian yoke, the nations of Europe and Asia had mutually adopted and +corrupted each other's superstitions. The Arsacides, indeed, practised +the worship of the Magi; but they disgraced and polluted it with a +various mixture of foreign idolatry. * The memory of Zoroaster, the +ancient prophet and philosopher of the Persians, was still revered +in the East; but the obsolete and mysterious language, in which the +Zendavesta was composed, opened a field of dispute to seventy sects, +who variously explained the fundamental doctrines of their religion, and +were all indifferently derided by a crowd of infidels, who rejected the +divine mission and miracles of the prophet. To suppress the idolaters, +reunite the schismatics, and confute the unbelievers, by the infallible +decision of a general council, the pious Artaxerxes summoned the Magi +from all parts of his dominions. These priests, who had so long sighed +in contempt and obscurity obeyed the welcome summons; and, on the +appointed day, appeared, to the number of about eighty thousand. But as +the debates of so tumultuous an assembly could not have been directed by +the authority of reason, or influenced by the art of policy, the Persian +synod was reduced, by successive operations, to forty thousand, to four +thousand, to four hundred, to forty, and at last to seven Magi, the +most respected for their learning and piety. One of these, Erdaviraph, +a young but holy prelate, received from the hands of his brethren three +cups of soporiferous wine. He drank them off, and instantly fell into a +long and profound sleep. As soon as he waked, he related to the king +and to the believing multitude, his journey to heaven, and his +intimate conferences with the Deity. Every doubt was silenced by this +supernatural evidence; and the articles of the faith of Zoroaster were +fixed with equal authority and precision. A short delineation of +that celebrated system will be found useful, not only to display the +character of the Persian nation, but to illustrate many of their most +important transactions, both in peace and war, with the Roman empire. + +The great and fundamental article of the system, was the celebrated +doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious attempt of +Eastern philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral and physical evil +with the attributes of a beneficent Creator and Governor of the world. +The first and original Being, in whom, or by whom, the universe exists, +is denominated in the writings of Zoroaster, Time without bounds; but +it must be confessed, that this infinite substance seems rather a +metaphysical, abstraction of the mind, than a real object endowed with +self-consciousness, or possessed of moral perfections. From either the +blind or the intelligent operation of this infinite Time, which bears +but too near an affinity with the chaos of the Greeks, the two secondary +but active principles of the universe, were from all eternity produced, +Ormusd and Ahriman, each of them possessed of the powers of creation, +but each disposed, by his invariable nature, to exercise them with +different designs. * The principle of good is eternally absorbed in +light; the principle of evil eternally buried in darkness. The wise +benevolence of Ormusd formed man capable of virtue, and abundantly +provided his fair habitation with the materials of happiness. By +his vigilant providence, the motion of the planets, the order of the +seasons, and the temperate mixture of the elements, are preserved. But +the malice of Ahriman has long since pierced Ormusd's egg; or, in other +words, has violated the harmony of his works. Since that fatal eruption, +the most minute articles of good and evil are intimately intermingled +and agitated together; the rankest poisons spring up amidst the most +salutary plants; deluges, earthquakes, and conflagrations attest the +conflict of Nature, and the little world of man is perpetually shaken by +vice and misfortune. Whilst the rest of human kind are led away captives +in the chains of their infernal enemy, the faithful Persian alone +reserves his religious adoration for his friend and protector Ormusd, +and fights under his banner of light, in the full confidence that he +shall, in the last day, share the glory of his triumph. At that decisive +period, the enlightened wisdom of goodness will render the power of +Ormusd superior to the furious malice of his rival. Ahriman and his +followers, disarmed and subdued, will sink into their native darkness; +and virtue will maintain the eternal peace and harmony of the universe. + + + +Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.--Part +II. + +The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by foreigners, and +even by the far greater number of his disciples; but the most careless +observers were struck with the philosophic simplicity of the Persian +worship. "That people," said Herodotus, "rejects the use of temples, +of altars, and of statues, and smiles at the folly of those nations who +imagine that the gods are sprung from, or bear any affinity with, the +human nature. The tops of the highest mountains are the places chosen +for sacrifices. Hymns and prayers are the principal worship; the Supreme +God, who fills the wide circle of heaven, is the object to whom they are +addressed." Yet, at the same time, in the true spirit of a polytheist, +he accuseth them of adoring Earth, Water, Fire, the Winds, and the Sun +and Moon. But the Persians of every age have denied the charge, and +explained the equivocal conduct, which might appear to give a color to +it. The elements, and more particularly Fire, Light, and the Sun, whom +they called Mithra, were the objects of their religious reverence, +because they considered them as the purest symbols, the noblest +productions, and the most powerful agents of the Divine Power and +Nature. + +Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on the +human mind, must exercise our obedience, by enjoining practices of +devotion, for which we can assign no reason; and must acquire our +esteem, by inculcating moral duties analogous to the dictates of our +own hearts. The religion of Zoroaster was abundantly provided with the +former and possessed a sufficient portion of the latter. At the age of +puberty, the faithful Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the +badge of the divine protection; and from that moment all the actions +of his life, even the most indifferent, or the most necessary, were +sanctified by their peculiar prayers, ejaculations, or genuflections; +the omission of which, under any circumstances, was a grievous sin, +not inferior in guilt to the violation of the moral duties. The moral +duties, however, of justice, mercy, liberality, &c., were in their +turn required of the disciple of Zoroaster, who wished to escape the +persecution of Ahriman, and to live with Ormusd in a blissful eternity, +where the degree of felicity will be exactly proportioned to the degree +of virtue and piety. + +But there are some remarkable instances in which Zoroaster lays aside +the prophet, assumes the legislator, and discovers a liberal concern for +private and public happiness, seldom to be found among the grovelling +or visionary schemes of superstition. Fasting and celibacy, the common +means of purchasing the divine favor, he condemns with abhorrence, as +a criminal rejection of the best gifts of Providence. The saint, in the +Magian religion, is obliged to beget children, to plant useful trees, to +destroy noxious animals, to convey water to the dry lands of Persia, and +to work out his salvation by pursuing all the labors of agriculture. +* We may quote from the Zendavesta a wise and benevolent maxim, which +compensates for many an absurdity. "He who sows the ground with care and +diligence acquires a greater stock of religious merit than he could gain +by the repetition of ten thousand prayers." In the spring of every year +a festival was celebrated, destined to represent the primitive equality, +and the present connection, of mankind. The stately kings of Persia, +exchanging their vain pomp for more genuine greatness, freely mingled +with the humblest but most useful of their subjects. On that day the +husbandmen were admitted, without distinction, to the table of the king +and his satraps. The monarch accepted their petitions, inquired into +their grievances, and conversed with them on the most equal terms. "From +your labors," was he accustomed to say, (and to say with truth, if +not with sincerity,) "from your labors we receive our subsistence; you +derive your tranquillity from our vigilance: since, therefore, we are +mutually necessary to each other, let us live together like brothers in +concord and love." Such a festival must indeed have degenerated, in a +wealthy and despotic empire, into a theatrical representation; but it +was at least a comedy well worthy of a royal audience, and which might +sometimes imprint a salutary lesson on the mind of a young prince. + +Had Zoroaster, in all his institutions, invariably supported this +exalted character, his name would deserve a place with those of Numa and +Confucius, and his system would be justly entitled to all the applause, +which it has pleased some of our divines, and even some of our +philosophers, to bestow on it. But in that motley composition, dictated +by reason and passion, by enthusiasm and by selfish motives, some useful +and sublime truths were disgraced by a mixture of the most abject and +dangerous superstition. The Magi, or sacerdotal order, were extremely +numerous, since, as we have already seen, fourscore thousand of them +were convened in a general council. Their forces were multiplied by +discipline. A regular hierarchy was diffused through all the provinces +of Persia; and the Archimagus, who resided at Balch, was respected as +the visible head of the church, and the lawful successor of Zoroaster. +The property of the Magi was very considerable. Besides the less +invidious possession of a large tract of the most fertile lands of +Media, they levied a general tax on the fortunes and the industry of the +Persians. "Though your good works," says the interested prophet, "exceed +in number the leaves of the trees, the drops of rain, the stars in the +heaven, or the sands on the sea-shore, they will all be unprofitable to +you, unless they are accepted by the destour, or priest. To obtain the +acceptation of this guide to salvation, you must faithfully pay him +tithes of all you possess, of your goods, of your lands, and of your +money. If the destour be satisfied, your soul will escape hell tortures; +you will secure praise in this world and happiness in the next. For the +destours are the teachers of religion; they know all things, and they +deliver all men." * + +These convenient maxims of reverence and implicit were doubtless +imprinted with care on the tender minds of youth; since the Magi were +the masters of education in Persia, and to their hands the children even +of the royal family were intrusted. The Persian priests, who were of a +speculative genius, preserved and investigated the secrets of Oriental +philosophy; and acquired, either by superior knowledge, or superior art, +the reputation of being well versed in some occult sciences, which +have derived their appellation from the Magi. Those of more active +dispositions mixed with the world in courts and cities; and it is +observed, that the administration of Artaxerxes was in a great measure +directed by the counsels of the sacerdotal order, whose dignity, either +from policy or devotion, that prince restored to its ancient splendor. + +The first counsel of the Magi was agreeable to the unsociable genius of +their faith, to the practice of ancient kings, and even to the example +of their legislator, who had a victim to a religious war, excited by his +own intolerant zeal. By an edict of Artaxerxes, the exercise of every +worship, except that of Zoroaster, was severely prohibited. The temples +of the Parthians, and the statues of their deified monarchs, were thrown +down with ignominy. The sword of Aristotle (such was the name given by +the Orientals to the polytheism and philosophy of the Greeks) was easily +broken; the flames of persecution soon reached the more stubborn Jews +and Christians; nor did they spare the heretics of their own nation +and religion. The majesty of Ormusd, who was jealous of a rival, was +seconded by the despotism of Artaxerxes, who could not suffer a rebel; +and the schismatics within his vast empire were soon reduced to the +inconsiderable number of eighty thousand. * This spirit of persecution +reflects dishonor on the religion of Zoroaster; but as it was not +productive of any civil commotion, it served to strengthen the new +monarchy, by uniting all the various inhabitants of Persia in the bands +of religious zeal. + +II. Artaxerxes, by his valor and conduct, had wrested the sceptre of the +East from the ancient royal family of Parthia. There still remained +the more difficult task of establishing, throughout the vast extent of +Persia, a uniform and vigorous administration. The weak indulgence of +the Arsacides had resigned to their sons and brothers the principal +provinces, and the greatest offices of the kingdom in the nature of +hereditary possessions. The vitax, or eighteen most powerful satraps, +were permitted to assume the regal title; and the vain pride of the +monarch was delighted with a nominal dominion over so many vassal kings. +Even tribes of barbarians in their mountains, and the Greek cities of +Upper Asia, within their walls, scarcely acknowledged, or seldom obeyed. +any superior; and the Parthian empire exhibited, under other names, a +lively image of the feudal system which has since prevailed in Europe. +But the active victor, at the head of a numerous and disciplined army, +visited in person every province of Persia. The defeat of the boldest +rebels, and the reduction of the strongest fortifications, diffused the +terror of his arms, and prepared the way for the peaceful reception +of his authority. An obstinate resistance was fatal to the chiefs; but +their followers were treated with lenity. A cheerful submission was +rewarded with honors and riches, but the prudent Artaxerxes suffering +no person except himself to assume the title of king, abolished every +intermediate power between the throne and the people. His kingdom, +nearly equal in extent to modern Persia, was, on every side, bounded by +the sea, or by great rivers; by the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Araxes, +the Oxus, and the Indus, by the Caspian Sea, and the Gulf of Persia. +That country was computed to contain, in the last century, five hundred +and fifty-four cities, sixty thousand villages, and about forty millions +of souls. If we compare the administration of the house of Sassan with +that of the house of Sefi, the political influence of the Magian with +that of the Mahometan religion, we shall probably infer, that the +kingdom of Artaxerxes contained at least as great a number of cities, +villages, and inhabitants. But it must likewise be confessed, that in +every age the want of harbors on the sea-coast, and the scarcity of +fresh water in the inland provinces, have been very unfavorable to the +commerce and agriculture of the Persians; who, in the calculation of +their numbers, seem to have indulged one of the nearest, though most +common, artifices of national vanity. + +As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxerxes had triumphed ever the +resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the neighboring states, +who, during the long slumber of his predecessors, had insulted Persia +with impunity. He obtained some easy victories over the wild Scythians +and the effeminate Indians; but the Romans were an enemy, who, by their +past injuries and present power, deserved the utmost efforts of his +arms. A forty years' tranquillity, the fruit of valor and moderation, +had succeeded the victories of Trajan. During the period that elapsed +from the accession of Marcus to the reign of Alexander, the Roman and +the Parthian empires were twice engaged in war; and although the whole +strength of the Arsacides contended with a part only of the forces of +Rome, the event was most commonly in favor of the latter. Macrinus, +indeed, prompted by his precarious situation and pusillanimous temper, +purchased a peace at the expense of near two millions of our money; but +the generals of Marcus, the emperor Severus, and his son, erected many +trophies in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Among their exploits, the +imperfect relation of which would have unseasonably interrupted the +more important series of domestic revolutions, we shall only mention the +repeated calamities of the two great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. + +Seleucia, on the western bank of the Tigris, about forty-five miles +to the north of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the Macedonian +conquests in Upper Asia. Many ages after the fall of their empire, +Seleucia retained the genuine characters of a Grecian colony, arts, +military virtue, and the love of freedom. The independent republic was +governed by a senate of three hundred nobles; the people consisted of +six hundred thousand citizens; the walls were strong, and as long as +concord prevailed among the several orders of the state, they viewed +with contempt the power of the Parthian: but the madness of faction was +sometimes provoked to implore the dangerous aid of the common enemy, +who was posted almost at the gates of the colony. The Parthian monarchs, +like the Mogul sovereigns of Hindostan, delighted in the pastoral +life of their Scythian ancestors; and the Imperial camp was frequently +pitched in the plain of Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, +at the distance of only three miles from Seleucia. The innumerable +attendants on luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and the little +village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city. Under the +reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctesiphon +and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the Greek colony; they +attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian kings; yet both cities +experienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of Seleucia, +with the massacre of three hundred thousand of the inhabitants, +tarnished the glory of the Roman triumph. Seleucia, already exhausted by +the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but +Ctesiphon, in about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered its +strength to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. +The city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in +person, escaped with precipitation; a hundred thousand captives, and a +rich booty, rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. Notwithstanding +these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon and to Seleucia, as +one of the great capitals of the East. In summer, the monarch of Persia +enjoyed at Ecbatana the cool breezes of the mountains of Media; but the +mildness of the climate engaged him to prefer Ctesiphon for his winter +residence. + +From these successful inroads the Romans derived no real or lasting +benefit; nor did they attempt to preserve such distant conquests, +separated from the provinces of the empire by a large tract of +intermediate desert. The reduction of the kingdom of Osrhoene was an +acquisition of less splendor indeed, but of a far more solid advantage. +That little state occupied the northern and most fertile part of +Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the Tigris. Edessa, its capital, +was situated about twenty miles beyond the former of those rivers; +and the inhabitants, since the time of Alexander, were a mixed race +of Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, and Armenians. The feeble sovereigns of +Osrhoene, placed on the dangerous verge of two contending empires, were +attached from inclination to the Parthian cause; but the superior power +of Rome exacted from them a reluctant homage, which is still attested by +their medals. After the conclusion of the Parthian war under Marcus, it +was judged prudent to secure some substantia, pledges of their doubtful +fidelity. Forts were constructed in several parts of the country, and +a Roman garrison was fixed in the strong town of Nisibis. During the +troubles that followed the death of Commodus, the princes of Osrhoene +attempted to shake off the yoke; but the stern policy of Severus +confirmed their dependence, and the perfidy of Caracalla completed the +easy conquest. Abgarus, the last king of Edessa, was sent in chains to +Rome, his dominions reduced into a province, and his capital dignified +with the rank of colony; and thus the Romans, about ten years before +the fall of the Parthian monarchy, obtained a firm and permanent +establishment beyond the Euphrates. + +Prudence as well as glory might have justified a war on the side of +Artaxerxes, had his views been confined to the defence or acquisition +of a useful frontier. but the ambitious Persian openly avowed a far more +extensive design of conquest; and he thought himself able to support his +lofty pretensions by the arms of reason as well as by those of power. +Cyrus, he alleged, had first subdued, and his successors had for a long +time possessed, the whole extent of Asia, as far as the Propontis and +the Ægean Sea; the provinces of Caria and Ionia, under their empire, +had been governed by Persian satraps, and all Egypt, to the confines +of Æthiopia, had acknowledged their sovereignty. Their rights had been +suspended, but not destroyed, by a long usurpation; and as soon as he +received the Persian diadem, which birth and successful valor had placed +upon his head, the first great duty of his station called upon him to +restore the ancient limits and splendor of the monarchy. The Great King, +therefore, (such was the haughty style of his embassies to the emperor +Alexander,) commanded the Romans instantly to depart from all the +provinces of his ancestors, and, yielding to the Persians the empire of +Asia, to content themselves with the undisturbed possession of Europe. +This haughty mandate was delivered by four hundred of the tallest and +most beautiful of the Persians; who, by their fine horses, splendid +arms, and rich apparel, displayed the pride and greatness of their +master. Such an embassy was much less an offer of negotiation than a +declaration of war. Both Alexander Severus and Artaxerxes, collecting +the military force of the Roman and Persian monarchies, resolved in this +important contest to lead their armies in person. + +If we credit what should seem the most authentic of all records, an +oration, still extant, and delivered by the emperor himself to the +senate, we must allow that the victory of Alexander Severus was not +inferior to any of those formerly obtained over the Persians by the +son of Philip. The army of the Great King consisted of one hundred and +twenty thousand horse, clothed in complete armor of steel; of seven +hundred elephants, with towers filled with archers on their backs, and +of eighteen hundred chariots armed with scythes. This formidable +host, the like of which is not to be found in eastern history, and has +scarcely been imagined in eastern romance, was discomfited in a great +battle, in which the Roman Alexander proved himself an intrepid soldier +and a skilful general. The Great King fled before his valor; an immense +booty, and the conquest of Mesopotamia, were the immediate fruits of +this signal victory. Such are the circumstances of this ostentatious and +improbable relation, dictated, as it too plainly appears, by the vanity +of the monarch, adorned by the unblushing servility of his flatterers, +and received without contradiction by a distant and obsequious senate. +Far from being inclined to believe that the arms of Alexander obtained +any memorable advantage over the Persians, we are induced to suspect +that all this blaze of imaginary glory was designed to conceal some real +disgrace. + +Our suspicious are confirmed by the authority of a contemporary +historian, who mentions the virtues of Alexander with respect, and +his faults with candor. He describes the judicious plan which had been +formed for the conduct of the war. Three Roman armies were destined +to invade Persia at the same time, and by different roads. But the +operations of the campaign, though wisely concerted, were not executed +either with ability or success. The first of these armies, as soon as it +had entered the marshy plains of Babylon, towards the artificial +conflux of the Euphrates and the Tigris, was encompassed by the superior +numbers, and destroyed by the arrows of the enemy. The alliance of +Chosroes, king of Armenia, and the long tract of mountainous country, +in which the Persian cavalry was of little service, opened a secure +entrance into the heart of Media, to the second of the Roman armies. +These brave troops laid waste the adjacent provinces, and by several +successful actions against Artaxerxes, gave a faint color to the +emperor's vanity. But the retreat of this victorious army was imprudent, +or at least unfortunate. In repassing the mountains, great numbers of +soldiers perished by the badness of the roads, and the severity of +the winter season. It had been resolved, that whilst these two great +detachments penetrated into the opposite extremes of the Persian +dominions, the main body, under the command of Alexander himself, should +support their attack, by invading the centre of the kingdom. But the +unexperienced youth, influenced by his mother's counsels, and perhaps by +his own fears, deserted the bravest troops, and the fairest prospect of +victory; and after consuming in Mesopotamia an inactive and inglorious +summer, he led back to Antioch an army diminished by sickness, and +provoked by disappointment. The behavior of Artaxerxes had been very +different. Flying with rapidity from the hills of Media to the marshes +of the Euphrates, he had everywhere opposed the invaders in person; and +in either fortune had united with the ablest conduct the most undaunted +resolution. But in several obstinate engagements against the veteran +legions of Rome, the Persian monarch had lost the flower of his troops. +Even his victories had weakened his power. The favorable opportunities +of the absence of Alexander, and of the confusions that followed that +emperor's death, presented themselves in vain to his ambition. Instead +of expelling the Romans, as he pretended, from the continent of Asia, +he found himself unable to wrest from their hands the little province of +Mesopotamia. + +The reign of Artaxerxes, which, from the last defeat of the Parthians, +lasted only fourteen years, forms a memorable æra in the history of the +East, and even in that of Rome. His character seems to have been marked +by those bold and commanding features, that generally distinguish the +princes who conquer, from those who inherit an empire. Till the last +period of the Persian monarchy, his code of laws was respected as the +groundwork of their civil and religious policy. Several of his sayings +are preserved. One of them in particular discovers a deep insight into +the constitution of government. "The authority of the prince," said +Artaxerxes, "must be defended by a military force; that force can only +be maintained by taxes; all taxes must, at last, fall upon agriculture; +and agriculture can never flourish except under the protection of +justice and moderation." Artaxerxes bequeathed his new empire, and his +ambitious designs against the Romans, to Sapor, a son not unworthy of +his great father; but those designs were too extensive for the power +of Persia, and served only to involve both nations in a long series of +destructive wars and reciprocal calamities. + +The Persians, long since civilized and corrupted, were very far from +possessing the martial independence, and the intrepid hardiness, both +of mind and body, which have rendered the northern barbarians masters of +the world. The science of war, that constituted the more rational +force of Greece and Rome, as it now does of Europe, never made any +considerable progress in the East. Those disciplined evolutions +which harmonize and animate a confused multitude, were unknown to the +Persians. They were equally unskilled in the arts of constructing, +besieging, or defending regular fortifications. They trusted more to +their numbers than to their courage; more to their courage than to their +discipline. The infantry was a half-armed, spiritless crowd of peasants, +levied in haste by the allurements of plunder, and as easily dispersed +by a victory as by a defeat. The monarch and his nobles transported into +the camp the pride and luxury of the seraglio. Their military operations +were impeded by a useless train of women, eunuchs, horses, and camels; +and in the midst of a successful campaign, the Persian host was often +separated or destroyed by an unexpected famine. + +But the nobles of Persia, in the bosom of luxury and despotism, +preserved a strong sense of personal gallantry and national honor. From +the age of seven years they were taught to speak truth, to shoot with +the bow, and to ride; and it was universally confessed, that in the two +last of these arts, they had made a more than common proficiency. +The most distinguished youth were educated under the monarch's eye, +practised their exercises in the gate of his palace, and were severely +trained up to the habits of temperance and obedience, in their long and +laborious parties of hunting. In every province, the satrap maintained +a like school of military virtue. The Persian nobles (so natural is +the idea of feudal tenures) received from the king's bounty lands and +houses, on the condition of their service in war. They were ready on the +first summons to mount on horseback, with a martial and splendid train +of followers, and to join the numerous bodies of guards, who were +carefully selected from among the most robust slaves, and the bravest +adventures of Asia. These armies, both of light and of heavy cavalry, +equally formidable by the impetuosity of their charge and the rapidity +of their motions, threatened, as an impending cloud, the eastern +provinces of the declining empire of Rome. + + + +Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.--Part I. + + The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In + The Time Of The Emperor Decius. + +The government and religion of Persia have deserved some notice, from +their connection with the decline and fall of the Roman empire. We shall +occasionally mention the Scythian or Sarmatian tribes, * which, with +their arms and horses, their flocks and herds, their wives and families, +wandered over the immense plains which spread themselves from the +Caspian Sea to the Vistula, from the confines of Persia to those of +Germany. But the warlike Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and +at length overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a much +more important place in this history, and possess a stronger, and, if +we may use the expression, a more domestic, claim to our attention and +regard. The most civilized nations of modern Europe issued from the +woods of Germany; and in the rude institutions of those barbarians we +may still distinguish the original principles of our present laws and +manners. In their primitive state of simplicity and independence, the +Germans were surveyed by the discerning eye, and delineated by the +masterly pencil, of Tacitus, the first of historians who applied the +science of philosophy to the study of facts. The expressive conciseness +of his descriptions has served to exercise the diligence of innumerable +antiquarians, and to excite the genius and penetration of the +philosophic historians of our own times. The subject, however various +and important, has already been so frequently, so ably, and so +successfully discussed, that it is now grown familiar to the reader, +and difficult to the writer. We shall therefore content ourselves +with observing, and indeed with repeating, some of the most important +circumstances of climate, of manners, and of institutions, which +rendered the wild barbarians of Germany such formidable enemies to the +Roman power. + +Ancient Germany, excluding from its independent limits the province +westward of the Rhine, which had submitted to the Roman yoke, extended +itself over a third part of Europe. Almost the whole of modern Germany, +Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Livonia, Prussia, and the greater part +of Poland, were peopled by the various tribes of one great nation, whose +complexion, manners, and language denoted a common origin, and preserved +a striking resemblance. On the west, ancient Germany was divided by +the Rhine from the Gallic, and on the south, by the Danube, from the +Illyrian, provinces of the empire. A ridge of hills, rising from the +Danube, and called the Carpathian Mountains, covered Germany on the +side of Dacia or Hungary. The eastern frontier was faintly marked by the +mutual fears of the Germans and the Sarmatians, and was often confounded +by the mixture of warring and confederating tribes of the two nations. +In the remote darkness of the north, the ancients imperfectly descried +a frozen ocean that lay beyond the Baltic Sea, and beyond the Peninsula, +or islands of Scandinavia. + +Some ingenious writers have suspected that Europe was much colder +formerly than it is at present; and the most ancient descriptions of the +climate of Germany tend exceedingly to confirm their theory. The general +complaints of intense frost and eternal winter, are perhaps little to be +regarded, since we have no method of reducing to the accurate standard +of the thermometer, the feelings, or the expressions, of an orator +born in the happier regions of Greece or Asia. But I shall select two +remarkable circumstances of a less equivocal nature. 1. The great +rivers which covered the Roman provinces, the Rhine and the Danube, +were frequently frozen over, and capable of supporting the most enormous +weights. The barbarians, who often chose that severe season for their +inroads, transported, without apprehension or danger, their numerous +armies, their cavalry, and their heavy wagons, over a vast and solid +bridge of ice. Modern ages have not presented an instance of a like +phenomenon. 2. The reindeer, that useful animal, from whom the savage +of the North derives the best comforts of his dreary life, is of a +constitution that supports, and even requires, the most intense cold. +He is found on the rock of Spitzberg, within ten degrees of the Pole; he +seems to delight in the snows of Lapland and Siberia: but at present he +cannot subsist, much less multiply, in any country to the south of the +Baltic. In the time of Cæsar the reindeer, as well as the elk and the +wild bull, was a native of the Hercynian forest, which then overshadowed +a great part of Germany and Poland. The modern improvements sufficiently +explain the causes of the diminution of the cold. These immense woods +have been gradually cleared, which intercepted from the earth the rays +of the sun. The morasses have been drained, and, in proportion as the +soil has been cultivated, the air has become more temperate. Canada, at +this day, is an exact picture of ancient Germany. Although situated in +the same parallel with the finest provinces of France and England, +that country experiences the most rigorous cold. The reindeer are very +numerous, the ground is covered with deep and lasting snow, and the +great river of St. Lawrence is regularly frozen, in a season when the +waters of the Seine and the Thames are usually free from ice. + +It is difficult to ascertain, and easy to exaggerate, the influence of +the climate of ancient Germany over the minds and bodies of the natives. +Many writers have supposed, and most have allowed, though, as it should +seem, without any adequate proof, that the rigorous cold of the North +was favorable to long life and generative vigor, that the women were +more fruitful, and the human species more prolific, than in warmer or +more temperate climates. We may assert, with greater confidence, that +the keen air of Germany formed the large and masculine limbs of the +natives, who were, in general, of a more lofty stature than the people +of the South, gave them a kind of strength better adapted to violent +exertions than to patient labor, and inspired them with constitutional +bravery, which is the result of nerves and spirits. The severity of +a winter campaign, that chilled the courage of the Roman troops, was +scarcely felt by these hardy children of the North, who, in their turn, +were unable to resist the summer heats, and dissolved away in languor +and sickness under the beams of an Italian sun. + + + +Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.--Part II. + +There is not any where upon the globe a large tract of country, which we +have discovered destitute of inhabitants, or whose first population can +be fixed with any degree of historical certainty. And yet, as the most +philosophic minds can seldom refrain from investigating the infancy +of great nations, our curiosity consumes itself in toilsome and +disappointed efforts. When Tacitus considered the purity of the German +blood, and the forbidding aspect of the country, he was disposed to +pronounce those barbarians Indigen, or natives of the soil. We may +allow with safety, and perhaps with truth, that ancient Germany was +not originally peopled by any foreign colonies already formed into a +political society; but that the name and nation received their existence +from the gradual union of some wandering savages of the Hercynian woods. +To assert those savages to have been the spontaneous production of +the earth which they inhabited would be a rash inference, condemned by +religion, and unwarranted by reason. + +Such rational doubt is but ill suited with the genius of popular vanity. +Among the nations who have adopted the Mosaic history of the world, the +ark of Noah has been of the same use, as was formerly to the Greeks and +Romans the siege of Troy. On a narrow basis of acknowledged truth, an +immense but rude superstructure of fable has been erected; and the wild +Irishman, as well as the wild Tartar, could point out the individual son +of Japhet, from whose loins his ancestors were lineally descended. The +last century abounded with antiquarians of profound learning and easy +faith, who, by the dim light of legends and traditions, of conjectures +and etymologies, conducted the great grandchildren of Noah from the +Tower of Babel to the extremities of the globe. Of these judicious +critics, one of the most entertaining was Oaus Rudbeck, professor in the +university of Upsal. Whatever is celebrated either in history or fable, +this zealous patriot ascribes to his country. From Sweden (which formed +so considerable a part of ancient Germany) the Greeks themselves derived +their alphabetical characters, their astronomy, and their religion. Of +that delightful region (for such it appeared to the eyes of a native) +the Atlantis of Plato, the country of the Hyperboreans, the gardens of +the Hesperides, the Fortunate Islands, and even the Elysian Fields, were +all but faint and imperfect transcripts. A clime so profusely favored by +Nature could not long remain desert after the flood. The learned Rudbeck +allows the family of Noah a few years to multiply from eight to about +twenty thousand persons. He then disperses them into small colonies to +replenish the earth, and to propagate the human species. The German +or Swedish detachment (which marched, if I am not mistaken, under the +command of Askenaz, the son of Gomer, the son of Japhet) distinguished +itself by a more than common diligence in the prosecution of this +great work. The northern hive cast its swarms over the greatest part of +Europe, Africa, and Asia; and (to use the author's metaphor) the blood +circulated from the extremities to the heart. + +But all this well-labored system of German antiquities is annihilated +by a single fact, too well attested to admit of any doubt, and of too +decisive a nature to leave room for any reply. The Germans, in the age +of Tacitus, were unacquainted with the use of letters; and the use of +letters is the principal circumstance that distinguishes a civilized +people from a herd of savages incapable of knowledge or reflection. +Without that artificial help, the human memory soon dissipates or +corrupts the ideas intrusted to her charge; and the nobler faculties of +the mind, no longer supplied with models or with materials, gradually +forget their powers; the judgment becomes feeble and lethargic, the +imagination languid or irregular. Fully to apprehend this important +truth, let us attempt, in an improved society, to calculate the immense +distance between the man of learning and the illiterate peasant. The +former, by reading and reflection, multiplies his own experience, and +lives in distant ages and remote countries; whilst the latter, rooted to +a single spot, and confined to a few years of existence, surpasses but +very little his fellow-laborer, the ox, in the exercise of his mental +faculties. The same, and even a greater, difference will be found +between nations than between individuals; and we may safely pronounce, +that without some species of writing, no people has ever preserved the +faithful annals of their history, ever made any considerable progress +in the abstract sciences, or ever possessed, in any tolerable degree of +perfection, the useful and agreeable arts of life. + +Of these arts, the ancient Germans were wretchedly destitute. They +passed their lives in a state of ignorance and poverty, which it has +pleased some declaimers to dignify with the appellation of virtuous +simplicity. * Modern Germany is said to contain about two thousand three +hundred walled towns. In a much wider extent of country, the geographer +Ptolemy could discover no more than ninety places which he decorates +with the name of cities; though, according to our ideas, they would but +ill deserve that splendid title. We can only suppose them to have +been rude fortifications, constructed in the centre of the woods, and +designed to secure the women, children, and cattle, whilst the warriors +of the tribe marched out to repel a sudden invasion. But Tacitus +asserts, as a well-known fact, that the Germans, in his time, had no +cities; and that they affected to despise the works of Roman industry, +as places of confinement rather than of security. Their edifices were +not even contiguous, or formed into regular villas; each barbarian fixed +his independent dwelling on the spot to which a plain, a wood, or a +stream of fresh water, had induced him to give the preference. Neither +stone, nor brick, nor tiles, were employed in these slight habitations. +They were indeed no more than low huts, of a circular figure, built of +rough timber, thatched with straw, and pierced at the top to leave a +free passage for the smoke. In the most inclement winter, the hardy +German was satisfied with a scanty garment made of the skin of some +animal. The nations who dwelt towards the North clothed themselves in +furs; and the women manufactured for their own use a coarse kind of +linen. The game of various sorts, with which the forests of Germany were +plentifully stocked, supplied its inhabitants with food and exercise. +Their monstrous herds of cattle, less remarkable indeed for their beauty +than for their utility, formed the principal object of their wealth. A +small quantity of corn was the only produce exacted from the earth; the +use of orchards or artificial meadows was unknown to the Germans; nor +can we expect any improvements in agriculture from a people, whose +prosperity every year experienced a general change by a new division of +the arable lands, and who, in that strange operation, avoided disputes, +by suffering a great part of their territory to lie waste and without +tillage. + +Gold, silver, and iron, were extremely scarce in Germany. Its barbarous +inhabitants wanted both skill and patience to investigate those rich +veins of silver, which have so liberally rewarded the attention of the +princes of Brunswick and Saxony. Sweden, which now supplies Europe with +iron, was equally ignorant of its own riches; and the appearance of the +arms of the Germans furnished a sufficient proof how little iron they +were able to bestow on what they must have deemed the noblest use of +that metal. The various transactions of peace and war had introduced +some Roman coins (chiefly silver) among the borderers of the Rhine and +Danube; but the more distant tribes were absolutely unacquainted with +the use of money, carried on their confined traffic by the exchange of +commodities, and prized their rude earthen vessels as of equal value +with the silver vases, the presents of Rome to their princes and +ambassadors. To a mind capable of reflection, such leading facts convey +more instruction, than a tedious detail of subordinate circumstances. +The value of money has been settled by general consent to express our +wants and our property, as letters were invented to express our ideas; +and both these institutions, by giving a more active energy to the +powers and passions of human nature, have contributed to multiply the +objects they were designed to represent. The use of gold and silver is +in a great measure factitious; but it would be impossible to enumerate +the important and various services which agriculture, and all the arts, +have received from iron, when tempered and fashioned by the operation +of fire, and the dexterous hand of man. Money, in a word, is the most +universal incitement, iron the most powerful instrument, of human +industry; and it is very difficult to conceive by what means a people, +neither actuated by the one, nor seconded by the other, could emerge +from the grossest barbarism. + +If we contemplate a savage nation in any part of the globe, a supine +indolence and a carelessness of futurity will be found to constitute +their general character. In a civilized state, every faculty of man +is expanded and exercised; and the great chain of mutual dependence +connects and embraces the several members of society. The most numerous +portion of it is employed in constant and useful labor. The select few, +placed by fortune above that necessity, can, however, fill up their time +by the pursuits of interest or glory, by the improvement of their estate +or of their understanding, by the duties, the pleasures, and even the +follies of social life. The Germans were not possessed of these varied +resources. The care of the house and family, the management of the +land and cattle, were delegated to the old and the infirm, to women and +slaves. The lazy warrior, destitute of every art that might employ his +leisure hours, consumed his days and nights in the animal gratifications +of sleep and food. And yet, by a wonderful diversity of nature, +(according to the remark of a writer who had pierced into its darkest +recesses,) the same barbarians are by turns the most indolent and +the most restless of mankind. They delight in sloth, they detest +tranquility. The languid soul, oppressed with its own weight, anxiously +required some new and powerful sensation; and war and danger were the +only amusements adequate to its fierce temper. The sound that summoned +the German to arms was grateful to his ear. It roused him from his +uncomfortable lethargy, gave him an active pursuit, and, by strong +exercise of the body, and violent emotions of the mind, restored him to +a more lively sense of his existence. In the dull intervals of peace, +these barbarians were immoderately addicted to deep gaming and excessive +drinking; both of which, by different means, the one by inflaming their +passions, the other by extinguishing their reason, alike relieved them +from the pain of thinking. They gloried in passing whole days and nights +at table; and the blood of friends and relations often stained their +numerous and drunken assemblies. Their debts of honor (for in that light +they have transmitted to us those of play) they discharged with the most +romantic fidelity. The desperate gamester, who had staked his person and +liberty on a last throw of the dice, patiently submitted to the decision +of fortune, and suffered himself to be bound, chastised, and sold into +remote slavery, by his weaker but more lucky antagonist. + +Strong beer, a liquor extracted with very little art from wheat or +barley, and corrupted (as it is strongly expressed by Tacitus) into +a certain semblance of wine, was sufficient for the gross purposes of +German debauchery. But those who had tasted the rich wines of Italy, +and afterwards of Gaul, sighed for that more delicious species of +intoxication. They attempted not, however, (as has since been executed +with so much success,) to naturalize the vine on the banks of the Rhine +and Danube; nor did they endeavor to procure by industry the materials +of an advantageous commerce. To solicit by labor what might be ravished +by arms, was esteemed unworthy of the German spirit. The intemperate +thirst of strong liquors often urged the barbarians to invade the +provinces on which art or nature had bestowed those much envied +presents. The Tuscan who betrayed his country to the Celtic nations, +attracted them into Italy by the prospect of the rich fruits and +delicious wines, the productions of a happier climate. And in the same +manner the German auxiliaries, invited into France during the civil +wars of the sixteenth century, were allured by the promise of plenteous +quarters in the provinces of Champaigne and Burgundy. Drunkenness, the +most illiberal, but not the most dangerous of our vices, was sometimes +capable, in a less civilized state of mankind, of occasioning a battle, +a war, or a revolution. + +The climate of ancient Germany has been modified, and the soil +fertilized, by the labor of ten centuries from the time of Charlemagne. +The same extent of ground which at present maintains, in ease and +plenty, a million of husbandmen and artificers, was unable to supply a +hundred thousand lazy warriors with the simple necessaries of life. +The Germans abandoned their immense forests to the exercise of hunting, +employed in pasturage the most considerable part of their lands, +bestowed on the small remainder a rude and careless cultivation, and +then accused the scantiness and sterility of a country that refused to +maintain the multitude of its inhabitants. When the return of famine +severely admonished them of the importance of the arts, the national +distress was sometimes alleviated by the emigration of a third, perhaps, +or a fourth part of their youth. The possession and the enjoyment of +property are the pledges which bind a civilized people to an improved +country. But the Germans, who carried with them what they most valued, +their arms, their cattle, and their women, cheerfully abandoned the vast +silence of their woods for the unbounded hopes of plunder and conquest. +The innumerable swarms that issued, or seemed to issue, from the great +storehouse of nations, were multiplied by the fears of the vanquished, +and by the credulity of succeeding ages. And from facts thus +exaggerated, an opinion was gradually established, and has been +supported by writers of distinguished reputation, that, in the age of +Cæsar and Tacitus, the inhabitants of the North were far more numerous +than they are in our days. A more serious inquiry into the causes of +population seems to have convinced modern philosophers of the falsehood, +and indeed the impossibility, of the supposition. To the names of +Mariana and of Machiavel, we can oppose the equal names of Robertson and +Hume. + +A warlike nation like the Germans, without either cities, letters, arts, +or money, found some compensation for this savage state in the enjoyment +of liberty. Their poverty secured their freedom, since our desires +and our possessions are the strongest fetters of despotism. "Among the +Suiones (says Tacitus) riches are held in honor. They are therefore +subject to an absolute monarch, who, instead of intrusting his people +with the free use of arms, as is practised in the rest of Germany, +commits them to the safe custody, not of a citizen, or even of a +freedman, but of a slave. The neighbors of the Suiones, the Sitones, are +sunk even below servitude; they obey a woman." In the mention of these +exceptions, the great historian sufficiently acknowledges the general +theory of government. We are only at a loss to conceive by what means +riches and despotism could penetrate into a remote corner of the North, +and extinguish the generous flame that blazed with such fierceness on +the frontier of the Roman provinces, or how the ancestors of those Danes +and Norwegians, so distinguished in latter ages by their unconquered +spirit, could thus tamely resign the great character of German liberty. +Some tribes, however, on the coast of the Baltic, acknowledged the +authority of kings, though without relinquishing the rights of men, +but in the far greater part of Germany, the form of government was a +democracy, tempered, indeed, and controlled, not so much by general +and positive laws, as by the occasional ascendant of birth or valor, of +eloquence or superstition. + +Civil governments, in their first institution, are voluntary +associations for mutual defence. To obtain the desired end, it is +absolutely necessary that each individual should conceive himself +obliged to submit his private opinions and actions to the judgment of +the greater number of his associates. The German tribes were contented +with this rude but liberal outline of political society. As soon as a +youth, born of free parents, had attained the age of manhood, he was +introduced into the general council of his countrymen, solemnly invested +with a shield and spear, and adopted as an equal and worthy member of +the military commonwealth. The assembly of the warriors of the tribe +was convened at stated seasons, or on sudden emergencies. The trial of +public offences, the election of magistrates, and the great business +of peace and war, were determined by its independent voice. Sometimes +indeed, these important questions were previously considered and +prepared in a more select council of the principal chieftains. The +magistrates might deliberate and persuade, the people only could resolve +and execute; and the resolutions of the Germans were for the most part +hasty and violent. Barbarians accustomed to place their freedom in +gratifying the present passion, and their courage in overlooking all +future consequences, turned away with indignant contempt from the +remonstrances of justice and policy, and it was the practice to signify +by a hollow murmur their dislike of such timid counsels. But whenever +a more popular orator proposed to vindicate the meanest citizen +from either foreign or domestic injury, whenever he called upon his +fellow-countrymen to assert the national honor, or to pursue some +enterprise full of danger and glory, a loud clashing of shields and +spears expressed the eager applause of the assembly. For the Germans +always met in arms, and it was constantly to be dreaded, lest an +irregular multitude, inflamed with faction and strong liquors, should +use those arms to enforce, as well as to declare, their furious +resolves. We may recollect how often the diets of Poland have been +polluted with blood, and the more numerous party has been compelled to +yield to the more violent and seditious. + +A general of the tribe was elected on occasions of danger; and, if +the danger was pressing and extensive, several tribes concurred in the +choice of the same general. The bravest warrior was named to lead his +countrymen into the field, by his example rather than by his commands. +But this power, however limited, was still invidious. It expired with +the war, and in time of peace the German tribes acknowledged not +any supreme chief. Princes were, however, appointed, in the general +assembly, to administer justice, or rather to compose differences, in +their respective districts. In the choice of these magistrates, as much +regard was shown to birth as to merit. To each was assigned, by the +public, a guard, and a council of a hundred persons, and the first of +the princes appears to have enjoyed a preeminence of rank and honor +which sometimes tempted the Romans to compliment him with the regal +title. + +The comparative view of the powers of the magistrates, in two remarkable +instances, is alone sufficient to represent the whole system of German +manners. The disposal of the landed property within their district was +absolutely vested in their hands, and they distributed it every year +according to a new division. At the same time they were not authorized +to punish with death, to imprison, or even to strike a private +citizen. A people thus jealous of their persons, and careless of their +possessions, must have been totally destitute of industry and the arts, +but animated with a high sense of honor and independence. + + + +Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.--Part III. + +The Germans respected only those duties which they imposed on +themselves. The most obscure soldier resisted with disdain the authority +of the magistrates. "The noblest youths blushed not to be numbered among +the faithful companions of some renowned chief, to whom they devoted +their arms and service. A noble emulation prevailed among the +companions, to obtain the first place in the esteem of their chief; +amongst the chiefs, to acquire the greatest number of valiant +companions. To be ever surrounded by a band of select youths was the +pride and strength of the chiefs, their ornament in peace, their defence +in war. The glory of such distinguished heroes diffused itself beyond +the narrow limits of their own tribe. Presents and embassies solicited +their friendship, and the fame of their arms often insured victory to +the party which they espoused. In the hour of danger it was shameful for +the chief to be surpassed in valor by his companions; shameful for the +companions not to equal the valor of their chief. To survive his fall +in battle, was indelible infamy. To protect his person, and to adorn his +glory with the trophies of their own exploits, were the most sacred of +their duties. The chiefs combated for victory, the companions for the +chief. The noblest warriors, whenever their native country was sunk into +the laziness of peace, maintained their numerous bands in some distant +scene of action, to exercise their restless spirit, and to acquire +renown by voluntary dangers. Gifts worthy of soldiers--the warlike +steed, the bloody and even victorious lance--were the rewards which the +companions claimed from the liberality of their chief. The rude plenty +of his hospitable board was the only pay that he could bestow, or they +would accept. War, rapine, and the free-will offerings of his friends, +supplied the materials of this munificence. This institution, however it +might accidentally weaken the several republics, invigorated the general +character of the Germans, and even ripened amongst them all the +virtues of which barbarians are susceptible; the faith and valor, the +hospitality and the courtesy, so conspicuous long afterwards in the ages +of chivalry. The honorable gifts, bestowed by the chief on his brave +companions, have been supposed, by an ingenious writer, to contain the +first rudiments of the fiefs, distributed after the conquest of the +Roman provinces, by the barbarian lords among their vassals, with a +similar duty of homage and military service. These conditions are, +however, very repugnant to the maxims of the ancient Germans, who +delighted in mutual presents; but without either imposing, or accepting, +the weight of obligations. + +"In the days of chivalry, or more properly of romance, all the men were +brave, and all the women were chaste;" and notwithstanding the latter of +these virtues is acquired and preserved with much more difficulty than +the former, it is ascribed, almost without exception, to the wives of +the ancient Germans. Polygamy was not in use, except among the princes, +and among them only for the sake of multiplying their alliances. +Divorces were prohibited by manners rather than by laws. Adulteries were +punished as rare and inexpiable crimes; nor was seduction justified by +example and fashion. We may easily discover that Tacitus indulges an +honest pleasure in the contrast of barbarian virtue with the dissolute +conduct of the Roman ladies; yet there are some striking circumstances +that give an air of truth, or at least probability, to the conjugal +faith and chastity of the Germans. + +Although the progress of civilization has undoubtedly contributed to +assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have been less +favorable to the virtue of chastity, whose most dangerous enemy is the +softness of the mind. The refinements of life corrupt while they polish +the intercourse of the sexes. The gross appetite of love becomes +most dangerous when it is elevated, or rather, indeed, disguised by +sentimental passion. The elegance of dress, of motion, and of +manners, gives a lustre to beauty, and inflames the senses through the +imagination. Luxurious entertainments, midnight dances, and licentious +spectacles, present at once temptation and opportunity to female +frailty. From such dangers the unpolished wives of the barbarians were +secured by poverty, solitude, and the painful cares of a domestic life. +The German huts, open, on every side, to the eye of indiscretion or +jealousy, were a better safeguard of conjugal fidelity, than the walls, +the bolts, and the eunuchs of a Persian haram. To this reason another +may be added, of a more honorable nature. The Germans treated their +women with esteem and confidence, consulted them on every occasion +of importance, and fondly believed, that in their breasts resided a +sanctity and wisdom more than human. Some of the interpreters of fate, +such as Velleda, in the Batavian war, governed, in the name of the +deity, the fiercest nations of Germany. The rest of the sex, without +being adored as goddesses, were respected as the free and equal +companions of soldiers; associated even by the marriage ceremony to a +life of toil, of danger, and of glory. In their great invasions, the +camps of the barbarians were filled with a multitude of women, who +remained firm and undaunted amidst the sound of arms, the various forms +of destruction, and the honorable wounds of their sons and husbands. +Fainting armies of Germans have, more than once, been driven back upon +the enemy, by the generous despair of the women, who dreaded death much +less than servitude. If the day was irrecoverably lost, they well knew +how to deliver themselves and their children, with their own hands, from +an insulting victor. Heroines of such a cast may claim our admiration; +but they were most assuredly neither lovely, nor very susceptible of +love. Whilst they affected to emulate the stern virtues of man, they +must have resigned that attractive softness, in which principally +consist the charm and weakness of woman. Conscious pride taught +the German females to suppress every tender emotion that stood in +competition with honor, and the first honor of the sex has ever been +that of chastity. The sentiments and conduct of these high-spirited +matrons may, at once, be considered as a cause, as an effect, and as a +proof of the general character of the nation. Female courage, however it +may be raised by fanaticism, or confirmed by habit, can be only a faint +and imperfect imitation of the manly valor that distinguishes the age or +country in which it may be found. + +The religious system of the Germans (if the wild opinions of savages can +deserve that name) was dictated by their wants, their fears, and their +ignorance. They adored the great visible objects and agents of nature, +the Sun and the Moon, the Fire and the Earth; together with those +imaginary deities, who were supposed to preside over the most important +occupations of human life. They were persuaded, that, by some ridiculous +arts of divination, they could discover the will of the superior beings, +and that human sacrifices were the most precious and acceptable offering +to their altars. Some applause has been hastily bestowed on the sublime +notion, entertained by that people, of the Deity, whom they neither +confined within the walls of the temple, nor represented by any human +figure; but when we recollect, that the Germans were unskilled in +architecture, and totally unacquainted with the art of sculpture, we +shall readily assign the true reason of a scruple, which arose not so +much from a superiority of reason, as from a want of ingenuity. The +only temples in Germany were dark and ancient groves, consecrated by the +reverence of succeeding generations. Their secret gloom, the imagined +residence of an invisible power, by presenting no distinct object +of fear or worship, impressed the mind with a still deeper sense of +religious horror; and the priests, rude and illiterate as they were, had +been taught by experience the use of every artifice that could preserve +and fortify impressions so well suited to their own interest. + +The same ignorance, which renders barbarians incapable of conceiving or +embracing the useful restraints of laws, exposes them naked and unarmed +to the blind terrors of superstition. The German priests, improving this +favorable temper of their countrymen, had assumed a jurisdiction even in +temporal concerns, which the magistrate could not venture to exercise; +and the haughty warrior patiently submitted to the lash of correction, +when it was inflicted, not by any human power, but by the immediate +order of the god of war. The defects of civil policy were sometimes +supplied by the interposition of ecclesiastical authority. The latter +was constantly exerted to maintain silence and decency in the popular +assemblies; and was sometimes extended to a more enlarged concern for +the national welfare. A solemn procession was occasionally celebrated in +the present countries of Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The unknown symbol +of the Earth, covered with a thick veil, was placed on a carriage drawn +by cows; and in this manner the goddess, whose common residence was in +the Isles of Rugen, visited several adjacent tribes of her worshippers. +During her progress the sound of war was hushed, quarrels were +suspended, arms laid aside, and the restless Germans had an opportunity +of tasting the blessings of peace and harmony. The truce of God, so +often and so ineffectually proclaimed by the clergy of the eleventh +century, was an obvious imitation of this ancient custom. + +But the influence of religion was far more powerful to inflame, than to +moderate, the fierce passions of the Germans. Interest and fanaticism +often prompted its ministers to sanctify the most daring and the most +unjust enterprises, by the approbation of Heaven, and full assurances +of success. The consecrated standards, long revered in the groves of +superstition, were placed in the front of the battle; and the hostile +army was devoted with dire execrations to the gods of war and of +thunder. In the faith of soldiers (and such were the Germans) cowardice +is the most unpardonable of sins. A brave man was the worthy favorite +of their martial deities; the wretch who had lost his shield was alike +banished from the religious and civil assemblies of his countrymen. +Some tribes of the north seem to have embraced the doctrine of +transmigration, others imagined a gross paradise of immortal +drunkenness. All agreed, that a life spent in arms, and a glorious death +in battle, were the best preparations for a happy futurity, either in +this or in another world. + +The immortality so vainly promised by the priests, was, in some degree, +conferred by the bards. That singular order of men has most deservedly +attracted the notice of all who have attempted to investigate the +antiquities of the Celts, the Scandinavians, and the Germans. Their +genius and character, as well as the reverence paid to that important +office, have been sufficiently illustrated. But we cannot so easily +express, or even conceive, the enthusiasm of arms and glory which they +kindled in the breast of their audience. Among a polished people, a +taste for poetry is rather an amusement of the fancy, than a passion +of the soul. And yet, when in calm retirement we peruse the combats +described by Homer or Tasso, we are insensibly seduced by the fiction, +and feel a momentary glow of martial ardor. But how faint, how cold is +the sensation which a peaceful mind can receive from solitary study! It +was in the hour of battle, or in the feast of victory, that the bards +celebrated the glory of the heroes of ancient days, the ancestors of +those warlike chieftains, who listened with transport to their artless +but animated strains. The view of arms and of danger heightened the +effect of the military song; and the passions which it tended to +excite, the desire of fame, and the contempt of death, were the habitual +sentiments of a German mind. * + +Such was the situation, and such were the manners of the ancient +Germans. Their climate, their want of learning, of arts, and of laws, +their notions of honor, of gallantry, and of religion, their sense of +freedom, impatience of peace, and thirst of enterprise, all contributed +to form a people of military heroes. And yet we find, that during more +than two hundred and fifty years that elapsed from the defeat of +Varus to the reign of Decius, these formidable barbarians made few +considerable attempts, and not any material impression on the luxurious +and enslaved provinces of the empire. Their progress was checked by +their want of arms and discipline, and their fury was diverted by the +intestine divisions of ancient Germany. + +I. It has been observed, with ingenuity, and not without truth, that the +command of iron soon gives a nation the command of gold. But the rude +tribes of Germany, alike destitute of both those valuable metals, were +reduced slowly to acquire, by their unassisted strength, the possession +of the one as well as the other. The face of a German army displayed +their poverty of iron. Swords, and the longer kind of lances, they could +seldom use. Their frame (as they called them in their own language) were +long spears headed with a sharp but narrow iron point, and which, as +occasion required, they either darted from a distance, or pushed in +close onset. With this spear, and with a shield, their cavalry was +contented. A multitude of darts, scattered with incredible force, were +an additional resource of the infantry. Their military dress, when they +wore any, was nothing more than a loose mantle. A variety of colors was +the only ornament of their wooden or osier shields. Few of the chiefs +were distinguished by cuirasses, scarcely any by helmets. Though the +horses of Germany were neither beautiful, swift, nor practised in the +skilful evolutions of the Roman manege, several of the nations obtained +renown by their cavalry; but, in general, the principal strength of the +Germans consisted in their infantry, which was drawn up in several deep +columns, according to the distinction of tribes and families. Impatient +of fatigue and delay, these half-armed warriors rushed to battle with +dissonant shouts and disordered ranks; and sometimes, by the effort of +native valor, prevailed over the constrained and more artificial bravery +of the Roman mercenaries. But as the barbarians poured forth their whole +souls on the first onset, they knew not how to rally or to retire. +A repulse was a sure defeat; and a defeat was most commonly total +destruction. When we recollect the complete armor of the Roman soldiers, +their discipline, exercises, evolutions, fortified camps, and military +engines, it appears a just matter of surprise, how the naked and +unassisted valor of the barbarians could dare to encounter, in the +field, the strength of the legions, and the various troops of the +auxiliaries, which seconded their operations. The contest was too +unequal, till the introduction of luxury had enervated the vigor, and a +spirit of disobedience and sedition had relaxed the discipline, of +the Roman armies. The introduction of barbarian auxiliaries into those +armies, was a measure attended with very obvious dangers, as it might +gradually instruct the Germans in the arts of war and of policy. +Although they were admitted in small numbers and with the strictest +precaution, the example of Civilis was proper to convince the Romans, +that the danger was not imaginary, and that their precautions were not +always sufficient. During the civil wars that followed the death of +Nero, that artful and intrepid Batavian, whom his enemies condescended +to compare with Hannibal and Sertorius, formed a great design of freedom +and ambition. Eight Batavian cohorts renowned in the wars of Britain and +Italy, repaired to his standard. He introduced an army of Germans into +Gaul, prevailed on the powerful cities of Treves and Langres to embrace +his cause, defeated the legions, destroyed their fortified camps, and +employed against the Romans the military knowledge which he had acquired +in their service. When at length, after an obstinate struggle, he +yielded to the power of the empire, Civilis secured himself and his +country by an honorable treaty. The Batavians still continued to occupy +the islands of the Rhine, the allies, not the servants, of the Roman +monarchy. + +II. The strength of ancient Germany appears formidable, when we consider +the effects that might have been produced by its united effort. The wide +extent of country might very possibly contain a million of warriors, as +all who were of age to bear arms were of a temper to use them. But +this fierce multitude, incapable of concerting or executing any plan +of national greatness, was agitated by various and often hostile +intentions. Germany was divided into more than forty independent states; +and, even in each state, the union of the several tribes was extremely +loose and precarious. The barbarians were easily provoked; they knew not +how to forgive an injury, much less an insult; their resentments were +bloody and implacable. The casual disputes that so frequently happened +in their tumultuous parties of hunting or drinking, were sufficient +to inflame the minds of whole nations; the private feuds of any +considerable chieftains diffused itself among their followers and +allies. To chastise the insolent, or to plunder the defenceless, were +alike causes of war. The most formidable states of Germany affected +to encompass their territories with a wide frontier of solitude and +devastation. The awful distance preserved by their neighbors attested +the terror of their arms, and in some measure defended them from the +danger of unexpected incursions. + +"The Bructeri * (it is Tacitus who now speaks) were totally exterminated +by the neighboring tribes, provoked by their insolence, allured by +the hopes of spoil, and perhaps inspired by the tutelar deities of the +empire. Above sixty thousand barbarians were destroyed; not by the Roman +arms, but in our sight, and for our entertainment. May the nations, +enemies of Rome, ever preserve this enmity to each other! We have now +attained the utmost verge of prosperity, and have nothing left to demand +of fortune, except the discord of the barbarians."--These sentiments, +less worthy of the humanity than of the patriotism of Tacitus, express +the invariable maxims of the policy of his countrymen. They deemed it a +much safer expedient to divide than to combat the barbarians, from whose +defeat they could derive neither honor nor advantage. The money and +negotiations of Rome insinuated themselves into the heart of Germany; +and every art of seduction was used with dignity, to conciliate those +nations whom their proximity to the Rhine or Danube might render the +most useful friends as well as the most troublesome enemies. Chiefs of +renown and power were flattered by the most trifling presents, which +they received either as marks of distinction, or as the instruments of +luxury. In civil dissensions the weaker faction endeavored to strengthen +its interest by entering into secret connections with the governors of +the frontier provinces. Every quarrel among the Germans was fomented +by the intrigues of Rome; and every plan of union and public good was +defeated by the stronger bias of private jealousy and interest. + +The general conspiracy which terrified the Romans under the reign of +Marcus Antoninus, comprehended almost all the nations of Germany, and +even Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that of the Danube. It +is impossible for us to determine whether this hasty confederation was +formed by necessity, by reason, or by passion; but we may rest assured, +that the barbarians were neither allured by the indolence, nor provoked +by the ambition, of the Roman monarch. This dangerous invasion required +all the firmness and vigilance of Marcus. He fixed generals of ability +in the several stations of attack, and assumed in person the conduct +of the most important province on the Upper Danube. After a long and +doubtful conflict, the spirit of the barbarians was subdued. The Quadi +and the Marcomanni, who had taken the lead in the war, were the most +severely punished in its catastrophe. They were commanded to retire five +miles from their own banks of the Danube, and to deliver up the flower +of the youth, who were immediately sent into Britain, a remote island, +where they might be secure as hostages, and useful as soldiers. On the +frequent rebellions of the Quadi and Marcomanni, the irritated emperor +resolved to reduce their country into the form of a province. His +designs were disappointed by death. This formidable league, however, +the only one that appears in the two first centuries of the Imperial +history, was entirely dissipated, without leaving any traces behind in +Germany. + +In the course of this introductory chapter, we have confined ourselves +to the general outlines of the manners of Germany, without attempting +to describe or to distinguish the various tribes which filled that great +country in the time of Cæsar, of Tacitus, or of Ptolemy. As the ancient, +or as new tribes successively present themselves in the series of this +history, we shall concisely mention their origin, their situation, +and their particular character. Modern nations are fixed and permanent +societies, connected among themselves by laws and government, bound +to their native soil by arts and agriculture. The German tribes were +voluntary and fluctuating associations of soldiers, almost of savages. +The same territory often changed its inhabitants in the tide of conquest +and emigration. The same communities, uniting in a plan of defence or +invasion, bestowed a new title on their new confederacy. The dissolution +of an ancient confederacy restored to the independent tribes their +peculiar but long-forgotten appellation. A victorious state often +communicated its own name to a vanquished people. Sometimes crowds of +volunteers flocked from all parts to the standard of a favorite leader; +his camp became their country, and some circumstance of the enterprise +soon gave a common denomination to the mixed multitude. The distinctions +of the ferocious invaders were perpetually varied by themselves, and +confounded by the astonished subjects of the Roman empire. + +Wars, and the administration of public affairs, are the principal +subjects of history; but the number of persons interested in these +busy scenes is very different, according to the different condition of +mankind. In great monarchies, millions of obedient subjects pursue their +useful occupations in peace and obscurity. The attention of the writer, +as well as of the reader, is solely confined to a court, a capital, a +regular army, and the districts which happen to be the occasional scene +of military operations. But a state of freedom and barbarism, the season +of civil commotions, or the situation of petty republics, raises almost +every member of the community into action, and consequently into notice. +The irregular divisions, and the restless motions, of the people of +Germany, dazzle our imagination, and seem to multiply their numbers. +The profuse enumeration of kings, of warriors, of armies and nations, +inclines us to forget that the same objects are continually repeated +under a variety of appellations, and that the most splendid appellations +have been frequently lavished on the most inconsiderable objects. + + + +Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And +Gallienus.--Part I. + + The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And + Gallienus.--The General Irruption Of The Barbarians.--The + Thirty Tyrants. + +From the great secular games celebrated by Philip, to the death of the +emperor Gallienus, there elapsed twenty years of shame and misfortune. +During that calamitous period, every instant of time was marked, every +province of the Roman world was afflicted, by barbarous invaders, and +military tyrants, and the ruined empire seemed to approach the last and +fatal moment of its dissolution. The confusion of the times, and the +scarcity of authentic memorials, oppose equal difficulties to the +historian, who attempts to preserve a clear and unbroken thread of +narration. Surrounded with imperfect fragments, always concise, often +obscure, and sometimes contradictory, he is reduced to collect, to +compare, and to conjecture: and though he ought never to place his +conjectures in the rank of facts, yet the knowledge of human nature, and +of the sure operation of its fierce and unrestrained passions, might, on +some occasions, supply the want of historical materials. + +There is not, for instance, any difficulty in conceiving, that the +successive murders of so many emperors had loosened all the ties of +allegiance between the prince and people; that all the generals of +Philip were disposed to imitate the example of their master; and that +the caprice of armies, long since habituated to frequent and violent +revolutions, might every day raise to the throne the most obscure of +their fellow-soldiers. History can only add, that the rebellion against +the emperor Philip broke out in the summer of the year two hundred and +forty-nine, among the legions of Mæsia; and that a subaltern officer, +named Marinus, was the object of their seditious choice. Philip was +alarmed. He dreaded lest the treason of the Mæsian army should prove +the first spark of a general conflagration. Distracted with the +consciousness of his guilt and of his danger, he communicated the +intelligence to the senate. A gloomy silence prevailed, the effect of +fear, and perhaps of disaffection; till at length Decius, one of the +assembly, assuming a spirit worthy of his noble extraction, ventured to +discover more intrepidity than the emperor seemed to possess. He treated +the whole business with contempt, as a hasty and inconsiderate tumult, +and Philip's rival as a phantom of royalty, who in a very few days would +be destroyed by the same inconstancy that had created him. The speedy +completion of the prophecy inspired Philip with a just esteem for so +able a counsellor; and Decius appeared to him the only person capable +of restoring peace and discipline to an army whose tumultuous spirit did +not immediately subside after the murder of Marinus. Decius, who long +resisted his own nomination, seems to have insinuated the danger of +presenting a leader of merit to the angry and apprehensive minds of +the soldiers; and his prediction was again confirmed by the event. The +legions of Mæsia forced their judge to become their accomplice. They +left him only the alternative of death or the purple. His subsequent +conduct, after that decisive measure, was unavoidable. He conducted, or +followed, his army to the confines of Italy, whither Philip, collecting +all his force to repel the formidable competitor whom he had raised up, +advanced to meet him. The Imperial troops were superior in number; +but the rebels formed an army of veterans, commanded by an able and +experienced leader. Philip was either killed in the battle, or put to +death a few days afterwards at Verona. His son and associate in the +empire was massacred at Rome by the Prætorian guards; and the victorious +Decius, with more favorable circumstances than the ambition of that +age can usually plead, was universally acknowledged by the senate +and provinces. It is reported, that, immediately after his reluctant +acceptance of the title of Augustus, he had assured Philip, by a private +message, of his innocence and loyalty, solemnly protesting, that, on his +arrival on Italy, he would resign the Imperial ornaments, and return to +the condition of an obedient subject. His professions might be sincere; +but in the situation where fortune had placed him, it was scarcely +possible that he could either forgive or be forgiven. + +The emperor Decius had employed a few months in the works of peace and +the administration of justice, when he was summoned to the banks of +the Danube by the invasion of the Goths. This is the first considerable +occasion in which history mentions that great people, who afterwards +broke the Roman power, sacked the Capitol, and reigned in Gaul, Spain, +and Italy. So memorable was the part which they acted in the subversion +of the Western empire, that the name of Goths is frequently but +improperly used as a general appellation of rude and warlike barbarism. + +In the beginning of the sixth century, and after the conquest of Italy, +the Goths, in possession of present greatness, very naturally indulged +themselves in the prospect of past and of future glory. They wished to +preserve the memory of their ancestors, and to transmit to posterity +their own achievements. + +The principal minister of the court of Ravenna, the learned Cassiodorus, +gratified the inclination of the conquerors in a Gothic history, which +consisted of twelve books, now reduced to the imperfect abridgment of +Jornandes. These writers passed with the most artful conciseness over +the misfortunes of the nation, celebrated its successful valor, and +adorned the triumph with many Asiatic trophies, that more properly +belonged to the people of Scythia. On the faith of ancient songs, the +uncertain, but the only memorials of barbarians, they deduced the first +origin of the Goths from the vast island, or peninsula, of Scandinavia. +* That extreme country of the North was not unknown to the conquerors of +Italy: the ties of ancient consanguinity had been strengthened by recent +offices of friendship; and a Scandinavian king had cheerfully abdicated +his savage greatness, that he might pass the remainder of his days in +the peaceful and polished court of Ravenna. Many vestiges, which cannot +be ascribed to the arts of popular vanity, attest the ancient residence +of the Goths in the countries beyond the Rhine. From the time of the +geographer Ptolemy, the southern part of Sweden seems to have continued +in the possession of the less enterprising remnant of the nation, and a +large territory is even at present divided into east and west Gothland. +During the middle ages, (from the ninth to the twelfth century,) whilst +Christianity was advancing with a slow progress into the North, the +Goths and the Swedes composed two distinct and sometimes hostile members +of the same monarchy. The latter of these two names has prevailed +without extinguishing the former. The Swedes, who might well be +satisfied with their own fame in arms, have, in every age, claimed the +kindred glory of the Goths. In a moment of discontent against the court +of Rome, Charles the Twelfth insinuated, that his victorious troops were +not degenerated from their brave ancestors, who had already subdued the +mistress of the world. + +Till the end of the eleventh century, a celebrated temple subsisted +at Upsal, the most considerable town of the Swedes and Goths. It was +enriched with the gold which the Scandinavians had acquired in their +piratical adventures, and sanctified by the uncouth representations of +the three principal deities, the god of war, the goddess of generation, +and the god of thunder. In the general festival, that was solemnized +every ninth year, nine animals of every species (without excepting +the human) were sacrificed, and their bleeding bodies suspended in the +sacred grove adjacent to the temple. The only traces that now subsist +of this barbaric superstition are contained in the Edda, * a system of +mythology, compiled in Iceland about the thirteenth century, and studied +by the learned of Denmark and Sweden, as the most valuable remains of +their ancient traditions. + +Notwithstanding the mysterious obscurity of the Edda, we can easily +distinguish two persons confounded under the name of Odin; the god of +war, and the great legislator of Scandinavia. The latter, the Mahomet +of the North, instituted a religion adapted to the climate and to the +people. Numerous tribes on either side of the Baltic were subdued by the +invincible valor of Odin, by his persuasive eloquence, and by the fame +which he acquired of a most skilful magician. The faith that he had +propagated, during a long and prosperous life, he confirmed by a +voluntary death. Apprehensive of the ignominious approach of disease +and infirmity, he resolved to expire as became a warrior. In a solemn +assembly of the Swedes and Goths, he wounded himself in nine mortal +places, hastening away (as he asserted with his dying voice) to prepare +the feast of heroes in the palace of the God of war. + +The native and proper habitation of Odin is distinguished by the +appellation of As-gard. The happy resemblance of that name with As-burg, +or As-of, words of a similar signification, has given rise to an +historical system of so pleasing a contexture, that we could almost wish +to persuade ourselves of its truth. It is supposed that Odin was the +chief of a tribe of barbarians which dwelt on the banks of the Lake +Mæotis, till the fall of Mithridates and the arms of Pompey menaced the +North with servitude. That Odin, yielding with indignant fury to a power +which he was unable to resist, conducted his tribe from the frontiers of +the Asiatic Sarmatia into Sweden, with the great design of forming, in +that inaccessible retreat of freedom, a religion and a people, which, in +some remote age, might be subservient to his immortal revenge; when +his invincible Goths, armed with martial fanaticism, should issue in +numerous swarms from the neighborhood of the Polar circle, to chastise +the oppressors of mankind. + +If so many successive generations of Goths were capable of preserving a +faint tradition of their Scandinavian origin, we must not expect, +from such unlettered barbarians, any distinct account of the time and +circumstances of their emigration. To cross the Baltic was an easy and +natural attempt. The inhabitants of Sweden were masters of a sufficient +number of large vessels, with oars, and the distance is little more than +one hundred miles from Carlscroon to the nearest ports of Pomerania and +Prussia. Here, at length, we land on firm and historic ground. At least +as early as the Christian æra, and as late as the age of the Antonines, +the Goths were established towards the mouth of the Vistula, and in +that fertile province where the commercial cities of Thorn, Elbing, +Koningsberg, and Dantzick, were long afterwards founded. Westward of the +Goths, the numerous tribes of the Vandals were spread along the banks +of the Oder, and the sea-coast of Pomerania and Mecklenburgh. A striking +resemblance of manners, complexion, religion, and language, seemed +to indicate that the Vandals and the Goths were originally one great +people. The latter appear to have been subdivided into Ostrogoths, +Visigoths, and Gepidæ. The distinction among the Vandals was more +strongly marked by the independent names of Heruli, Burgundians, +Lombards, and a variety of other petty states, many of which, in a +future age, expanded themselves into powerful monarchies. + +In the age of the Antonines, the Goths were still seated in Prussia. +About the reign of Alexander Severus, the Roman province of Dacia had +already experienced their proximity by frequent and destructive inroads. +In this interval, therefore, of about seventy years, we must place +the second migration of about seventy years, we must place the second +migration of the Goths from the Baltic to the Euxine; but the cause that +produced it lies concealed among the various motives which actuate the +conduct of unsettled barbarians. Either a pestilence or a famine, a +victory or a defeat, an oracle of the gods or the eloquence of a daring +leader, were sufficient to impel the Gothic arms on the milder climates +of the south. Besides the influence of a martial religion, the numbers +and spirit of the Goths were equal to the most dangerous adventures. +The use of round bucklers and short swords rendered them formidable in +a close engagement; the manly obedience which they yielded to hereditary +kings, gave uncommon union and stability to their councils; and +the renowned Amala, the hero of that age, and the tenth ancestor of +Theodoric, king of Italy, enforced, by the ascendant of personal merit, +the prerogative of his birth, which he derived from the Anses, or demi +gods of the Gothic nation. + +The fame of a great enterprise excited the bravest warriors from all the +Vandalic states of Germany, many of whom are seen a few years afterwards +combating under the common standard of the Goths. The first motions +of the emigrants carried them to the banks of the Prypec, a river +universally conceived by the ancients to be the southern branch of the +Borysthenes. The windings of that great stream through the plains +of Poland and Russia gave a direction to their line of march, and a +constant supply of fresh water and pasturage to their numerous herds +of cattle. They followed the unknown course of the river, confident in +their valor, and careless of whatever power might oppose their progress. +The Bastarnæ and the Venedi were the first who presented themselves; and +the flower of their youth, either from choice or compulsion, increased +the Gothic army. The Bastarnæ dwelt on the northern side of the +Carpathian Mountains: the immense tract of land that separated the +Bastarnæ from the savages of Finland was possessed, or rather wasted, +by the Venedi; we have some reason to believe that the first of these +nations, which distinguished itself in the Macedonian war, and was +afterwards divided into the formidable tribes of the Peucini, the +Borani, the Carpi, &c., derived its origin from the Germans. * With +better authority, a Sarmatian extraction may be assigned to the Venedi, +who rendered themselves so famous in the middle ages. But the confusion +of blood and manners on that doubtful frontier often perplexed the most +accurate observers. As the Goths advanced near the Euxine Sea, they +encountered a purer race of Sarmatians, the Jazyges, the Alani, and the +Roxolani; and they were probably the first Germans who saw the mouths +of the Borysthenes, and of the Tanais. If we inquire into the +characteristic marks of the people of Germany and of Sarmatia, we shall +discover that those two great portions of human kind were principally +distinguished by fixed huts or movable tents, by a close dress or +flowing garments, by the marriage of one or of several wives, by a +military force, consisting, for the most part, either of infantry or +cavalry; and above all, by the use of the Teutonic, or of the Sclavonian +language; the last of which has been diffused by conquest, from the +confines of Italy to the neighborhood of Japan. + + + +Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And +Gallienus.--Part II. + +The Goths were now in possession of the Ukraine, a country of +considerable extent and uncommon fertility, intersected with navigable +rivers, which, from either side, discharge themselves into the +Borysthenes; and interspersed with large and leafy forests of oaks. +The plenty of game and fish, the innumerable bee-hives deposited in the +hollow of old trees, and in the cavities of rocks, and forming, even in +that rude age, a valuable branch of commerce, the size of the cattle, +the temperature of the air, the aptness of the soil for every species of +gain, and the luxuriancy of the vegetation, all displayed the liberality +of Nature, and tempted the industry of man. But the Goths withstood all +these temptations, and still adhered to a life of idleness, of poverty, +and of rapine. + +The Scythian hordes, which, towards the east, bordered on the new +settlements of the Goths, presented nothing to their arms, except the +doubtful chance of an unprofitable victory. But the prospect of the +Roman territories was far more alluring; and the fields of Dacia were +covered with rich harvests, sown by the hands of an industrious, and +exposed to be gathered by those of a warlike, people. It is probable +that the conquests of Trajan, maintained by his successors, less for +any real advantage than for ideal dignity, had contributed to weaken the +empire on that side. The new and unsettled province of Dacia was neither +strong enough to resist, nor rich enough to satiate, the rapaciousness +of the barbarians. As long as the remote banks of the Niester were +considered as the boundary of the Roman power, the fortifications of the +Lower Danube were more carelessly guarded, and the inhabitants of +Mæsia lived in supine security, fondly conceiving themselves at an +inaccessible distance from any barbarian invaders. The irruptions of +the Goths, under the reign of Philip, fatally convinced them of their +mistake. The king, or leader, of that fierce nation, traversed with +contempt the province of Dacia, and passed both the Niester and the +Danube without encountering any opposition capable of retarding his +progress. The relaxed discipline of the Roman troops betrayed the most +important posts, where they were stationed, and the fear of deserved +punishment induced great numbers of them to enlist under the Gothic +standard. The various multitude of barbarians appeared, at length, +under the walls of Marcianopolis, a city built by Trajan in honor of +his sister, and at that time the capital of the second Mæsia. The +inhabitants consented to ransom their lives and property by the payment +of a large sum of money, and the invaders retreated back into their +deserts, animated, rather than satisfied, with the first success of +their arms against an opulent but feeble country. Intelligence was soon +transmitted to the emperor Decius, that Cniva, king of the Goths, had +passed the Danube a second time, with more considerable forces; that his +numerous detachments scattered devastation over the province of Mæsia, +whilst the main body of the army, consisting of seventy thousand Germans +and Sarmatians, a force equal to the most daring achievements, required +the presence of the Roman monarch, and the exertion of his military +power. + +Decius found the Goths engaged before Nicopolis, one of the many +monuments of Trajan's victories. On his approach they raised the +siege, but with a design only of marching away to a conquest of greater +importance, the siege of Philippopolis, a city of Thrace, founded by the +father of Alexander, near the foot of Mount Hæmus. Decius followed them +through a difficult country, and by forced marches; but when he imagined +himself at a considerable distance from the rear of the Goths, Cniva +turned with rapid fury on his pursuers. The camp of the Romans was +surprised and pillaged, and, for the first time, their emperor fled +in disorder before a troop of half-armed barbarians. After a long +resistance, Philippopolis, destitute of succor, was taken by storm. A +hundred thousand persons are reported to have been massacred in the +sack of that great city. Many prisoners of consequence became a valuable +accession to the spoil; and Priscus, a brother of the late emperor +Philip, blushed not to assume the purple, under the protection of the +barbarous enemies of Rome. The time, however, consumed in that tedious +siege, enabled Decius to revive the courage, restore the discipline, +and recruit the numbers of his troops. He intercepted several parties +of Carpi, and other Germans, who were hastening to share the victory of +their countrymen, intrusted the passes of the mountains to officers +of approved valor and fidelity, repaired and strengthened the +fortifications of the Danube, and exerted his utmost vigilance to oppose +either the progress or the retreat of the Goths. Encouraged by the +return of fortune, he anxiously waited for an opportunity to retrieve, +by a great and decisive blow, his own glory, and that of the Roman arms. + +At the same time when Decius was struggling with the violence of +the tempest, his mind, calm and deliberate amidst the tumult of war, +investigated the more general causes, that, since the age of the +Antonines, had so impetuously urged the decline of the Roman greatness. +He soon discovered that it was impossible to replace that greatness on a +permanent basis, without restoring public virtue, ancient principles and +manners, and the oppressed majesty of the laws. To execute this noble +but arduous design, he first resolved to revive the obsolete office of +censor; an office which, as long as it had subsisted in its pristine +integrity, had so much contributed to the perpetuity of the state, till +it was usurped and gradually neglected by the Cæsars. Conscious that +the favor of the sovereign may confer power, but that the esteem of the +people can alone bestow authority, he submitted the choice of the censor +to the unbiased voice of the senate. By their unanimous votes, or rather +acclamations, Valerian, who was afterwards emperor, and who then served +with distinction in the army of Decius, was declared the most worthy of +that exalted honor. As soon as the decree of the senate was transmitted +to the emperor, he assembled a great council in his camp, and before the +investiture of the censor elect, he apprised him of the difficulty and +importance of his great office. "Happy Valerian," said the prince to his +distinguished subject, "happy in the general approbation of the senate +and of the Roman republic! Accept the censorship of mankind; and judge +of our manners. You will select those who deserve to continue members +of the senate; you will restore the equestrian order to its ancient +splendor; you will improve the revenue, yet moderate the public burdens. +You will distinguish into regular classes the various and infinite +multitude of citizens, and accurately view the military strength, the +wealth, the virtue, and the resources of Rome. Your decisions shall +obtain the force of laws. The army, the palace, the ministers of +justice, and the great officers of the empire, are all subject to your +tribunal. None are exempted, excepting only the ordinary consuls, the +præfect of the city, the king of the sacrifices, and (as long as she +preserves her chastity inviolate) the eldest of the vestal virgins. Even +these few, who may not dread the severity, will anxiously solicit the +esteem, of the Roman censor." + +A magistrate, invested with such extensive powers, would have appeared +not so much the minister, as the colleague of his sovereign. Valerian +justly dreaded an elevation so full of envy and of suspicion. +He modestly argued the alarming greatness of the trust, his own +insufficiency, and the incurable corruption of the times. He artfully +insinuated, that the office of censor was inseparable from the Imperial +dignity, and that the feeble hands of a subject were unequal to the +support of such an immense weight of cares and of power. The approaching +event of war soon put an end to the prosecution of a project so +specious, but so impracticable; and whilst it preserved Valerian from +the danger, saved the emperor Decius from the disappointment, which +would most probably have attended it. A censor may maintain, he can +never restore, the morals of a state. It is impossible for such a +magistrate to exert his authority with benefit, or even with effect, +unless he is supported by a quick sense of honor and virtue in the minds +of the people, by a decent reverence for the public opinion, and by a +train of useful prejudices combating on the side of national manners. +In a period when these principles are annihilated, the censorial +jurisdiction must either sink into empty pageantry, or be converted into +a partial instrument of vexatious oppression. It was easier to vanquish +the Goths than to eradicate the public vices; yet even in the first of +these enterprises, Decius lost his army and his life. + +The Goths were now, on every side, surrounded and pursued by the Roman +arms. The flower of their troops had perished in the long siege +of Philippopolis, and the exhausted country could no longer afford +subsistence for the remaining multitude of licentious barbarians. +Reduced to this extremity, the Goths would gladly have purchased, by +the surrender of all their booty and prisoners, the permission of +an undisturbed retreat. But the emperor, confident of victory, and +resolving, by the chastisement of these invaders, to strike a salutary +terror into the nations of the North, refused to listen to any terms of +accommodation. The high-spirited barbarians preferred death to slavery. +An obscure town of Mæsia, called Forum Terebronii, was the scene of the +battle. The Gothic army was drawn up in three lines, and either from +choice or accident, the front of the third line was covered by a morass. +In the beginning of the action, the son of Decius, a youth of the +fairest hopes, and already associated to the honors of the purple, was +slain by an arrow, in the sight of his afflicted father; who, summoning +all his fortitude, admonished the dismayed troops, that the loss of a +single soldier was of little importance to the republic. The conflict +was terrible; it was the combat of despair against grief and rage. The +first line of the Goths at length gave way in disorder; the second, +advancing to sustain it, shared its fate; and the third only remained +entire, prepared to dispute the passage of the morass, which was +imprudently attempted by the presumption of the enemy. "Here the fortune +of the day turned, and all things became adverse to the Romans; the +place deep with ooze, sinking under those who stood, slippery to such as +advanced; their armor heavy, the waters deep; nor could they wield, in +that uneasy situation, their weighty javelins. The barbarians, on the +contrary, were inured to encounter in the bogs, their persons tall, +their spears long, such as could wound at a distance." In this morass +the Roman army, after an ineffectual struggle, was irrecoverably lost; +nor could the body of the emperor ever be found. Such was the fate of +Decius, in the fiftieth year of his age; an accomplished prince, active +in war and affable in peace; who, together with his son, has deserved +to be compared, both in life and death, with the brightest examples of +ancient virtue. + +This fatal blow humbled, for a very little time, the insolence of the +legions. They appeared to have patiently expected, and submissively +obeyed, the decree of the senate which regulated the succession to the +throne. From a just regard for the memory of Decius, the Imperial title +was conferred on Hostilianus, his only surviving son; but an equal rank, +with more effectual power, was granted to Gallus, whose experience and +ability seemed equal to the great trust of guardian to the young prince +and the distressed empire. The first care of the new emperor was to +deliver the Illyrian provinces from the intolerable weight of the +victorious Goths. He consented to leave in their hands the rich +fruits of their invasion, an immense booty, and what was still more +disgraceful, a great number of prisoners of the highest merit and +quality. He plentifully supplied their camp with every conveniency that +could assuage their angry spirits or facilitate their so much wished-for +departure; and he even promised to pay them annually a large sum +of gold, on condition they should never afterwards infest the Roman +territories by their incursions. + +In the age of the Scipios, the most opulent kings of the earth, who +courted the protection of the victorious commonwealth, were gratified +with such trifling presents as could only derive a value from the hand +that bestowed them; an ivory chair, a coarse garment of purple, an +inconsiderable piece of plate, or a quantity of copper coin. After the +wealth of nations had centred in Rome, the emperors displayed their +greatness, and even their policy, by the regular exercise of a steady +and moderate liberality towards the allies of the state. They relieved +the poverty of the barbarians, honored their merit, and recompensed +their fidelity. These voluntary marks of bounty were understood to flow, +not from the fears, but merely from the generosity or the gratitude of +the Romans; and whilst presents and subsidies were liberally distributed +among friends and suppliants, they were sternly refused to such as +claimed them as a debt. But this stipulation, of an annual payment to +a victorious enemy, appeared without disguise in the light of an +ignominious tribute; the minds of the Romans were not yet accustomed to +accept such unequal laws from a tribe of barbarians; and the prince, +who by a necessary concession had probably saved his country, became the +object of the general contempt and aversion. The death of Hostilianus, +though it happened in the midst of a raging pestilence, was interpreted +as the personal crime of Gallus; and even the defeat of the later +emperor was ascribed by the voice of suspicion to the perfidious +counsels of his hated successor. The tranquillity which the empire +enjoyed during the first year of his administration, served rather +to inflame than to appease the public discontent; and as soon as the +apprehensions of war were removed, the infamy of the peace was more +deeply and more sensibly felt. + +But the Romans were irritated to a still higher degree, when they +discovered that they had not even secured their repose, though at the +expense of their honor. The dangerous secret of the wealth and weakness +of the empire had been revealed to the world. New swarms of barbarians, +encouraged by the success, and not conceiving themselves bound by the +obligation of their brethren, spread devastation through the Illyrian +provinces, and terror as far as the gates of Rome. The defence of the +monarchy, which seemed abandoned by the pusillanimous emperor, was +assumed by Æmilianus, governor of Pannonia and Mæsia; who rallied the +scattered forces, and revived the fainting spirits of the troops. The +barbarians were unexpectedly attacked, routed, chased, and pursued +beyond the Danube. The victorious leader distributed as a donative the +money collected for the tribute, and the acclamations of the soldiers +proclaimed him emperor on the field of battle. Gallus, who, careless +of the general welfare, indulged himself in the pleasures of Italy, was +almost in the same instant informed of the success, of the revolt, and +of the rapid approach of his aspiring lieutenant. He advanced to meet +him as far as the plains of Spoleto. When the armies came in right of +each other, the soldiers of Gallus compared the ignominious conduct of +their sovereign with the glory of his rival. They admired the valor +of Æmilianus; they were attracted by his liberality, for he offered a +considerable increase of pay to all deserters. The murder of Gallus, and +of his son Volusianus, put an end to the civil war; and the senate gave +a legal sanction to the rights of conquest. The letters of Æmilianus to +that assembly displayed a mixture of moderation and vanity. He assured +them, that he should resign to their wisdom the civil administration; +and, contenting himself with the quality of their general, would in a +short time assert the glory of Rome, and deliver the empire from all the +barbarians both of the North and of the East. His pride was flattered +by the applause of the senate; and medals are still extant, representing +him with the name and attributes of Hercules the Victor, and Mars the +Avenger. + +If the new monarch possessed the abilities, he wanted the time, +necessary to fulfil these splendid promises. Less than four months +intervened between his victory and his fall. He had vanquished Gallus: +he sunk under the weight of a competitor more formidable than Gallus. +That unfortunate prince had sent Valerian, already distinguished by the +honorable title of censor, to bring the legions of Gaul and Germany to +his aid. Valerian executed that commission with zeal and fidelity; and +as he arrived too late to save his sovereign, he resolved to revenge +him. The troops of Æmilianus, who still lay encamped in the plains of +Spoleto, were awed by the sanctity of his character, but much more +by the superior strength of his army; and as they were now become +as incapable of personal attachment as they had always been of +constitutional principle, they readily imbrued their hands in the blood +of a prince who so lately had been the object of their partial choice. +The guilt was theirs, * but the advantage of it was Valerian's; who +obtained the possession of the throne by the means indeed of a civil +war, but with a degree of innocence singular in that age of revolutions; +since he owed neither gratitude nor allegiance to his predecessor, whom +he dethroned. + +Valerian was about sixty years of age when he was invested with the +purple, not by the caprice of the populace, or the clamors of the army, +but by the unanimous voice of the Roman world. In his gradual ascent +through the honors of the state, he had deserved the favor of virtuous +princes, and had declared himself the enemy of tyrants. His noble +birth, his mild but unblemished manners, his learning, prudence, and +experience, were revered by the senate and people; and if mankind +(according to the observation of an ancient writer) had been left at +liberty to choose a master, their choice would most assuredly have +fallen on Valerian. Perhaps the merit of this emperor was inadequate +to his reputation; perhaps his abilities, or at least his spirit, were +affected by the languor and coldness of old age. The consciousness of +his decline engaged him to share the throne with a younger and more +active associate; the emergency of the times demanded a general no +less than a prince; and the experience of the Roman censor might have +directed him where to bestow the Imperial purple, as the reward of +military merit. But instead of making a judicious choice, which would +have confirmed his reign and endeared his memory, Valerian, consulting +only the dictates of affection or vanity, immediately invested with the +supreme honors his son Gallienus, a youth whose effeminate vices had +been hitherto concealed by the obscurity of a private station. The joint +government of the father and the son subsisted about seven, and the sole +administration of Gallien continued about eight, years. But the whole +period was one uninterrupted series of confusion and calamity. As the +Roman empire was at the same time, and on every side, attacked by +the blind fury of foreign invaders, and the wild ambition of domestic +usurpers, we shall consult order and perspicuity, by pursuing, not so +much the doubtful arrangement of dates, as the more natural distribution +of subjects. The most dangerous enemies of Rome, during the reigns of +Valerian and Gallienus, were, 1. The Franks; 2. The Alemanni; 3. The +Goths; and, 4. The Persians. Under these general appellations, we may +comprehend the adventures of less considerable tribes, whose obscure +and uncouth names would only serve to oppress the memory and perplex the +attention of the reader. + +I. As the posterity of the Franks compose one of the greatest and most +enlightened nations of Europe, the powers of learning and ingenuity have +been exhausted in the discovery of their unlettered ancestors. To the +tales of credulity have succeeded the systems of fancy. Every passage +has been sifted, every spot has been surveyed, that might possibly +reveal some faint traces of their origin. It has been supposed that +Pannonia, that Gaul, that the northern parts of Germany, gave birth to +that celebrated colony of warriors. At length the most rational +critics, rejecting the fictitious emigrations of ideal conquerors, have +acquiesced in a sentiment whose simplicity persuades us of its +truth. They suppose, that about the year two hundred and forty, a new +confederacy was formed under the name of Franks, by the old inhabitants +of the Lower Rhine and the Weser. * The present circle of Westphalia, +the Landgraviate of Hesse, and the duchies of Brunswick and Luneburg, +were the ancient of the Chauci who, in their inaccessible morasses, +defied the Roman arms; of the Cherusci, proud of the fame of Arminius; +of the Catti, formidable by their firm and intrepid infantry; and of +several other tribes of inferior power and renown. The love of liberty +was the ruling passion of these Germans; the enjoyment of it their best +treasure; the word that expressed that enjoyment, the most pleasing to +their ear. They deserved, they assumed, they maintained the honorable +appellation of Franks, or Freemen; which concealed, though it did not +extinguish, the peculiar names of the several states of the confederacy. +Tacit consent, and mutual advantage, dictated the first laws of the +union; it was gradually cemented by habit and experience. The league of +the Franks may admit of some comparison with the Helvetic body; in which +every canton, retaining its independent sovereignty, consults with its +brethren in the common cause, without acknowledging the authority of any +supreme head, or representative assembly. But the principle of the two +confederacies was extremely different. A peace of two hundred years has +rewarded the wise and honest policy of the Swiss. An inconstant spirit, +the thirst of rapine, and a disregard to the most solemn treaties, +disgraced the character of the Franks. + + + +Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And +Gallienus.--Part III. + +The Romans had long experienced the daring valor of the people of +Lower Germany. The union of their strength threatened Gaul with a more +formidable invasion, and required the presence of Gallienus, the heir +and colleague of Imperial power. Whilst that prince, and his infant son +Salonius, displayed, in the court of Treves, the majesty of the empire +its armies were ably conducted by their general, Posthumus, who, though +he afterwards betrayed the family of Valerian, was ever faithful to the +great interests of the monarchy. The treacherous language of panegyrics +and medals darkly announces a long series of victories. Trophies and +titles attest (if such evidence can attest) the fame of Posthumus, who +is repeatedly styled the Conqueror of the Germans, and the Savior of +Gaul. + +But a single fact, the only one indeed of which we have any distinct +knowledge, erases, in a great measure, these monuments of vanity and +adulation. The Rhine, though dignified with the title of Safeguard of +the provinces, was an imperfect barrier against the daring spirit of +enterprise with which the Franks were actuated. Their rapid devastations +stretched from the river to the foot of the Pyrenees; nor were they +stopped by those mountains. Spain, which had never dreaded, was unable +to resist, the inroads of the Germans. During twelve years, the greatest +part of the reign of Gallienus, that opulent country was the theatre of +unequal and destructive hostilities. Tarragona, the flourishing capital +of a peaceful province, was sacked and almost destroyed; and so late as +the days of Orosius, who wrote in the fifth century, wretched cottages, +scattered amidst the ruins of magnificent cities, still recorded the +rage of the barbarians. When the exhausted country no longer supplied +a variety of plunder, the Franks seized on some vessels in the ports of +Spain, and transported themselves into Mauritania. The distant province +was astonished with the fury of these barbarians, who seemed to fall +from a new world, as their name, manners, and complexion, were equally +unknown on the coast of Africa. + +II. In that part of Upper Saxony, beyond the Elbe, which is at present +called the Marquisate of Lusace, there existed, in ancient times, a +sacred wood, the awful seat of the superstition of the Suevi. None were +permitted to enter the holy precincts, without confessing, by their +servile bonds and suppliant posture, the immediate presence of the +sovereign Deity. Patriotism contributed, as well as devotion, to +consecrate the Sonnenwald, or wood of the Semnones. It was universally +believed, that the nation had received its first existence on that +sacred spot. At stated periods, the numerous tribes who gloried in the +Suevic blood, resorted thither by their ambassadors; and the memory +of their common extraction was perpetrated by barbaric rites and +human sacrifices. The wide-extended name of Suevi filled the interior +countries of Germany, from the banks of the Oder to those of the Danube. +They were distinguished from the other Germans by their peculiar mode +of dressing their long hair, which they gathered into a rude knot on the +crown of the head; and they delighted in an ornament that showed their +ranks more lofty and terrible in the eyes of the enemy. Jealous as the +Germans were of military renown, they all confessed the superior valor +of the Suevi; and the tribes of the Usipetes and Tencteri, who, with a +vast army, encountered the dictator Cæsar, declared that they esteemed +it not a disgrace to have fled before a people to whose arms the +immortal gods themselves were unequal. + +In the reign of the emperor Caracalla, an innumerable swarm of Suevi +appeared on the banks of the Mein, and in the neighborhood of the Roman +provinces, in quest either of food, of plunder, or of glory. The hasty +army of volunteers gradually coalesced into a great and permanent +nation, and as it was composed from so many different tribes, assumed +the name of Alemanni, * or Allmen; to denote at once their various +lineage and their common bravery. The latter was soon felt by the Romans +in many a hostile inroad. The Alemanni fought chiefly on horseback; but +their cavalry was rendered still more formidable by a mixture of light +infantry, selected from the bravest and most active of the youth, whom +frequent exercise had inured to accompany the horsemen in the longest +march, the most rapid charge, or the most precipitate retreat. + +This warlike people of Germans had been astonished by the immense +preparations of Alexander Severus; they were dismayed by the arms of his +successor, a barbarian equal in valor and fierceness to themselves. +But still hovering on the frontiers of the empire, they increased the +general disorder that ensued after the death of Decius. They inflicted +severe wounds on the rich provinces of Gaul; they were the first who +removed the veil that covered the feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous +body of the Alemanni penetrated across the Danube and through the +Rhætian Alps into the plains of Lombardy, advanced as far as Ravenna, +and displayed the victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight of +Rome. + +The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks of their +ancient virtue. Both the emperors were engaged in far distant wars, +Valerian in the East, and Gallienus on the Rhine. All the hopes and +resources of the Romans were in themselves. In this emergency, the +senators resumed the defence of the republic, drew out the Prætorian +guards, who had been left to garrison the capital, and filled up their +numbers, by enlisting into the public service the stoutest and most +willing of the Plebeians. The Alemanni, astonished with the sudden +appearance of an army more numerous than their own, retired into +Germany, laden with spoil; and their retreat was esteemed as a victory +by the unwarlike Romans. + +When Gallienus received the intelligence that his capital was delivered +from the barbarians, he was much less delighted than alarmed with the +courage of the senate, since it might one day prompt them to rescue the +public from domestic tyranny as well as from foreign invasion. His timid +ingratitude was published to his subjects, in an edict which prohibited +the senators from exercising any military employment, and even from +approaching the camps of the legions. But his fears were groundless. +The rich and luxurious nobles, sinking into their natural character, +accepted, as a favor, this disgraceful exemption from military service; +and as long as they were indulged in the enjoyment of their baths, their +theatres, and their villas, they cheerfully resigned the more dangerous +cares of empire to the rough hands of peasants and soldiers. + +Another invasion of the Alemanni, of a more formidable aspect, but more +glorious event, is mentioned by a writer of the lower empire. Three +hundred thousand are said to have been vanquished, in a battle near +Milan, by Gallienus in person, at the head of only ten thousand Romans. +We may, however, with great probability, ascribe this incredible +victory either to the credulity of the historian, or to some exaggerated +exploits of one of the emperor's lieutenants. It was by arms of a very +different nature, that Gallienus endeavored to protect Italy from the +fury of the Germans. He espoused Pipa, the daughter of a king of the +Marcomanni, a Suevic tribe, which was often confounded with the +Alemanni in their wars and conquests. To the father, as the price of his +alliance, he granted an ample settlement in Pannonia. The native charms +of unpolished beauty seem to have fixed the daughter in the affections +of the inconstant emperor, and the bands of policy were more firmly +connected by those of love. But the haughty prejudice of Rome still +refused the name of marriage to the profane mixture of a citizen and a +barbarian; and has stigmatized the German princess with the opprobrious +title of concubine of Gallienus. + +III. We have already traced the emigration of the Goths from +Scandinavia, or at least from Prussia, to the mouth of the Borysthenes, +and have followed their victorious arms from the Borysthenes to the +Danube. Under the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the frontier of the +last-mentioned river was perpetually infested by the inroads of Germans +and Sarmatians; but it was defended by the Romans with more than usual +firmness and success. The provinces that were the seat of war, recruited +the armies of Rome with an inexhaustible supply of hardy soldiers; +and more than one of these Illyrian peasants attained the station, and +displayed the abilities, of a general. Though flying parties of +the barbarians, who incessantly hovered on the banks of the Danube, +penetrated sometimes to the confines of Italy and Macedonia, their +progress was commonly checked, or their return intercepted, by the +Imperial lieutenants. But the great stream of the Gothic hostilities +was diverted into a very different channel. The Goths, in their new +settlement of the Ukraine, soon became masters of the northern coast of +the Euxine: to the south of that inland sea were situated the soft and +wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, which possessed all that could attract, +and nothing that could resist, a barbarian conqueror. + +The banks of the Borysthenes are only sixty miles distant from the +narrow entrance of the peninsula of Crim Tartary, known to the ancients +under the name of Chersonesus Taurica. On that inhospitable shore, +Euripides, embellishing with exquisite art the tales of antiquity, has +placed the scene of one of his most affecting tragedies. The bloody +sacrifices of Diana, the arrival of Orestes and Pylades, and the triumph +of virtue and religion over savage fierceness, serve to represent +an historical truth, that the Tauri, the original inhabitants of the +peninsula, were, in some degree, reclaimed from their brutal manners by +a gradual intercourse with the Grecian colonies, which settled along +the maritime coast. The little kingdom of Bosphorus, whose capital was +situated on the Straits, through which the Mæotis communicates itself +to the Euxine, was composed of degenerate Greeks and half-civilized +barbarians. It subsisted, as an independent state, from the time of +the Peloponnesian war, was at last swallowed up by the ambition of +Mithridates, and, with the rest of his dominions, sunk under the weight +of the Roman arms. From the reign of Augustus, the kings of Bosphorus +were the humble, but not useless, allies of the empire. By presents, +by arms, and by a slight fortification drawn across the Isthmus, they +effectually guarded against the roving plunderers of Sarmatia, the +access of a country, which, from its peculiar situation and convenient +harbors, commanded the Euxine Sea and Asia Minor. As long as the sceptre +was possessed by a lineal succession of kings, they acquitted themselves +of their important charge with vigilance and success. Domestic factions, +and the fears, or private interest, of obscure usurpers, who seized on +the vacant throne, admitted the Goths into the heart of Bosphorus. With +the acquisition of a superfluous waste of fertile soil, the conquerors +obtained the command of a naval force, sufficient to transport their +armies to the coast of Asia. This ships used in the navigation of +the Euxine were of a very singular construction. They were slight +flat-bottomed barks framed of timber only, without the least mixture of +iron, and occasionally covered with a shelving roof, on the appearance +of a tempest. In these floating houses, the Goths carelessly trusted +themselves to the mercy of an unknown sea, under the conduct of sailors +pressed into the service, and whose skill and fidelity were equally +suspicious. But the hopes of plunder had banished every idea of danger, +and a natural fearlessness of temper supplied in their minds the +more rational confidence, which is the just result of knowledge and +experience. Warriors of such a daring spirit must have often murmured +against the cowardice of their guides, who required the strongest +assurances of a settled calm before they would venture to embark; and +would scarcely ever be tempted to lose sight of the land. Such, at +least, is the practice of the modern Turks; and they are probably +not inferior, in the art of navigation, to the ancient inhabitants of +Bosphorus. + +The fleet of the Goths, leaving the coast of Circassia on the left hand, +first appeared before Pityus, the utmost limits of the Roman provinces; +a city provided with a convenient port, and fortified with a strong +wall. Here they met with a resistance more obstinate than they had +reason to expect from the feeble garrison of a distant fortress. They +were repulsed; and their disappointment seemed to diminish the terror +of the Gothic name. As long as Successianus, an officer of superior rank +and merit, defended that frontier, all their efforts were ineffectual; +but as soon as he was removed by Valerian to a more honorable but +less important station, they resumed the attack of Pityus; and by +the destruction of that city, obliterated the memory of their former +disgrace. + +Circling round the eastern extremity of the Euxine Sea, the navigation +from Pityus to Trebizond is about three hundred miles. The course of the +Goths carried them in sight of the country of Colchis, so famous by the +expedition of the Argonauts; and they even attempted, though without +success, to pillage a rich temple at the mouth of the River Phasis. +Trebizond, celebrated in the retreat of the ten thousand as an ancient +colony of Greeks, derived its wealth and splendor from the magnificence +of the emperor Hadrian, who had constructed an artificial port on a +coast left destitute by nature of secure harbors. The city was large +and populous; a double enclosure of walls seemed to defy the fury of the +Goths, and the usual garrison had been strengthened by a reenforcement +of ten thousand men. But there are not any advantages capable of +supplying the absence of discipline and vigilance. The numerous garrison +of Trebizond, dissolved in riot and luxury, disdained to guard their +impregnable fortifications. The Goths soon discovered the supine +negligence of the besieged, erected a lofty pile of fascines, ascended +the walls in the silence of the night, and entered the defenceless +city sword in hand. A general massacre of the people ensued, whilst the +affrighted soldiers escaped through the opposite gates of the town. The +most holy temples, and the most splendid edifices, were involved in a +common destruction. The booty that fell into the hands of the Goths +was immense: the wealth of the adjacent countries had been deposited in +Trebizond, as in a secure place of refuge. The number of captives was +incredible, as the victorious barbarians ranged without opposition +through the extensive province of Pontus. The rich spoils of Trebizond +filled a great fleet of ships that had been found in the port. The +robust youth of the sea-coast were chained to the oar; and the Goths, +satisfied with the success of their first naval expedition, returned in +triumph to their new establishment in the kingdom of Bosphorus. + +The second expedition of the Goths was undertaken with greater powers of +men and ships; but they steered a different course, and, disdaining the +exhausted provinces of Pontus, followed the western coast of the Euxine, +passed before the wide mouths of the Borysthenes, the Niester, and the +Danube, and increasing their fleet by the capture of a great number +of fishing barks, they approached the narrow outlet through which the +Euxine Sea pours its waters into the Mediterranean, and divides the +continents of Europe and Asia. The garrison of Chalcedon was encamped +near the temple of Jupiter Urius, on a promontory that commanded the +entrance of the Strait; and so inconsiderable were the dreaded invasions +of the barbarians that this body of troops surpassed in number the +Gothic army. But it was in numbers alone that they surpassed it. They +deserted with precipitation their advantageous post, and abandoned the +town of Chalcedon, most plentifully stored with arms and money, to the +discretion of the conquerors. Whilst they hesitated whether they +should prefer the sea or land Europe or Asia, for the scene of their +hostilities, a perfidious fugitive pointed out Nicomedia, * once the +capital of the kings of Bithynia, as a rich and easy conquest. He +guided the march which was only sixty miles from the camp of Chalcedon, +directed the resistless attack, and partook of the booty; for the Goths +had learned sufficient policy to reward the traitor whom they detested. +Nice, Prusa, Apamæa, Cius, cities that had sometimes rivalled, or +imitated, the splendor of Nicomedia, were involved in the same calamity, +which, in a few weeks, raged without control through the whole +province of Bithynia. Three hundred years of peace, enjoyed by the soft +inhabitants of Asia, had abolished the exercise of arms, and removed the +apprehension of danger. The ancient walls were suffered to moulder away, +and all the revenue of the most opulent cities was reserved for the +construction of baths, temples, and theatres. + +When the city of Cyzicus withstood the utmost effort of Mithridates, it +was distinguished by wise laws, a naval power of two hundred galleys, +and three arsenals, of arms, of military engines, and of corn. It +was still the seat of wealth and luxury; but of its ancient strength, +nothing remained except the situation, in a little island of the +Propontis, connected with the continent of Asia only by two bridges. +From the recent sack of Prusa, the Goths advanced within eighteen miles. +of the city, which they had devoted to destruction; but the ruin of +Cyzicus was delayed by a fortunate accident. The season was rainy, +and the Lake Apolloniates, the reservoir of all the springs of Mount +Olympus, rose to an uncommon height. The little river of Rhyndacus, +which issues from the lake, swelled into a broad and rapid stream, and +stopped the progress of the Goths. Their retreat to the maritime city of +Heraclea, where the fleet had probably been stationed, was attended by a +long train of wagons, laden with the spoils of Bithynia, and was marked +by the flames of Nice and Nicomedia, which they wantonly burnt. Some +obscure hints are mentioned of a doubtful combat that secured their +retreat. But even a complete victory would have been of little moment, +as the approach of the autumnal equinox summoned them to hasten their +return. To navigate the Euxine before the month of May, or after that +of September, is esteemed by the modern Turks the most unquestionable +instance of rashness and folly. + +When we are informed that the third fleet, equipped by the Goths in the +ports of Bosphorus, consisted of five hundred sails of ships, our ready +imagination instantly computes and multiplies the formidable armament; +but, as we are assured by the judicious Strabo, that the piratical +vessels used by the barbarians of Pontus and the Lesser Scythia, were +not capable of containing more than twenty-five or thirty men we may +safely affirm, that fifteen thousand warriors, at the most, embarked +in this great expedition. Impatient of the limits of the Euxine, they +steered their destructive course from the Cimmerian to the Thracian +Bosphorus. When they had almost gained the middle of the Straits, they +were suddenly driven back to the entrance of them; till a favorable +wind, springing up the next day, carried them in a few hours into the +placid sea, or rather lake, of the Propontis. Their landing on the +little island of Cyzicus was attended with the ruin of that ancient and +noble city. From thence issuing again through the narrow passage of the +Hellespont, they pursued their winding navigation amidst the numerous +islands scattered over the Archipelago, or the Ægean Sea. The assistance +of captives and deserters must have been very necessary to pilot their +vessels, and to direct their various incursions, as well on the coast +of Greece as on that of Asia. At length the Gothic fleet anchored in the +port of Piræus, five miles distant from Athens, which had attempted to +make some preparations for a vigorous defence. Cleodamus, one of the +engineers employed by the emperor's orders to fortify the maritime +cities against the Goths, had already begun to repair the ancient walls, +fallen to decay since the time of Scylla. The efforts of his skill were +ineffectual, and the barbarians became masters of the native seat of the +muses and the arts. But while the conquerors abandoned themselves to +the license of plunder and intemperance, their fleet, that lay with a +slender guard in the harbor of Piræus, was unexpectedly attacked by the +brave Daxippus, who, flying with the engineer Cleodamus from the sack +of Athens, collected a hasty band of volunteers, peasants as well as +soldiers, and in some measure avenged the calamities of his country. + +But this exploit, whatever lustre it might shed on the declining age of +Athens, served rather to irritate than to subdue the undaunted spirit +of the northern invaders. A general conflagration blazed out at the same +time in every district of Greece. Thebes and Argos, Corinth and Sparta, +which had formerly waged such memorable wars against each other, were +now unable to bring an army into the field, or even to defend their +ruined fortifications. The rage of war, both by land and by sea, spread +from the eastern point of Sunium to the western coast of Epirus. The +Goths had already advanced within sight of Italy, when the approach of +such imminent danger awakened the indolent Gallienus from his dream of +pleasure. The emperor appeared in arms; and his presence seems to have +checked the ardor, and to have divided the strength, of the enemy. +Naulobatus, a chief of the Heruli, accepted an honorable capitulation, +entered with a large body of his countrymen into the service of Rome, +and was invested with the ornaments of the consular dignity, which had +never before been profaned by the hands of a barbarian. Great numbers of +the Goths, disgusted with the perils and hardships of a tedious voyage, +broke into Mæsia, with a design of forcing their way over the Danube +to their settlements in the Ukraine. The wild attempt would have proved +inevitable destruction, if the discord of the Roman generals had not +opened to the barbarians the means of an escape. The small remainder of +this destroying host returned on board their vessels; and measuring back +their way through the Hellespont and the Bosphorus, ravaged in their +passage the shores of Troy, whose fame, immortalized by Homer, will +probably survive the memory of the Gothic conquests. As soon as they +found themselves in safety within the basin of the Euxine, they landed +at Anchialus in Thrace, near the foot of Mount Hæmus; and, after all +their toils, indulged themselves in the use of those pleasant and +salutary hot baths. What remained of the voyage was a short and easy +navigation. Such was the various fate of this third and greatest of +their naval enterprises. It may seem difficult to conceive how the +original body of fifteen thousand warriors could sustain the losses and +divisions of so bold an adventure. But as their numbers were gradually +wasted by the sword, by shipwrecks, and by the influence of a warm +climate, they were perpetually renewed by troops of banditti and +deserters, who flocked to the standard of plunder, and by a crowd of +fugitive slaves, often of German or Sarmatian extraction, who eagerly +seized the glorious opportunity of freedom and revenge. In these +expeditions, the Gothic nation claimed a superior share of honor +and danger; but the tribes that fought under the Gothic banners are +sometimes distinguished and sometimes confounded in the imperfect +histories of that age; and as the barbarian fleets seemed to issue from +the mouth of the Tanais, the vague but familiar appellation of Scythians +was frequently bestowed on the mixed multitude. + + + +Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And +Gallienus.--Part IV. + +In the general calamities of mankind, the death of an individual, +however exalted, the ruin of an edifice, however famous, are passed over +with careless inattention. Yet we cannot forget that the temple of +Diana at Ephesus, after having risen with increasing splendor from seven +repeated misfortunes, was finally burnt by the Goths in their third +naval invasion. The arts of Greece, and the wealth of Asia, had +conspired to erect that sacred and magnificent structure. It was +supported by a hundred and twenty-seven marble columns of the Ionic +order. They were the gifts of devout monarchs, and each was sixty feet +high. The altar was adorned with the masterly sculptures of Praxiteles, +who had, perhaps, selected from the favorite legends of the place the +birth of the divine children of Latona, the concealment of Apollo +after the slaughter of the Cyclops, and the clemency of Bacchus to the +vanquished Amazons. Yet the length of the temple of Ephesus was only +four hundred and twenty-five feet, about two thirds of the measure of +the church of St. Peter's at Rome. In the other dimensions, it was still +more inferior to that sublime production of modern architecture. The +spreading arms of a Christian cross require a much greater breadth than +the oblong temples of the Pagans; and the boldest artists of antiquity +would have been startled at the proposal of raising in the air a dome +of the size and proportions of the Pantheon. The temple of Diana was, +however, admired as one of the wonders of the world. Successive empires, +the Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman, had revered its sanctity and +enriched its splendor. But the rude savages of the Baltic were destitute +of a taste for the elegant arts, and they despised the ideal terrors of +a foreign superstition. + +Another circumstance is related of these invasions, which might deserve +our notice, were it not justly to be suspected as the fanciful conceit +of a recent sophist. We are told, that in the sack of Athens the Goths +had collected all the libraries, and were on the point of setting fire +to this funeral pile of Grecian learning, had not one of their chiefs, +of more refined policy than his brethren, dissuaded them from the +design; by the profound observation, that as long as the Greeks were +addicted to the study of books, they would never apply themselves to the +exercise of arms. The sagacious counsellor (should the truth of the fact +be admitted) reasoned like an ignorant barbarian. In the most polite and +powerful nations, genius of every kind has displayed itself about +the same period; and the age of science has generally been the age of +military virtue and success. + +IV. The new sovereign of Persia, Artaxerxes and his son Sapor, had +triumphed (as we have already seen) over the house of Arsaces. Of the +many princes of that ancient race. Chosroes, king of Armenia, had alone +preserved both his life and his independence. He defended himself by the +natural strength of his country; by the perpetual resort of fugitives +and malecontents; by the alliance of the Romans, and above all, by his +own courage. Invincible in arms, during a thirty years' war, he was +at length assassinated by the emissaries of Sapor, king of Persia. The +patriotic satraps of Armenia, who asserted the freedom and dignity of +the crown, implored the protection of Rome in favor of Tiridates, the +lawful heir. But the son of Chosroes was an infant, the allies were at +a distance, and the Persian monarch advanced towards the frontier at the +head of an irresistible force. Young Tiridates, the future hope of his +country, was saved by the fidelity of a servant, and Armenia continued +above twenty-seven years a reluctant province of the great monarchy of +Persia. Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the distresses +or the degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor obliged the strong garrisons of +Carrhæ and Nisibis * to surrender, and spread devastation and terror on +either side of the Euphrates. + +The loss of an important frontier, the ruin of a faithful and natural +ally, and the rapid success of Sapor's ambition, affected Rome with a +deep sense of the insult as well as of the danger. Valerian flattered +himself, that the vigilance of his lieutenants would sufficiently +provide for the safety of the Rhine and of the Danube; but he resolved, +notwithstanding his advanced age, to march in person to the defence +of the Euphrates. During his progress through Asia Minor, the naval +enterprises of the Goths were suspended, and the afflicted province +enjoyed a transient and fallacious calm. He passed the Euphrates, +encountered the Persian monarch near the walls of Edessa, was +vanquished, and taken prisoner by Sapor. The particulars of this great +event are darkly and imperfectly represented; yet, by the glimmering +light which is afforded us, we may discover a long series of imprudence, +of error, and of deserved misfortunes on the side of the Roman emperor. +He reposed an implicit confidence in Macrianus, his Prætorian præfect. +That worthless minister rendered his master formidable only to the +oppressed subjects, and contemptible to the enemies of Rome. By his +weak or wicked counsels, the Imperial army was betrayed into a situation +where valor and military skill were equally unavailing. The vigorous +attempt of the Romans to cut their way through the Persian host was +repulsed with great slaughter; and Sapor, who encompassed the camp with +superior numbers, patiently waited till the increasing rage of famine +and pestilence had insured his victory. The licentious murmurs of the +legions soon accused Valerian as the cause of their calamities; their +seditious clamors demanded an instant capitulation. An immense sum of +gold was offered to purchase the permission of a disgraceful retreat. +But the Persian, conscious of his superiority, refused the money with +disdain; and detaining the deputies, advanced in order of battle to the +foot of the Roman rampart, and insisted on a personal conference with +the emperor. Valerian was reduced to the necessity of intrusting his +life and dignity to the faith of an enemy. The interview ended as it was +natural to expect. The emperor was made a prisoner, and his astonished +troops laid down their arms. In such a moment of triumph, the pride and +policy of Sapor prompted him to fill the vacant throne with a successor +entirely dependent on his pleasure. Cyriades, an obscure fugitive of +Antioch, stained with every vice, was chosen to dishonor the Roman +purple; and the will of the Persian victor could not fail of being +ratified by the acclamations, however reluctant, of the captive army. + +The Imperial slave was eager to secure the favor of his master by an act +of treason to his native country. He conducted Sapor over the Euphrates, +and, by the way of Chalcis, to the metropolis of the East. So rapid +were the motions of the Persian cavalry, that, if we may credit a very +judicious historian, the city of Antioch was surprised when the idle +multitude was fondly gazing on the amusements of the theatre. The +splendid buildings of Antioch, private as well as public, were either +pillaged or destroyed; and the numerous inhabitants were put to the +sword, or led away into captivity. The tide of devastation was stopped +for a moment by the resolution of the high priest of Emesa. Arrayed in +his sacerdotal robes, he appeared at the head of a great body of fanatic +peasants, armed only with slings, and defended his god and his property +from the sacrilegious hands of the followers of Zoroaster. But the ruin +of Tarsus, and of many other cities, furnishes a melancholy proof that, +except in this singular instance, the conquest of Syria and Cilicia +scarcely interrupted the progress of the Persian arms. The advantages of +the narrow passes of Mount Taurus were abandoned, in which an invader, +whose principal force consisted in his cavalry, would have been engaged +in a very unequal combat: and Sapor was permitted to form the siege of +Cæsarea, the capital of Cappadocia; a city, though of the second +rank, which was supposed to contain four hundred thousand inhabitants. +Demosthenes commanded in the place, not so much by the commission of the +emperor, as in the voluntary defence of his country. For a long time he +deferred its fate; and when at last Cæsarea was betrayed by the perfidy +of a physician, he cut his way through the Persians, who had been +ordered to exert their utmost diligence to take him alive. This heroic +chief escaped the power of a foe who might either have honored or +punished his obstinate valor; but many thousands of his fellow-citizens +were involved in a general massacre, and Sapor is accused of treating +his prisoners with wanton and unrelenting cruelty. Much should +undoubtedly be allowed for national animosity, much for humbled pride +and impotent revenge; yet, upon the whole, it is certain, that the same +prince, who, in Armenia, had displayed the mild aspect of a legislator, +showed himself to the Romans under the stern features of a conqueror. +He despaired of making any permanent establishment in the empire, and +sought only to leave behind him a wasted desert, whilst he transported +into Persia the people and the treasures of the provinces. + +At the time when the East trembled at the name of Sapor, he received +a present not unworthy of the greatest kings; a long train of camels, +laden with the most rare and valuable merchandises. The rich offering +was accompanied with an epistle, respectful, but not servile, from +Odenathus, one of the noblest and most opulent senators of Palmyra. "Who +is this Odenathus," (said the haughty victor, and he commanded that the +present should be cast into the Euphrates,) "that he thus insolently +presumes to write to his lord? If he entertains a hope of mitigating his +punishment, let him fall prostrate before the foot of our throne, with +his hands bound behind his back. Should he hesitate, swift destruction +shall be poured on his head, on his whole race, and on his country." The +desperate extremity to which the Palmyrenian was reduced, called into +action all the latent powers of his soul. He met Sapor; but he met him +in arms. Infusing his own spirit into a little army collected from the +villages of Syria and the tents of the desert, he hovered round the +Persian host, harassed their retreat, carried off part of the treasure, +and, what was dearer than any treasure, several of the women of the +great king; who was at last obliged to repass the Euphrates with some +marks of haste and confusion. By this exploit, Odenathus laid the +foundations of his future fame and fortunes. The majesty of Rome, +oppressed by a Persian, was protected by a Syrian or Arab of Palmyra. + +The voice of history, which is often little more than the organ of +hatred or flattery, reproaches Sapor with a proud abuse of the rights +of conquest. We are told that Valerian, in chains, but invested with the +Imperial purple, was exposed to the multitude, a constant spectacle +of fallen greatness; and that whenever the Persian monarch mounted +on horseback, he placed his foot on the neck of a Roman emperor. +Notwithstanding all the remonstrances of his allies, who repeatedly +advised him to remember the vicissitudes of fortune, to dread the +returning power of Rome, and to make his illustrious captive the pledge +of peace, not the object of insult, Sapor still remained inflexible. +When Valerian sunk under the weight of shame and grief, his skin, +stuffed with straw, and formed into the likeness of a human figure, was +preserved for ages in the most celebrated temple of Persia; a more real +monument of triumph, than the fancied trophies of brass and marble so +often erected by Roman vanity. The tale is moral and pathetic, but the +truth of it may very fairly be called in question. The letters still +extant from the princes of the East to Sapor are manifest forgeries; +nor is it natural to suppose that a jealous monarch should, even in the +person of a rival, thus publicly degrade the majesty of kings. Whatever +treatment the unfortunate Valerian might experience in Persia, it is at +least certain that the only emperor of Rome who had ever fallen into the +hands of the enemy, languished away his life in hopeless captivity. + +The emperor Gallienus, who had long supported with impatience +the censorial severity of his father and colleague, received the +intelligence of his misfortunes with secret pleasure and avowed +indifference. "I knew that my father was a mortal," said he; "and since +he has acted as it becomes a brave man, I am satisfied." Whilst Rome +lamented the fate of her sovereign, the savage coldness of his son was +extolled by the servile courtiers as the perfect firmness of a hero and +a stoic. It is difficult to paint the light, the various, the inconstant +character of Gallienus, which he displayed without constraint, as +soon as he became sole possessor of the empire. In every art that he +attempted, his lively genius enabled him to succeed; and as his genius +was destitute of judgment, he attempted every art, except the important +ones of war and government. He was a master of several curious, but +useless sciences, a ready orator, an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, +an excellent cook, and most contemptible prince. When the great +emergencies of the state required his presence and attention, he was +engaged in conversation with the philosopher Plotinus, wasting his time +in trifling or licentious pleasures, preparing his initiation to the +Grecian mysteries, or soliciting a place in the Arcopagus of Athens. His +profuse magnificence insulted the general poverty; the solemn ridicule +of his triumphs impressed a deeper sense of the public disgrace. The +repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and rebellions, he received +with a careless smile; and singling out, with affected contempt, some +particular production of the lost province, he carelessly asked, whether +Rome must be ruined, unless it was supplied with linen from Egypt, and +arras cloth from Gaul. There were, however, a few short moments in the +life of Gallienus, when, exasperated by some recent injury, he suddenly +appeared the intrepid soldier and the cruel tyrant; till, satiated with +blood, or fatigued by resistance, he insensibly sunk into the natural +mildness and indolence of his character. + +At the time when the reins of government were held with so loose a hand, +it is not surprising, that a crowd of usurpers should start up in every +province of the empire against the son of Valerian. It was probably some +ingenious fancy, of comparing the thirty tyrants of Rome with the thirty +tyrants of Athens, that induced the writers of the Augustan History to +select that celebrated number, which has been gradually received into +a popular appellation. But in every light the parallel is idle and +defective. What resemblance can we discover between a council of thirty +persons, the united oppressors of a single city, and an uncertain list +of independent rivals, who rose and fell in irregular succession through +the extent of a vast empire? Nor can the number of thirty be completed, +unless we include in the account the women and children who were honored +with the Imperial title. The reign of Gallienus, distracted as it was, +produced only nineteen pretenders to the throne: Cyriades, Macrianus, +Balista, Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; in Gaul, and the western +provinces, Posthumus, Lollianus, Victorinus, and his mother Victoria, +Marius, and Tetricus; in Illyricum and the confines of the Danube, +Ingenuus, Regillianus, and Aureolus; in Pontus, Saturninus; in Isauria, +Trebellianus; Piso in Thessaly; Valens in Achaia; Æmilianus in Egypt; +and Celsus in Africa. * To illustrate the obscure monuments of the life +and death of each individual, would prove a laborious task, alike +barren of instruction and of amusement. We may content ourselves with +investigating some general characters, that most strongly mark the +condition of the times, and the manners of the men, their pretensions, +their motives, their fate, and their destructive consequences of their +usurpation. + +It is sufficiently known, that the odious appellation of Tyrant was +often employed by the ancients to express the illegal seizure of +supreme power, without any reference to the abuse of it. Several of the +pretenders, who raised the standard of rebellion against the emperor +Gallienus, were shining models of virtue, and almost all possessed a +considerable share of vigor and ability. Their merit had recommended +them to the favor of Valerian, and gradually promoted them to the most +important commands of the empire. The generals, who assumed the title of +Augustus, were either respected by their troops for their able conduct +and severe discipline, or admired for valor and success in war, or +beloved for frankness and generosity. The field of victory was often +the scene of their election; and even the armorer Marius, the most +contemptible of all the candidates for the purple, was distinguished, +however by intrepid courage, matchless strength, and blunt honesty. His +mean and recent trade cast, indeed, an air of ridicule on his elevation; +* but his birth could not be more obscure than was that of the greater +part of his rivals, who were born of peasants, and enlisted in the army +as private soldiers. In times of confusion, every active genius finds +the place assigned him by nature: in a general state of war, military +merit is the road to glory and to greatness. Of the nineteen tyrants +Tetricus only was a senator; Piso alone was a noble. The blood of +Numa, through twenty-eight successive generations, ran in the veins +of Calphurnius Piso, who, by female alliances, claimed a right of +exhibiting, in his house, the images of Crassus and of the great Pompey. +His ancestors had been repeatedly dignified with all the honors which +the commonwealth could bestow; and of all the ancient families of +Rome, the Calphurnian alone had survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. The +personal qualities of Piso added new lustre to his race. The usurper +Valens, by whose order he was killed, confessed, with deep remorse, that +even an enemy ought to have respected the sanctity of Piso; and although +he died in arms against Gallienus, the senate, with the emperor's +generous permission, decreed the triumphal ornaments to the memory of so +virtuous a rebel. + +[See Roman Coins: From The British Museum. Number four depicts Crassus.] + +The lieutenants of Valerian were grateful to the father, whom they +esteemed. They disdained to serve the luxurious indolence of his +unworthy son. The throne of the Roman world was unsupported by any +principle of loyalty; and treason against such a prince might easily be +considered as patriotism to the state. Yet if we examine with candor the +conduct of these usurpers, it will appear, that they were much oftener +driven into rebellion by their fears, than urged to it by their +ambition. They dreaded the cruel suspicions of Gallienus; they equally +dreaded the capricious violence of their troops. If the dangerous favor +of the army had imprudently declared them deserving of the purple, they +were marked for sure destruction; and even prudence would counsel them +to secure a short enjoyment of empire, and rather to try the fortune of +war than to expect the hand of an executioner. When the clamor of the +soldiers invested the reluctant victims with the ensigns of sovereign +authority, they sometimes mourned in secret their approaching fate. "You +have lost," said Saturninus, on the day of his elevation, "you have lost +a useful commander, and you have made a very wretched emperor." + +The apprehensions of Saturninus were justified by the repeated +experience of revolutions. Of the nineteen tyrants who started up under +the reign of Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace, +or a natural death. As soon as they were invested with the bloody +purple, they inspired their adherents with the same fears and ambition +which had occasioned their own revolt. Encompassed with domestic +conspiracy, military sedition, and civil war, they trembled on the edge +of precipices, in which, after a longer or shorter term of anxiety, they +were inevitably lost. These precarious monarchs received, however, such +honors as the flattery of their respective armies and provinces could +bestow; but their claim, founded on rebellion, could never obtain the +sanction of law or history. Italy, Rome, and the senate, constantly +adhered to the cause of Gallienus, and he alone was considered as +the sovereign of the empire. That prince condescended, indeed, to +acknowledge the victorious arms of Odenathus, who deserved the honorable +distinction, by the respectful conduct which he always maintained +towards the son of Valerian. With the general applause of the Romans, +and the consent of Gallienus, the senate conferred the title of Augustus +on the brave Palmyrenian; and seemed to intrust him with the government +of the East, which he already possessed, in so independent a manner, +that, like a private succession, he bequeathed it to his illustrious +widow, Zenobia. + +The rapid and perpetual transitions from the cottage to the throne, +and from the throne to the grave, might have amused an indifferent +philosopher; were it possible for a philosopher to remain indifferent +amidst the general calamities of human kind. The election of these +precarious emperors, their power and their death, were equally +destructive to their subjects and adherents. The price of their fatal +elevation was instantly discharged to the troops by an immense donative, +drawn from the bowels of the exhausted people. However virtuous was +their character, however pure their intentions, they found themselves +reduced to the hard necessity of supporting their usurpation by frequent +acts of rapine and cruelty. When they fell, they involved armies and +provinces in their fall. There is still extant a most savage mandate +from Gallienus to one of his ministers, after the suppression of +Ingenuus, who had assumed the purple in Illyricum. "It is not enough," +says that soft but inhuman prince, "that you exterminate such as +have appeared in arms; the chance of battle might have served me as +effectually. The male sex of every age must be extirpated; provided +that, in the execution of the children and old men, you can contrive +means to save our reputation. Let every one die who has dropped an +expression, who has entertained a thought against me, against me, the +son of Valerian, the father and brother of so many princes. Remember +that Ingenuus was made emperor: tear, kill, hew in pieces. I write +to you with my own hand, and would inspire you with my own feelings." +Whilst the public forces of the state were dissipated in private +quarrels, the defenceless provinces lay exposed to every invader. The +bravest usurpers were compelled, by the perplexity of their situation, +to conclude ignominious treaties with the common enemy, to purchase with +oppressive tributes the neutrality or services of the Barbarians, and +to introduce hostile and independent nations into the heart of the Roman +monarchy. + +Such were the barbarians, and such the tyrants, who, under the reigns +of Valerian and Gallienus, dismembered the provinces, and reduced the +empire to the lowest pitch of disgrace and ruin, from whence it seemed +impossible that it should ever emerge. As far as the barrenness of +materials would permit, we have attempted to trace, with order and +perspicuity, the general events of that calamitous period. There still +remain some particular facts; I. The disorders of Sicily; II. The +tumults of Alexandria; and, III. The rebellion of the Isaurians, which +may serve to reflect a strong light on the horrid picture. + +I. Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by success and +impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding the justice of their +country, we may safely infer, that the excessive weakness of the +government is felt and abused by the lowest ranks of the community. +The situation of Sicily preserved it from the Barbarians; nor could the +disarmed province have supported a usurper. The sufferings of that once +flourishing and still fertile island were inflicted by baser hands. A +licentious crowd of slaves and peasants reigned for a while over the +plundered country, and renewed the memory of the servile wars of more +ancient times. Devastations, of which the husbandman was either the +victim or the accomplice, must have ruined the agriculture of Sicily; +and as the principal estates were the property of the opulent senators +of Rome, who often enclosed within a farm the territory of an old +republic, it is not improbable, that this private injury might affect +the capital more deeply, than all the conquests of the Goths or the +Persians. + +II. The foundation of Alexandria was a noble design, at once conceived +and executed by the son of Philip. The beautiful and regular form +of that great city, second only to Rome itself, comprehended a +circumference of fifteen miles; it was peopled by three hundred thousand +free inhabitants, besides at least an equal number of slaves. The +lucrative trade of Arabia and India flowed through the port of +Alexandria, to the capital and provinces of the empire. * Idleness was +unknown. Some were employed in blowing of glass, others in weaving of +linen, others again manufacturing the papyrus. Either sex, and every +age, was engaged in the pursuits of industry, nor did even the blind or +the lame want occupations suited to their condition. But the people +of Alexandria, a various mixture of nations, united the vanity and +inconstancy of the Greeks with the superstition and obstinacy of the +Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a transient scarcity of flesh +or lentils, the neglect of an accustomed salutation, a mistake of +precedency in the public baths, or even a religious dispute, were at any +time sufficient to kindle a sedition among that vast multitude, whose +resentments were furious and implacable. After the captivity of Valerian +and the insolence of his son had relaxed the authority of the laws, +the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to the ungoverned rage of their +passions, and their unhappy country was the theatre of a civil war, +which continued (with a few short and suspicious truces) above twelve +years. All intercourse was cut off between the several quarters of the +afflicted city, every street was polluted with blood, every building of +strength converted into a citadel; nor did the tumults subside till a +considerable part of Alexandria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious +and magnificent district of Bruchion, * with its palaces and musæum, the +residence of the kings and philosophers of Egypt, is described above a +century afterwards, as already reduced to its present state of dreary +solitude. + +III. The obscure rebellion of Trebellianus, who assumed the purple in +Isauria, a petty province of Asia Minor, was attended with strange and +memorable consequences. The pageant of royalty was soon destroyed by an +officer of Gallienus; but his followers, despairing of mercy, resolved +to shake off their allegiance, not only to the emperor, but to the +empire, and suddenly returned to the savage manners from which they +had never perfectly been reclaimed. Their craggy rocks, a branch of the +wide-extended Taurus, protected their inaccessible retreat. The tillage +of some fertile valleys supplied them with necessaries, and a habit of +rapine with the luxuries of life. In the heart of the Roman monarchy, +the Isaurians long continued a nation of wild barbarians. Succeeding +princes, unable to reduce them to obedience, either by arms or policy, +were compelled to acknowledge their weakness, by surrounding the hostile +and independent spot with a strong chain of fortifications, which often +proved insufficient to restrain the incursions of these domestic foes. +The Isaurians, gradually extending their territory to the sea-coast, +subdued the western and mountainous part of Cilicia, formerly the nest +of those daring pirates, against whom the republic had once been obliged +to exert its utmost force, under the conduct of the great Pompey. + +Our habits of thinking so fondly connect the order of the universe with +the fate of man, that this gloomy period of history has been decorated +with inundations, earthquakes, uncommon meteors, preternatural darkness, +and a crowd of prodigies fictitious or exaggerated. But a long and +general famine was a calamity of a more serious kind. It was the +inevitable consequence of rapine and oppression, which extirpated the +produce of the present, and the hope of future harvests. Famine is +almost always followed by epidemical diseases, the effect of scanty and +unwholesome food. Other causes must, however, have contributed to the +furious plague, which, from the year two hundred and fifty to the +year two hundred and sixty-five, raged without interruption in every +province, every city, and almost every family, of the Roman empire. +During some time five thousand persons died daily in Rome; and many +towns, that had escaped the hands of the Barbarians, were entirely +depopulated. + +We have the knowledge of a very curious circumstance, of some use +perhaps in the melancholy calculation of human calamities. An exact +register was kept at Alexandria of all the citizens entitled to receive +the distribution of corn. It was found, that the ancient number of those +comprised between the ages of forty and seventy, had been equal to the +whole sum of claimants, from fourteen to fourscore years of age, who +remained alive after the reign of Gallienus. Applying this authentic +fact to the most correct tables of mortality, it evidently proves, that +above half the people of Alexandria had perished; and could we venture +to extend the analogy to the other provinces, we might suspect, that +war, pestilence, and famine, had consumed, in a few years, the moiety of +the human species. + + + +Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.--Part I. + + Reign Of Claudius.--Defeat Of The Goths.--Victories, + Triumph, And Death Of Aurelian. + +Under the deplorable reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the empire was +oppressed and almost destroyed by the soldiers, the tyrants, and the +barbarians. It was saved by a series of great princes, who derived their +obscure origin from the martial provinces of Illyricum. Within a period +of about thirty years, Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and his +colleagues, triumphed over the foreign and domestic enemies of the +state, reestablished, with the military discipline, the strength of the +frontiers, and deserved the glorious title of Restorers of the Roman +world. + +The removal of an effeminate tyrant made way for a succession of heroes. +The indignation of the people imputed all their calamities to Gallienus, +and the far greater part were indeed, the consequence of his dissolute +manners and careless administration. He was even destitute of a sense of +honor, which so frequently supplies the absence of public virtue; and as +long as he was permitted to enjoy the possession of Italy, a victory of +the barbarians, the loss of a province, or the rebellion of a general, +seldom disturbed the tranquil course of his pleasures. At length, a +considerable army, stationed on the Upper Danube, invested with the +Imperial purple their leader Aureolus; who, disdaining a confined and +barren reign over the mountains of Rhætia, passed the Alps, occupied +Milan, threatened Rome, and challenged Gallienus to dispute in the +field the sovereignty of Italy. The emperor, provoked by the insult, and +alarmed by the instant danger, suddenly exerted that latent vigor which +sometimes broke through the indolence of his temper. Forcing himself +from the luxury of the palace, he appeared in arms at the head of his +legions, and advanced beyond the Po to encounter his competitor. The +corrupted name of Pontirolo still preserves the memory of a bridge over +the Adda, which, during the action, must have proved an object of the +utmost importance to both armies. The Rhætian usurper, after receiving +a total defeat and a dangerous wound, retired into Milan. The siege of +that great city was immediately formed; the walls were battered with +every engine in use among the ancients; and Aureolus, doubtful of his +internal strength, and hopeless of foreign succors already anticipated +the fatal consequences of unsuccessful rebellion. + +His last resource was an attempt to seduce the loyalty of the besiegers. +He scattered libels through the camp, inviting the troops to desert an +unworthy master, who sacrificed the public happiness to his luxury, and +the lives of his most valuable subjects to the slightest suspicions. +The arts of Aureolus diffused fears and discontent among the principal +officers of his rival. A conspiracy was formed by Heraclianus the +Prætorian præfect, by Marcian, a general of rank and reputation, and by +Cecrops, who commanded a numerous body of Dalmatian guards. The death +of Gallienus was resolved; and notwithstanding their desire of first +terminating the siege of Milan, the extreme danger which accompanied +every moment's delay obliged them to hasten the execution of their +daring purpose. At a late hour of the night, but while the emperor still +protracted the pleasures of the table, an alarm was suddenly given, that +Aureolus, at the head of all his forces, had made a desperate sally +from the town; Gallienus, who was never deficient in personal bravery, +started from his silken couch, and without allowing himself time either +to put on his armor, or to assemble his guards, he mounted on +horseback, and rode full speed towards the supposed place of the attack. +Encompassed by his declared or concealed enemies, he soon, amidst the +nocturnal tumult, received a mortal dart from an uncertain hand. Before +he expired, a patriotic sentiment using in the mind of Gallienus, +induced him to name a deserving successor; and it was his last request, +that the Imperial ornaments should be delivered to Claudius, who then +commanded a detached army in the neighborhood of Pavia. The report at +least was diligently propagated, and the order cheerfully obeyed by the +conspirators, who had already agreed to place Claudius on the throne. +On the first news of the emperor's death, the troops expressed some +suspicion and resentment, till the one was removed, and the other +assuaged, by a donative of twenty pieces of gold to each soldier. They +then ratified the election, and acknowledged the merit of their new +sovereign. + +The obscurity which covered the origin of Claudius, though it was +afterwards embellished by some flattering fictions, sufficiently betrays +the meanness of his birth. We can only discover that he was a native of +one of the provinces bordering on the Danube; that his youth was spent +in arms, and that his modest valor attracted the favor and confidence +of Decius. The senate and people already considered him as an +excellent officer, equal to the most important trusts; and censured the +inattention of Valerian, who suffered him to remain in the subordinate +station of a tribune. But it was not long before that emperor +distinguished the merit of Claudius, by declaring him general and chief +of the Illyrian frontier, with the command of all the troops in Thrace, +Mæsia, Dacia, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, the appointments of the præfect +of Egypt, the establishment of the proconsul of Africa, and the sure +prospect of the consulship. By his victories over the Goths, he +deserved from the senate the honor of a statue, and excited the jealous +apprehensions of Gallienus. It was impossible that a soldier could +esteem so dissolute a sovereign, nor is it easy to conceal a just +contempt. Some unguarded expressions which dropped from Claudius were +officiously transmitted to the royal ear. The emperor's answer to an +officer of confidence describes in very lively colors his own character, +and that of the times. "There is not any thing capable of giving me more +serious concern, than the intelligence contained in your last despatch; +that some malicious suggestions have indisposed towards us the mind of +our friend and parent Claudius. As you regard your allegiance, use +every means to appease his resentment, but conduct your negotiation with +secrecy; let it not reach the knowledge of the Dacian troops; they are +already provoked, and it might inflame their fury. I myself have sent +him some presents: be it your care that he accept them with pleasure. +Above all, let him not suspect that I am made acquainted with his +imprudence. The fear of my anger might urge him to desperate counsels." +The presents which accompanied this humble epistle, in which the monarch +solicited a reconciliation with his discontented subject, consisted of +a considerable sum of money, a splendid wardrobe, and a valuable +service of silver and gold plate. By such arts Gallienus softened the +indignation and dispelled the fears of his Illyrian general; and during +the remainder of that reign, the formidable sword of Claudius was always +drawn in the cause of a master whom he despised. At last, indeed, he +received from the conspirators the bloody purple of Gallienus: but +he had been absent from their camp and counsels; and however he might +applaud the deed, we may candidly presume that he was innocent of +the knowledge of it. When Claudius ascended the throne, he was about +fifty-four years of age. + +The siege of Milan was still continued, and Aureolus soon discovered +that the success of his artifices had only raised up a more determined +adversary. He attempted to negotiate with Claudius a treaty of alliance +and partition. "Tell him," replied the intrepid emperor, "that such +proposals should have been made to Gallienus; he, perhaps, might have +listened to them with patience, and accepted a colleague as despicable +as himself." This stern refusal, and a last unsuccessful effort, +obliged Aureolus to yield the city and himself to the discretion of the +conqueror. The judgment of the army pronounced him worthy of death; and +Claudius, after a feeble resistance, consented to the execution of the +sentence. Nor was the zeal of the senate less ardent in the cause of +their new sovereign. They ratified, perhaps with a sincere transport +of zeal, the election of Claudius; and, as his predecessor had shown +himself the personal enemy of their order, they exercised, under the +name of justice, a severe revenge against his friends and family. The +senate was permitted to discharge the ungrateful office of punishment, +and the emperor reserved for himself the pleasure and merit of obtaining +by his intercession a general act of indemnity. + +Such ostentatious clemency discovers less of the real character of +Claudius, than a trifling circumstance in which he seems to have +consulted only the dictates of his heart. The frequent rebellions of +the provinces had involved almost every person in the guilt of treason, +almost every estate in the case of confiscation; and Gallienus often +displayed his liberality by distributing among his officers the property +of his subjects. On the accession of Claudius, an old woman threw +herself at his feet, and complained that a general of the late emperor +had obtained an arbitrary grant of her patrimony. This general was +Claudius himself, who had not entirely escaped the contagion of the +times. The emperor blushed at the reproach, but deserved the confidence +which she had reposed in his equity. The confession of his fault was +accompanied with immediate and ample restitution. + +In the arduous task which Claudius had undertaken, of restoring the +empire to its ancient splendor, it was first necessary to revive among +his troops a sense of order and obedience. With the authority of +a veteran commander, he represented to them that the relaxation of +discipline had introduced a long train of disorders, the effects of +which were at length experienced by the soldiers themselves; that a +people ruined by oppression, and indolent from despair, could no longer +supply a numerous army with the means of luxury, or even of subsistence; +that the danger of each individual had increased with the despotism of +the military order, since princes who tremble on the throne will guard +their safety by the instant sacrifice of every obnoxious subject. +The emperor expiated on the mischiefs of a lawless caprice, which the +soldiers could only gratify at the expense of their own blood; as their +seditious elections had so frequently been followed by civil wars, which +consumed the flower of the legions either in the field of battle, or +in the cruel abuse of victory. He painted in the most lively colors the +exhausted state of the treasury, the desolation of the provinces, +the disgrace of the Roman name, and the insolent triumph of rapacious +barbarians. It was against those barbarians, he declared, that he +intended to point the first effort of their arms. Tetricus might reign +for a while over the West, and even Zenobia might preserve the dominion +of the East. These usurpers were his personal adversaries; nor could he +think of indulging any private resentment till he had saved an empire, +whose impending ruin would, unless it was timely prevented, crush both +the army and the people. + +The various nations of Germany and Sarmatia, who fought under the Gothic +standard, had already collected an armament more formidable than any +which had yet issued from the Euxine. On the banks of the Niester, +one of the great rivers that discharge themselves into that sea, they +constructed a fleet of two thousand, or even of six thousand vessels; +numbers which, however incredible they may seem, would have been +insufficient to transport their pretended army of three hundred and +twenty thousand barbarians. Whatever might be the real strength of the +Goths, the vigor and success of the expedition were not adequate to the +greatness of the preparations. In their passage through the Bosphorus, +the unskilful pilots were overpowered by the violence of the current; +and while the multitude of their ships were crowded in a narrow +channel, many were dashed against each other, or against the shore. The +barbarians made several descents on the coasts both of Europe and Asia; +but the open country was already plundered, and they were repulsed with +shame and loss from the fortified cities which they assaulted. A spirit +of discouragement and division arose in the fleet, and some of their +chiefs sailed away towards the islands of Crete and Cyprus; but the main +body, pursuing a more steady course, anchored at length near the foot of +Mount Athos, and assaulted the city of Thessalonica, the wealthy capital +of all the Macedonian provinces. Their attacks, in which they displayed +a fierce but artless bravery, were soon interrupted by the rapid +approach of Claudius, hastening to a scene of action that deserved the +presence of a warlike prince at the head of the remaining powers of the +empire. Impatient for battle, the Goths immediately broke up their camp, +relinquished the siege of Thessalonica, left their navy at the foot of +Mount Athos, traversed the hills of Macedonia, and pressed forwards to +engage the last defence of Italy. + +We still posses an original letter addressed by Claudius to the senate +and people on this memorable occasion. "Conscript fathers," says the +emperor, "know that three hundred and twenty thousand Goths have invaded +the Roman territory. If I vanquish them, your gratitude will reward my +services. Should I fall, remember that I am the successor of Gallienus. +The whole republic is fatigued and exhausted. We shall fight after +Valerian, after Ingenuus, Regillianus, Lollianus, Posthumus, Celsus, +and a thousand others, whom a just contempt for Gallienus provoked +into rebellion. We are in want of darts, of spears, and of shields. The +strength of the empire, Gaul, and Spain, are usurped by Tetricus, and +we blush to acknowledge that the archers of the East serve under the +banners of Zenobia. Whatever we shall perform will be sufficiently +great." The melancholy firmness of this epistle announces a hero +careless of his fate, conscious of his danger, but still deriving a +well-grounded hope from the resources of his own mind. + +The event surpassed his own expectations and those of the world. By +the most signal victories he delivered the empire from this host of +barbarians, and was distinguished by posterity under the glorious +appellation of the Gothic Claudius. The imperfect historians of an +irregular war do not enable as to describe the order and circumstances +of his exploits; but, if we could be indulged in the allusion, we might +distribute into three acts this memorable tragedy. I. The decisive +battle was fought near Naissus, a city of Dardania. The legions at first +gave way, oppressed by numbers, and dismayed by misfortunes. Their +ruin was inevitable, had not the abilities of their emperor prepared +a seasonable relief. A large detachment, rising out of the secret +and difficult passes of the mountains, which, by his order, they had +occupied, suddenly assailed the rear of the victorious Goths. The +favorable instant was improved by the activity of Claudius. He revived +the courage of his troops, restored their ranks, and pressed the +barbarians on every side. Fifty thousand men are reported to have been +slain in the battle of Naissus. Several large bodies of barbarians, +covering their retreat with a movable fortification of wagons, retired, +or rather escaped, from the field of slaughter. II. We may presume +that some insurmountable difficulty, the fatigue, perhaps, or the +disobedience, of the conquerors, prevented Claudius from completing +in one day the destruction of the Goths. The war was diffused over the +province of Mæsia, Thrace, and Macedonia, and its operations drawn out +into a variety of marches, surprises, and tumultuary engagements, +as well by sea as by land. When the Romans suffered any loss, it was +commonly occasioned by their own cowardice or rashness; but the superior +talents of the emperor, his perfect knowledge of the country, and +his judicious choice of measures as well as officers, assured on most +occasions the success of his arms. The immense booty, the fruit of so +many victories, consisted for the greater part of cattle and slaves. A +select body of the Gothic youth was received among the Imperial troops; +the remainder was sold into servitude; and so considerable was the +number of female captives, that every soldier obtained to his share +two or three women. A circumstance from which we may conclude, that the +invaders entertained some designs of settlement as well as of plunder; +since even in a naval expedition, they were accompanied by their +families. III. The loss of their fleet, which was either taken or sunk, +had intercepted the retreat of the Goths. A vast circle of Roman posts, +distributed with skill, supported with firmness, and gradually +closing towards a common centre, forced the barbarians into the most +inaccessible parts of Mount Hæmus, where they found a safe refuge, but a +very scanty subsistence. During the course of a rigorous winter in +which they were besieged by the emperor's troops, famine and pestilence, +desertion and the sword, continually diminished the imprisoned +multitude. On the return of spring, nothing appeared in arms except +a hardy and desperate band, the remnant of that mighty host which had +embarked at the mouth of the Niester. + +The pestilence which swept away such numbers of the barbarians, at +length proved fatal to their conqueror. After a short but glorious +reign of two years, Claudius expired at Sirmium, amidst the tears and +acclamations of his subjects. In his last illness, he convened the +principal officers of the state and army, and in their presence +recommended Aurelian, one of his generals, as the most deserving of +the throne, and the best qualified to execute the great design which he +himself had been permitted only to undertake. The virtues of Claudius, +his valor, affability, justice, and temperance, his love of fame and of +his country, place him in that short list of emperors who added lustre +to the Roman purple. Those virtues, however, were celebrated with +peculiar zeal and complacency by the courtly writers of the age of +Constantine, who was the great grandson of Crispus, the elder brother +of Claudius. The voice of flattery was soon taught to repeat, that gods, +who so hastily had snatched Claudius from the earth, rewarded his merit +and piety by the perpetual establishment of the empire in his family. + +Notwithstanding these oracles, the greatness of the Flavian family (a +name which it had pleased them to assume) was deferred above twenty +years, and the elevation of Claudius occasioned the immediate ruin +of his brother Quintilius, who possessed not sufficient moderation or +courage to descend into the private station to which the patriotism +of the late emperor had condemned him. Without delay or reflection, he +assumed the purple at Aquileia, where he commanded a considerable force; +and though his reign lasted only seventeen days, * he had time to obtain +the sanction of the senate, and to experience a mutiny of the troops. As +soon as he was informed that the great army of the Danube had invested +the well-known valor of Aurelian with Imperial power, he sunk under +the fame and merit of his rival; and ordering his veins to be opened, +prudently withdrew himself from the unequal contest. + +The general design of this work will not permit us minutely to relate +the actions of every emperor after he ascended the throne, much less to +deduce the various fortunes of his private life. We shall only observe, +that the father of Aurelian was a peasant of the territory of Sirmium, +who occupied a small farm, the property of Aurelius, a rich senator. +His warlike son enlisted in the troops as a common soldier, successively +rose to the rank of a centurion, a tribune, the præfect of a legion, the +inspector of the camp, the general, or, as it was then called, the +duke, of a frontier; and at length, during the Gothic war, exercised the +important office of commander-in-chief of the cavalry. In every station +he distinguished himself by matchless valor, rigid discipline, and +successful conduct. He was invested with the consulship by the emperor +Valerian, who styles him, in the pompous language of that age, the +deliverer of Illyricum, the restorer of Gaul, and the rival of the +Scipios. At the recommendation of Valerian, a senator of the highest +rank and merit, Ulpius Crinitus, whose blood was derived from the same +source as that of Trajan, adopted the Pannonian peasant, gave him his +daughter in marriage, and relieved with his ample fortune the honorable +poverty which Aurelian had preserved inviolate. + +The reign of Aurelian lasted only four years and about nine months; +but every instant of that short period was filled by some memorable +achievement. He put an end to the Gothic war, chastised the Germans who +invaded Italy, recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain out of the hands of +Tetricus, and destroyed the proud monarchy which Zenobia had erected in +the East on the ruins of the afflicted empire. + +It was the rigid attention of Aurelian, even to the minutest articles of +discipline, which bestowed such uninterrupted success on his arms. His +military regulations are contained in a very concise epistle to one of +his inferior officers, who is commanded to enforce them, as he wishes +to become a tribune, or as he is desirous to live. Gaming, drinking, and +the arts of divination, were severely prohibited. Aurelian expected that +his soldiers should be modest, frugal, and laborous; that their armor +should be constantly kept bright, their weapons sharp, their clothing +and horses ready for immediate service; that they should live in their +quarters with chastity and sobriety, without damaging the cornfields, +without stealing even a sheep, a fowl, or a bunch of grapes, without +exacting from their landlords, either salt, or oil, or wood. "The public +allowance," continues the emperor, "is sufficient for their support; +their wealth should be collected from the spoils of the enemy, not from +the tears of the provincials." A single instance will serve to display +the rigor, and even cruelty, of Aurelian. One of the soldiers had +seduced the wife of his host. The guilty wretch was fastened to two +trees forcibly drawn towards each other, and his limbs were torn asunder +by their sudden separation. A few such examples impressed a salutary +consternation. The punishments of Aurelian were terrible; but he had +seldom occasion to punish more than once the same offence. His own +conduct gave a sanction to his laws, and the seditious legions dreaded a +chief who had learned to obey, and who was worthy to command. + + + +Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.--Part II. + +The death of Claudius had revived the fainting spirit of the Goths. The +troops which guarded the passes of Mount Hæmus, and the banks of the +Danube, had been drawn away by the apprehension of a civil war; and it +seems probable that the remaining body of the Gothic and Vandalic tribes +embraced the favorable opportunity, abandoned their settlements of +the Ukraine, traversed the rivers, and swelled with new multitudes the +destroying host of their countrymen. Their united numbers were at length +encountered by Aurelian, and the bloody and doubtful conflict ended only +with the approach of night. Exhausted by so many calamities, which they +had mutually endured and inflicted during a twenty years' war, the Goths +and the Romans consented to a lasting and beneficial treaty. It was +earnestly solicited by the barbarians, and cheerfully ratified by +the legions, to whose suffrage the prudence of Aurelian referred the +decision of that important question. The Gothic nation engaged to supply +the armies of Rome with a body of two thousand auxiliaries, consisting +entirely of cavalry, and stipulated in return an undisturbed retreat, +with a regular market as far as the Danube, provided by the emperor's +care, but at their own expense. The treaty was observed with such +religious fidelity, that when a party of five hundred men straggled +from the camp in quest of plunder, the king or general of the barbarians +commanded that the guilty leader should be apprehended and shot to death +with darts, as a victim devoted to the sanctity of their engagements. * +It is, however, not unlikely, that the precaution of Aurelian, who +had exacted as hostages the sons and daughters of the Gothic chiefs, +contributed something to this pacific temper. The youths he trained in +the exercise of arms, and near his own person: to the damsels he gave a +liberal and Roman education, and by bestowing them in marriage on some +of his principal officers, gradually introduced between the two nations +the closest and most endearing connections. + +But the most important condition of peace was understood rather than +expressed in the treaty. Aurelian withdrew the Roman forces from Dacia, +and tacitly relinquished that great province to the Goths and Vandals. +His manly judgment convinced him of the solid advantages, and taught him +to despise the seeming disgrace, of thus contracting the frontiers +of the monarchy. The Dacian subjects, removed from those distant +possessions which they were unable to cultivate or defend, added +strength and populousness to the southern side of the Danube. A fertile +territory, which the repetition of barbarous inroads had changed into a +desert, was yielded to their industry, and a new province of Dacia still +preserved the memory of Trajan's conquests. The old country of that name +detained, however, a considerable number of its inhabitants, who dreaded +exile more than a Gothic master. These degenerate Romans continued to +serve the empire, whose allegiance they had renounced, by introducing +among their conquerors the first notions of agriculture, the useful +arts, and the conveniences of civilized life. An intercourse of commerce +and language was gradually established between the opposite banks of the +Danube; and after Dacia became an independent state, it often proved the +firmest barrier of the empire against the invasions of the savages of +the North. A sense of interest attached these more settled barbarians +to the alliance of Rome, and a permanent interest very frequently ripens +into sincere and useful friendship. This various colony, which filled +the ancient province, and was insensibly blended into one great people, +still acknowledged the superior renown and authority of the Gothic +tribe, and claimed the fancied honor of a Scandinavian origin. At the +same time, the lucky though accidental resemblance of the name of Getæ, +* infused among the credulous Goths a vain persuasion, that in a remote +age, their own ancestors, already seated in the Dacian provinces, had +received the instructions of Zamolxis, and checked the victorious arms +of Sesostris and Darius. + +While the vigorous and moderate conduct of Aurelian restored the +Illyrian frontier, the nation of the Alemanni violated the conditions +of peace, which either Gallienus had purchased, or Claudius had imposed, +and, inflamed by their impatient youth, suddenly flew to arms. Forty +thousand horse appeared in the field, and the numbers of the infantry +doubled those of the cavalry. The first objects of their avarice were +a few cities of the Rhætian frontier; but their hopes soon rising with +success, the rapid march of the Alemanni traced a line of devastation +from the Danube to the Po. + +The emperor was almost at the same time informed of the irruption, and +of the retreat, of the barbarians. Collecting an active body of troops, +he marched with silence and celerity along the skirts of the Hercynian +forest; and the Alemanni, laden with the spoils of Italy, arrived at +the Danube, without suspecting, that on the opposite bank, and in an +advantageous post, a Roman army lay concealed and prepared to intercept +their return. Aurelian indulged the fatal security of the barbarians, +and permitted about half their forces to pass the river without +disturbance and without precaution. Their situation and astonishment +gave him an easy victory; his skilful conduct improved the advantage. +Disposing the legions in a semicircular form, he advanced the two horns +of the crescent across the Danube, and wheeling them on a sudden +towards the centre, enclosed the rear of the German host. The dismayed +barbarians, on whatsoever side they cast their eyes, beheld, with +despair, a wasted country, a deep and rapid stream, a victorious and +implacable enemy. + +Reduced to this distressed condition, the Alemanni no longer disdained +to sue for peace. Aurelian received their ambassadors at the head of his +camp, and with every circumstance of martial pomp that could display +the greatness and discipline of Rome. The legions stood to their arms +in well-ordered ranks and awful silence. The principal commanders, +distinguished by the ensigns of their rank, appeared on horseback on +either side of the Imperial throne. Behind the throne the consecrated +images of the emperor, and his predecessors, the golden eagles, and the +various titles of the legions, engraved in letters of gold, were exalted +in the air on lofty pikes covered with silver. When Aurelian assumed +his seat, his manly grace and majestic figure taught the barbarians +to revere the person as well as the purple of their conqueror. The +ambassadors fell prostrate on the ground in silence. They were commanded +to rise, and permitted to speak. By the assistance of interpreters they +extenuated their perfidy, magnified their exploits, expatiated on +the vicissitudes of fortune and the advantages of peace, and, with an +ill-timed confidence, demanded a large subsidy, as the price of the +alliance which they offered to the Romans. The answer of the emperor +was stern and imperious. He treated their offer with contempt, and their +demand with indignation, reproached the barbarians, that they were +as ignorant of the arts of war as of the laws of peace, and finally +dismissed them with the choice only of submitting to this unconditional +mercy, or awaiting the utmost severity of his resentment. Aurelian had +resigned a distant province to the Goths; but it was dangerous to trust +or to pardon these perfidious barbarians, whose formidable power kept +Italy itself in perpetual alarms. + +Immediately after this conference, it should seem that some unexpected +emergency required the emperor's presence in Pannonia. He devolved on +his lieutenants the care of finishing the destruction of the Alemanni, +either by the sword, or by the surer operation of famine. But an active +despair has often triumphed over the indolent assurance of success. The +barbarians, finding it impossible to traverse the Danube and the Roman +camp, broke through the posts in their rear, which were more feebly +or less carefully guarded; and with incredible diligence, but by a +different road, returned towards the mountains of Italy. Aurelian, who +considered the war as totally extinguished, received the mortifying +intelligence of the escape of the Alemanni, and of the ravage which they +already committed in the territory of Milan. The legions were commanded +to follow, with as much expedition as those heavy bodies were capable of +exerting, the rapid flight of an enemy whose infantry and cavalry moved +with almost equal swiftness. A few days afterwards, the emperor +himself marched to the relief of Italy, at the head of a chosen body of +auxiliaries, (among whom were the hostages and cavalry of the Vandals,) +and of all the Prætorian guards who had served in the wars on the +Danube. + +As the light troops of the Alemanni had spread themselves from the Alps +to the Apennine, the incessant vigilance of Aurelian and his officers +was exercised in the discovery, the attack, and the pursuit of the +numerous detachments. Notwithstanding this desultory war, three +considerable battles are mentioned, in which the principal force of both +armies was obstinately engaged. The success was various. In the first, +fought near Placentia, the Romans received so severe a blow, that, +according to the expression of a writer extremely partial to Aurelian, +the immediate dissolution of the empire was apprehended. The crafty +barbarians, who had lined the woods, suddenly attacked the legions in +the dusk of the evening, and, it is most probable, after the fatigue +and disorder of a long march. The fury of their charge was irresistible; +but, at length, after a dreadful slaughter, the patient firmness of the +emperor rallied his troops, and restored, in some degree, the honor of +his arms. The second battle was fought near Fano in Umbria; on the +spot which, five hundred years before, had been fatal to the brother of +Hannibal. Thus far the successful Germans had advanced along the Æmilian +and Flaminian way, with a design of sacking the defenceless mistress +of the world. But Aurelian, who, watchful for the safety of Rome, still +hung on their rear, found in this place the decisive moment of giving +them a total and irretrievable defeat. The flying remnant of their host +was exterminated in a third and last battle near Pavia; and Italy was +delivered from the inroads of the Alemanni. + +Fear has been the original parent of superstition, and every new +calamity urges trembling mortals to deprecate the wrath of their +invisible enemies. Though the best hope of the republic was in the valor +and conduct of Aurelian, yet such was the public consternation, when the +barbarians were hourly expected at the gates of Rome, that, by a decree +of the senate the Sibylline books were consulted. Even the emperor +himself from a motive either of religion or of policy, recommended this +salutary measure, chided the tardiness of the senate, and offered to +supply whatever expense, whatever animals, whatever captives of any +nation, the gods should require. Notwithstanding this liberal offer, it +does not appear, that any human victims expiated with their blood the +sins of the Roman people. The Sibylline books enjoined ceremonies of a +more harmless nature, processions of priests in white robes, attended +by a chorus of youths and virgins; lustrations of the city and +adjacent country; and sacrifices, whose powerful influence disabled +the barbarians from passing the mystic ground on which they had been +celebrated. However puerile in themselves, these superstitious arts were +subservient to the success of the war; and if, in the decisive battle of +Fano, the Alemanni fancied they saw an army of spectres combating on +the side of Aurelian, he received a real and effectual aid from this +imaginary reenforcement. + +But whatever confidence might be placed in ideal ramparts, the +experience of the past, and the dread of the future, induced the Romans +to construct fortifications of a grosser and more substantial kind. The +seven hills of Rome had been surrounded, by the successors of Romulus, +with an ancient wall of more than thirteen miles. The vast enclosure may +seem disproportioned to the strength and numbers of the infant state. +But it was necessary to secure an ample extent of pasture and arable +land, against the frequent and sudden incursions of the tribes of +Latium, the perpetual enemies of the republic. With the progress of +Roman greatness, the city and its inhabitants gradually increased, +filled up the vacant space, pierced through the useless walls, covered +the field of Mars, and, on every side, followed the public highways +in long and beautiful suburbs. The extent of the new walls, erected by +Aurelian, and finished in the reign of Probus, was magnified by popular +estimation to near fifty, but is reduced by accurate measurement to +about twenty-one miles. It was a great but a melancholy labor, since the +defence of the capital betrayed the decline of the monarchy. The Romans +of a more prosperous age, who trusted to the arms of the legions +the safety of the frontier camps, were very far from entertaining a +suspicion, that it would ever become necessary to fortify the seat of +empire against the inroads of the barbarians. + +The victory of Claudius over the Goths, and the success of Aurelian +against the Alemanni, had already restored to the arms of Rome their +ancient superiority over the barbarous nations of the North. To chastise +domestic tyrants, and to reunite the dismembered parts of the empire, +was a task reserved for the second of those warlike emperors. Though +he was acknowledged by the senate and people, the frontiers of Italy, +Africa, Illyricum, and Thrace, confined the limits of his reign. Gaul, +Spain, and Britain, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, were still possessed +by two rebels, who alone, out of so numerous a list, had hitherto +escaped the dangers of their situation; and to complete the ignominy of +Rome, these rival thrones had been usurped by women. + +A rapid succession of monarchs had arisen and fallen in the provinces +of Gaul. The rigid virtues of Posthumus served only to hasten his +destruction. After suppressing a competitor, who had assumed the purple +at Mentz, he refused to gratify his troops with the plunder of the +rebellious city; and in the seventh year of his reign, became the victim +of their disappointed avarice. The death of Victorinus, his friend +and associate, was occasioned by a less worthy cause. The shining +accomplishments of that prince were stained by a licentious passion, +which he indulged in acts of violence, with too little regard to the +laws of society, or even to those of love. He was slain at Cologne, by +a conspiracy of jealous husbands, whose revenge would have appeared more +justifiable, had they spared the innocence of his son. After the murder +of so many valiant princes, it is somewhat remarkable, that a female +for a long time controlled the fierce legions of Gaul, and still more +singular, that she was the mother of the unfortunate Victorinus. The +arts and treasures of Victoria enabled her successively to place Marius +and Tetricus on the throne, and to reign with a manly vigor under the +name of those dependent emperors. Money of copper, of silver, and of +gold, was coined in her name; she assumed the titles of Augusta and +Mother of the Camps: her power ended only with her life; but her life +was perhaps shortened by the ingratitude of Tetricus. + +When, at the instigation of his ambitious patroness, Tetricus assumed +the ensigns of royalty, he was governor of the peaceful province of +Aquitaine, an employment suited to his character and education. He +reigned four or five years over Gaul, Spain, and Britain, the slave +and sovereign of a licentious army, whom he dreaded, and by whom he +was despised. The valor and fortune of Aurelian at length opened the +prospect of a deliverance. He ventured to disclose his melancholy +situation, and conjured the emperor to hasten to the relief of his +unhappy rival. Had this secret correspondence reached the ears of the +soldiers, it would most probably have cost Tetricus his life; nor could +he resign the sceptre of the West without committing an act of treason +against himself. He affected the appearances of a civil war, led +his forces into the field, against Aurelian, posted them in the most +disadvantageous manner, betrayed his own counsels to his enemy, and with +a few chosen friends deserted in the beginning of the action. The rebel +legions, though disordered and dismayed by the unexpected treachery of +their chief, defended themselves with desperate valor, till they were +cut in pieces almost to a man, in this bloody and memorable battle, +which was fought near Chalons in Champagne. The retreat of the irregular +auxiliaries, Franks and Batavians, whom the conqueror soon compelled or +persuaded to repass the Rhine, restored the general tranquillity, and +the power of Aurelian was acknowledged from the wall of Antoninus to the +columns of Hercules. + +As early as the reign of Claudius, the city of Autun, alone and +unassisted, had ventured to declare against the legions of Gaul. After a +siege of seven months, they stormed and plundered that unfortunate city, +already wasted by famine. Lyons, on the contrary, had resisted with +obstinate disaffection the arms of Aurelian. We read of the punishment +of Lyons, but there is not any mention of the rewards of Autun. Such, +indeed, is the policy of civil war; severely to remember injuries, and +to forget the most important services. Revenge is profitable, gratitude +is expensive. + +Aurelian had no sooner secured the person and provinces of Tetricus, +than he turned his arms against Zenobia, the celebrated queen of Palmyra +and the East. Modern Europe has produced several illustrious women +who have sustained with glory the weight of empire; nor is our own +age destitute of such distinguished characters. But if we except the +doubtful achievements of Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female +whose superior genius broke through the servile indolence imposed on her +sex by the climate and manners of Asia. She claimed her descent from the +Macedonian kings of Egypt, * equalled in beauty her ancestor Cleopatra, +and far surpassed that princess in chastity and valor. Zenobia was +esteemed the most lovely as well as the most heroic of her sex. She was +of a dark complexion, (for in speaking of a lady these trifles become +important.) Her teeth were of a pearly whiteness, and her large black +eyes sparkled with uncommon fire, tempered by the most attractive +sweetness. Her voice was strong and harmonious. Her manly understanding +was strengthened and adorned by study. She was not ignorant of the Latin +tongue, but possessed in equal perfection the Greek, the Syriac, and +the Egyptian languages. She had drawn up for her own use an epitome +of oriental history, and familiarly compared the beauties of Homer and +Plato under the tuition of the sublime Longinus. + +This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, who, from a private +station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. She soon became +the friend and companion of a hero. In the intervals of war, Odenathus +passionately delighted in the exercise of hunting; he pursued with ardor +the wild beasts of the desert, lions, panthers, and bears; and the ardor +of Zenobia in that dangerous amusement was not inferior to his own. She +had inured her constitution to fatigue, disdained the use of a covered +carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a military habit, and +sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head of the troops. The +success of Odenathus was in a great measure ascribed to her incomparable +prudence and fortitude. Their splendid victories over the Great King, +whom they twice pursued as far as the gates of Ctesiphon, laid the +foundations of their united fame and power. The armies which they +commanded, and the provinces which they had saved, acknowledged not any +other sovereigns than their invincible chiefs. The senate and people of +Rome revered a stranger who had avenged their captive emperor, and even +the insensible son of Valerian accepted Odenathus for his legitimate +colleague. + + + +Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.--Part III. + +After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of Asia, the +Palmyrenian prince returned to the city of Emesa in Syria. Invincible +in war, he was there cut off by domestic treason, and his favorite +amusement of hunting was the cause, or at least the occasion, of his +death. His nephew Mæonius presumed to dart his javelin before that +of his uncle; and though admonished of his error, repeated the same +insolence. As a monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked, +took away his horse, a mark of ignominy among the barbarians, and +chastised the rash youth by a short confinement. The offence was soon +forgot, but the punishment was remembered; and Mæonius, with a few +daring associates, assassinated his uncle in the midst of a great +entertainment. Herod, the son of Odenathus, though not of Zenobia, a +young man of a soft and effeminate temper, was killed with his father. +But Mæonius obtained only the pleasure of revenge by this bloody deed. +He had scarcely time to assume the title of Augustus, before he was +sacrificed by Zenobia to the memory of her husband. + +With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she immediately filled +the vacant throne, and governed with manly counsels Palmyra, Syria, and +the East, above five years. By the death of Odenathus, that authority +was at an end which the senate had granted him only as a personal +distinction; but his martial widow, disdaining both the senate and +Gallienus, obliged one of the Roman generals, who was sent against her, +to retreat into Europe, with the loss of his army and his reputation. +Instead of the little passions which so frequently perplex a female +reign, the steady administration of Zenobia was guided by the most +judicious maxims of policy. If it was expedient to pardon, she could +calm her resentment; if it was necessary to punish, she could impose +silence on the voice of pity. Her strict economy was accused of avarice; +yet on every proper occasion she appeared magnificent and liberal. The +neighboring states of Arabia, Armenia, and Persia, dreaded her enmity, +and solicited her alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which +extended from the Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia, his widow +added the inheritance of her ancestors, the populous and fertile +kingdom of Egypt. * The emperor Claudius acknowledged her merit, and +was content, that, while he pursued the Gothic war, she should assert +the dignity of the empire in the East. ^61? The conduct, however, of +Zenobia, was attended with some ambiguity; not is it unlikely that +she had conceived the design of erecting an independent and hostile +monarchy. She blended with the popular manners of Roman princes the +stately pomp of the courts of Asia, and exacted from her subjects the +same adoration that was paid to the successor of Cyrus. She bestowed on +her three sons a Latin education, and often showed them to the troops +adorned with the Imperial purple. For herself she reserved the diadem, +with the splendid but doubtful title of Queen of the East. + +When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary whose sex +alone could render her an object of contempt, his presence restored +obedience to the province of Bithynia, already shaken by the arms and +intrigues of Zenobia. Advancing at the head of his legions, he accepted +the submission of Ancyra, and was admitted into Tyana, after an +obstinate siege, by the help of a perfidious citizen. The generous +though fierce temper of Aurelian abandoned the traitor to the rage of +the soldiers; a superstitious reverence induced him to treat with lenity +the countrymen of Apollonius the philosopher. Antioch was deserted on +his approach, till the emperor, by his salutary edicts, recalled the +fugitives, and granted a general pardon to all, who, from necessity +rather than choice, had been engaged in the service of the Palmyrenian +Queen. The unexpected mildness of such a conduct reconciled the minds of +the Syrians, and as far as the gates of Emesa, the wishes of the people +seconded the terror of his arms. + +Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she indolently +permitted the emperor of the West to approach within a hundred miles of +her capital. The fate of the East was decided in two great battles; so +similar in almost every circumstance, that we can scarcely distinguish +them from each other, except by observing that the first was fought +near Antioch, and the second near Emesa. In both the queen of Palmyra +animated the armies by her presence, and devolved the execution of her +orders on Zabdas, who had already signalized his military talents by the +conquest of Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted for the most +part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in complete steel. +The Moorish and Illyrian horse of Aurelian were unable to sustain the +ponderous charge of their antagonists. They fled in real or affected +disorder, engaged the Palmyrenians in a laborious pursuit, harassed them +by a desultory combat, and at length discomfited this impenetrable but +unwieldy body of cavalry. The light infantry, in the mean time, when +they had exhausted their quivers, remaining without protection against +a closer onset, exposed their naked sides to the swords of the legions. +Aurelian had chosen these veteran troops, who were usually stationed +on the Upper Danube, and whose valor had been severely tried in the +Alemannic war. After the defeat of Emesa, Zenobia found it impossible +to collect a third army. As far as the frontier of Egypt, the nations +subject to her empire had joined the standard of the conqueror, who +detached Probus, the bravest of his generals, to possess himself of +the Egyptian provinces. Palmyra was the last resource of the widow +of Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capital, made +every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and declared, with the +intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her reign and of her +life should be the same. + +Amid the barren deserts of Arabia, a few cultivated spots rise like +islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or Palmyra, +by its signification in the Syriac as well as in the Latin language, +denoted the multitude of palm-trees which afforded shade and verdure to +that temperate region. The air was pure, and the soil, watered by some +invaluable springs, was capable of producing fruits as well as corn. +A place possessed of such singular advantages, and situated at a +convenient distance between the Gulf of Persia and the Mediterranean, +was soon frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the nations of +Europe a considerable part of the rich commodities of India. Palmyra +insensibly increased into an opulent and independent city, and +connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by the mutual benefits +of commerce, was suffered to observe an humble neutrality, till at +length, after the victories of Trajan, the little republic sunk into the +bosom of Rome, and flourished more than one hundred and fifty years in +the subordinate though honorable rank of a colony. It was during that +peaceful period, if we may judge from a few remaining inscriptions, +that the wealthy Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and +porticos of Grecian architecture, whose ruins, scattered over an extent +of several miles, have deserved the curiosity of our travellers. The +elevation of Odenathus and Zenobia appeared to reflect new splendor on +their country, and Palmyra, for a while, stood forth the rival of Rome: +but the competition was fatal, and ages of prosperity were sacrificed to +a moment of glory. + +In his march over the sandy desert between Emesa and Palmyra, the +emperor Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor could he +always defend his army, and especially his baggage, from those flying +troops of active and daring robbers, who watched the moment of surprise, +and eluded the slow pursuit of the legions. The siege of Palmyra was +an object far more difficult and important, and the emperor, who, with +incessant vigor, pressed the attacks in person, was himself wounded with +a dart. "The Roman people," says Aurelian, in an original letter, "speak +with contempt of the war which I am waging against a woman. They are +ignorant both of the character and of the power of Zenobia. It is +impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations, of stones, of arrows, +and of every species of missile weapons. Every part of the walls is +provided with two or three balist and artificial fires are thrown +from her military engines. The fear of punishment has armed her with a +desperate courage. Yet still I trust in the protecting deities of Rome, +who have hitherto been favorable to all my undertakings." Doubtful, +however, of the protection of the gods, and of the event of the siege, +Aurelian judged it more prudent to offer terms of an advantageous +capitulation; to the queen, a splendid retreat; to the citizens, their +ancient privileges. His proposals were obstinately rejected, and the +refusal was accompanied with insult. + +The firmness of Zenobia was supported by the hope, that in a very short +time famine would compel the Roman army to repass the desert; and by the +reasonable expectation that the kings of the East, and particularly the +Persian monarch, would arm in the defence of their most natural ally. +But fortune, and the perseverance of Aurelian, overcame every obstacle. +The death of Sapor, which happened about this time, distracted the +councils of Persia, and the inconsiderable succors that attempted to +relieve Palmyra, were easily intercepted either by the arms or +the liberality of the emperor. From every part of Syria, a regular +succession of convoys safely arrived in the camp, which was increased +by the return of Probus with his victorious troops from the conquest +of Egypt. It was then that Zenobia resolved to fly. She mounted the +fleetest of her dromedaries, and had already reached the banks of the +Euphrates, about sixty miles from Palmyra, when she was overtaken by the +pursuit of Aurelian's light horse, seized, and brought back a captive +to the feet of the emperor. Her capital soon afterwards surrendered, and +was treated with unexpected lenity. The arms, horses, and camels, with +an immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and precious stones, were all +delivered to the conqueror, who, leaving only a garrison of six hundred +archers, returned to Emesa, and employed some time in the distribution +of rewards and punishments at the end of so memorable a war, which +restored to the obedience of Rome those provinces that had renounced +their allegiance since the captivity of Valerian. + +When the Syrian queen was brought into the presence of Aurelian, he +sternly asked her, How she had presumed to rise in arms against the +emperors of Rome! The answer of Zenobia was a prudent mixture of respect +and firmness. "Because I disdained to consider as Roman emperors an +Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone I acknowledge as my conqueror and +my sovereign." But as female fortitude is commonly artificial, so it is +seldom steady or consistent. The courage of Zenobia deserted her in the +hour of trial; she trembled at the angry clamors of the soldiers, who +called aloud for her immediate execution, forgot the generous despair +of Cleopatra, which she had proposed as her model, and ignominiously +purchased life by the sacrifice of her fame and her friends. It was to +their counsels, which governed the weakness of her sex, that she imputed +the guilt of her obstinate resistance; it was on their heads that she +directed the vengeance of the cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, +who was included among the numerous and perhaps innocent victims of her +fear, will survive that of the queen who betrayed, or the tyrant who +condemned him. Genius and learning were incapable of moving a fierce +unlettered soldier, but they had served to elevate and harmonize the +soul of Longinus. Without uttering a complaint, he calmly followed the +executioner, pitying his unhappy mistress, and bestowing comfort on his +afflicted friends. + +Returning from the conquest of the East, Aurelian had already crossed +the Straits which divided Europe from Asia, when he was provoked by +the intelligence that the Palmyrenians had massacred the governor and +garrison which he had left among them, and again erected the standard +of revolt. Without a moment's deliberation, he once more turned his +face towards Syria. Antioch was alarmed by his rapid approach, and the +helpless city of Palmyra felt the irresistible weight of his resentment. +We have a letter of Aurelian himself, in which he acknowledges, that old +men, women, children, and peasants, had been involved in that dreadful +execution, which should have been confined to armed rebellion; and +although his principal concern seems directed to the reestablishment +of a temple of the Sun, he discovers some pity for the remnant of +the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the permission of rebuilding and +inhabiting their city. But it is easier to destroy than to restore. +The seat of commerce, of arts, and of Zenobia, gradually sunk into an +obscure town, a trifling fortress, and at length a miserable village. +The present citizens of Palmyra, consisting of thirty or forty +families, have erected their mud cottages within the spacious court of a +magnificent temple. + +Another and a last labor still awaited the indefatigable Aurelian; to +suppress a dangerous though obscure rebel, who, during the revolt of +Palmyra, had arisen on the banks of the Nile. Firmus, the friend and +ally, as he proudly styled himself, of Odenathus and Zenobia, was no +more than a wealthy merchant of Egypt. In the course of his trade to +India, he had formed very intimate connections with the Saracens and the +Blemmyes, whose situation on either coast of the Red Sea gave them an +easy introduction into the Upper Egypt. The Egyptians he inflamed with +the hope of freedom, and, at the head of their furious multitude, broke +into the city of Alexandria, where he assumed the Imperial purple, +coined money, published edicts, and raised an army, which, as he vainly +boasted, he was capable of maintaining from the sole profits of his +paper trade. Such troops were a feeble defence against the approach of +Aurelian; and it seems almost unnecessary to relate, that Firmus +was routed, taken, tortured, and put to death. Aurelian might now +congratulate the senate, the people, and himself, that in little more +than three years, he had restored universal peace and order to the Roman +world. + +Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly deserved a +triumph than Aurelian; nor was a triumph ever celebrated with superior +pride and magnificence. The pomp was opened by twenty elephants, four +royal tigers, and above two hundred of the most curious animals from +every climate of the North, the East, and the South. They were followed +by sixteen hundred gladiators, devoted to the cruel amusement of the +amphitheatre. The wealth of Asia, the arms and ensigns of so many +conquered nations, and the magnificent plate and wardrobe of the +Syrian queen, were disposed in exact symmetry or artful disorder. The +ambassadors of the most remote parts of the earth, of Æthiopia, Arabia, +Persia, Bactriana, India, and China, all remarkable by their rich or +singular dresses, displayed the fame and power of the Roman emperor, who +exposed likewise to the public view the presents that he had received, +and particularly a great number of crowns of gold, the offerings of +grateful cities. The victories of Aurelian were attested by the long +train of captives who reluctantly attended his triumph, Goths, Vandals, +Sarmatians, Alemanni, Franks, Gauls, Syrians, and Egyptians. Each people +was distinguished by its peculiar inscription, and the title of Amazons +was bestowed on ten martial heroines of the Gothie nation who had been +taken in arms. But every eye, disregarding the crowd of captives, was +fixed on the emperor Tetricus and the queen of the East. The former, +as well as his son, whom he had created Augustus, was dressed in Gallic +trousers, a saffron tunic, and a robe of purple. The beauteous figure +of Zenobia was confined by fetters of gold; a slave supported the +gold chain which encircled her neck, and she almost fainted under the +intolerable weight of jewels. She preceded on foot the magnificent +chariot, in which she once hoped to enter the gates of Rome. It was +followed by two other chariots, still more sumptuous, of Odenathus and +of the Persian monarch. The triumphal car of Aurelian (it had formerly +been used by a Gothic king) was drawn, on this memorable occasion, +either by four stags or by four elephants. The most illustrious of the +senate, the people, and the army closed the solemn procession. Unfeigned +joy, wonder, and gratitude, swelled the acclamations of the multitude; +but the satisfaction of the senate was clouded by the appearance of +Tetricus; nor could they suppress a rising murmur, that the haughty +emperor should thus expose to public ignominy the person of a Roman and +a magistrate. + +But however, in the treatment of his unfortunate rivals, Aurelian might +indulge his pride, he behaved towards them with a generous clemency, +which was seldom exercised by the ancient conquerors. Princes who, +without success, had defended their throne or freedom, were frequently +strangled in prison, as soon as the triumphal pomp ascended the Capitol. +These usurpers, whom their defeat had convicted of the crime of treason, +were permitted to spend their lives in affluence and honorable repose. +The emperor presented Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur, or Tivoli, +about twenty miles from the capital; the Syrian queen insensibly sunk +into a Roman matron, her daughters married into noble families, and her +race was not yet extinct in the fifth century. Tetricus and his son were +reinstated in their rank and fortunes. They erected on the Cælian hill a +magnificent palace, and as soon as it was finished, invited Aurelian to +supper. On his entrance, he was agreeably surprised with a picture which +represented their singular history. They were delineated offering to the +emperor a civic crown and the sceptre of Gaul, and again receiving +at his hands the ornaments of the senatorial dignity. The father was +afterwards invested with the government of Lucania, and Aurelian, who +soon admitted the abdicated monarch to his friendship and conversation, +familiarly asked him, Whether it were not more desirable to administer a +province of Italy, than to reign beyond the Alps. The son long continued +a respectable member of the senate; nor was there any one of the Roman +nobility more esteemed by Aurelian, as well as by his successors. + +So long and so various was the pomp of Aurelian's triumph, that although +it opened with the dawn of day, the slow majesty of the procession +ascended not the Capitol before the ninth hour; and it was already dark +when the emperor returned to the palace. The festival was protracted by +theatrical representations, the games of the circus, the hunting of wild +beasts, combats of gladiators, and naval engagements. Liberal donatives +were distributed to the army and people, and several institutions, +agreeable or beneficial to the city, contributed to perpetuate the +glory of Aurelian. A considerable portion of his oriental spoils was +consecrated to the gods of Rome; the Capitol, and every other temple, +glittered with the offerings of his ostentatious piety; and the temple +of the Sun alone received above fifteen thousand pounds of gold. This +last was a magnificent structure, erected by the emperor on the side of +the Quirinal hill, and dedicated, soon after the triumph, to that deity +whom Aurelian adored as the parent of his life and fortunes. His mother +had been an inferior priestess in a chapel of the Sun; a peculiar +devotion to the god of Light was a sentiment which the fortunate peasant +imbibed in his infancy; and every step of his elevation, every victory +of his reign, fortified superstition by gratitude. + +The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic foes of +the republic. We are assured, that, by his salutary rigor, crimes and +factions, mischievous arts and pernicious connivance, the luxurious +growth of a feeble and oppressive government, were eradicated throughout +the Roman world. But if we attentively reflect how much swifter is the +progress of corruption than its cure, and if we remember that the +years abandoned to public disorders exceeded the months allotted to the +martial reign of Aurelian, we must confess that a few short intervals +of peace were insufficient for the arduous work of reformation. Even his +attempt to restore the integrity of the coin was opposed by a formidable +insurrection. The emperor's vexation breaks out in one of his private +letters. "Surely," says he, "the gods have decreed that my life should +be a perpetual warfare. A sedition within the walls has just now given +birth to a very serious civil war. The workmen of the mint, at the +instigation of Felicissimus, a slave to whom I had intrusted an +employment in the finances, have risen in rebellion. They are at length +suppressed; but seven thousand of my soldiers have been slain in the +contest, of those troops whose ordinary station is in Dacia, and the +camps along the Danube." Other writers, who confirm the same fact, +add likewise, that it happened soon after Aurelian's triumph; that the +decisive engagement was fought on the Cælian hill; that the workmen of +the mint had adulterated the coin; and that the emperor restored the +public credit, by delivering out good money in exchange for the bad, +which the people was commanded to bring into the treasury. + +We might content ourselves with relating this extraordinary transaction, +but we cannot dissemble how much in its present form it appears to us +inconsistent and incredible. The debasement of the coin is indeed well +suited to the administration of Gallienus; nor is it unlikely that the +instruments of the corruption might dread the inflexible justice of +Aurelian. But the guilt, as well as the profit, must have been confined +to a very few; nor is it easy to conceive by what arts they could arm a +people whom they had injured, against a monarch whom they had betrayed. +We might naturally expect that such miscreants should have shared +the public detestation with the informers and the other ministers of +oppression; and that the reformation of the coin should have been an +action equally popular with the destruction of those obsolete accounts, +which by the emperor's order were burnt in the forum of Trajan. In an +age when the principles of commerce were so imperfectly understood, the +most desirable end might perhaps be effected by harsh and injudicious +means; but a temporary grievance of such a nature can scarcely excite +and support a serious civil war. The repetition of intolerable taxes, +imposed either on the land or on the necessaries of life, may at last +provoke those who will not, or who cannot, relinquish their country. +But the case is far otherwise in every operation which, by whatsoever +expedients, restores the just value of money. The transient evil is +soon obliterated by the permanent benefit, the loss is divided among +multitudes; and if a few wealthy individuals experience a sensible +diminution of treasure, with their riches, they at the same time +lose the degree of weight and importance which they derived from the +possession of them. However Aurelian might choose to disguise the real +cause of the insurrection, his reformation of the coin could furnish +only a faint pretence to a party already powerful and discontented. +Rome, though deprived of freedom, was distracted by faction. The +people, towards whom the emperor, himself a plebeian, always expressed +a peculiar fondness, lived in perpetual dissension with the senate, the +equestrian order, and the Prætorian guards. Nothing less than the firm +though secret conspiracy of those orders, of the authority of the +first, the wealth of the second, and the arms of the third, could have +displayed a strength capable of contending in battle with the veteran +legions of the Danube, which, under the conduct of a martial sovereign, +had achieved the conquest of the West and of the East. + +Whatever was the cause or the object of this rebellion, imputed with so +little probability to the workmen of the mint, Aurelian used his victory +with unrelenting rigor. He was naturally of a severe disposition. A +peasant and a soldier, his nerves yielded not easily to the impressions +of sympathy, and he could sustain without emotion the sight of tortures +and death. Trained from his earliest youth in the exercise of arms, he +set too small a value on the life of a citizen, chastised by military +execution the slightest offences, and transferred the stern discipline +of the camp into the civil administration of the laws. His love of +justice often became a blind and furious passion and whenever he deemed +his own or the public safety endangered, he disregarded the rules of +evidence, and the proportion of punishments. The unprovoked rebellion +with which the Romans rewarded his services, exasperated his haughty +spirit. The noblest families of the capital were involved in the guilt +or suspicion of this dark conspiracy. A nasty spirit of revenge urged +the bloody prosecution, and it proved fatal to one of the nephews of +the emperor. The executioners (if we may use the expression of a +contemporary poet) were fatigued, the prisons were crowded, and the +unhappy senate lamented the death or absence of its most illustrious +members. Nor was the pride of Aurelian less offensive to that assembly +than his cruelty. Ignorant or impatient of the restraints of civil +institutions, he disdained to hold his power by any other title than +that of the sword, and governed by right of conquest an empire which he +had saved and subdued. + +It was observed by one of the most sagacious of the Roman princes, +that the talents of his predecessor Aurelian were better suited to the +command of an army, than to the government of an empire. Conscious of +the character in which nature and experience had enabled him to excel, +he again took the field a few months after his triumph. It was expedient +to exercise the restless temper of the legions in some foreign war, and +the Persian monarch, exulting in the shame of Valerian, still braved +with impunity the offended majesty of Rome. At the head of an army, less +formidable by its numbers than by its discipline and valor, the emperor +advanced as far as the Straits which divide Europe from Asia. He there +experienced that the most absolute power is a weak defence against the +effects of despair. He had threatened one of his secretaries who was +accused of extortion; and it was known that he seldom threatened in +vain. The last hope which remained for the criminal, was to involve some +of the principal officers of the army in his danger, or at least in his +fears. Artfully counterfeiting his master's hand, he showed them, in +a long and bloody list, their own names devoted to death. Without +suspecting or examining the fraud, they resolved to secure their lives +by the murder of the emperor. On his march, between Byzanthium and +Heraclea, Aurelian was suddenly attacked by the conspirators, whose +stations gave them a right to surround his person, and after a short +resistance, fell by the hand of Mucapor, a general whom he had always +loved and trusted. He died regretted by the army, detested by the +senate, but universally acknowledged as a warlike and fortunate prince, +the useful, though severe reformer of a degenerate state. + + + +Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.--Part I. + + Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.-- + Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. + +Such was the unhappy condition of the Roman emperors, that, whatever +might be their conduct, their fate was commonly the same. A life of +pleasure or virtue, of severity or mildness, of indolence or glory, +alike led to an untimely grave; and almost every reign is closed by the +same disgusting repetition of treason and murder. The death of Aurelian, +however, is remarkable by its extraordinary consequences. The legions +admired, lamented, and revenged their victorious chief. The artifice +of his perfidious secretary was discovered and punished. The deluded +conspirators attended the funeral of their injured sovereign, with +sincere or well-feigned contrition, and submitted to the unanimous +resolution of the military order, which was signified by the following +epistle: "The brave and fortunate armies to the senate and people of +Rome.--The crime of one man, and the error of many, have deprived us +of the late emperor Aurelian. May it please you, venerable lords and +fathers! to place him in the number of the gods, and to appoint a +successor whom your judgment shall declare worthy of the Imperial +purple! None of those whose guilt or misfortune have contributed to +our loss, shall ever reign over us." The Roman senators heard, without +surprise, that another emperor had been assassinated in his camp; they +secretly rejoiced in the fall of Aurelian; and, besides the recent +notoriety of the facts, constantly draws his materials from the Journals +of the Senate, and the but the modest and dutiful address of the +legions, when it was communicated in full assembly by the consul, +diffused the most pleasing astonishment. Such honors as fear and perhaps +esteem could extort, they liberally poured forth on the memory of their +deceased sovereign. Such acknowledgments as gratitude could inspire, +they returned to the faithful armies of the republic, who entertained +so just a sense of the legal authority of the senate in the choice of an +emperor. Yet, notwithstanding this flattering appeal, the most prudent +of the assembly declined exposing their safety and dignity to the +caprice of an armed multitude. The strength of the legions was, indeed, +a pledge of their sincerity, since those who may command are seldom +reduced to the necessity of dissembling; but could it naturally be +expected, that a hasty repentance would correct the inveterate habits +of fourscore years? Should the soldiers relapse into their accustomed +seditions, their insolence might disgrace the majesty of the senate, and +prove fatal to the object of its choice. Motives like these dictated +a decree, by which the election of a new emperor was referred to the +suffrage of the military order. + +The contention that ensued is one of the best attested, but most +improbable events in the history of mankind. The troops, as if satiated +with the exercise of power, again conjured the senate to invest one of +its own body with the Imperial purple. The senate still persisted in its +refusal; the army in its request. The reciprocal offer was pressed and +rejected at least three times, and, whilst the obstinate modesty of +either party was resolved to receive a master from the hands of the +other, eight months insensibly elapsed; an amazing period of tranquil +anarchy, during which the Roman world remained without a sovereign, +without a usurper, and without a sedition. * The generals and +magistrates appointed by Aurelian continued to execute their ordinary +functions; and it is observed, that a proconsul of Asia was the only +considerable person removed from his office in the whole course of the +interregnum. + +An event somewhat similar, but much less authentic, is supposed to have +happened after the death of Romulus, who, in his life and character, +bore some affinity with Aurelian. The throne was vacant during twelve +months, till the election of a Sabine philosopher, and the public peace +was guarded in the same manner, by the union of the several orders of +the state. But, in the time of Numa and Romulus, the arms of the people +were controlled by the authority of the Patricians; and the balance +of freedom was easily preserved in a small and virtuous community. The +decline of the Roman state, far different from its infancy, was attended +with every circumstance that could banish from an interregnum the +prospect of obedience and harmony: an immense and tumultuous capital, +a wide extent of empire, the servile equality of despotism, an army +of four hundred thousand mercenaries, and the experience of frequent +revolutions. Yet, notwithstanding all these temptations, the discipline +and memory of Aurelian still restrained the seditious temper of the +troops, as well as the fatal ambition of their leaders. The flower of +the legions maintained their stations on the banks of the Bosphorus, and +the Imperial standard awed the less powerful camps of Rome and of the +provinces. A generous though transient enthusiasm seemed to animate the +military order; and we may hope that a few real patriots cultivated the +returning friendship of the army and the senate, as the only expedient +capable of restoring the republic to its ancient beauty and vigor. + +On the twenty-fifth of September, near eight months after the murder of +Aurelian, the consul convoked an assembly of the senate, and reported +the doubtful and dangerous situation of the empire. He slightly +insinuated, that the precarious loyalty of the soldiers depended on the +chance of every hour, and of every accident; but he represented, with +the most convincing eloquence, the various dangers that might attend any +further delay in the choice of an emperor. Intelligence, he said, was +already received, that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and occupied +some of the strongest and most opulent cities of Gaul. The ambition of +the Persian king kept the East in perpetual alarms; Egypt, Africa, and +Illyricum, were exposed to foreign and domestic arms, and the levity of +Syria would prefer even a female sceptre to the sanctity of the Roman +laws. The consul, then addressing himself to Tacitus, the first of the +senators, required his opinion on the important subject of a proper +candidate for the vacant throne. + +If we can prefer personal merit to accidental greatness, we shall esteem +the birth of Tacitus more truly noble than that of kings. He claimed his +descent from the philosophic historian, whose writings will instruct the +last generations of mankind. The senator Tacitus was then seventy-five +years of age. The long period of his innocent life was adorned with +wealth and honors. He had twice been invested with the consular dignity, +and enjoyed with elegance and sobriety his ample patrimony of between +two and three millions sterling. The experience of so many princes, whom +he had esteemed or endured, from the vain follies of Elagabalus to the +useful rigor of Aurelian, taught him to form a just estimate of the +duties, the dangers, and the temptations of their sublime station. From +the assiduous study of his immortal ancestor, he derived the knowledge +of the Roman constitution, and of human nature. The voice of the people +had already named Tacitus as the citizen the most worthy of empire. +The ungrateful rumor reached his ears, and induced him to seek the +retirement of one of his villas in Campania. He had passed two months in +the delightful privacy of Baiæ, when he reluctantly obeyed the summons +of the consul to resume his honorable place in the senate, and to assist +the republic with his counsels on this important occasion. + +He arose to speak, when from every quarter of the house, he was saluted +with the names of Augustus and emperor. "Tacitus Augustus, the gods +preserve thee! we choose thee for our sovereign; to thy care we intrust +the republic and the world. Accept the empire from the authority of the +senate. It is due to thy rank, to thy conduct, to thy manners." As soon +as the tumult of acclamations subsided, Tacitus attempted to decline the +dangerous honor, and to express his wonder, that they should elect his +age and infirmities to succeed the martial vigor of Aurelian. "Are these +limbs, conscript fathers! fitted to sustain the weight of armor, or to +practise the exercises of the camp? The variety of climates, and the +hardships of a military life, would soon oppress a feeble constitution, +which subsists only by the most tender management. My exhausted strength +scarcely enables me to discharge the duty of a senator; how insufficient +would it prove to the arduous labors of war and government! Can you +hope, that the legions will respect a weak old man, whose days have been +spent in the shade of peace and retirement? Can you desire that I should +ever find reason to regret the favorable opinion of the senate?" + +The reluctance of Tacitus (and it might possibly be sincere) was +encountered by the affectionate obstinacy of the senate. Five hundred +voices repeated at once, in eloquent confusion, that the greatest of the +Roman princes, Numa, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, had ascended +the throne in a very advanced season of life; that the mind, not the +body, a sovereign, not a soldier, was the object of their choice; and +that they expected from him no more than to guide by his wisdom the +valor of the legions. These pressing though tumultuary instances were +seconded by a more regular oration of Metius Falconius, the next on the +consular bench to Tacitus himself. He reminded the assembly of the +evils which Rome had endured from the vices of headstrong and capricious +youths, congratulated them on the election of a virtuous and experienced +senator, and, with a manly, though perhaps a selfish, freedom, exhorted +Tacitus to remember the reasons of his elevation, and to seek a +successor, not in his own family, but in the republic. The speech of +Falconius was enforced by a general acclamation. The emperor elect +submitted to the authority of his country, and received the voluntary +homage of his equals. The judgment of the senate was confirmed by the +consent of the Roman people, and of the Prætorian guards. + +The administration of Tacitus was not unworthy of his life and +principles. A grateful servant of the senate, he considered that +national council as the author, and himself as the subject, of the laws. +He studied to heal the wounds which Imperial pride, civil discord, and +military violence, had inflicted on the constitution, and to restore, +at least, the image of the ancient republic, as it had been preserved by +the policy of Augustus, and the virtues of Trajan and the Antonines. +It may not be useless to recapitulate some of the most important +prerogatives which the senate appeared to have regained by the election +of Tacitus. 1. To invest one of their body, under the title of emperor, +with the general command of the armies, and the government of the +frontier provinces. 2. To determine the list, or, as it was then styled, +the College of Consuls. They were twelve in number, who, in successive +pairs, each, during the space of two months, filled the year, and +represented the dignity of that ancient office. The authority of the +senate, in the nomination of the consuls, was exercised with such +independent freedom, that no regard was paid to an irregular request of +the emperor in favor of his brother Florianus. "The senate," exclaimed +Tacitus, with the honest transport of a patriot, "understand the +character of a prince whom they have chosen." 3. To appoint the +proconsuls and presidents of the provinces, and to confer on all the +magistrates their civil jurisdiction. 4. To receive appeals through the +intermediate office of the præfect of the city from all the tribunals of +the empire. 5. To give force and validity, by their decrees, to such +as they should approve of the emperor's edicts. 6. To these several +branches of authority we may add some inspection over the finances, +since, even in the stern reign of Aurelian, it was in their power to +divert a part of the revenue from the public service. + +Circular epistles were sent, without delay, to all the principal cities +of the empire, Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Thessalo nica, Corinth, Athens, +Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage, to claim their obedience, and to +inform them of the happy revolution, which had restored the Roman senate +to its ancient dignity. Two of these epistles are still extant. +We likewise possess two very singular fragments of the private +correspondence of the senators on this occasion. They discover the most +excessive joy, and the most unbounded hopes. "Cast away your indolence," +it is thus that one of the senators addresses his friend, "emerge from +your retirements of Baiæ and Puteoli. Give yourself to the city, to the +senate. Rome flourishes, the whole republic flourishes. Thanks to the +Roman army, to an army truly Roman; at length we have recovered our +just authority, the end of all our desires. We hear appeals, we appoint +proconsuls, we create emperors; perhaps too we may restrain them--to the +wise a word is sufficient." These lofty expectations were, however, +soon disappointed; nor, indeed, was it possible that the armies and the +provinces should long obey the luxurious and unwarlike nobles of Rome. +On the slightest touch, the unsupported fabric of their pride and power +fell to the ground. The expiring senate displayed a sudden lustre, +blazed for a moment and was extinguished forever. + +All that had yet passed at Rome was no more than a theatrical +representation, unless it was ratified by the more substantial power of +the legions. Leaving the senators to enjoy their dream of freedom and +ambition, Tacitus proceeded to the Thracian camp, and was there, by the +Prætorian præfect, presented to the assembled troops, as the prince whom +they themselves had demanded, and whom the senate had bestowed. As soon +as the præfect was silent, the emperor addressed himself to the soldiers +with eloquence and propriety. He gratified their avarice by a liberal +distribution of treasure, under the names of pay and donative. He +engaged their esteem by a spirited declaration, that although his +age might disable him from the performance of military exploits, his +counsels should never be unworthy of a Roman general, the successor of +the brave Aurelian. + +Whilst the deceased emperor was making preparations for a second +expedition into the East, he had negotiated with the Alani, * a Scythian +people, who pitched their tents in the neighborhood of the Lake Moeotis. +Those barbarians, allured by presents and subsidies, had promised to +invade Persia with a numerous body of light cavalry. They were faithful +to their engagements; but when they arrived on the Roman frontier, +Aurelian was already dead, the design of the Persian war was at least +suspended, and the generals, who, during the interregnum, exercised a +doubtful authority, were unprepared either to receive or to oppose +them. Provoked by such treatment, which they considered as trifling and +perfidious, the Alani had recourse to their own valor for their payment +and revenge; and as they moved with the usual swiftness of Tartars, they +had soon spread themselves over the provinces of Pontus, Cappadocia, +Cilicia, and Galatia. The legions, who from the opposite shores of +the Bosphorus could almost distinguish the flames of the cities and +villages, impatiently urged their general to lead them against the +invaders. The conduct of Tacitus was suitable to his age and station. +He convinced the barbarians of the faith, as well as the power, of the +empire. Great numbers of the Alani, appeased by the punctual discharge +of the engagements which Aurelian had contracted with them, relinquished +their booty and captives, and quietly retreated to their own deserts, +beyond the Phasis. Against the remainder, who refused peace, the Roman +emperor waged, in person, a successful war. Seconded by an army of brave +and experienced veterans, in a few weeks he delivered the provinces of +Asia from the terror of the Scythian invasion. + +But the glory and life of Tacitus were of short duration. Transported, +in the depth of winter, from the soft retirement of Campania to the +foot of Mount Caucasus, he sunk under the unaccustomed hardships of a +military life. The fatigues of the body were aggravated by the cares of +the mind. For a while, the angry and selfish passions of the soldiers +had been suspended by the enthusiasm of public virtue. They soon broke +out with redoubled violence, and raged in the camp, and even in the +tent of the aged emperor. His mild and amiable character served only to +inspire contempt, and he was incessantly tormented with factions which +he could not assuage, and by demands which it was impossible to satisfy. +Whatever flattering expectations he had conceived of reconciling the +public disorders, Tacitus soon was convinced that the licentiousness of +the army disdained the feeble restraint of laws, and his last hour was +hastened by anguish and disappointment. It may be doubtful whether the +soldiers imbrued their hands in the blood of this innocent prince. It is +certain that their insolences was the cause of his death. He expired at +Tyana in Cappadocia, after a reign of only six months and about twenty +days. + +The eyes of Tacitus were scarcely closed, before his brother Florianus +showed himself unworthy to reign, by the hasty usurpation of the purple, +without expecting the approbation of the senate. The reverence for the +Roman constitution, which yet influenced the camp and the provinces, was +sufficiently strong to dispose them to censure, but not to provoke them +to oppose, the precipitate ambition of Florianus. The discontent would +have evaporated in idle murmurs, had not the general of the East, the +heroic Probus, boldly declared himself the avenger of the senate. The +contest, however, was still unequal; nor could the most able leader, at +the head of the effeminate troops of Egypt and Syria, encounter, with +any hopes of victory, the legions of Europe, whose irresistible strength +appeared to support the brother of Tacitus. But the fortune and activity +of Probus triumphed over every obstacle. The hardy veterans of his +rival, accustomed to cold climates, sickened and consumed away in the +sultry heats of Cilicia, where the summer proved remarkably unwholesome. +Their numbers were diminished by frequent desertion; the passes of +the mountains were feebly defended; Tarsus opened its gates; and the +soldiers of Florianus, when they had permitted him to enjoy the Imperial +title about three months, delivered the empire from civil war by the +easy sacrifice of a prince whom they despised. + +The perpetual revolutions of the throne had so perfectly erased every +notion of hereditary title, that the family of an unfortunate emperor +was incapable of exciting the jealousy of his successors. The children +of Tacitus and Florianus were permitted to descend into a private +station, and to mingle with the general mass of the people. Their +poverty indeed became an additional safeguard to their innocence. When +Tacitus was elected by the senate, he resigned his ample patrimony to +the public service; an act of generosity specious in appearance, but +which evidently disclosed his intention of transmitting the empire to +his descendants. The only consolation of their fallen state was the +remembrance of transient greatness, and a distant hope, the child of a +flattering prophecy, that at the end of a thousand years, a monarch +of the race of Tacitus should arise, the protector of the senate, the +restorer of Rome, and the conqueror of the whole earth. + +The peasants of Illyricum, who had already given Claudius and Aurelian +to the sinking empire, had an equal right to glory in the elevation of +Probus. Above twenty years before, the emperor Valerian, with his usual +penetration, had discovered the rising merit of the young soldier, on +whom he conferred the rank of tribune, long before the age prescribed +by the military regulations. The tribune soon justified his choice, by a +victory over a great body of Sarmatians, in which he saved the life of +a near relation of Valerian; and deserved to receive from the emperor's +hand the collars, bracelets, spears, and banners, the mural and the +civic crown, and all the honorable rewards reserved by ancient Rome +for successful valor. The third, and afterwards the tenth, legion were +intrusted to the command of Probus, who, in every step of his promotion, +showed himself superior to the station which he filled. Africa and +Pontus, the Rhine, the Danube, the Euphrates, and the Nile, by turns +afforded him the most splendid occasions of displaying his personal +prowess and his conduct in war. Aurelian was indebted for the honest +courage with which he often checked the cruelty of his master. +Tacitus, who desired by the abilities of his generals to supply his own +deficiency of military talents, named him commander-in-chief of all the +eastern provinces, with five times the usual salary, the promise of the +consulship, and the hope of a triumph. When Probus ascended the Imperial +throne, he was about forty-four years of age; in the full possession +of his fame, of the love of the army, and of a mature vigor of mind and +body. + +His acknowledge merit, and the success of his arms against Florianus, +left him without an enemy or a competitor. Yet, if we may credit his own +professions, very far from being desirous of the empire, he had accepted +it with the most sincere reluctance. "But it is no longer in my power," +says Probus, in a private letter, "to lay down a title so full of envy +and of danger. I must continue to personate the character which the +soldiers have imposed upon me." His dutiful address to the senate +displayed the sentiments, or at least the language, of a Roman patriot: +"When you elected one of your order, conscript fathers! to succeed the +emperor Aurelian, you acted in a manner suitable to your justice and +wisdom. For you are the legal sovereigns of the world, and the power +which you derive from your ancestors will descend to your posterity. +Happy would it have been, if Florianus, instead of usurping the purple +of his brother, like a private inheritance, had expected what your +majesty might determine, either in his favor, or in that of other +person. The prudent soldiers have punished his rashness. To me they +have offered the title of Augustus. But I submit to your clemency my +pretensions and my merits." When this respectful epistle was read by the +consul, the senators were unable to disguise their satisfaction, that +Probus should condescend thus humbly to solicit a sceptre which he +already possessed. They celebrated with the warmest gratitude +his virtues, his exploits, and above all his moderation. A decree +immediately passed, without a dissenting voice, to ratify the election +of the eastern armies, and to confer on their chief all the several +branches of the Imperial dignity: the names of Cæsar and Augustus, the +title of Father of his country, the right of making in the same day +three motions in the senate, the office of Pontifex, Maximus, the +tribunitian power, and the proconsular command; a mode of investiture, +which, though it seemed to multiply the authority of the emperor, +expressed the constitution of the ancient republic. The reign of Probus +corresponded with this fair beginning. The senate was permitted to +direct the civil administration of the empire. Their faithful general +asserted the honor of the Roman arms, and often laid at their feet +crowns of gold and barbaric trophies, the fruits of his numerous +victories. Yet, whilst he gratified their vanity, he must secretly have +despised their indolence and weakness. Though it was every moment in +their power to repeal the disgraceful edict of Gallienus, the proud +successors of the Scipios patiently acquiesced in their exclusion from +all military employments. They soon experienced, that those who refuse +the sword must renounce the sceptre. + + + +Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.--Part II. + +The strength of Aurelian had crushed on every side the enemies of Rome. +After his death they seemed to revive with an increase of fury and of +numbers. They were again vanquished by the active vigor of Probus, +who, in a short reign of about six years, equalled the fame of ancient +heroes, and restored peace and order to every province of the Roman +world. The dangerous frontier of Rhætia he so firmly secured, that he +left it without the suspicion of an enemy. He broke the wandering power +of the Sarmatian tribes, and by the terror of his arms compelled those +barbarians to relinquish their spoil. The Gothic nation courted the +alliance of so warlike an emperor. He attacked the Isaurians in their +mountains, besieged and took several of their strongest castles, and +flattered himself that he had forever suppressed a domestic foe, whose +independence so deeply wounded the majesty of the empire. The troubles +excited by the usurper Firmus in the Upper Egypt had never been +perfectly appeased, and the cities of Ptolemais and Coptos, fortified by +the alliance of the Blemmyes, still maintained an obscure rebellion. The +chastisement of those cities, and of their auxiliaries the savages of +the South, is said to have alarmed the court of Persia, and the Great +King sued in vain for the friendship of Probus. Most of the exploits +which distinguished his reign were achieved by the personal valor and +conduct of the emperor, insomuch that the writer of his life expresses +some amazement how, in so short a time, a single man could be present in +so many distant wars. The remaining actions he intrusted to the care of +his lieutenants, the judicious choice of whom forms no inconsiderable +part of his glory. Carus, Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, Galerius, +Asclepiodatus, Annibalianus, and a crowd of other chiefs, who afterwards +ascended or supported the throne, were trained to arms in the severe +school of Aurelian and Probus. + +But the most important service which Probus rendered to the republic was +the deliverance of Gaul, and the recovery of seventy flourishing +cities oppressed by the barbarians of Germany, who, since the death +of Aurelian, had ravaged that great province with impunity. Among the +various multitude of those fierce invaders we may distinguish, with some +degree of clearness, three great armies, or rather nations, successively +vanquished by the valor of Probus. He drove back the Franks into their +morasses; a descriptive circumstance from whence we may infer, that the +confederacy known by the manly appellation of Free, already occupied +the flat maritime country, intersected and almost overflown by the +stagnating waters of the Rhine, and that several tribes of the +Frisians and Batavians had acceded to their alliance. He vanquished +the Burgundians, a considerable people of the Vandalic race. * They had +wandered in quest of booty from the banks of the Oder to those of the +Seine. They esteemed themselves sufficiently fortunate to purchase, by +the restitution of all their booty, the permission of an undisturbed +retreat. They attempted to elude that article of the treaty. Their +punishment was immediate and terrible. But of all the invaders of Gaul, +the most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people, who reigned +over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. In the Lygian +nation, the Arii held the first rank by their numbers and fierceness. +"The Arii" (it is thus that they are described by the energy of Tacitus) +"study to improve by art and circumstances the innate terrors of their +barbarism. Their shields are black, their bodies are painted black. +They choose for the combat the darkest hour of the night. Their host +advances, covered as it were with a funeral shade; nor do they often +find an enemy capable of sustaining so strange and infernal an aspect. +Of all our senses, the eyes are the first vanquished in battle." Yet +the arms and discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these horrid +phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general engagement, and Semno, +the most renowned of their chiefs, fell alive into the hands of Probus. +That prudent emperor, unwilling to reduce a brave people to despair, +granted them an honorable capitulation, and permitted them to return in +safety to their native country. But the losses which they suffered in +the march, the battle, and the retreat, broke the power of the nation: +nor is the Lygian name ever repeated in the history either of Germany +or of the empire. The deliverance of Gaul is reported to have cost the +lives of four hundred thousand of the invaders; a work of labor to the +Romans, and of expense to the emperor, who gave a piece of gold for the +head of every barbarian. But as the fame of warriors is built on the +destruction of human kind, we may naturally suspect, that the sanguinary +account was multiplied by the avarice of the soldiers, and accepted +without any very severe examination by the liberal vanity of Probus. + +Since the expedition of Maximin, the Roman generals had confined +their ambition to a defensive war against the nations of Germany, who +perpetually pressed on the frontiers of the empire. The more daring +Probus pursued his Gallic victories, passed the Rhine, and displayed his +invincible eagles on the banks of the Elbe and the Necker. He was fully +convinced that nothing could reconcile the minds of the barbarians to +peace, unless they experienced, in their own country, the calamities of +war. Germany, exhausted by the ill success of the last emigration, +was astonished by his presence. Nine of the most considerable princes +repaired to his camp, and fell prostrate at his feet. Such a treaty was +humbly received by the Germans, as it pleased the conqueror to dictate. +He exacted a strict restitution of the effects and captives which they +had carried away from the provinces; and obliged their own magistrates +to punish the more obstinate robbers who presumed to detain any part of +the spoil. A considerable tribute of corn, cattle, and horses, the only +wealth of barbarians, was reserved for the use of the garrisons which +Probus established on the limits of their territory. He even entertained +some thoughts of compelling the Germans to relinquish the exercise of +arms, and to trust their differences to the justice, their safety to +the power, of Rome. To accomplish these salutary ends, the constant +residence of an Imperial governor, supported by a numerous army, was +indispensably requisite. Probus therefore judged it more expedient to +defer the execution of so great a design; which was indeed rather of +specious than solid utility. Had Germany been reduced into the state +of a province, the Romans, with immense labor and expense, would have +acquired only a more extensive boundary to defend against the fiercer +and more active barbarians of Scythia. + +Instead of reducing the warlike natives of Germany to the condition of +subjects, Probus contented himself with the humble expedient of raising +a bulwark against their inroads. The country which now forms the circle +of Swabia had been left desert in the age of Augustus by the emigration +of its ancient inhabitants. The fertility of the soil soon attracted a +new colony from the adjacent provinces of Gaul. Crowds of adventurers, +of a roving temper and of desperate fortunes, occupied the doubtful +possession, and acknowledged, by the payment of tithes the majesty of +the empire. To protect these new subjects, a line of frontier garrisons +was gradually extended from the Rhine to the Danube. About the reign +of Hadrian, when that mode of defence began to be practised, these +garrisons were connected and covered by a strong intrenchment of trees +and palisades. In the place of so rude a bulwark, the emperor Probus +constructed a stone wall of a considerable height, and strengthened it +by towers at convenient distances. From the neighborhood of Newstadt and +Ratisbon on the Danube, it stretched across hills, valleys, rivers, and +morasses, as far as Wimpfen on the Necker, and at length terminated +on the banks of the Rhine, after a winding course of near two hundred +miles. This important barrier, uniting the two mighty streams that +protected the provinces of Europe, seemed to fill up the vacant space +through which the barbarians, and particularly the Alemanni, could +penetrate with the greatest facility into the heart of the empire. But +the experience of the world, from China to Britain, has exposed the vain +attempt of fortifying any extensive tract of country. An active enemy, +who can select and vary his points of attack, must, in the end, discover +some feeble spot, on some unguarded moment. The strength, as well as the +attention, of the defenders is divided; and such are the blind effects +of terror on the firmest troops, that a line broken in a single place is +almost instantly deserted. The fate of the wall which Probus erected may +confirm the general observation. Within a few years after his death, +it was overthrown by the Alemanni. Its scattered ruins, universally +ascribed to the power of the Dæmon, now serve only to excite the wonder +of the Swabian peasant. + +Among the useful conditions of peace imposed by Probus on the vanquished +nations of Germany, was the obligation of supplying the Roman army with +sixteen thousand recruits, the bravest and most robust of their youth. +The emperor dispersed them through all the provinces, and distributed +this dangerous reenforcement, in small bands of fifty or sixty each, +among the national troops; judiciously observing, that the aid which the +republic derived from the barbarians should be felt but not seen. Their +aid was now become necessary. The feeble elegance of Italy and the +internal provinces could no longer support the weight of arms. The hardy +frontiers of the Rhine and Danube still produced minds and bodies equal +to the labors of the camp; but a perpetual series of wars had gradually +diminished their numbers. The infrequency of marriage, and the ruin +of agriculture, affected the principles of population, and not only +destroyed the strength of the present, but intercepted the hope +of future, generations. The wisdom of Probus embraced a great and +beneficial plan of replenishing the exhausted frontiers, by new colonies +of captive or fugitive barbarians, on whom he bestowed lands, cattle, +instruments of husbandry, and every encouragement that might engage +them to educate a race of soldiers for the service of the republic. +Into Britain, and most probably into Cambridgeshire, he transported a +considerable body of Vandals. The impossibility of an escape reconciled +them to their situation, and in the subsequent troubles of that island, +they approved themselves the most faithful servants of the state. Great +numbers of Franks and Gepidæ were settled on the banks of the Danube and +the Rhine. A hundred thousand Bastarnæ, expelled from their own country, +cheerfully accepted an establishment in Thrace, and soon imbibed the +manners and sentiments of Roman subjects. But the expectations of +Probus were too often disappointed. The impatience and idleness of +the barbarians could ill brook the slow labors of agriculture. Their +unconquerable love of freedom, rising against despotism, provoked them +into hasty rebellions, alike fatal to themselves and to the provinces; +nor could these artificial supplies, however repeated by succeeding +emperors, restore the important limit of Gaul and Illyricum to its +ancient and native vigor. + +Of all the barbarians who abandoned their new settlements, and disturbed +the public tranquillity, a very small number returned to their own +country. For a short season they might wander in arms through the +empire; but in the end they were surely destroyed by the power of +a warlike emperor. The successful rashness of a party of Franks was +attended, however, with such memorable consequences, that it ought not +to be passed unnoticed. They had been established by Probus, on the +sea-coast of Pontus, with a view of strengthening the frontier against +the inroads of the Alani. A fleet stationed in one of the harbors of +the Euxine fell into the hands of the Franks; and they resolved, through +unknown seas, to explore their way from the mouth of the Phasis to +that of the Rhine. They easily escaped through the Bosphorus and +the Hellespont, and cruising along the Mediterranean, indulged +their appetite for revenge and plunder by frequent descents on the +unsuspecting shores of Asia, Greece, and Africa. The opulent city of +Syracuse, in whose port the natives of Athens and Carthage had formerly +been sunk, was sacked by a handful of barbarians, who massacred the +greatest part of the trembling inhabitants. From the Island of Sicily, +the Franks proceeded to the columns of Hercules, trusted themselves to +the ocean, coasted round Spain and Gaul, and steering their triumphant +course through the British Channel, at length finished their surprising +voyage, by landing in safety on the Batavian or Frisian shores. The +example of their success, instructing their countrymen to conceive the +advantages and to despise the dangers of the sea, pointed out to their +enterprising spirit a new road to wealth and glory. + +Notwithstanding the vigilance and activity of Probus, it was almost +impossible that he could at once contain in obedience every part of his +wide-extended dominions. The barbarians, who broke their chains, had +seized the favorable opportunity of a domestic war. When the emperor +marched to the relief of Gaul, he devolved the command of the East on +Saturninus. That general, a man of merit and experience, was driven into +rebellion by the absence of his sovereign, the levity of the Alexandrian +people, the pressing instances of his friends, and his own fears; but +from the moment of his elevation, he never entertained a hope of empire, +or even of life. "Alas!" he said, "the republic has lost a useful +servant, and the rashness of an hour has destroyed the services of many +years. You know not," continued he, "the misery of sovereign power; a +sword is perpetually suspended over our head. We dread our very guards, +we distrust our companions. The choice of action or of repose is no +longer in our disposition, nor is there any age, or character, or +conduct, that can protect us from the censure of envy. In thus exalting +me to the throne, you have doomed me to a life of cares, and to an +untimely fate. The only consolation which remains is, the assurance that +I shall not fall alone." But as the former part of his prediction was +verified by the victory, so the latter was disappointed by the clemency +of Probus. That amiable prince attempted even to save the unhappy +Saturninus from the fury of the soldiers. He had more than once +solicited the usurper himself to place some confidence in the mercy of a +sovereign who so highly esteemed his character, that he had punished, as +a malicious informer, the first who related the improbable news of his +disaffection. Saturninus might, perhaps, have embraced the generous +offer, had he not been restrained by the obstinate distrust of his +adherents. Their guilt was deeper, and their hopes more sanguine, than +those of their experienced leader. + +The revolt of Saturninus was scarcely extinguished in the East, before +new troubles were excited in the West, by the rebellion of Bonosus and +Proculus, in Gaul. The most distinguished merit of those two officers +was their respective prowess, of the one in the combats of Bacchus, +of the other in those of Venus, yet neither of them was destitute +of courage and capacity, and both sustained, with honor, the august +character which the fear of punishment had engaged them to assume, till +they sunk at length beneath the superior genius of Probus. He used the +victory with his accustomed moderation, and spared the fortune, as well +as the lives of their innocent families. + +The arms of Probus had now suppressed all the foreign and domestic +enemies of the state. His mild but steady administration confirmed the +reestablishment of the public tranquillity; nor was there left in the +provinces a hostile barbarian, a tyrant, or even a robber, to revive the +memory of past disorders. It was time that the emperor should revisit +Rome, and celebrate his own glory and the general happiness. The triumph +due to the valor of Probus was conducted with a magnificence suitable +to his fortune, and the people who had so lately admired the trophies of +Aurelian, gazed with equal pleasure on those of his heroic successor. +We cannot, on this occasion, forget the desperate courage of about +fourscore gladiators, reserved, with near six hundred others, for the +inhuman sports of the amphitheatre. Disdaining to shed their blood for +the amusement of the populace, they killed their keepers, broke from the +place of their confinement, and filled the streets of Rome with blood +and confusion. After an obstinate resistance, they were overpowered +and cut in pieces by the regular forces; but they obtained at least an +honorable death, and the satisfaction of a just revenge. + +The military discipline which reigned in the camps of Probus was less +cruel than that of Aurelian, but it was equally rigid and exact. The +latter had punished the irregularities of the soldiers with unrelenting +severity, the former prevented them by employing the legions in constant +and useful labors. When Probus commanded in Egypt, he executed many +considerable works for the splendor and benefit of that rich country. +The navigation of the Nile, so important to Rome itself, was improved; +and temples, buildings, porticos, and palaces were constructed by the +hands of the soldiers, who acted by turns as architects, as engineers, +and as husbandmen. It was reported of Hannibal, that in order to +preserve his troops from the dangerous temptations of idleness, he had +obliged them to form large plantations of olive-trees along the coast +of Africa. From a similar principle, Probus exercised his legions in +covering with rich vineyards the hills of Gaul and Pannonia, and two +considerable spots are described, which were entirely dug and planted +by military labor. One of these, known under the name of Mount Almo, was +situated near Sirmium, the country where Probus was born, for which he +ever retained a partial affection, and whose gratitude he endeavored to +secure, by converting into tillage a large and unhealthy tract of marshy +ground. An army thus employed constituted perhaps the most useful, as +well as the bravest, portion of Roman subjects. + +But in the prosecution of a favorite scheme, the best of men, satisfied +with the rectitude of their intentions, are subject to forget the bounds +of moderation; nor did Probus himself sufficiently consult the patience +and disposition of his fierce legionaries. The dangers of the military +profession seem only to be compensated by a life of pleasure and +idleness; but if the duties of the soldier are incessantly aggravated +by the labors of the peasant, he will at last sink under the intolerable +burden, or shake it off with indignation. The imprudence of Probus is +said to have inflamed the discontent of his troops. More attentive to +the interests of mankind than to those of the army, he expressed the +vain hope, that, by the establishment of universal peace, he should soon +abolish the necessity of a standing and mercenary force. The unguarded +expression proved fatal to him. In one of the hottest days of summer, +as he severely urged the unwholesome labor of draining the marshes of +Sirmium, the soldiers, impatient of fatigue, on a sudden threw down +their tools, grasped their arms, and broke out into a furious mutiny. +The emperor, conscious of his danger, took refuge in a lofty tower, +constructed for the purpose of surveying the progress of the work. The +tower was instantly forced, and a thousand swords were plunged at +once into the bosom of the unfortunate Probus. The rage of the troops +subsided as soon as it had been gratified. They then lamented their +fatal rashness, forgot the severity of the emperor, whom they had +massacred, and hastened to perpetuate, by an honorable monument, the +memory of his virtues and victories. + +When the legions had indulged their grief and repentance for the +death of Probus, their unanimous consent declared Carus, his Prætorian +præfect, the most deserving of the Imperial throne. Every circumstance +that relates to this prince appears of a mixed and doubtful nature. +He gloried in the title of Roman Citizen; and affected to compare the +purity of his blood with the foreign and even barbarous origin of the +preceding emperors; yet the most inquisitive of his contemporaries, very +far from admitting his claim, have variously deduced his own birth, or +that of his parents, from Illyricum, from Gaul, or from Africa. Though +a soldier, he had received a learned education; though a senator, he +was invested with the first dignity of the army; and in an age when the +civil and military professions began to be irrecoverably separated from +each other, they were united in the person of Carus. Notwithstanding the +severe justice which he exercised against the assassins of Probus, to +whose favor and esteem he was highly indebted, he could not escape +the suspicion of being accessory to a deed from whence he derived the +principal advantage. He enjoyed, at least, before his elevation, an +acknowledged character of virtue and abilities; but his austere temper +insensibly degenerated into moroseness and cruelty; and the imperfect +writers of his life almost hesitate whether they shall not rank him in +the number of Roman tyrants. When Carus assumed the purple, he was about +sixty years of age, and his two sons, Carinus and Numerian had already +attained the season of manhood. + +The authority of the senate expired with Probus; nor was the repentance +of the soldiers displayed by the same dutiful regard for the civil +power, which they had testified after the unfortunate death of Aurelian. +The election of Carus was decided without expecting the approbation of +the senate, and the new emperor contented himself with announcing, in +a cold and stately epistle, that he had ascended the vacant throne. A +behavior so very opposite to that of his amiable predecessor afforded +no favorable presage of the new reign: and the Romans, deprived of power +and freedom, asserted their privilege of licentious murmurs. The voice +of congratulation and flattery was not, however, silent; and we may +still peruse, with pleasure and contempt, an eclogue, which was composed +on the accession of the emperor Carus. Two shepherds, avoiding the +noontide heat, retire into the cave of Faunus. On a spreading beech +they discover some recent characters. The rural deity had described, in +prophetic verses, the felicity promised to the empire under the reign +of so great a prince. Faunus hails the approach of that hero, who, +receiving on his shoulders the sinking weight of the Roman world, shall +extinguish war and faction, and once again restore the innocence and +security of the golden age. + +It is more than probable, that these elegant trifles never reached the +ears of a veteran general, who, with the consent of the legions, was +preparing to execute the long-suspended design of the Persian war. +Before his departure for this distant expedition, Carus conferred on his +two sons, Carinus and Numerian, the title of Cæsar, and investing the +former with almost an equal share of the Imperial power, directed the +young prince, first to suppress some troubles which had arisen in Gaul, +and afterwards to fix the seat of his residence at Rome, and to assume +the government of the Western provinces. The safety of Illyricum was +confirmed by a memorable defeat of the Sarmatians; sixteen thousand +of those barbarians remained on the field of battle, and the number of +captives amounted to twenty thousand. The old emperor, animated with the +fame and prospect of victory, pursued his march, in the midst of winter, +through the countries of Thrace and Asia Minor, and at length, with his +younger son, Numerian, arrived on the confines of the Persian monarchy. +There, encamping on the summit of a lofty mountain, he pointed out to +his troops the opulence and luxury of the enemy whom they were about to +invade. + +The successor of Artaxerxes, * Varanes, or Bahram, though he had subdued +the Segestans, one of the most warlike nations of Upper Asia, was +alarmed at the approach of the Romans, and endeavored to retard their +progress by a negotiation of peace. His ambassadors entered the camp +about sunset, at the time when the troops were satisfying their hunger +with a frugal repast. The Persians expressed their desire of being +introduced to the presence of the Roman emperor. They were at length +conducted to a soldier, who was seated on the grass. A piece of stale +bacon and a few hard peas composed his supper. A coarse woollen garment +of purple was the only circumstance that announced his dignity. The +conference was conducted with the same disregard of courtly elegance. +Carus, taking off a cap which he wore to conceal his baldness, assured +the ambassadors, that, unless their master acknowledged the superiority +of Rome, he would speedily render Persia as naked of trees as his own +head was destitute of hair. Notwithstanding some traces of art and +preparation, we may discover in this scene the manners of Carus, and the +severe simplicity which the martial princes, who succeeded Gallienus, +had already restored in the Roman camps. The ministers of the Great King +trembled and retired. + +The threats of Carus were not without effect. He ravaged Mesopotamia, +cut in pieces whatever opposed his passage, made himself master of +the great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, (which seemed to have +surrendered without resistance,) and carried his victorious arms beyond +the Tigris. He had seized the favorable moment for an invasion. The +Persian councils were distracted by domestic factions, and the greater +part of their forces were detained on the frontiers of India. Rome and +the East received with transports the news of such important advantages. +Flattery and hope painted, in the most lively colors, the fall of +Persia, the conquest of Arabia, the submission of Egypt, and a lasting +deliverance from the inroads of the Scythian nations. But the reign +of Carus was destined to expose the vanity of predictions. They were +scarcely uttered before they were contradicted by his death; an event +attended with such ambiguous circumstances, that it may be related in a +letter from his own secretary to the præfect of the city. "Carus," says +he, "our dearest emperor, was confined by sickness to his bed, when a +furious tempest arose in the camp. The darkness which overspread the sky +was so thick, that we could no longer distinguish each other; and the +incessant flashes of lightning took from us the knowledge of all that +passed in the general confusion. Immediately after the most violent clap +of thunder, we heard a sudden cry that the emperor was dead; and it soon +appeared, that his chamberlains, in a rage of grief, had set fire to the +royal pavilion; a circumstance which gave rise to the report that Carus +was killed by lightning. But, as far as we have been able to investigate +the truth, his death was the natural effect of his disorder." + + + +Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.--Part III. + +The vacancy of the throne was not productive of any disturbance. The +ambition of the aspiring generals was checked by their natural fears, +and young Numerian, with his absent brother Carinus, were unanimously +acknowledged as Roman emperors. The public expected that the successor +of Carus would pursue his father's footsteps, and, without allowing the +Persians to recover from their consternation, would advance sword in +hand to the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana. But the legions, however +strong in numbers and discipline, were dismayed by the most abject +superstition. Notwithstanding all the arts that were practised to +disguise the manner of the late emperor's death, it was found impossible +to remove the opinion of the multitude, and the power of opinion is +irresistible. Places or persons struck with lightning were considered +by the ancients with pious horror, as singularly devoted to the wrath of +Heaven. An oracle was remembered, which marked the River Tigris as the +fatal boundary of the Roman arms. The troops, terrified with the fate of +Carus and with their own danger, called aloud on young Numerian to obey +the will of the gods, and to lead them away from this inauspicious +scene of war. The feeble emperor was unable to subdue their obstinate +prejudice, and the Persians wondered at the unexpected retreat of a +victorious enemy. + +The intelligence of the mysterious fate of the late emperor was soon +carried from the frontiers of Persia to Rome; and the senate, as well as +the provinces, congratulated the accession of the sons of Carus. These +fortunate youths were strangers, however, to that conscious superiority, +either of birth or of merit, which can alone render the possession of +a throne easy, and as it were natural. Born and educated in a private +station, the election of their father raised them at once to the rank of +princes; and his death, which happened about sixteen months afterwards, +left them the unexpected legacy of a vast empire. To sustain with temper +this rapid elevation, an uncommon share of virtue and prudence was +requisite; and Carinus, the elder of the brothers, was more than +commonly deficient in those qualities. In the Gallic war he discovered +some degree of personal courage; but from the moment of his arrival +at Rome, he abandoned himself to the luxury of the capital, and to the +abuse of his fortune. He was soft, yet cruel; devoted to pleasure, +but destitute of taste; and though exquisitely susceptible of vanity, +indifferent to the public esteem. In the course of a few months, he +successively married and divorced nine wives, most of whom he left +pregnant; and notwithstanding this legal inconstancy, found time to +indulge such a variety of irregular appetites, as brought dishonor on +himself and on the noblest houses of Rome. He beheld with inveterate +hatred all those who might remember his former obscurity, or censure +his present conduct. He banished, or put to death, the friends +and counsellors whom his father had placed about him, to guide his +inexperienced youth; and he persecuted with the meanest revenge his +school-fellows and companions who had not sufficiently respected the +latent majesty of the emperor. With the senators, Carinus affected a +lofty and regal demeanor, frequently declaring, that he designed to +distribute their estates among the populace of Rome. From the dregs of +that populace he selected his favorites, and even his ministers. The +palace, and even the Imperial table, were filled with singers, dancers, +prostitutes, and all the various retinue of vice and folly. One of his +doorkeepers he intrusted with the government of the city. In the room of +the Prætorian præfect, whom he put to death, Carinus substituted one of +the ministers of his looser pleasures. Another, who possessed the +same, or even a more infamous, title to favor, was invested with the +consulship. A confidential secretary, who had acquired uncommon skill in +the art of forgery, delivered the indolent emperor, with his own consent +from the irksome duty of signing his name. + +When the emperor Carus undertook the Persian war, he was induced, by +motives of affection as well as policy, to secure the fortunes of +his family, by leaving in the hands of his eldest son the armies and +provinces of the West. The intelligence which he soon received of +the conduct of Carinus filled him with shame and regret; nor had he +concealed his resolution of satisfying the republic by a severe act of +justice, and of adopting, in the place of an unworthy son, the brave and +virtuous Constantius, who at that time was governor of Dalmatia. But the +elevation of Constantius was for a while deferred; and as soon as the +father's death had released Carinus from the control of fear or decency, +he displayed to the Romans the extravagancies of Elagabalus, aggravated +by the cruelty of Domitian. + +The only merit of the administration of Carinus that history could +record, or poetry celebrate, was the uncommon splendor with which, in +his own and his brother's name, he exhibited the Roman games of the +theatre, the circus, and the amphitheatre. More than twenty years +afterwards, when the courtiers of Diocletian represented to their frugal +sovereign the fame and popularity of his munificent predecessor, he +acknowledged that the reign of Carinus had indeed been a reign of +pleasure. But this vain prodigality, which the prudence of Diocletian +might justly despise, was enjoyed with surprise and transport by the +Roman people. The oldest of the citizens, recollecting the spectacles of +former days, the triumphal pomp of Probus or Aurelian, and the secular +games of the emperor Philip, acknowledged that they were all surpassed +by the superior magnificence of Carinus. + +The spectacles of Carinus may therefore be best illustrated by the +observation of some particulars, which history has condescended to +relate concerning those of his predecessors. If we confine ourselves +solely to the hunting of wild beasts, however we may censure the vanity +of the design or the cruelty of the execution, we are obliged to confess +that neither before nor since the time of the Romans so much art and +expense have ever been lavished for the amusement of the people. By the +order of Probus, a great quantity of large trees, torn up by the roots, +were transplanted into the midst of the circus. The spacious and shady +forest was immediately filled with a thousand ostriches, a thousand +stags, a thousand fallow deer, and a thousand wild boars; and all +this variety of game was abandoned to the riotous impetuosity of the +multitude. The tragedy of the succeeding day consisted in the massacre +of a hundred lions, an equal number of lionesses, two hundred leopards, +and three hundred bears. The collection prepared by the younger Gordian +for his triumph, and which his successor exhibited in the secular +games, was less remarkable by the number than by the singularity of +the animals. Twenty zebras displayed their elegant forms and variegated +beauty to the eyes of the Roman people. Ten elks, and as many +camelopards, the loftiest and most harmless creatures that wander over +the plains of Sarmatia and Æthiopia, were contrasted with thirty African +hyænas and ten Indian tigers, the most implacable savages of the torrid +zone. The unoffending strength with which Nature has endowed the greater +quadrupeds was admired in the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus of the Nile, +and a majestic troop of thirty-two elephants. While the populace gazed +with stupid wonder on the splendid show, the naturalist might indeed +observe the figure and properties of so many different species, +transported from every part of the ancient world into the amphitheatre +of Rome. But this accidental benefit, which science might derive from +folly, is surely insufficient to justify such a wanton abuse of the +public riches. There occurs, however, a single instance in the first +Punic war, in which the senate wisely connected this amusement of the +multitude with the interest of the state. A considerable number of +elephants, taken in the defeat of the Carthaginian army, were driven +through the circus by a few slaves, armed only with blunt javelins. +The useful spectacle served to impress the Roman soldier with a just +contempt for those unwieldy animals; and he no longer dreaded to +encounter them in the ranks of war. + +The hunting or exhibition of wild beasts was conducted with a +magnificence suitable to a people who styled themselves the masters of +the world; nor was the edifice appropriated to that entertainment less +expressive of Roman greatness. Posterity admires, and will long admire, +the awful remains of the amphitheatre of Titus, which so well deserved +the epithet of Colossal. It was a building of an elliptic figure, five +hundred and sixty-four feet in length, and four hundred and sixty-seven +in breadth, founded on fourscore arches, and rising, with four +successive orders of architecture, to the height of one hundred and +forty feet. The outside of the edifice was encrusted with marble, and +decorated with statues. The slopes of the vast concave, which formed the +inside, were filled and surrounded with sixty or eighty rows of seats +of marble likewise, covered with cushions, and capable of receiving with +ease about fourscore thousand spectators. Sixty-four vomitories (for +by that name the doors were very aptly distinguished) poured forth the +immense multitude; and the entrances, passages, and staircases were +contrived with such exquisite skill, that each person, whether of +the senatorial, the equestrian, or the plebeian order, arrived at his +destined place without trouble or confusion. Nothing was omitted, which, +in any respect, could be subservient to the convenience and pleasure of +the spectators. They were protected from the sun and rain by an ample +canopy, occasionally drawn over their heads. The air was continally +refreshed by the playing of fountains, and profusely impregnated by the +grateful scent of aromatics. In the centre of the edifice, the arena, +or stage, was strewed with the finest sand, and successively assumed the +most different forms. At one moment it seemed to rise out of the earth, +like the garden of the Hesperides, and was afterwards broken into +the rocks and caverns of Thrace. The subterraneous pipes conveyed an +inexhaustible supply of water; and what had just before appeared a level +plain, might be suddenly converted into a wide lake, covered with +armed vessels, and replenished with the monsters of the deep. In the +decoration of these scenes, the Roman emperors displayed their wealth +and liberality; and we read on various occasions that the whole +furniture of the amphitheatre consisted either of silver, or of gold, or +of amber. The poet who describes the games of Carinus, in the +character of a shepherd, attracted to the capital by the fame of their +magnificence, affirms that the nets designed as a defence against the +wild beasts, were of gold wire; that the porticos were gilded; and that +the belt or circle which divided the several ranks of spectators from +each other was studded with a precious mosaic of beautiful stones. + +In the midst of this glittering pageantry, the emperor Carinus, secure +of his fortune, enjoyed the acclamations of the people, the flattery +of his courtiers, and the songs of the poets, who, for want of a more +essential merit, were reduced to celebrate the divine graces of his +person. In the same hour, but at the distance of nine hundred miles from +Rome, his brother expired; and a sudden revolution transferred into the +hands of a stranger the sceptre of the house of Carus. + +The sons of Carus never saw each other after their father's death. The +arrangements which their new situation required were probably deferred +till the return of the younger brother to Rome, where a triumph was +decreed to the young emperors for the glorious success of the Persian +war. It is uncertain whether they intended to divide between them the +administration, or the provinces, of the empire; but it is very unlikely +that their union would have proved of any long duration. The jealousy +of power must have been inflamed by the opposition of characters. In the +most corrupt of times, Carinus was unworthy to live: Numerian deserved +to reign in a happier period. His affable manners and gentle virtues +secured him, as soon as they became known, the regard and affections +of the public. He possessed the elegant accomplishments of a poet and +orator, which dignify as well as adorn the humblest and the most exalted +station. His eloquence, however it was applauded by the senate, was +formed not so much on the model of Cicero, as on that of the modern +declaimers; but in an age very far from being destitute of poetical +merit, he contended for the prize with the most celebrated of his +contemporaries, and still remained the friend of his rivals; a +circumstance which evinces either the goodness of his heart, or the +superiority of his genius. But the talents of Numerian were rather of +the contemplative than of the active kind. When his father's elevation +reluctantly forced him from the shade of retirement, neither his temper +nor his pursuits had qualified him for the command of armies. His +constitution was destroyed by the hardships of the Persian war; and he +had contracted, from the heat of the climate, such a weakness in his +eyes, as obliged him, in the course of a long retreat, to confine +himself to the solitude and darkness of a tent or litter. The +administration of all affairs, civil as well as military, was devolved +on Arrius Aper, the Prætorian præfect, who to the power of his important +office added the honor of being father-in-law to Numerian. The Imperial +pavilion was strictly guarded by his most trusty adherents; and during +many days, Aper delivered to the army the supposed mandates of their +invisible sovereign. + +It was not till eight months after the death of Carus, that the Roman +army, returning by slow marches from the banks of the Tigris, arrived +on those of the Thracian Bosphorus. The legions halted at Chalcedon in +Asia, while the court passed over to Heraclea, on the European side of +the Propontis. But a report soon circulated through the camp, at first +in secret whispers, and at length in loud clamors, of the emperor's +death, and of the presumption of his ambitious minister, who still +exercised the sovereign power in the name of a prince who was no +more. The impatience of the soldiers could not long support a state of +suspense. With rude curiosity they broke into the Imperial tent, and +discovered only the corpse of Numerian. The gradual decline of his +health might have induced them to believe that his death was natural; +but the concealment was interpreted as an evidence of guilt, and +the measures which Aper had taken to secure his election became the +immediate occasion of his ruin Yet, even in the transport of their rage +and grief, the troops observed a regular proceeding, which proves how +firmly discipline had been reestablished by the martial successors of +Gallienus. A general assembly of the army was appointed to be held at +Chalcedon, whither Aper was transported in chains, as a prisoner and a +criminal. A vacant tribunal was erected in the midst of the camp, and +the generals and tribunes formed a great military council. They soon +announced to the multitude that their choice had fallen on Diocletian, +commander of the domestics or body-guards, as the person the most +capable of revenging and succeeding their beloved emperor. The future +fortunes of the candidate depended on the chance or conduct of the +present hour. Conscious that the station which he had filled exposed him +to some suspicions, Diocletian ascended the tribunal, and raising his +eyes towards the Sun, made a solemn profession of his own innocence, +in the presence of that all-seeing Deity. Then, assuming the tone of +a sovereign and a judge, he commanded that Aper should be brought +in chains to the foot of the tribunal. "This man," said he, "is the +murderer of Numerian;" and without giving him time to enter on a +dangerous justification, drew his sword, and buried it in the breast of +the unfortunate præfect. A charge supported by such decisive proof +was admitted without contradiction, and the legions, with repeated +acclamations, acknowledged the justice and authority of the emperor +Diocletian. + +Before we enter upon the memorable reign of that prince, it will be +proper to punish and dismiss the unworthy brother of Numerian. Carinus +possessed arms and treasures sufficient to support his legal title to +the empire. But his personal vices overbalanced every advantage of birth +and situation. The most faithful servants of the father despised the +incapacity, and dreaded the cruel arrogance, of the son. The hearts of +the people were engaged in favor of his rival, and even the senate +was inclined to prefer a usurper to a tyrant. The arts of Diocletian +inflamed the general discontent; and the winter was employed in secret +intrigues, and open preparations for a civil war. In the spring, the +forces of the East and of the West encountered each other in the plains +of Margus, a small city of Mæsia, in the neighborhood of the Danube. +The troops, so lately returned from the Persian war, had acquired their +glory at the expense of health and numbers; nor were they in a condition +to contend with the unexhausted strength of the legions of Europe. Their +ranks were broken, and, for a moment, Diocletian despaired of the purple +and of life. But the advantage which Carinus had obtained by the valor +of his soldiers, he quickly lost by the infidelity of his officers. A +tribune, whose wife he had seduced, seized the opportunity of revenge, +and, by a single blow, extinguished civil discord in the blood of the +adulterer. + + + +Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.--Part I. + + The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, + Galerius, And Constantius.--General Reestablishment Of Order + And Tranquillity.--The Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.-- + The New Form Of Administration.--Abdication And Retirement + Of Diocletian And Maximian. + +As the reign of Diocletian was more illustrious than that of any of +his predecessors, so was his birth more abject and obscure. The strong +claims of merit and of violence had frequently superseded the ideal +prerogatives of nobility; but a distinct line of separation was hitherto +preserved between the free and the servile part of mankind. The parents +of Diocletian had been slaves in the house of Anulinus, a Roman senator; +nor was he himself distinguished by any other name than that which he +derived from a small town in Dalmatia, from whence his mother deduced +her origin. It is, however, probable that his father obtained the +freedom of the family, and that he soon acquired an office of scribe, +which was commonly exercised by persons of his condition. Favorable +oracles, or rather the consciousness of superior merit, prompted his +aspiring son to pursue the profession of arms and the hopes of fortune; +and it would be extremely curious to observe the gradation of arts and +accidents which enabled him in the end to fulfil those oracles, and to +display that merit to the world. Diocletian was successively promoted to +the government of Mæsia, the honors of the consulship, and the important +command of the guards of the palace. He distinguished his abilities +in the Persian war; and after the death of Numerian, the slave, by the +confession and judgment of his rivals, was declared the most worthy of +the Imperial throne. The malice of religious zeal, whilst it arraigns +the savage fierceness of his colleague Maximian, has affected to cast +suspicions on the personal courage of the emperor Diocletian. It would +not be easy to persuade us of the cowardice of a soldier of fortune, who +acquired and preserved the esteem of the legions as well as the favor +of so many warlike princes. Yet even calumny is sagacious enough to +discover and to attack the most vulnerable part. The valor of Diocletian +was never found inadequate to his duty, or to the occasion; but he +appears not to have possessed the daring and generous spirit of a hero, +who courts danger and fame, disdains artifice, and boldly challenges +the allegiance of his equals. His abilities were useful rather than +splendid; a vigorous mind, improved by the experience and study of +mankind; dexterity and application in business; a judicious mixture of +liberality and economy, of mildness and rigor; profound dissimulation, +under the disguise of military frankness; steadiness to pursue his +ends; flexibility to vary his means; and, above all, the great art of +submitting his own passions, as well as those of others, to the interest +of his ambition, and of coloring his ambition with the most specious +pretences of justice and public utility. Like Augustus, Diocletian may +be considered as the founder of a new empire. Like the adopted son of +Cæsar, he was distinguished as a statesman rather than as a warrior; nor +did either of those princes employ force, whenever their purpose could +be effected by policy. + +The victory of Diocletian was remarkable for its singular mildness. A +people accustomed to applaud the clemency of the conqueror, if the usual +punishments of death, exile, and confiscation, were inflicted with +any degree of temper and equity, beheld, with the most pleasing +astonishment, a civil war, the flames of which were extinguished in the +field of battle. Diocletian received into his confidence Aristobulus, +the principal minister of the house of Carus, respected the lives, the +fortunes, and the dignity, of his adversaries, and even continued in +their respective stations the greater number of the servants of Carinus. +It is not improbable that motives of prudence might assist the humanity +of the artful Dalmatian; of these servants, many had purchased his favor +by secret treachery; in others, he esteemed their grateful fidelity to +an unfortunate master. The discerning judgment of Aurelian, of Probus, +and of Carus, had filled the several departments of the state and army +with officers of approved merit, whose removal would have injured the +public service, without promoting the interest of his successor. Such a +conduct, however, displayed to the Roman world the fairest prospect +of the new reign, and the emperor affected to confirm this favorable +prepossession, by declaring, that, among all the virtues of his +predecessors, he was the most ambitious of imitating the humane +philosophy of Marcus Antoninus. + +The first considerable action of his reign seemed to evince his +sincerity as well as his moderation. After the example of Marcus, he +gave himself a colleague in the person of Maximian, on whom he bestowed +at first the title of Cæsar, and afterwards that of Augustus. But the +motives of his conduct, as well as the object of his choice, were of +a very different nature from those of his admired predecessor. By +investing a luxurious youth with the honors of the purple, Marcus had +discharged a debt of private gratitude, at the expense, indeed, of the +happiness of the state. By associating a friend and a fellow-soldier +to the labors of government, Diocletian, in a time of public danger, +provided for the defence both of the East and of the West. Maximian +was born a peasant, and, like Aurelian, in the territory of Sirmium. +Ignorant of letters, careless of laws, the rusticity of his appearance +and manners still betrayed in the most elevated fortune the meanness +of his extraction. War was the only art which he professed. In a long +course of service, he had distinguished himself on every frontier of the +empire; and though his military talents were formed to obey rather than +to command, though, perhaps, he never attained the skill of a consummate +general, he was capable, by his valor, constancy, and experience, of +executing the most arduous undertakings. Nor were the vices of Maximian +less useful to his benefactor. Insensible to pity, and fearless of +consequences, he was the ready instrument of every act of cruelty which +the policy of that artful prince might at once suggest and disclaim. As +soon as a bloody sacrifice had been offered to prudence or to revenge, +Diocletian, by his seasonable intercession, saved the remaining few whom +he had never designed to punish, gently censured the severity of his +stern colleague, and enjoyed the comparison of a golden and an iron age, +which was universally applied to their opposite maxims of government. +Notwithstanding the difference of their characters, the two emperors +maintained, on the throne, that friendship which they had contracted in +a private station. The haughty, turbulent spirit of Maximian, so fatal, +afterwards, to himself and to the public peace, was accustomed to +respect the genius of Diocletian, and confessed the ascendant of reason +over brutal violence. From a motive either of pride or superstition, +the two emperors assumed the titles, the one of Jovius, the other of +Herculius. Whilst the motion of the world (such was the language of +their venal orators) was maintained by the all-seeing wisdom of Jupiter, +the invincible arm of Hercules purged the earth from monsters and +tyrants. + +But even the omnipotence of Jovius and Herculius was insufficient +to sustain the weight of the public administration. The prudence of +Diocletian discovered that the empire, assailed on every side by the +barbarians, required on every side the presence of a great army, and of +an emperor. With this view, he resolved once more to divide his unwieldy +power, and with the inferior title of Cæsars, * to confer on two +generals of approved merit an unequal share of the sovereign authority. +Galerius, surnamed Armentarius, from his original profession of a +herdsman, and Constantius, who from his pale complexion had acquired the +denomination of Chlorus, were the two persons invested with the second +honors of the Imperial purple. In describing the country, extraction, +and manners of Herculius, we have already delineated those of Galerius, +who was often, and not improperly, styled the younger Maximian, though, +in many instances both of virtue and ability, he appears to have +possessed a manifest superiority over the elder. The birth of +Constantius was less obscure than that of his colleagues. Eutropius, +his father, was one of the most considerable nobles of Dardania, and +his mother was the niece of the emperor Claudius. Although the youth +of Constantius had been spent in arms, he was endowed with a mild and +amiable disposition, and the popular voice had long since acknowledged +him worthy of the rank which he at last attained. To strengthen the +bonds of political, by those of domestic, union, each of the emperors +assumed the character of a father to one of the Cæsars, Diocletian +to Galerius, and Maximian to Constantius; and each, obliging them to +repudiate their former wives, bestowed his daughter in marriage on his +adopted son. These four princes distributed among themselves the wide +extent of the Roman empire. The defence of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, +was intrusted to Constantius: Galerius was stationed on the banks of +the Danube, as the safeguard of the Illyrian provinces. Italy and Africa +were considered as the department of Maximian; and for his peculiar +portion, Diocletian reserved Thrace, Egypt, and the rich countries +of Asia. Every one was sovereign with his own jurisdiction; but their +united authority extended over the whole monarchy, and each of them was +prepared to assist his colleagues with his counsels or presence. The +Cæsars, in their exalted rank, revered the majesty of the emperors, and +the three younger princes invariably acknowledged, by their gratitude +and obedience, the common parent of their fortunes. The suspicious +jealousy of power found not any place among them; and the singular +happiness of their union has been compared to a chorus of music, whose +harmony was regulated and maintained by the skilful hand of the first +artist. + +This important measure was not carried into execution till about six +years after the association of Maximian, and that interval of time had +not been destitute of memorable incidents. But we have preferred, for +the sake of perspicuity, first to describe the more perfect form of +Diocletian's government, and afterwards to relate the actions of his +reign, following rather the natural order of the events, than the dates +of a very doubtful chronology. + +The first exploit of Maximian, though it is mentioned in a few words by +our imperfect writers, deserves, from its singularity, to be recorded +in a history of human manners. He suppressed the peasants of Gaul, who, +under the appellation of Bagaudæ, had risen in a general insurrection; +very similar to those which in the fourteenth century successively +afflicted both France and England. It should seem that very many of +those institutions, referred by an easy solution to the feudal system, +are derived from the Celtic barbarians. When Cæsar subdued the Gauls, +that great nation was already divided into three orders of men; the +clergy, the nobility, and the common people. The first governed by +superstition, the second by arms, but the third and last was not of any +weight or account in their public councils. It was very natural for the +plebeians, oppressed by debt, or apprehensive of injuries, to implore +the protection of some powerful chief, who acquired over their persons +and property the same absolute right as, among the Greeks and Romans, +a master exercised over his slaves. The greatest part of the nation +was gradually reduced into a state of servitude; compelled to perpetual +labor on the estates of the Gallic nobles, and confined to the soil, +either by the real weight of fetters, or by the no less cruel and +forcible restraints of the laws. During the long series of troubles +which agitated Gaul, from the reign of Gallienus to that of Diocletian, +the condition of these servile peasants was peculiarly miserable; and +they experienced at once the complicated tyranny of their masters, of +the barbarians, of the soldiers, and of the officers of the revenue. + +Their patience was at last provoked into despair. On every side they +rose in multitudes, armed with rustic weapons, and with irresistible +fury. The ploughman became a foot soldier, the shepherd mounted on +horseback, the deserted villages and open towns were abandoned to the +flames, and the ravages of the peasants equalled those of the fiercest +barbarians. They asserted the natural rights of men, but they asserted +those rights with the most savage cruelty. The Gallic nobles, justly +dreading their revenge, either took refuge in the fortified cities, +or fled from the wild scene of anarchy. The peasants reigned without +control; and two of their most daring leaders had the folly and rashness +to assume the Imperial ornaments. Their power soon expired at the +approach of the legions. The strength of union and discipline obtained +an easy victory over a licentious and divided multitude. A severe +retaliation was inflicted on the peasants who were found in arms; the +affrighted remnant returned to their respective habitations, and their +unsuccessful effort for freedom served only to confirm their slavery. +So strong and uniform is the current of popular passions, that we might +almost venture, from very scanty materials, to relate the particulars of +this war; but we are not disposed to believe that the principal +leaders, Ælianus and Amandus, were Christians, or to insinuate, that the +rebellion, as it happened in the time of Luther, was occasioned by the +abuse of those benevolent principles of Christianity, which inculcate +the natural freedom of mankind. + +Maximian had no sooner recovered Gaul from the hands of the peasants, +than he lost Britain by the usurpation of Carausius. Ever since the rash +but successful enterprise of the Franks under the reign of Probus, their +daring countrymen had constructed squadrons of light brigantines, in +which they incessantly ravaged the provinces adjacent to the ocean. To +repel their desultory incursions, it was found necessary to create a +naval power; and the judicious measure was prosecuted with prudence and +vigor. Gessoriacum, or Boulogne, in the straits of the British Channel, +was chosen by the emperor for the station of the Roman fleet; and the +command of it was intrusted to Carausius, a Menapian of the meanest +origin, but who had long signalized his skill as a pilot, and his valor +as a soldier. The integrity of the new admiral corresponded not with +his abilities. When the German pirates sailed from their own harbors, he +connived at their passage, but he diligently intercepted their return, +and appropriated to his own use an ample share of the spoil which they +had acquired. The wealth of Carausius was, on this occasion, very justly +considered as an evidence of his guilt; and Maximian had already given +orders for his death. But the crafty Menapian foresaw and prevented +the severity of the emperor. By his liberality he had attached to his +fortunes the fleet which he commanded, and secured the barbarians in his +interest. From the port of Boulogne he sailed over to Britain, persuaded +the legion, and the auxiliaries which guarded that island, to embrace +his party, and boldly assuming, with the Imperial purple, the title of +Augustus defied the justice and the arms of his injured sovereign. + +When Britain was thus dismembered from the empire, its importance was +sensibly felt, and its loss sincerely lamented. The Romans celebrated, +and perhaps magnified, the extent of that noble island, provided on +every side with convenient harbors; the temperature of the climate, and +the fertility of the soil, alike adapted for the production of corn +or of vines; the valuable minerals with which it abounded; its rich +pastures covered with innumerable flocks, and its woods free from wild +beasts or venomous serpents. Above all, they regretted the large amount +of the revenue of Britain, whilst they confessed, that such a province +well deserved to become the seat of an independent monarchy. During +the space of seven years it was possessed by Carausius; and fortune +continued propitious to a rebellion supported with courage and ability. +The British emperor defended the frontiers of his dominions against the +Caledonians of the North, invited, from the continent, a great number +of skilful artists, and displayed, on a variety of coins that are still +extant, his taste and opulence. Born on the confines of the Franks, +he courted the friendship of that formidable people, by the flattering +imitation of their dress and manners. The bravest of their youth he +enlisted among his land or sea forces; and, in return for their useful +alliance, he communicated to the barbarians the dangerous knowledge of +military and naval arts. Carausius still preserved the possession of +Boulogne and the adjacent country. His fleets rode triumphant in the +channel, commanded the mouths of the Seine and of the Rhine, ravaged +the coasts of the ocean, and diffused beyond the columns of Hercules the +terror of his name. Under his command, Britain, destined in a future +age to obtain the empire of the sea, already assumed its natural and +respectable station of a maritime power. + +By seizing the fleet of Boulogne, Carausius had deprived his master of +the means of pursuit and revenge. And when, after a vast expense of +time and labor, a new armament was launched into the water, the Imperial +troops, unaccustomed to that element, were easily baffled and defeated +by the veteran sailors of the usurper. This disappointed effort was +soon productive of a treaty of peace. Diocletian and his colleague, who +justly dreaded the enterprising spirit of Carausius, resigned to him +the sovereignty of Britain, and reluctantly admitted their perfidious +servant to a participation of the Imperial honors. But the adoption +of the two Cæsars restored new vigor to the Romans arms; and while +the Rhine was guarded by the presence of Maximian, his brave associate +Constantius assumed the conduct of the British war. His first enterprise +was against the important place of Boulogne. A stupendous mole, raised +across the entrance of the harbor, intercepted all hopes of relief. The +town surrendered after an obstinate defence; and a considerable part of +the naval strength of Carausius fell into the hands of the besiegers. +During the three years which Constantius employed in preparing a fleet +adequate to the conquest of Britain, he secured the coast of Gaul, +invaded the country of the Franks, and deprived the usurper of the +assistance of those powerful allies. + +Before the preparations were finished, Constantius received the +intelligence of the tyrant's death, and it was considered as a sure +presage of the approaching victory. The servants of Carausius imitated +the example of treason which he had given. He was murdered by his first +minister, Allectus, and the assassin succeeded to his power and to his +danger. But he possessed not equal abilities either to exercise the +one or to repel the other. He beheld, with anxious terror, the opposite +shores of the continent already filled with arms, with troops, and with +vessels; for Constantius had very prudently divided his forces, that +he might likewise divide the attention and resistance of the enemy. The +attack was at length made by the principal squadron, which, under the +command of the præfect Asclepiodatus, an officer of distinguished merit, +had been assembled in the north of the Seine. So imperfect in those +times was the art of navigation, that orators have celebrated the daring +courage of the Romans, who ventured to set sail with a side-wind, and +on a stormy day. The weather proved favorable to their enterprise. Under +the cover of a thick fog, they escaped the fleet of Allectus, which had +been stationed off the Isle of Wight to receive them, landed in safety +on some part of the western coast, and convinced the Britons, that a +superiority of naval strength will not always protect their country from +a foreign invasion. Asclepiodatus had no sooner disembarked the imperial +troops, then he set fire to his ships; and, as the expedition proved +fortunate, his heroic conduct was universally admired. The usurper +had posted himself near London, to expect the formidable attack of +Constantius, who commanded in person the fleet of Boulogne; but the +descent of a new enemy required his immediate presence in the West. +He performed this long march in so precipitate a manner, that he +encountered the whole force of the præfect with a small body of harassed +and disheartened troops. The engagement was soon terminated by the total +defeat and death of Allectus; a single battle, as it has often happened, +decided the fate of this great island; and when Constantius landed on +the shores of Kent, he found them covered with obedient subjects. Their +acclamations were loud and unanimous; and the virtues of the conqueror +may induce us to believe, that they sincerely rejoiced in a revolution, +which, after a separation of ten years, restored Britain to the body of +the Roman empire. + + + +Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.--Part II. + +Britain had none but domestic enemies to dread; and as long as the +governors preserved their fidelity, and the troops their discipline, +the incursions of the naked savages of Scotland or Ireland could +never materially affect the safety of the province. The peace of the +continent, and the defence of the principal rivers which bounded the +empire, were objects of far greater difficulty and importance. The +policy of Diocletian, which inspired the councils of his associates, +provided for the public tranquility, by encouraging a spirit of +dissension among the barbarians, and by strengthening the fortifications +of the Roman limit. In the East he fixed a line of camps from Egypt to +the Persian dominions, and for every camp, he instituted an adequate +number of stationary troops, commanded by their respective officers, +and supplied with every kind of arms, from the new arsenals which he had +formed at Antioch, Emesa, and Damascus. Nor was the precaution of the +emperor less watchful against the well-known valor of the barbarians of +Europe. From the mouth of the Rhine to that of the Danube, the ancient +camps, towns, and citidels, were diligently reestablished, and, in the +most exposed places, new ones were skilfully constructed: the strictest +vigilance was introduced among the garrisons of the frontier, and +every expedient was practised that could render the long chain of +fortifications firm and impenetrable. A barrier so respectable was +seldom violated, and the barbarians often turned against each other +their disappointed rage. The Goths, the Vandals, the Gepidæ, the +Burgundians, the Alemanni, wasted each other's strength by destructive +hostilities: and whosoever vanquished, they vanquished the enemies +of Rome. The subjects of Diocletian enjoyed the bloody spectacle, and +congratulated each other, that the mischiefs of civil war were now +experienced only by the barbarians. + +Notwithstanding the policy of Diocletian, it was impossible to maintain +an equal and undisturbed tranquillity during a reign of twenty years, +and along a frontier of many hundred miles. Sometimes the barbarians +suspended their domestic animosities, and the relaxed vigilance of +the garrisons sometimes gave a passage to their strength or dexterity. +Whenever the provinces were invaded, Diocletian conducted himself with +that calm dignity which he always affected or possessed; reserved his +presence for such occasions as were worthy of his interposition, never +exposed his person or reputation to any unnecessary danger, insured his +success by every means that prudence could suggest, and displayed, +with ostentation, the consequences of his victory. In wars of a more +difficult nature, and more doubtful event, he employed the rough valor +of Maximian; and that faithful soldier was content to ascribe his +own victories to the wise counsels and auspicious influence of his +benefactor. But after the adoption of the two Cæsars, the emperors +themselves, retiring to a less laborious scene of action, devolved +on their adopted sons the defence of the Danube and of the Rhine. The +vigilant Galerius was never reduced to the necessity of vanquishing +an army of barbarians on the Roman territory. The brave and active +Constantius delivered Gaul from a very furious inroad of the Alemanni; +and his victories of Langres and Vindonissa appear to have been actions +of considerable danger and merit. As he traversed the open country with +a feeble guard, he was encompassed on a sudden by the superior multitude +of the enemy. He retreated with difficulty towards Langres; but, in the +general consternation, the citizens refused to open their gates, and the +wounded prince was drawn up the wall by the means of a rope. But, on the +news of his distress, the Roman troops hastened from all sides to his +relief, and before the evening he had satisfied his honor and revenge +by the slaughter of six thousand Alemanni. From the monuments of those +times, the obscure traces of several other victories over the barbarians +of Sarmatia and Germany might possibly be collected; but the tedious +search would not be rewarded either with amusement or with instruction. + +The conduct which the emperor Probus had adopted in the disposal of the +vanquished, was imitated by Diocletian and his associates. The captive +barbarians, exchanging death for slavery, were distributed among the +provincials, and assigned to those districts (in Gaul, the territories +of Amiens, Beauvais, Cambray, Treves, Langres, and Troyes, are +particularly specified ) which had been depopulated by the calamities of +war. They were usefully employed as shepherds and husbandmen, but were +denied the exercise of arms, except when it was found expedient to +enroll them in the military service. Nor did the emperors refuse the +property of lands, with a less servile tenure, to such of the barbarians +as solicited the protection of Rome. They granted a settlement to +several colonies of the Carpi, the Bastarnæ, and the Sarmatians; and, by +a dangerous indulgence, permitted them in some measure to retain their +national manners and independence. Among the provincials, it was a +subject of flattering exultation, that the barbarian, so lately an +object of terror, now cultivated their lands, drove their cattle to the +neighboring fair, and contributed by his labor to the public plenty. +They congratulated their masters on the powerful accession of subjects +and soldiers; but they forgot to observe, that multitudes of secret +enemies, insolent from favor, or desperate from oppression, were +introduced into the heart of the empire. + +While the Cæsars exercised their valor on the banks of the Rhine and +Danube, the presence of the emperors was required on the southern +confines of the Roman world. From the Nile to Mount Atlas Africa was in +arms. A confederacy of five Moorish nations issued from their deserts +to invade the peaceful provinces. Julian had assumed the purple at +Carthage. Achilleus at Alexandria, and even the Blemmyes, renewed, or +rather continued, their incursions into the Upper Egypt. Scarcely any +circumstances have been preserved of the exploits of Maximian in the +western parts of Africa; but it appears, by the event, that the progress +of his arms was rapid and decisive, that he vanquished the fiercest +barbarians of Mauritania, and that he removed them from the mountains, +whose inaccessible strength had inspired their inhabitants with +a lawless confidence, and habituated them to a life of rapine and +violence. Diocletian, on his side, opened the campaign in Egypt by the +siege of Alexandria, cut off the aqueducts which conveyed the waters of +the Nile into every quarter of that immense city, and rendering his +camp impregnable to the sallies of the besieged multitude, he pushed +his reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a siege of eight +months, Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by fire, implored the +clemency of the conqueror, but it experienced the full extent of his +severity. Many thousands of the citizens perished in a promiscuous +slaughter, and there were few obnoxious persons in Egypt who escaped a +sentence either of death or at least of exile. The fate of Busiris and +of Coptos was still more melancholy than that of Alexandria: those proud +cities, the former distinguished by its antiquity, the latter enriched +by the passage of the Indian trade, were utterly destroyed by the arms +and by the severe order of Diocletian. The character of the Egyptian +nation, insensible to kindness, but extremely susceptible of fear, could +alone justify this excessive rigor. The seditions of Alexandria had +often affected the tranquillity and subsistence of Rome itself. Since +the usurpation of Firmus, the province of Upper Egypt, incessantly +relapsing into rebellion, had embraced the alliance of the savages of +Æthiopia. The number of the Blemmyes, scattered between the Island of +Meroe and the Red Sea, was very inconsiderable, their disposition +was unwarlike, their weapons rude and inoffensive. Yet in the public +disorders, these barbarians, whom antiquity, shocked with the deformity +of their figure, had almost excluded from the human species, presumed +to rank themselves among the enemies of Rome. Such had been the unworthy +allies of the Egyptians; and while the attention of the state was +engaged in more serious wars, their vexatious inroads might again harass +the repose of the province. With a view of opposing to the Blemmyes a +suitable adversary, Diocletian persuaded the Nobatæ, or people of Nubia, +to remove from their ancient habitations in the deserts of Libya, and +resigned to them an extensive but unprofitable territory above Syene and +the cataracts of the Nile, with the stipulation, that they should ever +respect and guard the frontier of the empire. The treaty long subsisted; +and till the establishment of Christianity introduced stricter notions +of religious worship, it was annually ratified by a solemn sacrifice in +the Isle of Elephantine, in which the Romans, as well as the barbarians, +adored the same visible or invisible powers of the universe. + +At the same time that Diocletian chastised the past crimes of the +Egyptians, he provided for their future safety and happiness by many +wise regulations, which were confirmed and enforced under the succeeding +reigns. One very remarkable edict which he published, instead of being +condemned as the effect of jealous tyranny, deserves to be applauded as +an act of prudence and humanity. He caused a diligent inquiry to be made +"for all the ancient books which treated of the admirable art of +making gold and silver, and without pity, committed them to the flames; +apprehensive, as we are assumed, lest the opulence of the Egyptians +should inspire them with confidence to rebel against the empire." But if +Diocletian had been convinced of the reality of that valuable art, far +from extinguishing the memory, he would have converted the operation of +it to the benefit of the public revenue. It is much more likely, +that his good sense discovered to him the folly of such magnificent +pretensions, and that he was desirous of preserving the reason and +fortunes of his subjects from the mischievous pursuit. It may be +remarked, that these ancient books, so liberally ascribed to Pythagoras, +to Solomon, or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of more recent adepts. +The Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to the abuse of +chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has deposited the +discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind, there is not the +least mention of the transmutation of metals; and the persecution of +Diocletian is the first authentic event in the history of alchemy. +The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused that vain science over the +globe. Congenial to the avarice of the human heart, it was studied in +China as in Europe, with equal eagerness, and with equal success. The +darkness of the middle ages insured a favorable reception to every +tale of wonder, and the revival of learning gave new vigor to hope, and +suggested more specious arts of deception. Philosophy, with the aid of +experience, has at length banished the study of alchemy; and the present +age, however desirous of riches, is content to seek them by the humbler +means of commerce and industry. + +The reduction of Egypt was immediately followed by the Persian war. +It was reserved for the reign of Diocletian to vanquish that powerful +nation, and to extort a confession from the successors of Artaxerxes, of +the superior majesty of the Roman empire. + +We have observed, under the reign of Valerian, that Armenia was subdued +by the perfidy and the arms of the Persians, and that, after the +assassination of Chosroes, his son Tiridates, the infant heir of the +monarchy, was saved by the fidelity of his friends, and educated under +the protection of the emperors. Tiridates derived from his exile such +advantages as he could never have obtained on the throne of Armenia; the +early knowledge of adversity, of mankind, and of the Roman discipline. +He signalized his youth by deeds of valor, and displayed a matchless +dexterity, as well as strength, in every martial exercise, and even in +the less honorable contests of the Olympian games. Those qualities +were more nobly exerted in the defence of his benefactor Licinius. +That officer, in the sedition which occasioned the death of Probus, +was exposed to the most imminent danger, and the enraged soldiers were +forcing their way into his tent, when they were checked by the single +arm of the Armenian prince. The gratitude of Tiridates contributed soon +afterwards to his restoration. Licinius was in every station the friend +and companion of Galerius, and the merit of Galerius, long before he +was raised to the dignity of Cæsar, had been known and esteemed by +Diocletian. In the third year of that emperor's reign Tiridates was +invested with the kingdom of Armenia. The justice of the measure was +not less evident than its expediency. It was time to rescue from the +usurpation of the Persian monarch an important territory, which, since +the reign of Nero, had been always granted under the protection of the +empire to a younger branch of the house of Arsaces. + +When Tiridates appeared on the frontiers of Armenia, he was received +with an unfeigned transport of joy and loyalty. During twenty-six +years, the country had experienced the real and imaginary hardships of +a foreign yoke. The Persian monarchs adorned their new conquest with +magnificent buildings; but those monuments had been erected at the +expense of the people, and were abhorred as badges of slavery. The +apprehension of a revolt had inspired the most rigorous precautions: +oppression had been aggravated by insult, and the consciousness of the +public hatred had been productive of every measure that could render it +still more implacable. We have already remarked the intolerant spirit +of the Magian religion. The statues of the deified kings of Armenia, and +the sacred images of the sun and moon, were broke in pieces by the +zeal of the conqueror; and the perpetual fire of Ormuzd was kindled and +preserved upon an altar erected on the summit of Mount Bagavan. It was +natural, that a people exasperated by so many injuries, should arm +with zeal in the cause of their independence, their religion, and their +hereditary sovereign. The torrent bore down every obstacle, and the +Persian garrisons retreated before its fury. The nobles of Armenia flew +to the standard of Tiridates, all alleging their past merit, offering +their future service, and soliciting from the new king those honors and +rewards from which they had been excluded with disdain under the foreign +government. The command of the army was bestowed on Artavasdes, whose +father had saved the infancy of Tiridates, and whose family had been +massacred for that generous action. The brother of Artavasdes obtained +the government of a province. One of the first military dignities +was conferred on the satrap Otas, a man of singular temperance and +fortitude, who presented to the king his sister and a considerable +treasure, both of which, in a sequestered fortress, Otas had preserved +from violation. Among the Armenian nobles appeared an ally, whose +fortunes are too remarkable to pass unnoticed. His name was Mamgo, his +origin was Scythian, and the horde which acknowledge his authority had +encamped a very few years before on the skirts of the Chinese empire, +which at that time extended as far as the neighborhood of Sogdiana. +Having incurred the displeasure of his master, Mamgo, with his +followers, retired to the banks of the Oxus, and implored the protection +of Sapor. The emperor of China claimed the fugitive, and alleged +the rights of sovereignty. The Persian monarch pleaded the laws of +hospitality, and with some difficulty avoided a war, by the promise that +he would banish Mamgo to the uttermost parts of the West, a punishment, +as he described it, not less dreadful than death itself. Armenia was +chosen for the place of exile, and a large district was assigned to the +Scythian horde, on which they might feed their flocks and herds, and +remove their encampment from one place to another, according to the +different seasons of the year. They were employed to repel the invasion +of Tiridates; but their leader, after weighing the obligations and +injuries which he had received from the Persian monarch, resolved to +abandon his party. The Armenian prince, who was well acquainted with +this merit as well as power of Mamgo, treated him with distinguished +respect; and, by admitting him into his confidence, acquired a brave and +faithful servant, who contributed very effectually to his restoration. + +For a while, fortune appeared to favor the enterprising valor of +Tiridates. He not only expelled the enemies of his family and country +from the whole extent of Armenia, but in the prosecution of his revenge +he carried his arms, or at least his incursions, into the heart of +Assyria. The historian, who has preserved the name of Tiridates from +oblivion, celebrates, with a degree of national enthusiasm, his personal +prowess: and, in the true spirit of eastern romance, describes the +giants and the elephants that fell beneath his invincible arm. It is +from other information that we discover the distracted state of the +Persian monarchy, to which the king of Armenia was indebted for some +part of his advantages. The throne was disputed by the ambition of +contending brothers; and Hormuz, after exerting without success the +strength of his own party, had recourse to the dangerous assistance of +the barbarians who inhabited the banks of the Caspian Sea. The civil +war was, however, soon terminated, either by a victor or by a +reconciliation; and Narses, who was universally acknowledged as king of +Persia, directed his whole force against the foreign enemy. The contest +then became too unequal; nor was the valor of the hero able to withstand +the power of the monarch, Tiridates, a second time expelled from the +throne of Armenia, once more took refuge in the court of the emperors. * +Narses soon reestablished his authority over the revolted province; and +loudly complaining of the protection afforded by the Romans to rebels +and fugitives, aspired to the conquest of the East. + +Neither prudence nor honor could permit the emperors to forsake the +cause of the Armenian king, and it was resolved to exert the force of +the empire in the Persian war. Diocletian, with the calm dignity which +he constantly assumed, fixed his own station in the city of Antioch, +from whence he prepared and directed the military operations. The +conduct of the legions was intrusted to the intrepid valor of Galerius, +who, for that important purpose, was removed from the banks of the +Danube to those of the Euphrates. The armies soon encountered each other +in the plains of Mesopotamia, and two battles were fought with various +and doubtful success; but the third engagement was of a more decisive +nature; and the Roman army received a total overthrow, which is +attributed to the rashness of Galerius, who, with an inconsiderable +body of troops, attacked the innumerable host of the Persians. But the +consideration of the country that was the scene of action, may suggest +another reason for his defeat. The same ground on which Galerius was +vanquished, had been rendered memorable by the death of Crassus, and the +slaughter of ten legions. It was a plain of more than sixty miles, which +extended from the hills of Carrhæ to the Euphrates; a smooth and barren +surface of sandy desert, without a hillock, without a tree, and without +a spring of fresh water. The steady infantry of the Romans, fainting +with heat and thirst, could neither hope for victory if they preserved +their ranks, nor break their ranks without exposing themselves to the +most imminent danger. In this situation they were gradually encompassed +by the superior numbers, harassed by the rapid evolutions, and destroyed +by the arrows of the barbarian cavalry. The king of Armenia had +signalized his valor in the battle, and acquired personal glory by the +public misfortune. He was pursued as far as the Euphrates; his horse +was wounded, and it appeared impossible for him to escape the victorious +enemy. In this extremity Tiridates embraced the only refuge which +appeared before him: he dismounted and plunged into the stream. His +armor was heavy, the river very deep, and at those parts at least half +a mile in breadth; yet such was his strength and dexterity, that he +reached in safety the opposite bank. With regard to the Roman general, +we are ignorant of the circumstances of his escape; but when he returned +to Antioch, Diocletian received him, not with the tenderness of a friend +and colleague, but with the indignation of an offended sovereign. The +haughtiest of men, clothed in his purple, but humbled by the sense of +his fault and misfortune, was obliged to follow the emperor's chariot +above a mile on foot, and to exhibit, before the whole court, the +spectacle of his disgrace. + +As soon as Diocletian had indulged his private resentment, and asserted +the majesty of supreme power, he yielded to the submissive entreaties of +the Cæsar, and permitted him to retrieve his own honor, as well as that +of the Roman arms. In the room of the unwarlike troops of Asia, which +had most probably served in the first expedition, a second army was +drawn from the veterans and new levies of the Illyrian frontier, and +a considerable body of Gothic auxiliaries were taken into the Imperial +pay. At the head of a chosen army of twenty-five thousand men, Galerius +again passed the Euphrates; but, instead of exposing his legions in the +open plains of Mesopotamia he advanced through the mountains of Armenia, +where he found the inhabitants devoted to his cause, and the country as +favorable to the operations of infantry as it was inconvenient for the +motions of cavalry. Adversity had confirmed the Roman discipline, while +the barbarians, elated by success, were become so negligent and remiss, +that in the moment when they least expected it, they were surprised by +the active conduct of Galerius, who, attended only by two horsemen, +had with his own eyes secretly examined the state and position of their +camp. A surprise, especially in the night time, was for the most +part fatal to a Persian army. "Their horses were tied, and generally +shackled, to prevent their running away; and if an alarm happened, a +Persian had his housing to fix, his horse to bridle, and his corselet to +put on, before he could mount." On this occasion, the impetuous attack +of Galerius spread disorder and dismay over the camp of the barbarians. +A slight resistance was followed by a dreadful carnage, and, in the +general confusion, the wounded monarch (for Narses commanded his armies +in person) fled towards the deserts of Media. His sumptuous tents, and +those of his satraps, afforded an immense booty to the conqueror; and an +incident is mentioned, which proves the rustic but martial ignorance +of the legions in the elegant superfluities of life. A bag of shining +leather, filled with pearls, fell into the hands of a private soldier; +he carefully preserved the bag, but he threw away its contents, judging +that whatever was of no use could not possibly be of any value. The +principal loss of Narses was of a much more affecting nature. Several +of his wives, his sisters, and children, who had attended the army, were +made captives in the defeat. But though the character of Galerius had in +general very little affinity with that of Alexander, he imitated, after +his victory, the amiable behavior of the Macedonian towards the family +of Darius. The wives and children of Narses were protected from violence +and rapine, conveyed to a place of safety, and treated with every mark +of respect and tenderness, that was due from a generous enemy to their +age, their sex, and their royal dignity. + + + +Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.--Part III. + +While the East anxiously expected the decision of this great contest, +the emperor Diocletian, having assembled in Syria a strong army of +observation, displayed from a distance the resources of the Roman +power, and reserved himself for any future emergency of the war. On +the intelligence of the victory he condescended to advance towards the +frontier, with a view of moderating, by his presence and counsels, the +pride of Galerius. The interview of the Roman princes at Nisibis was +accompanied with every expression of respect on one side, and of +esteem on the other. It was in that city that they soon afterwards gave +audience to the ambassador of the Great King. The power, or at least the +spirit, of Narses, had been broken by his last defeat; and he considered +an immediate peace as the only means that could stop the progress of the +Roman arms. He despatched Apharban, a servant who possessed his favor +and confidence, with a commission to negotiate a treaty, or rather to +receive whatever conditions the conqueror should impose. Apharban opened +the conference by expressing his master's gratitude for the generous +treatment of his family, and by soliciting the liberty of those +illustrious captives. He celebrated the valor of Galerius, without +degrading the reputation of Narses, and thought it no dishonor to +confess the superiority of the victorious Cæsar, over a monarch who +had surpassed in glory all the princes of his race. Notwithstanding the +justice of the Persian cause, he was empowered to submit the present +differences to the decision of the emperors themselves; convinced as he +was, that, in the midst of prosperity, they would not be unmindful of +the vicissitudes of fortune. Apharban concluded his discourse in the +style of eastern allegory, by observing that the Roman and Persian +monarchies were the two eyes of the world, which would remain imperfect +and mutilated if either of them should be put out. + +"It well becomes the Persians," replied Galerius, with a transport of +fury, which seemed to convulse his whole frame, "it well becomes the +Persians to expatiate on the vicissitudes of fortune, and calmly to read +us lectures on the virtues of moderation. Let them remember their own +moderation, towards the unhappy Valerian. They vanquished him by fraud, +they treated him with indignity. They detained him till the last moment +of his life in shameful captivity, and after his death they exposed +his body to perpetual ignominy." Softening, however, his tone, Galerius +insinuated to the ambassador, that it had never been the practice of the +Romans to trample on a prostrate enemy; and that, on this occasion, +they should consult their own dignity rather than the Persian merit. +He dismissed Apharban with a hope that Narses would soon be informed on +what conditions he might obtain, from the clemency of the emperors, a +lasting peace, and the restoration of his wives and children. In this +conference we may discover the fierce passions of Galerius, as well as +his deference to the superior wisdom and authority of Diocletian. The +ambition of the former grasped at the conquest of the East, and had +proposed to reduce Persia into the state of a province. The prudence +of the latter, who adhered to the moderate policy of Augustus and +the Antonines, embraced the favorable opportunity of terminating a +successful war by an honorable and advantageous peace. + +In pursuance of their promise, the emperors soon afterwards appointed +Sicorius Probus, one of their secretaries, to acquaint the Persian court +with their final resolution. As the minister of peace, he was received +with every mark of politeness and friendship; but, under the pretence of +allowing him the necessary repose after so long a journey, the audience +of Probus was deferred from day to day; and he attended the slow motions +of the king, till at length he was admitted to his presence, near the +River Asprudus in Media. The secret motive of Narses, in this delay, +had been to collect such a military force as might enable him, though +sincerely desirous of peace, to negotiate with the greater weight and +dignity. Three persons only assisted at this important conference, the +minister Apharban, the præfect of the guards, and an officer who had +commanded on the Armenian frontier. The first condition proposed by the +ambassador is not at present of a very intelligible nature; that the +city of Nisibis might be established for the place of mutual exchange, +or, as we should formerly have termed it, for the staple of trade, +between the two empires. There is no difficulty in conceiving the +intention of the Roman princes to improve their revenue by some +restraints upon commerce; but as Nisibis was situated within their own +dominions, and as they were masters both of the imports and exports, it +should seem that such restraints were the objects of an internal law, +rather than of a foreign treaty. To render them more effectual, some +stipulations were probably required on the side of the king of Persia, +which appeared so very repugnant either to his interest or to his +dignity, that Narses could not be persuaded to subscribe them. As this +was the only article to which he refused his consent, it was no longer +insisted on; and the emperors either suffered the trade to flow in its +natural channels, or contented themselves with such restrictions, as it +depended on their own authority to establish. + +As soon as this difficulty was removed, a solemn peace was concluded and +ratified between the two nations. The conditions of a treaty so glorious +to the empire, and so necessary to Persia, may deserve a +more peculiar attention, as the history of Rome presents very few +transactions of a similar nature; most of her wars having either been +terminated by absolute conquest, or waged against barbarians ignorant of +the use of letters. I. The Aboras, or, as it is called by Xenophon, +the Araxes, was fixed as the boundary between the two monarchies. That +river, which rose near the Tigris, was increased, a few miles below +Nisibis, by the little stream of the Mygdonius, passed under the walls +of Singara, and fell into the Euphrates at Circesium, a frontier +town, which, by the care of Diocletian, was very strongly fortified. +Mesopotomia, the object of so many wars, was ceded to the empire; and +the Persians, by this treaty, renounced all pretensions to that great +province. II. They relinquished to the Romans five provinces beyond the +Tigris. Their situation formed a very useful barrier, and their natural +strength was soon improved by art and military skill. Four of these, +to the north of the river, were districts of obscure fame and +inconsiderable extent; Intiline, Zabdicene, Arzanene, and Moxoene; but +on the east of the Tigris, the empire acquired the large and mountainous +territory of Carduene, the ancient seat of the Carduchians, who +preserved for many ages their manly freedom in the heart of the despotic +monarchies of Asia. The ten thousand Greeks traversed their country, +after a painful march, or rather engagement, of seven days; and it is +confessed by their leader, in his incomparable relation of the retreat, +that they suffered more from the arrows of the Carduchians, than from +the power of the Great King. Their posterity, the Curds, with very +little alteration either of name or manners, * acknowledged the nominal +sovereignty of the Turkish sultan. III. It is almost needless to +observe, that Tiridates, the faithful ally of Rome, was restored to the +throne of his fathers, and that the rights of the Imperial supremacy +were fully asserted and secured. The limits of Armenia were extended as +far as the fortress of Sintha in Media, and this increase of dominion +was not so much an act of liberality as of justice. Of the provinces +already mentioned beyond the Tigris, the four first had been dismembered +by the Parthians from the crown of Armenia; and when the Romans acquired +the possession of them, they stipulated, at the expense of the usurpers, +an ample compensation, which invested their ally with the extensive and +fertile country of Atropatene. Its principal city, in the same situation +perhaps as the modern Tauris, was frequently honored by the residence of +Tiridates; and as it sometimes bore the name of Ecbatana, he imitated, +in the buildings and fortifications, the splendid capital of the Medes. +IV. The country of Iberia was barren, its inhabitants rude and savage. +But they were accustomed to the use of arms, and they separated from the +empire barbarians much fiercer and more formidable than themselves. +The narrow defiles of Mount Caucasus were in their hands, and it was +in their choice, either to admit or to exclude the wandering tribes of +Sarmatia, whenever a rapacious spirit urged them to penetrate into the +richer climes of the South. The nomination of the kings of Iberia, which +was resigned by the Persian monarch to the emperors, contributed to the +strength and security of the Roman power in Asia. The East enjoyed a +profound tranquillity during forty years; and the treaty between the +rival monarchies was strictly observed till the death of Tiridates; when +a new generation, animated with different views and different passions, +succeeded to the government of the world; and the grandson of Narses +undertook a long and memorable war against the princes of the house of +Constantine. + +The arduous work of rescuing the distressed empire from tyrants and +barbarians had now been completely achieved by a succession of Illyrian +peasants. As soon as Diocletian entered into the twentieth year of his +reign, he celebrated that memorable æra, as well as the success of his +arms, by the pomp of a Roman triumph. Maximian, the equal partner of his +power, was his only companion in the glory of that day. The two Cæsars +had fought and conquered, but the merit of their exploits was ascribed, +according to the rigor of ancient maxims, to the auspicious influence of +their fathers and emperors. The triumph of Diocletian and Maximian was +less magnificent, perhaps, than those of Aurelian and Probus, but it was +dignified by several circumstances of superior fame and good fortune. +Africa and Britain, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Nile, furnished their +respective trophies; but the most distinguished ornament was of a more +singular nature, a Persian victory followed by an important conquest. +The representations of rivers, mountains, and provinces, were carried +before the Imperial car. The images of the captive wives, the sisters, +and the children of the Great King, afforded a new and grateful +spectacle to the vanity of the people. In the eyes of posterity, this +triumph is remarkable, by a distinction of a less honorable kind. It +was the last that Rome ever beheld. Soon after this period, the emperors +ceased to vanquish, and Rome ceased to be the capital of the empire. + +The spot on which Rome was founded had been consecrated by ancient +ceremonies and imaginary miracles. The presence of some god, or the +memory of some hero, seemed to animate every part of the city, and the +empire of the world had been promised to the Capitol. The native Romans +felt and confessed the power of this agreeable illusion. It was derived +from their ancestors, had grown up with their earliest habits of life, +and was protected, in some measure, by the opinion of political utility. +The form and the seat of government were intimately blended together, +nor was it esteemed possible to transport the one without destroying the +other. But the sovereignty of the capital was gradually annihilated in +the extent of conquest; the provinces rose to the same level, and the +vanquished nations acquired the name and privileges, without imbibing +the partial affections, of Romans. During a long period, however, +the remains of the ancient constitution, and the influence of custom, +preserved the dignity of Rome. The emperors, though perhaps of African +or Illyrian extraction, respected their adopted country, as the seat +of their power, and the centre of their extensive dominions. The +emergencies of war very frequently required their presence on the +frontiers; but Diocletian and Maximian were the first Roman princes who +fixed, in time of peace, their ordinary residence in the provinces; and +their conduct, however it might be suggested by private motives, was +justified by very specious considerations of policy. The court of the +emperor of the West was, for the most part, established at Milan, whose +situation, at the foot of the Alps, appeared far more convenient than +that of Rome, for the important purpose of watching the motions of the +barbarians of Germany. Milan soon assumed the splendor of an Imperial +city. The houses are described as numerous and well built; the manners +of the people as polished and liberal. A circus, a theatre, a mint, a +palace, baths, which bore the name of their founder Maximian; porticos +adorned with statues, and a double circumference of walls, contributed +to the beauty of the new capital; nor did it seem oppressed even by +the proximity of Rome. To rival the majesty of Rome was the ambition +likewise of Diocletian, who employed his leisure, and the wealth of the +East, in the embellishment of Nicomedia, a city placed on the verge of +Europe and Asia, almost at an equal distance between the Danube and +the Euphrates. By the taste of the monarch, and at the expense of the +people, Nicomedia acquired, in the space of a few years, a degree of +magnificence which might appear to have required the labor of ages, +and became inferior only to Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, in extent of +populousness. The life of Diocletian and Maximian was a life of action, +and a considerable portion of it was spent in camps, or in the long +and frequent marches; but whenever the public business allowed them any +relaxation, they seemed to have retired with pleasure to their favorite +residences of Nicomedia and Milan. Till Diocletian, in the twentieth +year of his reign, celebrated his Roman triumph, it is extremely +doubtful whether he ever visited the ancient capital of the empire. Even +on that memorable occasion his stay did not exceed two months. Disgusted +with the licentious familiarity of the people, he quitted Rome with +precipitation thirteen days before it was expected that he should +have appeared in the senate, invested with the ensigns of the consular +dignity. + +The dislike expressed by Diocletian towards Rome and Roman freedom, was +not the effect of momentary caprice, but the result of the most +artful policy. That crafty prince had framed a new system of Imperial +government, which was afterwards completed by the family of Constantine; +and as the image of the old constitution was religiously preserved in +the senate, he resolved to deprive that order of its small remains of +power and consideration. We may recollect, about eight years before +the elevation, of Diocletian the transient greatness, and the ambitious +hopes, of the Roman senate. As long as that enthusiasm prevailed, many +of the nobles imprudently displayed their zeal in the cause of freedom; +and after the successes of Probus had withdrawn their countenance +from the republican party, the senators were unable to disguise their +impotent resentment. As the sovereign of Italy, Maximian was intrusted +with the care of extinguishing this troublesome, rather than dangerous +spirit, and the task was perfectly suited to his cruel temper. The most +illustrious members of the senate, whom Diocletian always affected to +esteem, were involved, by his colleague, in the accusation of imaginary +plots; and the possession of an elegant villa, or a well-cultivated +estate, was interpreted as a convincing evidence of guilt. The camp +of the Prætorians, which had so long oppressed, began to protect, the +majesty of Rome; and as those haughty troops were conscious of the +decline of their power, they were naturally disposed to unite their +strength with the authority of the senate. By the prudent measures of +Diocletian, the numbers of the Prætorians were insensibly reduced, their +privileges abolished, and their place supplied by two faithful legions +of Illyricum, who, under the new titles of Jovians and Herculians, were +appointed to perform the service of the Imperial guards. But the most +fatal though secret wound, which the senate received from the hands of +Diocletian and Maximian, was inflicted by the inevitable operation of +their absence. As long as the emperors resided at Rome, that assembly +might be oppressed, but it could scarcely be neglected. The successors +of Augustus exercised the power of dictating whatever laws their wisdom +or caprice might suggest; but those laws were ratified by the sanction +of the senate. The model of ancient freedom was preserved in its +deliberations and decrees; and wise princes, who respected the +prejudices of the Roman people, were in some measure obliged to assume +the language and behavior suitable to the general and first magistrate +of the republic. In the armies and in the provinces, they displayed the +dignity of monarchs; and when they fixed their residence at a distance +from the capital, they forever laid aside the dissimulation which +Augustus had recommended to his successors. In the exercise of the +legislative as well as the executive power, the sovereign advised with +his ministers, instead of consulting the great council of the nation. +The name of the senate was mentioned with honor till the last period of +the empire; the vanity of its members was still flattered with honorary +distinctions; but the assembly which had so long been the source, and +so long the instrument of power, was respectfully suffered to sink into +oblivion. The senate of Rome, losing all connection with the Imperial +court and the actual constitution, was left a venerable but useless +monument of antiquity on the Capitoline hill. + + + +Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.--Part IV. + +When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of their ancient +capital, they easily forgot the origin and nature of their legal power. +The civil offices of consul, of proconsul, of censor, and of tribune, +by the union of which it had been formed, betrayed to the people its +republican extraction. Those modest titles were laid aside; and if they +still distinguished their high station by the appellation of Emperor, or +Imperator, that word was understood in a new and more dignified sense, +and no longer denoted the general of the Roman armies, but the sovereign +of the Roman world. The name of Emperor, which was at first of a +military nature, was associated with another of a more servile kind. +The epithet of Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive signification, was +expressive, not of the authority of a prince over his subjects, or of a +commander over his soldiers, but of the despotic power of a master +over his domestic slaves. Viewing it in that odious light, it had +been rejected with abhorrence by the first Cæsars. Their resistance +insensibly became more feeble, and the name less odious; till at length +the style of our Lord and Emperor was not only bestowed by flattery, but +was regularly admitted into the laws and public monuments. Such lofty +epithets were sufficient to elate and satisfy the most excessive vanity; +and if the successors of Diocletian still declined the title of King, +it seems to have been the effect not so much of their moderation as of +their delicacy. Wherever the Latin tongue was in use, (and it was the +language of government throughout the empire,) the Imperial title, as +it was peculiar to themselves, conveyed a more respectable idea than +the name of king, which they must have shared with a hundred barbarian +chieftains; or which, at the best, they could derive only from Romulus, +or from Tarquin. But the sentiments of the East were very different from +those of the West. From the earliest period of history, the sovereigns +of Asia had been celebrated in the Greek language by the title of +Basileus, or King; and since it was considered as the first distinction +among men, it was soon employed by the servile provincials of the East, +in their humble addresses to the Roman throne. Even the attributes, or +at least the titles, of the Divinity, were usurped by Diocletian and +Maximian, who transmitted them to a succession of Christian emperors. +Such extravagant compliments, however, soon lose their impiety by losing +their meaning; and when the ear is once accustomed to the sound, they +are heard with indifference, as vague though excessive professions of +respect. + +From the time of Augustus to that of Diocletian, the Roman princes, +conversing in a familiar manner among their fellow-citizens, were +saluted only with the same respect that was usually paid to senators and +magistrates. Their principal distinction was the Imperial or military +robe of purple; whilst the senatorial garment was marked by a broad, and +the equestrian by a narrow, band or stripe of the same honorable color. +The pride, or rather the policy, of Diocletian, engaged that artful +prince to introduce the stately magnificence of the court of Persia. He +ventured to assume the diadem, an ornament detested by the Romans as the +odious ensign of royalty, and the use of which had been considered as +the most desperate act of the madness of Caligula. It was no more than a +broad white fillet set with pearls, which encircled the emperor's head. +The sumptuous robes of Diocletian and his successors were of silk and +gold; and it is remarked with indignation, that even their shoes were +studded with the most precious gems. The access to their sacred person +was every day rendered more difficult by the institution of new forms +and ceremonies. The avenues of the palace were strictly guarded by the +various schools, as they began to be called, of domestic officers. +The interior apartments were intrusted to the jealous vigilance of +the eunuchs, the increase of whose numbers and influence was the most +infallible symptom of the progress of despotism. When a subject was at +length admitted to the Imperial presence, he was obliged, whatever might +be his rank, to fall prostrate on the ground, and to adore, according to +the eastern fashion, the divinity of his lord and master. Diocletian was +a man of sense, who, in the course of private as well as public life, +had formed a just estimate both of himself and of mankind: nor is it +easy to conceive, that in substituting the manners of Persia to those +of Rome, he was seriously actuated by so mean a principle as that of +vanity. He flattered himself, that an ostentation of splendor and luxury +would subdue the imagination of the multitude; that the monarch would be +less exposed to the rude license of the people and the soldiers, as his +person was secluded from the public view; and that habits of submission +would insensibly be productive of sentiments of veneration. Like the +modesty affected by Augustus, the state maintained by Diocletian was +a theatrical representation; but it must be confessed, that of the two +comedies, the former was of a much more liberal and manly character than +the latter. It was the aim of the one to disguise, and the object of the +other to display, the unbounded power which the emperors possessed over +the Roman world. + +Ostentation was the first principle of the new system instituted +by Diocletian. The second was division. He divided the empire, +the provinces, and every branch of the civil as well as military +administration. He multiplied the wheels of the machine of government, +and rendered its operations less rapid, but more secure. Whatever +advantages and whatever defects might attend these innovations, they +must be ascribed in a very great degree to the first inventor; but +as the new frame of policy was gradually improved and completed +by succeeding princes, it will be more satisfactory to delay the +consideration of it till the season of its full maturity and perfection. +Reserving, therefore, for the reign of Constantine a more exact picture +of the new empire, we shall content ourselves with describing the +principal and decisive outline, as it was traced by the hand of +Diocletian. He had associated three colleagues in the exercise of the +supreme power; and as he was convinced that the abilities of a single +man were inadequate to the public defence, he considered the joint +administration of four princes not as a temporary expedient, but as a +fundamental law of the constitution. It was his intention, that the two +elder princes should be distinguished by the use of the diadem, and +the title of Augusti; that, as affection or esteem might direct their +choice, they should regularly call to their assistance two subordinate +colleagues; and that the Cæsars, rising in their turn to the first rank, +should supply an uninterrupted succession of emperors. The empire was +divided into four parts. The East and Italy were the most honorable, the +Danube and the Rhine the most laborious stations. The former claimed the +presence of the Augusti, the latter were intrusted to the administration +of the Cæsars. The strength of the legions was in the hands of the four +partners of sovereignty, and the despair of successively vanquishing +four formidable rivals might intimidate the ambition of an aspiring +general. In their civil government, the emperors were supposed to +exercise the undivided power of the monarch, and their edicts, +inscribed with their joint names, were received in all the provinces, +as promulgated by their mutual councils and authority. Notwithstanding +these precautions, the political union of the Roman world was gradually +dissolved, and a principle of division was introduced, which, in the +course of a few years, occasioned the perpetual separation of the +Eastern and Western Empires. + +The system of Diocletian was accompanied with another very material +disadvantage, which cannot even at present be totally overlooked; a more +expensive establishment, and consequently an increase of taxes, and +the oppression of the people. Instead of a modest family of slaves and +freedmen, such as had contented the simple greatness of Augustus and +Trajan, three or four magnificent courts were established in the various +parts of the empire, and as many Roman kings contended with each other +and with the Persian monarch for the vain superiority of pomp and +luxury. The number of ministers, of magistrates, of officers, and +of servants, who filled the different departments of the state, was +multiplied beyond the example of former times; and (if we may borrow +the warm expression of a contemporary) "when the proportion of those +who received, exceeded the proportion of those who contributed, the +provinces were oppressed by the weight of tributes." From this period +to the extinction of the empire, it would be easy to deduce an +uninterrupted series of clamors and complaints. According to his +religion and situation, each writer chooses either Diocletian, or +Constantine, or Valens, or Theodosius, for the object of his invectives; +but they unanimously agree in representing the burden of the public +impositions, and particularly the land tax and capitation, as the +intolerable and increasing grievance of their own times. From such a +concurrence, an impartial historian, who is obliged to extract truth +from satire, as well as from panegyric, will be inclined to divide the +blame among the princes whom they accuse, and to ascribe their exactions +much less to their personal vices, than to the uniform system of their +administration. * The emperor Diocletian was indeed the author of that +system; but during his reign, the growing evil was confined within +the bounds of modesty and discretion, and he deserves the reproach of +establishing pernicious precedents, rather than of exercising actual +oppression. It may be added, that his revenues were managed with prudent +economy; and that after all the current expenses were discharged, there +still remained in the Imperial treasury an ample provision either for +judicious liberality or for any emergency of the state. + +It was in the twenty first year of his reign that Diocletian executed +his memorable resolution of abdicating the empire; an action more +naturally to have been expected from the elder or the younger Antoninus, +than from a prince who had never practised the lessons of philosophy +either in the attainment or in the use of supreme power. Diocletian +acquired the glory of giving to the world the first example of a +resignation, which has not been very frequently imitated by succeeding +monarchs. The parallel of Charles the Fifth, however, will naturally +offer itself to our mind, not only since the eloquence of a modern +historian has rendered that name so familiar to an English reader, but +from the very striking resemblance between the characters of the two +emperors, whose political abilities were superior to their military +genius, and whose specious virtues were much less the effect of nature +than of art. The abdication of Charles appears to have been hastened +by the vicissitude of fortune; and the disappointment of his favorite +schemes urged him to relinquish a power which he found inadequate to +his ambition. But the reign of Diocletian had flowed with a tide of +uninterrupted success; nor was it till after he had vanquished all +his enemies, and accomplished all his designs, that he seems to have +entertained any serious thoughts of resigning the empire. Neither +Charles nor Diocletian were arrived at a very advanced period of life; +since the one was only fifty-five, and the other was no more than +fifty-nine years of age; but the active life of those princes, their +wars and journeys, the cares of royalty, and their application to +business, had already impaired their constitution, and brought on the +infirmities of a premature old age. + +Notwithstanding the severity of a very cold and rainy winter, Diocletian +left Italy soon after the ceremony of his triumph, and began his +progress towards the East round the circuit of the Illyrian provinces. +From the inclemency of the weather, and the fatigue of the journey, he +soon contracted a slow illness; and though he made easy marches, and was +generally carried in a close litter, his disorder, before he arrived +at Nicomedia, about the end of the summer, was become very serious and +alarming. During the whole winter he was confined to his palace: his +danger inspired a general and unaffected concern; but the people could +only judge of the various alterations of his health, from the joy or +consternation which they discovered in the countenances and behavior +of his attendants. The rumor of his death was for some time universally +believed, and it was supposed to be concealed with a view to prevent +the troubles that might have happened during the absence of the Cæsar +Galerius. At length, however, on the first of March, Diocletian once +more appeared in public, but so pale and emaciated, that he could +scarcely have been recognized by those to whom his person was the most +familiar. It was time to put an end to the painful struggle, which he +had sustained during more than a year, between the care of his health +and that of his dignity. The former required indulgence and relaxation, +the latter compelled him to direct, from the bed of sickness, the +administration of a great empire. He resolved to pass the remainder of +his days in honorable repose, to place his glory beyond the reach of +fortune, and to relinquish the theatre of the world to his younger and +more active associates. + +The ceremony of his abdication was performed in a spacious plain, about +three miles from Nicomedia. The emperor ascended a lofty throne, and in +a speech, full of reason and dignity, declared his intention, both to +the people and to the soldiers who were assembled on this extraordinary +occasion. As soon as he had divested himself of his purple, he withdrew +from the gazing multitude; and traversing the city in a covered chariot, +proceeded, without delay, to the favorite retirement which he had chosen +in his native country of Dalmatia. On the same day, which was the +first of May, Maximian, as it had been previously concerted, made his +resignation of the Imperial dignity at Milan. Even in the splendor of +the Roman triumph, Diocletian had meditated his design of abdicating the +government. As he wished to secure the obedience of Maximian, he exacted +from him either a general assurance that he would submit his actions to +the authority of his benefactor, or a particular promise that he would +descend from the throne, whenever he should receive the advice and the +example. This engagement, though it was confirmed by the solemnity of +an oath before the altar of the Capitoline Jupiter, would have proved a +feeble restraint on the fierce temper of Maximian, whose passion was the +love of power, and who neither desired present tranquility nor future +reputation. But he yielded, however reluctantly, to the ascendant which +his wiser colleague had acquired over him, and retired, immediately +after his abdication, to a villa in Lucania, where it was almost +impossible that such an impatient spirit could find any lasting +tranquility. + +Diocletian, who, from a servile origin, had raised himself to the +throne, passed the nine last years of his life in a private condition. +Reason had dictated, and content seems to have accompanied, his retreat, +in which he enjoyed, for a long time, the respect of those princes to +whom he had resigned the possession of the world. It is seldom that +minds long exercised in business have formed the habits of conversing +with themselves, and in the loss of power they principally regret the +want of occupation. The amusements of letters and of devotion, which +afford so many resources in solitude, were incapable of fixing the +attention of Diocletian; but he had preserved, or at least he soon +recovered, a taste for the most innocent as well as natural pleasures, +and his leisure hours were sufficiently employed in building, planting, +and gardening. His answer to Maximian is deservedly celebrated. He was +solicited by that restless old man to reassume the reins of government, +and the Imperial purple. He rejected the temptation with a smile of +pity, calmly observing, that if he could show Maximian the cabbages +which he had planted with his own hands at Salona, he should no longer +be urged to relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit +of power. In his conversations with his friends, he frequently +acknowledged, that of all arts, the most difficult was the art of +reigning; and he expressed himself on that favorite topic with a degree +of warmth which could be the result only of experience. "How often," was +he accustomed to say, "is it the interest of four or five ministers to +combine together to deceive their sovereign! Secluded from mankind by +his exalted dignity, the truth is concealed from his knowledge; he can +see only with their eyes, he hears nothing but their misrepresentations. +He confers the most important offices upon vice and weakness, and +disgraces the most virtuous and deserving among his subjects. By such +infamous arts," added Diocletian, "the best and wisest princes are +sold to the venal corruption of their courtiers." A just estimate of +greatness, and the assurance of immortal fame, improve our relish +for the pleasures of retirement; but the Roman emperor had filled too +important a character in the world, to enjoy without alloy the comforts +and security of a private condition. It was impossible that he could +remain ignorant of the troubles which afflicted the empire after his +abdication. It was impossible that he could be indifferent to their +consequences. Fear, sorrow, and discontent, sometimes pursued him into +the solitude of Salona. His tenderness, or at least his pride, was +deeply wounded by the misfortunes of his wife and daughter; and the last +moments of Diocletian were imbittered by some affronts, which Licinius +and Constantine might have spared the father of so many emperors, +and the first author of their own fortune. A report, though of a very +doubtful nature, has reached our times, that he prudently withdrew +himself from their power by a voluntary death. + +Before we dismiss the consideration of the life and character of +Diocletian, we may, for a moment, direct our view to the place of his +retirement. Salona, a principal city of his native province of Dalmatia, +was near two hundred Roman miles (according to the measurement of the +public highways) from Aquileia and the confines of Italy, and about two +hundred and seventy from Sirmium, the usual residence of the emperors +whenever they visited the Illyrian frontier. A miserable village still +preserves the name of Salona; but so late as the sixteenth century, +the remains of a theatre, and a confused prospect of broken arches and +marble columns, continued to attest its ancient splendor. About six or +seven miles from the city, Diocletian constructed a magnificent palace, +and we may infer, from the greatness of the work, how long he had +meditated his design of abdicating the empire. The choice of a spot +which united all that could contribute either to health or to luxury, +did not require the partiality of a native. "The soil was dry and +fertile, the air is pure and wholesome, and though extremely hot during +the summer months, this country seldom feels those sultry and noxious +winds, to which the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are +exposed. The views from the palace are no less beautiful than the soil +and climate were inviting. Towards the west lies the fertile shore that +stretches along the Adriatic, in which a number of small islands +are scattered in such a manner, as to give this part of the sea the +appearance of a great lake. On the north side lies the bay, which led +to the ancient city of Salona; and the country beyond it, appearing in +sight, forms a proper contrast to that more extensive prospect of water, +which the Adriatic presents both to the south and to the east. Towards +the north, the view is terminated by high and irregular mountains, +situated at a proper distance, and in many places covered with villages, +woods, and vineyards." + +Though Constantine, from a very obvious prejudice, affects to mention +the palace of Diocletian with contempt, yet one of their successors, +who could only see it in a neglected and mutilated state, celebrates its +magnificence in terms of the highest admiration. It covered an extent +of ground consisting of between nine and ten English acres. The form was +quadrangular, flanked with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were near +six hundred, and the other two near seven hundred feet in length. The +whole was constructed of a beautiful freestone, extracted from the +neighboring quarries of Trau, or Tragutium, and very little inferior to +marble itself. Four streets, intersecting each other at right angles, +divided the several parts of this great edifice, and the approach to +the principal apartment was from a very stately entrance, which is +still denominated the Golden Gate. The approach was terminated by a +peristylium of granite columns, on one side of which we discover the +square temple of Æsculapius, on the other the octagon temple of Jupiter. +The latter of those deities Diocletian revered as the patron of his +fortunes, the former as the protector of his health. By comparing the +present remains with the precepts of Vitruvius, the several parts of +the building, the baths, bed-chamber, the atrium, the basilica, and the +Cyzicene, Corinthian, and Egyptian halls have been described with +some degree of precision, or at least of probability. Their forms were +various, their proportions just; but they all were attended with +two imperfections, very repugnant to our modern notions of taste and +conveniency. These stately rooms had neither windows nor chimneys. They +were lighted from the top, (for the building seems to have consisted +of no more than one story,) and they received their heat by the help +of pipes that were conveyed along the walls. The range of principal +apartments was protected towards the south-west by a portico five +hundred and seventeen feet long, which must have formed a very noble and +delightful walk, when the beauties of painting and sculpture were added +to those of the prospect. + +Had this magnificent edifice remained in a solitary country, it would +have been exposed to the ravages of time; but it might, perhaps, have +escaped the rapacious industry of man. The village of Aspalathus, and, +long afterwards, the provincial town of Spalatro, have grown out of its +ruins. The Golden Gate now opens into the market-place. St. John the +Baptist has usurped the honors of Æsculapius; and the temple of Jupiter, +under the protection of the Virgin, is converted into the cathedral +church. For this account of Diocletian's palace we are principally +indebted to an ingenious artist of our own time and country, whom a very +liberal curiosity carried into the heart of Dalmatia. But there is room +to suspect that the elegance of his designs and engraving has somewhat +flattered the objects which it was their purpose to represent. We are +informed by a more recent and very judicious traveller, that the awful +ruins of Spalatro are not less expressive of the decline of the art than +of the greatness of the Roman empire in the time of Diocletian. If such +was indeed the state of architecture, we must naturally believe that +painting and sculpture had experienced a still more sensible decay. +The practice of architecture is directed by a few general and even +mechanical rules. But sculpture, and above all, painting, propose to +themselves the imitation not only of the forms of nature, but of the +characters and passions of the human soul. In those sublime arts, the +dexterity of the hand is of little avail, unless it is animated by +fancy, and guided by the most correct taste and observation. + +It is almost unnecessary to remark, that the civil distractions of the +empire, the license of the soldiers, the inroads of the barbarians, and +the progress of despotism, had proved very unfavorable to genius, and +even to learning. The succession of Illyrian princes restored the +empire without restoring the sciences. Their military education was not +calculated to inspire them with the love of letters; and even the mind +of Diocletian, however active and capacious in business, was totally +uninformed by study or speculation. The professions of law and physic +are of such common use and certain profit, that they will always secure +a sufficient number of practitioners, endowed with a reasonable degree +of abilities and knowledge; but it does not appear that the students in +those two faculties appeal to any celebrated masters who have flourished +within that period. The voice of poetry was silent. History was reduced +to dry and confused abridgments, alike destitute of amusement and +instruction. A languid and affected eloquence was still retained in +the pay and service of the emperors, who encouraged not any arts except +those which contributed to the gratification of their pride, or the +defence of their power. + +The declining age of learning and of mankind is marked, however, by the +rise and rapid progress of the new Platonists. The school of Alexandria +silenced those of Athens; and the ancient sects enrolled themselves +under the banners of the more fashionable teachers, who recommended +their system by the novelty of their method, and the austerity of their +manners. Several of these masters, Ammonius, Plotinus, Amelius, and +Porphyry, were men of profound thought and intense application; but by +mistaking the true object of philosophy, their labors contributed much +less to improve than to corrupt the human understanding. The knowledge +that is suited to our situation and powers, the whole compass of moral, +natural, and mathematical science, was neglected by the new Platonists; +whilst they exhausted their strength in the verbal disputes of +metaphysics, attempted to explore the secrets of the invisible world, +and studied to reconcile Aristotle with Plato, on subjects of which both +these philosophers were as ignorant as the rest of mankind. Consuming +their reason in these deep but unsubstantial meditations, their minds +were exposed to illusions of fancy. They flattered themselves that they +possessed the secret of disengaging the soul from its corporal prison; +claimed a familiar intercourse with demons and spirits; and, by a very +singular revolution, converted the study of philosophy into that of +magic. The ancient sages had derided the popular superstition; after +disguising its extravagance by the thin pretence of allegory, the +disciples of Plotinus and Porphyry became its most zealous defenders. +As they agreed with the Christians in a few mysterious points of faith, +they attacked the remainder of their theological system with all the +fury of civil war. The new Platonists would scarcely deserve a place in +the history of science, but in that of the church the mention of them +will very frequently occur. + + + +Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The +Empire.--Part I. + + Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.--Death Of + Constantius.--Elevation Of Constantine And Maxentius.--Six + Emperors At The Same Time.--Death Of Maximian And Galerius.-- + Victories Of Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.-- + Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority Of Constantine. + +The balance of power established by Diocletian subsisted no longer than +while it was sustained by the firm and dexterous hand of the founder. It +required such a fortunate mixture of different tempers and abilities, +as could scarcely be found or even expected a second time; two emperors +without jealousy, two Cæsars without ambition, and the same general +interest invariably pursued by four independent princes. The abdication +of Diocletian and Maximian was succeeded by eighteen years of discord +and confusion. The empire was afflicted by five civil wars; and the +remainder of the time was not so much a state of tranquillity as a +suspension of arms between several hostile monarchs, who, viewing +each other with an eye of fear and hatred, strove to increase their +respective forces at the expense of their subjects. + +As soon as Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple, their +station, according to the rules of the new constitution, was filled by +the two Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, who immediately assumed the +title of Augustus. + +The honors of seniority and precedence were allowed to the former of +those princes, and he continued under a new appellation to administer +his ancient department of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. The government of +those ample provinces was sufficient to exercise his talents and +to satisfy his ambition. Clemency, temperance, and moderation, +distinguished the amiable character of Constantius, and his fortunate +subjects had frequently occasion to compare the virtues of their +sovereign with the passions of Maximian, and even with the arts of +Diocletian. Instead of imitating their eastern pride and magnificence, +Constantius preserved the modesty of a Roman prince. He declared, with +unaffected sincerity, that his most valued treasure was in the hearts of +his people, and that, whenever the dignity of the throne, or the danger +of the state, required any extraordinary supply, he could depend with +confidence on their gratitude and liberality. The provincials of Gaul, +Spain, and Britain, sensible of his worth, and of their own happiness, +reflected with anxiety on the declining health of the emperor +Constantius, and the tender age of his numerous family, the issue of his +second marriage with the daughter of Maximian. + +The stern temper of Galerius was cast in a very different mould; and +while he commanded the esteem of his subjects, he seldom condescended to +solicit their affections. His fame in arms, and, above all, the success +of the Persian war, had elated his haughty mind, which was naturally +impatient of a superior, or even of an equal. If it were possible to +rely on the partial testimony of an injudicious writer, we might ascribe +the abdication of Diocletian to the menaces of Galerius, and relate the +particulars of a private conversation between the two princes, in which +the former discovered as much pusillanimity as the latter displayed +ingratitude and arrogance. But these obscure anecdotes are sufficiently +refuted by an impartil view of the character and conduct of Diocletian. +Whatever might otherwise have been his intentions, if he had apprehended +any danger from the violence of Galerius, his good sense would have +instructed him to prevent the ignominious contest; and as he had held +the sceptre with glory, he would have resigned it without disgrace. + +After the elevation of Constantius and Galerius to the rank of Augusti, +two new Cæsars were required to supply their place, and to complete the +system of the Imperial government. Diocletian, was sincerely desirous +of withdrawing himself from the world; he considered Galerius, who had +married his daughter, as the firmest support of his family and of the +empire; and he consented, without reluctance, that his successor should +assume the merit as well as the envy of the important nomination. It was +fixed without consulting the interest or inclination of the princes of +the West. Each of them had a son who was arrived at the age of manhood, +and who might have been deemed the most natural candidates for the +vacant honor. But the impotent resentment of Maximian was no longer to +be dreaded; and the moderate Constantius, though he might despise the +dangers, was humanely apprehensive of the calamities, of civil war. +The two persons whom Galerius promoted to the rank of Cæsar, were much +better suited to serve the views of his ambition; and their principal +recommendation seems to have consisted in the want of merit or personal +consequence. The first of these was Daza, or, as he was afterwards +called, Maximin, whose mother was the sister of Galerius. The +unexperienced youth still betrayed, by his manners and language, his +rustic education, when, to his own astonishment, as well as that of the +world, he was invested by Diocletian with the purple, exalted to the +dignity of Cæsar, and intrusted with the sovereign command of Egypt +and Syria. At the same time, Severus, a faithful servant, addicted to +pleasure, but not incapable of business, was sent to Milan, to receive, +from the reluctant hands of Maximian, the Cæsarian ornaments, and +the possession of Italy and Africa. According to the forms of the +constitution, Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the western +emperor; but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor +Galerius, who, reserving to himself the intermediate countries from the +confines of Italy to those of Syria, firmly established his power +over three fourths of the monarchy. In the full confidence that the +approaching death of Constantius would leave him sole master of the +Roman world, we are assured that he had arranged in his mind a long +succession of future princes, and that he meditated his own retreat from +public life, after he should have accomplished a glorious reign of about +twenty years. + +But within less than eighteen months, two unexpected revolutions +overturned the ambitious schemes of Galerius. The hopes of uniting the +western provinces to his empire were disappointed by the elevation of +Constantine, whilst Italy and Africa were lost by the successful revolt +of Maxentius. + +I. The fame of Constantine has rendered posterity attentive to the most +minute circumstances of his life and actions. The place of his birth, as +well as the condition of his mother Helena, have been the subject, not +only of literary, but of national disputes. Notwithstanding the recent +tradition, which assigns for her father a British king, we are obliged +to confess, that Helena was the daughter of an innkeeper; but at the +same time, we may defend the legality of her marriage, against those +who have represented her as the concubine of Constantius. The great +Constantine was most probably born at Naissus, in Dacia; and it is not +surprising that, in a family and province distinguished only by the +profession of arms, the youth should discover very little inclination to +improve his mind by the acquisition of knowledge. He was about eighteen +years of age when his father was promoted to the rank of Cæsar; but that +fortunate event was attended with his mother's divorce; and the splendor +of an Imperial alliance reduced the son of Helena to a state of disgrace +and humiliation. Instead of following Constantius in the West, he +remained in the service of Diocletian, signalized his valor in the wars +of Egypt and Persia, and gradually rose to the honorable station of +a tribune of the first order. The figure of Constantine was tall and +majestic; he was dexterous in all his exercises, intrepid in war, +affable in peace; in his whole conduct, the active spirit of youth +was tempered by habitual prudence; and while his mind was engrossed +by ambition, he appeared cold and insensible to the allurements of +pleasure. The favor of the people and soldiers, who had named him as a +worthy candidate for the rank of Cæsar, served only to exasperate +the jealousy of Galerius; and though prudence might restrain him from +exercising any open violence, an absolute monarch is seldom at a loss +now to execute a sure and secret evenge. Every hour increased the danger +of Constantine, and the anxiety of his father, who, by repeated letters, +expressed the warmest desire of embracing his son. For some time the +policy of Galerius supplied him with delays and excuses; but it was +impossible long to refuse so natural a request of his associate, without +maintaining his refusal by arms. The permission of the journey was +reluctantly granted, and whatever precautions the emperor might have +taken to intercept a return, the consequences of which he, with so +much reason, apprehended, they were effectually disappointed by the +incredible diligence of Constantine. Leaving the palace of Nicomedia in +the night, he travelled post through Bithynia, Thrace, Dacia, Pannonia, +Italy, and Gaul, and, amidst the joyful acclamations of the people, +reached the port of Boulogne in the very moment when his father was +preparing to embark for Britain. + +The British expedition, and an easy victory over the barbarians of +Caledonia, were the last exploits of the reign of Constantius. He ended +his life in the Imperial palace of York, fifteen months after he had +received the title of Augustus, and almost fourteen years and a +half after he had been promoted to the rank of Cæsar. His death was +immediately succeeded by the elevation of Constantine. The ideas of +inheritance and succession are so very familiar, that the generality +of mankind consider them as founded, not only in reason, but in nature +itself. Our imagination readily transfers the same principles from +private property to public dominion: and whenever a virtuous father +leaves behind him a son whose merit seems to justify the esteem, or +even the hopes, of the people, the joint influence of prejudice and of +affection operates with irresistible weight. The flower of the western +armies had followed Constantius into Britain, and the national troops +were reenforced by a numerous body of Alemanni, who obeyed the orders +of Crocus, one of their hereditary chieftains. The opinion of their +own importance, and the assurance that Britain, Gaul, and Spain would +acquiesce in their nomination, were diligently inculcated to the legions +by the adherents of Constantine. The soldiers were asked, whether they +could hesitate a moment between the honor of placing at their head +the worthy son of their beloved emperor, and the ignominy of tamely +expecting the arrival of some obscure stranger, on whom it might please +the sovereign of Asia to bestow the armies and provinces of the West. +It was insinuated to them, that gratitude and liberality held a +distinguished place among the virtues of Constantine; nor did that +artful prince show himself to the troops, till they were prepared to +salute him with the names of Augustus and Emperor. The throne was the +object of his desires; and had he been less actuated by ambition, it was +his only means of safety. He was well acquainted with the character and +sentiments of Galerius, and sufficiently apprised, that if he wished +to live he must determine to reign. The decent and even obstinate +resistance which he chose to affect, was contrived to justify his +usurpation; nor did he yield to the acclamations of the army, till he +had provided the proper materials for a letter, which he immediately +despatched to the emperor of the East. Constantine informed him of the +melancholy event of his father's death, modestly asserted his +natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented, that the +affectionate violence of his troops had not permitted him to solicit +the Imperial purple in the regular and constitutional manner. The first +emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage; +and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he loudly threatened, that +he would commit to the flames both the letter and the messenger. But +his resentment insensibly subsided; and when he recollected the doubtful +chance of war, when he had weighed the character and strength of his +adversary, he consented to embrace the honorable accommodation which the +prudence of Constantine had left open to him. Without either condemning +or ratifying the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son +of his deceased colleague as the sovereign of the provinces beyond the +Alps; but he gave him only the title of Cæsar, and the fourth rank among +the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus +on his favorite Severus. The apparent harmony of the empire was still +preserved, and Constantine, who already possessed the substance, +expected, without impatience, an opportunity of obtaining the honors, of +supreme power. + +The children of Constantius by his second marriage were six in number, +three of either sex, and whose Imperial descent might have solicited +a preference over the meaner extraction of the son of Helena. But +Constantine was in the thirty-second year of his age, in the full vigor +both of mind and body, at the time when the eldest of his brothers could +not possibly be more than thirteen years old. His claim of superior +merit had been allowed and ratified by the dying emperor. In his last +moments Constantius bequeathed to his eldest son the care of the safety +as well as greatness of the family; conjuring him to assume both the +authority and the sentiments of a father with regard to the children of +Theodora. Their liberal education, advantageous marriages, the secure +dignity of their lives, and the first honors of the state with which +they were invested, attest the fraternal affection of Constantine; +and as those princes possessed a mild and grateful disposition, they +submitted without reluctance to the superiority of his genius and +fortune. + +II. The ambitious spirit of Galerius was scarcely reconciled to the +disappointment of his views upon the Gallic provinces, before the +unexpected loss of Italy wounded his pride as well as power in a still +more sensible part. The long absence of the emperors had filled Rome +with discontent and indignation; and the people gradually discovered, +that the preference given to Nicomedia and Milan was not to be ascribed +to the particular inclination of Diocletian, but to the permanent form +of government which he had instituted. It was in vain that, a few months +after his abdication, his successors dedicated, under his name, those +magnificent baths, whose ruins still supply the ground as well as the +materials for so many churches and convents. The tranquility of those +elegant recesses of ease and luxury was disturbed by the impatient +murmurs of the Romans, and a report was insensibly circulated, that +the sums expended in erecting those buildings would soon be required +at their hands. About that time the avarice of Galerius, or perhaps +the exigencies of the state, had induced him to make a very strict and +rigorous inquisition into the property of his subjects, for the purpose +of a general taxation, both on their lands and on their persons. A very +minute survey appears to have been taken of their real estates; and +wherever there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was +very freely employed to obtain a sincere declaration of their personal +wealth. The privileges which had exalted Italy above the rank of the +provinces were no longer regarded: * and the officers of the revenue +already began to number the Roman people, and to settle the proportion +of the new taxes. Even when the spirit of freedom had been utterly +extinguished, the tamest subjects have sometimes ventured to resist +an unprecedented invasion of their property; but on this occasion the +injury was aggravated by the insult, and the sense of private interest +was quickened by that of national honor. The conquest of Macedonia, as +we have already observed, had delivered the Roman people from the weight +of personal taxes. Though they had experienced every form of despotism, +they had now enjoyed that exemption near five hundred years; nor could +they patiently brook the insolence of an Illyrian peasant, who, from his +distant residence in Asia, presumed to number Rome among the tributary +cities of his empire. The rising fury of the people was encouraged by +the authority, or at least the connivance, of the senate; and the feeble +remains of the Prætorian guards, who had reason to apprehend their +own dissolution, embraced so honorable a pretence, and declared their +readiness to draw their swords in the service of their oppressed +country. It was the wish, and it soon became the hope, of every citizen, +that after expelling from Italy their foreign tyrants, they should +elect a prince who, by the place of his residence, and by his maxims +of government, might once more deserve the title of Roman emperor. The +name, as well as the situation, of Maxentius determined in his favor the +popular enthusiasm. + +Maxentius was the son of the emperor Maximian, and he had married the +daughter of Galerius. His birth and alliance seemed to offer him +the fairest promise of succeeding to the empire; but his vices and +incapacity procured him the same exclusion from the dignity of Cæsar, +which Constantine had deserved by a dangerous superiority of merit. The +policy of Galerius preferred such associates as would never disgrace +the choice, nor dispute the commands, of their benefactor. An obscure +stranger was therefore raised to the throne of Italy, and the son of +the late emperor of the West was left to enjoy the luxury of a private +fortune in a villa a few miles distant from the capital. The gloomy +passions of his soul, shame, vexation, and rage, were inflamed by envy +on the news of Constantine's success; but the hopes of Maxentius revived +with the public discontent, and he was easily persuaded to unite his +personal injury and pretensions with the cause of the Roman people. +Two Prætorian tribunes and a commissary of provisions undertook the +management of the conspiracy; and as every order of men was actuated by +the same spirit, the immediate event was neither doubtful nor difficult. +The præfect of the city, and a few magistrates, who maintained their +fidelity to Severus, were massacred by the guards; and Maxentius, +invested with the Imperial ornaments, was acknowledged by the applauding +senate and people as the protector of the Roman freedom and dignity. +It is uncertain whether Maximian was previously acquainted with the +conspiracy; but as soon as the standard of rebellion was erected at +Rome, the old emperor broke from the retirement where the authority of +Diocletian had condemned him to pass a life of melancholy and solitude, +and concealed his returning ambition under the disguise of paternal +tenderness. At the request of his son and of the senate, he condescended +to reassume the purple. His ancient dignity, his experience, and his +fame in arms, added strength as well as reputation to the party of +Maxentius. + +According to the advice, or rather the orders, of his colleague, the +emperor Severus immediately hastened to Rome, in the full confidence, +that, by his unexpected celerity, he should easily suppress the tumult +of an unwarlike populace, commanded by a licentious youth. But he found +on his arrival the gates of the city shut against him, the walls filled +with men and arms, an experienced general at the head of the rebels, +and his own troops without spirit or affection. A large body of Moors +deserted to the enemy, allured by the promise of a large donative; and, +if it be true that they had been levied by Maximian in his African war, +preferring the natural feelings of gratitude to the artificial ties of +allegiance. Anulinus, the Prætorian præfect, declared himself in favor +of Maxentius, and drew after him the most considerable part of the +troops, accustomed to obey his commands. Rome, according to the +expression of an orator, recalled her armies; and the unfortunate +Severus, destitute of force and of counsel, retired, or rather fled, +with precipitation, to Ravenna. Here he might for some time have been +safe. The fortifications of Ravenna were able to resist the attempts, +and the morasses that surrounded the town, were sufficient to prevent +the approach, of the Italian army. The sea, which Severus commanded with +a powerful fleet, secured him an inexhaustible supply of provisions, +and gave a free entrance to the legions, which, on the return of spring, +would advance to his assistance from Illyricum and the East. Maximian, +who conducted the siege in person, was soon convinced that he might +waste his time and his army in the fruitless enterprise, and that he had +nothing to hope either from force or famine. With an art more suitable +to the character of Diocletian than to his own, he directed his attack, +not so much against the walls of Ravenna, as against the mind of +Severus. The treachery which he had experienced disposed that unhappy +prince to distrust the most sincere of his friends and adherents. The +emissaries of Maximian easily persuaded his credulity, that a conspiracy +was formed to betray the town, and prevailed upon his fears not to +expose himself to the discretion of an irritated conqueror, but to +accept the faith of an honorable capitulation. He was at first received +with humanity and treated with respect. Maximian conducted the captive +emperor to Rome, and gave him the most solemn assurances that he had +secured his life by the resignation of the purple. But Severus, could +obtain only an easy death and an Imperial funeral. When the sentence was +signified to him, the manner of executing it was left to his own choice; +he preferred the favorite mode of the ancients, that of opening his +veins; and as soon as he expired, his body was carried to the sepulchre +which had been constructed for the family of Gallienus. + + + +Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.--Part +II. + +Though the characters of Constantine and Maxentius had very little +affinity with each other, their situation and interest were the same; +and prudence seemed to require that they should unite their forces +against the common enemy. Notwithstanding the superiority of his age +and dignity, the indefatigable Maximian passed the Alps, and, courting +a personal interview with the sovereign of Gaul, carried with him his +daughter Fausta as the pledge of the new alliance. The marriage was +celebrated at Arles with every circumstance of magnificence; and the +ancient colleague of Diocletian, who again asserted his claim to the +Western empire, conferred on his son-in-law and ally the title of +Augustus. By consenting to receive that honor from Maximian, Constantine +seemed to embrace the cause of Rome and of the senate; but his +professions were ambiguous, and his assistance slow and ineffectual. He +considered with attention the approaching contest between the masters of +Italy and the emperor of the East, and was prepared to consult his own +safety or ambition in the event of the war. + +The importance of the occasion called for the presence and abilities of +Galerius. At the head of a powerful army, collected from Illyricum and +the East, he entered Italy, resolved to revenge the death of Severus, +and to chastise the rebellions Romans; or, as he expressed his +intentions, in the furious language of a barbarian, to extirpate +the senate, and to destroy the people by the sword. But the skill of +Maximian had concerted a prudent system of defence. The invader found +every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible; and though he forced +his way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, his dominion in +Italy was confined to the narrow limits of his camp. Sensible of the +increasing difficulties of his enterprise, the haughty Galerius made the +first advances towards a reconciliation, and despatched two of his +most considerable officers to tempt the Roman princes by the offer of +a conference, and the declaration of his paternal regard for Maxentius, +who might obtain much more from his liberality than he could hope from +the doubtful chance of war. The offers of Galerius were rejected with +firmness, his perfidious friendship refused with contempt, and it was +not long before he discovered, that, unless he provided for his safety +by a timely retreat, he had some reason to apprehend the fate of +Severus. The wealth which the Romans defended against his rapacious +tyranny, they freely contributed for his destruction. The name of +Maximian, the popular arts of his son, the secret distribution of large +sums, and the promise of still more liberal rewards, checked the ardor +and corrupted the fidelity of the Illyrian legions; and when Galerius at +length gave the signal of the retreat, it was with some difficulty that +he could prevail on his veterans not to desert a banner which had so +often conducted them to victory and honor. A contemporary writer assigns +two other causes for the failure of the expedition; but they are both of +such a nature, that a cautious historian will scarcely venture to adopt +them. We are told that Galerius, who had formed a very imperfect notion +of the greatness of Rome by the cities of the East with which he was +acquainted, found his forces inadequate to the siege of that immense +capital. But the extent of a city serves only to render it more +accessible to the enemy: Rome had long since been accustomed to submit +on the approach of a conqueror; nor could the temporary enthusiasm of +the people have long contended against the discipline and valor of +the legions. We are likewise informed that the legions themselves +were struck with horror and remorse, and that those pious sons of the +republic refused to violate the sanctity of their venerable parent. But +when we recollect with how much ease, in the more ancient civil wars, +the zeal of party and the habits of military obedience had converted the +native citizens of Rome into her most implacable enemies, we shall be +inclined to distrust this extreme delicacy of strangers and barbarians, +who had never beheld Italy till they entered it in a hostile manner. Had +they not been restrained by motives of a more interested nature, they +would probably have answered Galerius in the words of Cæsar's veterans: +"If our general wishes to lead us to the banks of the Tyber, we are +prepared to trace out his camp. Whatsoever walls he has determined to +level with the ground, our hands are ready to work the engines: nor +shall we hesitate, should the name of the devoted city be Rome itself." +These are indeed the expressions of a poet; but of a poet who has been +distinguished, and even censured, for his strict adherence to the truth +of history. + +The legions of Galerius exhibited a very melancholy proof of their +disposition, by the ravages which they committed in their retreat. They +murdered, they ravished, they plundered, they drove away the flocks +and herds of the Italians; they burnt the villages through which they +passed, and they endeavored to destroy the country which it had not +been in their power to subdue. During the whole march, Maxentius hung +on their rear, but he very prudently declined a general engagement with +those brave and desperate veterans. His father had undertaken a second +journey into Gaul, with the hope of persuading Constantine, who had +assembled an army on the frontier, to join in the pursuit, and to +complete the victory. But the actions of Constantine were guided by +reason, and not by resentment. He persisted in the wise resolution of +maintaining a balance of power in the divided empire, and he no longer +hated Galerius, when that aspiring prince had ceased to be an object of +terror. + +The mind of Galerius was the most susceptible of the sterner passions, +but it was not, however, incapable of a sincere and lasting friendship. +Licinius, whose manners as well as character, were not unlike his own, +seems to have engaged both his affection and esteem. Their intimacy had +commenced in the happier period perhaps of their youth and obscurity. +It had been cemented by the freedom and dangers of a military life; they +had advanced almost by equal steps through the successive honors of the +service; and as soon as Galerius was invested with the Imperial dignity, +he seems to have conceived the design of raising his companion to the +same rank with himself. During the short period of his prosperity, +he considered the rank of Cæsar as unworthy of the age and merit of +Licinius, and rather chose to reserve for him the place of Constantius, +and the empire of the West. While the emperor was employed in the +Italian war, he intrusted his friend with the defence of the Danube; +and immediately after his return from that unfortunate expedition, he +invested Licinius with the vacant purple of Severus, resigning to his +immediate command the provinces of Illyricum. The news of his promotion +was no sooner carried into the East, than Maximin, who governed, or +rather oppressed, the countries of Egypt and Syria, betrayed his +envy and discontent, disdained the inferior name of Cæsar, and, +notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, exacted, +almost by violence, the equal title of Augustus. For the first, and +indeed for the last time, the Roman world was administered by six +emperors. In the West, Constantine and Maxentius affected to reverence +their father Maximian. In the East, Licinius and Maximin honored with +more real consideration their benefactor Galerius. The opposition of +interest, and the memory of a recent war, divided the empire into +two great hostile powers; but their mutual fears produced an apparent +tranquillity, and even a feigned reconciliation, till the death of the +elder princes, of Maximian, and more particularly of Galerius, gave a +new direction to the views and passions of their surviving associates. + +When Maximian had reluctantly abdicated the empire, the venal orators +of the times applauded his philosophic moderation. When his ambition +excited, or at least encouraged, a civil war, they returned thanks +to his generous patriotism, and gently censured that love of ease and +retirement which had withdrawn him from the public service. But it was +impossible that minds like those of Maximian and his son could long +possess in harmony an undivided power. Maxentius considered himself as +the legal sovereign of Italy, elected by the Roman senate and people; +nor would he endure the control of his father, who arrogantly declared +that by his name and abilities the rash youth had been established on +the throne. The cause was solemnly pleaded before the Prætorian guards; +and those troops, who dreaded the severity of the old emperor, espoused +the party of Maxentius. The life and freedom of Maximian were, however, +respected, and he retired from Italy into Illyricum, affecting to lament +his past conduct, and secretly contriving new mischiefs. But Galerius, +who was well acquainted with his character, soon obliged him to leave +his dominions, and the last refuge of the disappointed Maximian was the +court of his son-in-law Constantine. He was received with respect by +that artful prince, and with the appearance of filial tenderness by the +empress Fausta. That he might remove every suspicion, he resigned the +Imperial purple a second time, professing himself at length convinced +of the vanity of greatness and ambition. Had he persevered in this +resolution, he might have ended his life with less dignity, indeed, than +in his first retirement, yet, however, with comfort and reputation. But +the near prospect of a throne brought back to his remembrance the state +from whence he was fallen, and he resolved, by a desperate effort +either to reign or to perish. An incursion of the Franks had summoned +Constantine, with a part of his army, to the banks of the Rhine; the +remainder of the troops were stationed in the southern provinces of +Gaul, which lay exposed to the enterprises of the Italian emperor, and +a considerable treasure was deposited in the city of Arles. Maximian +either craftily invented, or easily credited, a vain report of the death +of Constantine. Without hesitation he ascended the throne, seized the +treasure, and scattering it with his accustomed profusion among the +soldiers, endeavored to awake in their minds the memory of his ancient +dignity and exploits. Before he could establish his authority, or finish +the negotiation which he appears to have entered into with his son +Maxentius, the celerity of Constantine defeated all his hopes. On the +first news of his perfidy and ingratitude, that prince returned by rapid +marches from the Rhine to the Saone, embarked on the last mentioned +river at Chalons, and at Lyons trusting himself to the rapidity of the +Rhone, arrived at the gates of Arles, with a military force which it was +impossible for Maximian to resist, and which scarcely permitted him to +take refuge in the neighboring city of Marseilles. The narrow neck of +land which joined that place to the continent was fortified against the +besiegers, whilst the sea was open, either for the escape of Maximian, +or for the succor of Maxentius, if the latter should choose to disguise +his invasion of Gaul under the honorable pretence of defending a +distressed, or, as he might allege, an injured father. Apprehensive +of the fatal consequences of delay, Constantine gave orders for an +immediate assault; but the scaling-ladders were found too short for the +height of the walls, and Marseilles might have sustained as long a siege +as it formerly did against the arms of Cæsar, if the garrison, conscious +either of their fault or of their danger, had not purchased their pardon +by delivering up the city and the person of Maximian. A secret but +irrevocable sentence of death was pronounced against the usurper; he +obtained only the same favor which he had indulged to Severus, and +it was published to the world, that, oppressed by the remorse of his +repeated crimes, he strangled himself with his own hands. After he had +lost the assistance, and disdained the moderate counsels of Diocletian, +the second period of his active life was a series of public calamities +and personal mortifications, which were terminated, in about three +years, by an ignominious death. He deserved his fate; but we should find +more reason to applaud the humanity of Constantine, if he had spared +an old man, the benefactor of his father, and the father of his wife. +During the whole of this melancholy transaction, it appears that Fausta +sacrificed the sentiments of nature to her conjugal duties. + +The last years of Galerius were less shameful and unfortunate; and +though he had filled with more glory the subordinate station of Cæsar +than the superior rank of Augustus, he preserved, till the moment of his +death, the first place among the princes of the Roman world. He survived +his retreat from Italy about four years; and wisely relinquishing his +views of universal empire, he devoted the remainder of his life to the +enjoyment of pleasure, and to the execution of some works of public +utility, among which we may distinguish the discharging into the Danube +the superfluous waters of the Lake Pelso, and the cutting down the +immense forests that encompassed it; an operation worthy of a monarch, +since it gave an extensive country to the agriculture of his Pannonian +subjects. His death was occasioned by a very painful and lingering +disorder. His body, swelled by an intemperate course of life to +an unwieldy corpulence, was covered with ulcers, and devoured by +innumerable swarms of those insects which have given their name to a +most loathsome disease; but as Galerius had offended a very zealous and +powerful party among his subjects, his sufferings, instead of exciting +their compassion, have been celebrated as the visible effects of divine +justice. He had no sooner expired in his palace of Nicomedia, than the +two emperors who were indebted for their purple to his favors, began +to collect their forces, with the intention either of disputing, or of +dividing, the dominions which he had left without a master. They were +persuaded, however, to desist from the former design, and to agree in +the latter. The provinces of Asia fell to the share of Maximin, and +those of Europe augmented the portion of Licinius. The Hellespont and +the Thracian Bosphorus formed their mutual boundary, and the banks of +those narrow seas, which flowed in the midst of the Roman world, were +covered with soldiers, with arms, and with fortifications. The deaths +of Maximian and of Galerius reduced the number of emperors to four. The +sense of their true interest soon connected Licinius and Constantine; a +secret alliance was concluded between Maximin and Maxentius, and their +unhappy subjects expected with terror the bloody consequences of their +inevitable dissensions, which were no longer restrained by the fear or +the respect which they had entertained for Galerius. + +Among so many crimes and misfortunes, occasioned by the passions of the +Roman princes, there is some pleasure in discovering a single action +which may be ascribed to their virtue. In the sixth year of his reign, +Constantine visited the city of Autun, and generously remitted the +arrears of tribute, reducing at the same time the proportion of their +assessment from twenty-five to eighteen thousand heads, subject to the +real and personal capitation. Yet even this indulgence affords the most +unquestionable proof of the public misery. This tax was so extremely +oppressive, either in itself or in the mode of collecting it, that +whilst the revenue was increased by extortion, it was diminished +by despair: a considerable part of the territory of Autun was left +uncultivated; and great numbers of the provincials rather chose to live +as exiles and outlaws, than to support the weight of civil society. It +is but too probable, that the bountiful emperor relieved, by a partial +act of liberality, one among the many evils which he had caused by his +general maxims of administration. But even those maxims were less +the effect of choice than of necessity. And if we except the death of +Maximian, the reign of Constantine in Gaul seems to have been the +most innocent and even virtuous period of his life. The provinces were +protected by his presence from the inroads of the barbarians, who either +dreaded or experienced his active valor. After a signal victory over the +Franks and Alemanni, several of their princes were exposed by his order +to the wild beasts in the amphitheatre of Treves, and the people seem to +have enjoyed the spectacle, without discovering, in such a treatment of +royal captives, any thing that was repugnant to the laws of nations or +of humanity. * + +The virtues of Constantine were rendered more illustrious by the vices +of Maxentius. Whilst the Gallic provinces enjoyed as much happiness as +the condition of the times was capable of receiving, Italy and Africa +groaned under the dominion of a tyrant, as contemptible as he was +odious. The zeal of flattery and faction has indeed too frequently +sacrificed the reputation of the vanquished to the glory of their +successful rivals; but even those writers who have revealed, with +the most freedom and pleasure, the faults of Constantine, unanimously +confess that Maxentius was cruel, rapacious, and profligate. He had the +good fortune to suppress a slight rebellion in Africa. The governor and +a few adherents had been guilty; the province suffered for their crime. +The flourishing cities of Cirtha and Carthage, and the whole extent +of that fertile country, were wasted by fire and sword. The abuse of +victory was followed by the abuse of law and justice. A formidable army +of sycophants and delators invaded Africa; the rich and the noble were +easily convicted of a connection with the rebels; and those among +them who experienced the emperor's clemency, were only punished by the +confiscation of their estates. So signal a victory was celebrated by a +magnificent triumph, and Maxentius exposed to the eyes of the people the +spoils and captives of a Roman province. The state of the capital was +no less deserving of compassion than that of Africa. The wealth of Rome +supplied an inexhaustible fund for his vain and prodigal expenses, and +the ministers of his revenue were skilled in the arts of rapine. It +was under his reign that the method of exacting a free gift from the +senators was first invented; and as the sum was insensibly increased, +the pretences of levying it, a victory, a birth, a marriage, or an +imperial consulship, were proportionably multiplied. Maxentius +had imbibed the same implacable aversion to the senate, which had +characterized most of the former tyrants of Rome; nor was it possible +for his ungrateful temper to forgive the generous fidelity which had +raised him to the throne, and supported him against all his enemies. +The lives of the senators were exposed to his jealous suspicions, the +dishonor of their wives and daughters heightened the gratification of +his sensual passions. It may be presumed, that an Imperial lover +was seldom reduced to sigh in vain; but whenever persuasion proved +ineffectual, he had recourse to violence; and there remains one +memorable example of a noble matron, who preserved her chastity by +a voluntary death. The soldiers were the only order of men whom he +appeared to respect, or studied to please. He filled Rome and Italy with +armed troops, connived at their tumults, suffered them with impunity +to plunder, and even to massacre, the defenceless people; and indulging +them in the same licentiousness which their emperor enjoyed, Maxentius +often bestowed on his military favorites the splendid villa, or the +beautiful wife, of a senator. A prince of such a character, alike +incapable of governing, either in peace or in war, might purchase the +support, but he could never obtain the esteem, of the army. Yet his +pride was equal to his other vices. Whilst he passed his indolent life +either within the walls of his palace, or in the neighboring gardens of +Sallust, he was repeatedly heard to declare, that he alone was emperor, +and that the other princes were no more than his lieutenants, on whom he +had devolved the defence of the frontier provinces, that he might enjoy +without interruption the elegant luxury of the capital. Rome, which had +so long regretted the absence, lamented, during the six years of his +reign, the presence of her sovereign. + +Though Constantine might view the conduct of Maxentius with abhorrence, +and the situation of the Romans with compassion, we have no reason to +presume that he would have taken up arms to punish the one or to +relieve the other. But the tyrant of Italy rashly ventured to provoke +a formidable enemy, whose ambition had been hitherto restrained by +considerations of prudence, rather than by principles of justice. After +the death of Maximian, his titles, according to the established custom, +had been erased, and his statues thrown down with ignominy. His son, who +had persecuted and deserted him when alive, effected to display the most +pious regard for his memory, and gave orders that a similar treatment +should be immediately inflicted on all the statues that had been erected +in Italy and Africa to the honor of Constantine. That wise prince, who +sincerely wished to decline a war, with the difficulty and importance +of which he was sufficiently acquainted, at first dissembled the insult, +and sought for redress by the milder expedient of negotiation, till +he was convinced that the hostile and ambitious designs of the Italian +emperor made it necessary for him to arm in his own defence. Maxentius, +who openly avowed his pretensions to the whole monarchy of the West, +had already prepared a very considerable force to invade the Gallic +provinces on the side of Rhætia; and though he could not expect any +assistance from Licinius, he was flattered with the hope that the +legions of Illyricum, allured by his presents and promises, would desert +the standard of that prince, and unanimously declare themselves +his soldiers and subjects. Constantine no longer hesitated. He had +deliberated with caution, he acted with vigor. He gave a private +audience to the ambassadors, who, in the name of the senate and people, +conjured him to deliver Rome from a detested tyrant; and without +regarding the timid remonstrances of his council, he resolved to prevent +the enemy, and to carry the war into the heart of Italy. + +The enterprise was as full of danger as of glory; and the unsuccessful +event of two former invasions was sufficient to inspire the most serious +apprehensions. The veteran troops, who revered the name of Maximian, +had embraced in both those wars the party of his son, and were +now restrained by a sense of honor, as well as of interest, from +entertaining an idea of a second desertion. Maxentius, who considered +the Prætorian guards as the firmest defence of his throne, had increased +them to their ancient establishment; and they composed, including the +rest of the Italians who were enlisted into his service, a formidable +body of fourscore thousand men. Forty thousand Moors and Carthaginians +had been raised since the reduction of Africa. Even Sicily furnished +its proportion of troops; and the armies of Maxentius amounted to one +hundred and seventy thousand foot and eighteen thousand horse. The +wealth of Italy supplied the expenses of the war; and the adjacent +provinces were exhausted, to form immense magazines of corn and every +other kind of provisions. + +The whole force of Constantine consisted of ninety thousand foot and +eight thousand horse; and as the defence of the Rhine required an +extraordinary attention during the absence of the emperor, it was not +in his power to employ above half his troops in the Italian expedition, +unless he sacrificed the public safety to his private quarrel. At the +head of about forty thousand soldiers he marched to encounter an enemy +whose numbers were at least four times superior to his own. But the +armies of Rome, placed at a secure distance from danger, were enervated +by indulgence and luxury. Habituated to the baths and theatres of +Rome, they took the field with reluctance, and were chiefly composed +of veterans who had almost forgotten, or of new levies who had never +acquired, the use of arms and the practice of war. The hardy legions +of Gaul had long defended the frontiers of the empire against the +barbarians of the North; and in the performance of that laborious +service, their valor was exercised and their discipline confirmed. There +appeared the same difference between the leaders as between the armies. +Caprice or flattery had tempted Maxentius with the hopes of conquest; +but these aspiring hopes soon gave way to the habits of pleasure and the +consciousness of his inexperience. The intrepid mind of Constantine had +been trained from his earliest youth to war, to action, and to military +command. + + + +Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.--Part +III. + +When Hannibal marched from Gaul into Italy, he was obliged, first to +discover, and then to open, a way over mountains, and through savage +nations, that had never yielded a passage to a regular army. The Alps +were then guarded by nature, they are now fortified by art. Citadels, +constructed with no less skill than labor and expense, command every +avenue into the plain, and on that side render Italy almost inaccessible +to the enemies of the king of Sardinia. But in the course of the +intermediate period, the generals, who have attempted the passage, +have seldom experienced any difficulty or resistance. In the age of +Constantine, the peasants of the mountains were civilized and obedient +subjects; the country was plentifully stocked with provisions, and the +stupendous highways, which the Romans had carried over the Alps, opened +several communications between Gaul and Italy. Constantine preferred the +road of the Cottian Alps, or, as it is now called, of Mount Cenis, and +led his troops with such active diligence, that he descended into the +plain of Piedmont before the court of Maxentius had received any certain +intelligence of his departure from the banks of the Rhine. The city +of Susa, however, which is situated at the foot of Mount Cenis, was +surrounded with walls, and provided with a garrison sufficiently +numerous to check the progress of an invader; but the impatience of +Constantine's troops disdained the tedious forms of a siege. The same +day that they appeared before Susa, they applied fire to the gates, and +ladders to the walls; and mounting to the assault amidst a shower of +stones and arrows, they entered the place sword in hand, and cut in +pieces the greatest part of the garrison. The flames were extinguished +by the care of Constantine, and the remains of Susa preserved from +total destruction. About forty miles from thence, a more severe contest +awaited him. A numerous army of Italians was assembled under the +lieutenants of Maxentius, in the plains of Turin. Its principal strength +consisted in a species of heavy cavalry, which the Romans, since the +decline of their discipline, had borrowed from the nations of the East. +The horses, as well as the men, were clothed in complete armor, the +joints of which were artfully adapted to the motions of their bodies. +The aspect of this cavalry was formidable, their weight almost +irresistible; and as, on this occasion, their generals had drawn them +up in a compact column or wedge, with a sharp point, and with spreading +flanks, they flattered themselves that they could easily break and +trample down the army of Constantine. They might, perhaps, have +succeeded in their design, had not their experienced adversary embraced +the same method of defence, which in similar circumstances had been +practised by Aurelian. The skilful evolutions of Constantine divided and +baffled this massy column of cavalry. The troops of Maxentius fled in +confusion towards Turin; and as the gates of the city were shut against +them, very few escaped the sword of the victorious pursuers. By this +important service, Turin deserved to experience the clemency and even +favor of the conqueror. He made his entry into the Imperial palace of +Milan, and almost all the cities of Italy between the Alps and the Po +not only acknowledged the power, but embraced with zeal the party, of +Constantine. + +From Milan to Rome, the Æmilian and Flaminian highways offered an easy +march of about four hundred miles; but though Constantine was impatient +to encounter the tyrant, he prudently directed his operations against +another army of Italians, who, by their strength and position, might +either oppose his progress, or, in case of a misfortune, might intercept +his retreat. Ruricius Pompeianus, a general distinguished by his valor +and ability, had under his command the city of Verona, and all the +troops that were stationed in the province of Venetia. As soon as he was +informed that Constantine was advancing towards him, he detached a large +body of cavalry which was defeated in an engagement near Brescia, +and pursued by the Gallic legions as far as the gates of Verona. The +necessity, the importance, and the difficulties of the siege of Verona, +immediately presented themselves to the sagacious mind of Constantine. +The city was accessible only by a narrow peninsula towards the west, as +the other three sides were surrounded by the Adige, a rapid river, which +covered the province of Venetia, from whence the besieged derived an +inexhaustible supply of men and provisions. It was not without great +difficulty, and after several fruitless attempts, that Constantine found +means to pass the river at some distance above the city, and in a place +where the torrent was less violent. He then encompassed Verona with +strong lines, pushed his attacks with prudent vigor, and repelled a +desperate sally of Pompeianus. That intrepid general, when he had used +every means of defence that the strength of the place or that of the +garrison could afford, secretly escaped from Verona, anxious not for +his own, but for the public safety. With indefatigable diligence he soon +collected an army sufficient either to meet Constantine in the field, or +to attack him if he obstinately remained within his lines. The emperor, +attentive to the motions, and informed of the approach of so formidable +an enemy, left a part of his legions to continue the operations of the +siege, whilst, at the head of those troops on whose valor and fidelity +he more particularly depended, he advanced in person to engage the +general of Maxentius. The army of Gaul was drawn up in two lines, +according to the usual practice of war; but their experienced leader, +perceiving that the numbers of the Italians far exceeded his own, +suddenly changed his disposition, and, reducing the second, extended +the front of his first line to a just proportion with that of the enemy. +Such evolutions, which only veteran troops can execute without confusion +in a moment of danger, commonly prove decisive; but as this engagement +began towards the close of the day, and was contested with great +obstinacy during the whole night, there was less room for the conduct of +the generals than for the courage of the soldiers. The return of light +displayed the victory of Constantine, and a field of carnage covered +with many thousands of the vanquished Italians. Their general, +Pompeianus, was found among the slain; Verona immediately surrendered +at discretion, and the garrison was made prisoners of war. When the +officers of the victorious army congratulated their master on this +important success, they ventured to add some respectful complaints, +of such a nature, however, as the most jealous monarchs will listen +to without displeasure. They represented to Constantine, that, not +contented with all the duties of a commander, he had exposed his own +person with an excess of valor which almost degenerated into rashness; +and they conjured him for the future to pay more regard to the +preservation of a life in which the safety of Rome and of the empire was +involved. + +While Constantine signalized his conduct and valor in the field, the +sovereign of Italy appeared insensible of the calamities and danger of +a civil war which reigned in the heart of his dominions. Pleasure was +still the only business of Maxentius. Concealing, or at least attempting +to conceal, from the public knowledge the misfortunes of his arms, he +indulged himself in a vain confidence which deferred the remedies of the +approaching evil, without deferring the evil itself. The rapid progress +of Constantine was scarcely sufficient to awaken him from his fatal +security; he flattered himself, that his well-known liberality, and +the majesty of the Roman name, which had already delivered him from two +invasions, would dissipate with the same facility the rebellious army of +Gaul. The officers of experience and ability, who had served under the +banners of Maximian, were at length compelled to inform his effeminate +son of the imminent danger to which he was reduced; and, with a freedom +that at once surprised and convinced him, to urge the necessity of +preventing his ruin, by a vigorous exertion of his remaining power. The +resources of Maxentius, both of men and money, were still considerable. +The Prætorian guards felt how strongly their own interest and safety +were connected with his cause; and a third army was soon collected, +more numerous than those which had been lost in the battles of Turin and +Verona. It was far from the intention of the emperor to lead his troops +in person. A stranger to the exercises of war, he trembled at the +apprehension of so dangerous a contest; and as fear is commonly +superstitious, he listened with melancholy attention to the rumors of +omens and presages which seemed to menace his life and empire. Shame at +length supplied the place of courage, and forced him to take the field. +He was unable to sustain the contempt of the Roman people. The circus +resounded with their indignant clamors, and they tumultuously besieged +the gates of the palace, reproaching the pusillanimity of their indolent +sovereign, and celebrating the heroic spirit of Constantine. Before +Maxentius left Rome, he consulted the Sibylline books. The guardians of +these ancient oracles were as well versed in the arts of this world as +they were ignorant of the secrets of fate; and they returned him a very +prudent answer, which might adapt itself to the event, and secure their +reputation, whatever should be the chance of arms. + +The celerity of Constantine's march has been compared to the rapid +conquest of Italy by the first of the Cæsars; nor is the flattering +parallel repugnant to the truth of history, since no more than +fifty-eight days elapsed between the surrender of Verona and the final +decision of the war. Constantine had always apprehended that the tyrant +would consult the dictates of fear, and perhaps of prudence; and that, +instead of risking his last hopes in a general engagement, he would shut +himself up within the walls of Rome. His ample magazines secured him +against the danger of famine; and as the situation of Constantine +admitted not of delay, he might have been reduced to the sad necessity +of destroying with fire and sword the Imperial city, the noblest reward +of his victory, and the deliverance of which had been the motive, or +rather indeed the pretence, of the civil war. It was with equal surprise +and pleasure, that on his arrival at a place called Saxa Rubra, about +nine miles from Rome, he discovered the army of Maxentius prepared to +give him battle. Their long front filled a very spacious plain, and +their deep array reached to the banks of the Tyber, which covered their +rear, and forbade their retreat. We are informed, and we may believe, +that Constantine disposed his troops with consummate skill, and that +he chose for himself the post of honor and danger. Distinguished by the +splendor of his arms, he charged in person the cavalry of his rival; and +his irresistible attack determined the fortune of the day. The cavalry +of Maxentius was principally composed either of unwieldy cuirassiers, +or of light Moors and Numidians. They yielded to the vigor of the Gallic +horse, which possessed more activity than the one, more firmness than +the other. The defeat of the two wings left the infantry without any +protection on its flanks, and the undisciplined Italians fled without +reluctance from the standard of a tyrant whom they had always hated, +and whom they no longer feared. The Prætorians, conscious that their +offences were beyond the reach of mercy, were animated by revenge and +despair. Notwithstanding their repeated efforts, those brave veterans +were unable to recover the victory: they obtained, however, an honorable +death; and it was observed that their bodies covered the same ground +which had been occupied by their ranks. The confusion then became +general, and the dismayed troops of Maxentius, pursued by an implacable +enemy, rushed by thousands into the deep and rapid stream of the Tyber. +The emperor himself attempted to escape back into the city over the +Milvian bridge; but the crowds which pressed together through that +narrow passage forced him into the river, where he was immediately +drowned by the weight of his armor. His body, which had sunk very deep +into the mud, was found with some difficulty the next day. The sight of +his head, when it was exposed to the eyes of the people, convinced them +of their deliverance, and admonished them to receive with acclamations +of loyalty and gratitude the fortunate Constantine, who thus achieved by +his valor and ability the most splendid enterprise of his life. + +In the use of victory, Constantine neither deserved the praise of +clemency, nor incurred the censure of immoderate rigor. He inflicted the +same treatment to which a defeat would have exposed his own person +and family, put to death the two sons of the tyrant, and carefully +extirpated his whole race. The most distinguished adherents of Maxentius +must have expected to share his fate, as they had shared his prosperity +and his crimes; but when the Roman people loudly demanded a greater +number of victims, the conqueror resisted with firmness and humanity, +those servile clamors, which were dictated by flattery as well as by +resentment. Informers were punished and discouraged; the innocent, +who had suffered under the late tyranny, were recalled from exile, and +restored to their estates. A general act of oblivion quieted the minds +and settled the property of the people, both in Italy and in Africa. +The first time that Constantine honored the senate with his presence, he +recapitulated his own services and exploits in a modest oration, +assured that illustrious order of his sincere regard, and promised to +reestablish its ancient dignity and privileges. The grateful senate +repaid these unmeaning professions by the empty titles of honor, which +it was yet in their power to bestow; and without presuming to ratify the +authority of Constantine, they passed a decree to assign him the first +rank among the three Augusti who governed the Roman world. Games and +festivals were instituted to preserve the fame of his victory, and +several edifices, raised at the expense of Maxentius, were dedicated +to the honor of his successful rival. The triumphal arch of Constantine +still remains a melancholy proof of the decline of the arts, and a +singular testimony of the meanest vanity. As it was not possible to find +in the capital of the empire a sculptor who was capable of adorning that +public monument, the arch of Trajan, without any respect either for his +memory or for the rules of propriety, was stripped of its most elegant +figures. The difference of times and persons, of actions and characters, +was totally disregarded. The Parthian captives appear prostrate at the +feet of a prince who never carried his arms beyond the Euphrates; +and curious antiquarians can still discover the head of Trajan on the +trophies of Constantine. The new ornaments which it was necessary to +introduce between the vacancies of ancient sculpture are executed in the +rudest and most unskillful manner. + +The final abolition of the Prætorian guards was a measure of prudence as +well as of revenge. Those haughty troops, whose numbers and privileges +had been restored, and even augmented, by Maxentius, were forever +suppressed by Constantine. Their fortified camp was destroyed, and the +few Prætorians who had escaped the fury of the sword were dispersed +among the legions, and banished to the frontiers of the empire, +where they might be serviceable without again becoming dangerous. By +suppressing the troops which were usually stationed in Rome, Constantine +gave the fatal blow to the dignity of the senate and people, and the +disarmed capital was exposed without protection to the insults or +neglect of its distant master. We may observe, that in this last effort +to preserve their expiring freedom, the Romans, from the apprehension of +a tribute, had raised Maxentius to the throne. He exacted that tribute +from the senate under the name of a free gift. They implored the +assistance of Constantine. He vanquished the tyrant, and converted +the free gift into a perpetual tax. The senators, according to the +declaration which was required of their property, were divided into +several classes. The most opulent paid annually eight pounds of gold, +the next class paid four, the last two, and those whose poverty might +have claimed an exemption, were assessed, however, at seven pieces +of gold. Besides the regular members of the senate, their sons, their +descendants, and even their relations, enjoyed the vain privileges, and +supported the heavy burdens, of the senatorial order; nor will it any +longer excite our surprise, that Constantine should be attentive to +increase the number of persons who were included under so useful a +description. After the defeat of Maxentius, the victorious emperor +passed no more than two or three months in Rome, which he visited twice +during the remainder of his life, to celebrate the solemn festivals +of the tenth and of the twentieth years of his reign. Constantine was +almost perpetually in motion, to exercise the legions, or to inspect the +state of the provinces. Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Sirmium, Naissus, +and Thessalonica, were the occasional places of his residence, till he +founded a new Rome on the confines of Europe and Asia. + +Before Constantine marched into Italy, he had secured the friendship, +or at least the neutrality, of Licinius, the Illyrian emperor. He had +promised his sister Constantia in marriage to that prince; but the +celebration of the nuptials was deferred till after the conclusion +of the war, and the interview of the two emperors at Milan, which +was appointed for that purpose, appeared to cement the union of their +families and interests. In the midst of the public festivity they were +suddenly obliged to take leave of each other. An inroad of the Franks +summoned Constantine to the Rhine, and the hostile approach of the +sovereign of Asia demanded the immediate presence of Licinius. Maximin +had been the secret ally of Maxentius, and without being discouraged by +his fate, he resolved to try the fortune of a civil war. He moved out +of Syria, towards the frontiers of Bithynia, in the depth of winter. +The season was severe and tempestuous; great numbers of men as well +as horses perished in the snow; and as the roads were broken up by +incessant rains, he was obliged to leave behind him a considerable part +of the heavy baggage, which was unable to follow the rapidity of his +forced marches. By this extraordinary effort of diligence, he arrived +with a harassed but formidable army, on the banks of the Thracian +Bosphorus before the lieutenants of Licinius were apprised of his +hostile intentions. Byzantium surrendered to the power of Maximin, after +a siege of eleven days. He was detained some days under the walls of +Heraclea; and he had no sooner taken possession of that city, than he +was alarmed by the intelligence, that Licinius had pitched his camp at +the distance of only eighteen miles. After a fruitless negotiation, in +which the two princes attempted to seduce the fidelity of each other's +adherents, they had recourse to arms. The emperor of the East commanded +a disciplined and veteran army of above seventy thousand men; and +Licinius, who had collected about thirty thousand Illyrians, was at +first oppressed by the superiority of numbers. His military skill, and +the firmness of his troops, restored the day, and obtained a decisive +victory. The incredible speed which Maximin exerted in his flight is +much more celebrated than his prowess in the battle. Twenty-four hours +afterwards he was seen, pale, trembling, and without his Imperial +ornaments, at Nicomedia, one hundred and sixty miles from the place +of his defeat. The wealth of Asia was yet unexhausted; and though the +flower of his veterans had fallen in the late action, he had still +power, if he could obtain time, to draw very numerous levies from Syria +and Egypt. But he survived his misfortune only three or four months. His +death, which happened at Tarsus, was variously ascribed to despair, to +poison, and to the divine justice. As Maximin was alike destitute of +abilities and of virtue, he was lamented neither by the people nor by +the soldiers. The provinces of the East, delivered from the terrors of +civil war, cheerfully acknowledged the authority of Licinius. + +The vanquished emperor left behind him two children, a boy of about +eight, and a girl of about seven, years old. Their inoffensive age +might have excited compassion; but the compassion of Licinius was a very +feeble resource, nor did it restrain him from extinguishing the name +and memory of his adversary. The death of Severianus will admit of +less excuse, as it was dictated neither by revenge nor by policy. The +conqueror had never received any injury from the father of that unhappy +youth, and the short and obscure reign of Severus, in a distant part of +the empire, was already forgotten. But the execution of Candidianus was +an act of the blackest cruelty and ingratitude. He was the natural son +of Galerius, the friend and benefactor of Licinius. The prudent father +had judged him too young to sustain the weight of a diadem; but he hoped +that, under the protection of princes who were indebted to his favor for +the Imperial purple, Candidianus might pass a secure and honorable life. +He was now advancing towards the twentieth year of his age, and the +royalty of his birth, though unsupported either by merit or ambition, +was sufficient to exasperate the jealous mind of Licinius. To these +innocent and illustrious victims of his tyranny, we must add the wife +and daughter of the emperor Diocletian. When that prince conferred on +Galerius the title of Cæsar, he had given him in marriage his daughter +Valeria, whose melancholy adventures might furnish a very singular +subject for tragedy. She had fulfilled and even surpassed the duties of +a wife. As she had not any children herself, she condescended to adopt +the illegitimate son of her husband, and invariably displayed towards +the unhappy Candidianus the tenderness and anxiety of a real mother. +After the death of Galerius, her ample possessions provoked the avarice, +and her personal attractions excited the desires, of his successor, +Maximin. He had a wife still alive; but divorce was permitted by the +Roman law, and the fierce passions of the tyrant demanded an immediate +gratification. The answer of Valeria was such as became the daughter +and widow of emperors; but it was tempered by the prudence which her +defenceless condition compelled her to observe. She represented to the +persons whom Maximin had employed on this occasion, "that even if honor +could permit a woman of her character and dignity to entertain a thought +of second nuptials, decency at least must forbid her to listen to his +addresses at a time when the ashes of her husband, and his benefactor +were still warm, and while the sorrows of her mind were still expressed +by her mourning garments. She ventured to declare, that she could +place very little confidence in the professions of a man whose cruel +inconstancy was capable of repudiating a faithful and affectionate +wife." On this repulse, the love of Maximin was converted into fury; and +as witnesses and judges were always at his disposal, it was easy for +him to cover his fury with an appearance of legal proceedings, and to +assault the reputation as well as the happiness of Valeria. Her estates +were confiscated, her eunuchs and domestics devoted to the most inhuman +tortures; and several innocent and respectable matrons, who were honored +with her friendship, suffered death, on a false accusation of adultery. +The empress herself, together with her mother Prisca, was condemned to +exile; and as they were ignominiously hurried from place to place before +they were confined to a sequestered village in the deserts of Syria, +they exposed their shame and distress to the provinces of the East, +which, during thirty years, had respected their august dignity. +Diocletian made several ineffectual efforts to alleviate the misfortunes +of his daughter; and, as the last return that he expected for the +Imperial purple, which he had conferred upon Maximin, he entreated that +Valeria might be permitted to share his retirement of Salona, and to +close the eyes of her afflicted father. He entreated; but as he could +no longer threaten, his prayers were received with coldness and disdain; +and the pride of Maximin was gratified, in treating Diocletian as a +suppliant, and his daughter as a criminal. The death of Maximin seemed +to assure the empresses of a favorable alteration in their fortune. The +public disorders relaxed the vigilance of their guard, and they easily +found means to escape from the place of their exile, and to repair, +though with some precaution, and in disguise, to the court of Licinius. +His behavior, in the first days of his reign, and the honorable +reception which he gave to young Candidianus, inspired Valeria with a +secret satisfaction, both on her own account and on that of her adopted +son. But these grateful prospects were soon succeeded by horror and +astonishment; and the bloody executions which stained the palace of +Nicomedia sufficiently convinced her that the throne of Maximin was +filled by a tyrant more inhuman than himself. Valeria consulted her +safety by a hasty flight, and, still accompanied by her mother Prisca, +they wandered above fifteen months through the provinces, concealed +in the disguise of plebeian habits. They were at length discovered at +Thessalonica; and as the sentence of their death was already pronounced, +they were immediately beheaded, and their bodies thrown into the sea. +The people gazed on the melancholy spectacle; but their grief and +indignation were suppressed by the terrors of a military guard. Such +was the unworthy fate of the wife and daughter of Diocletian. We lament +their misfortunes, we cannot discover their crimes; and whatever idea we +may justly entertain of the cruelty of Licinius, it remains a matter +of surprise that he was not contented with some more secret and decent +method of revenge. + +The Roman world was now divided between Constantine and Licinius, the +former of whom was master of the West, and the latter of the East. It +might perhaps have been expected that the conquerors, fatigued with +civil war, and connected by a private as well as public alliance, would +have renounced, or at least would have suspended, any further designs +of ambition. And yet a year had scarcely elapsed after the death of +Maximin, before the victorious emperors turned their arms against each +other. The genius, the success, and the aspiring temper of Constantine, +may seem to mark him out as the aggressor; but the perfidious character +of Licinius justifies the most unfavorable suspicions, and by the faint +light which history reflects on this transaction, we may discover a +conspiracy fomented by his arts against the authority of his colleague. +Constantine had lately given his sister Anastasia in marriage to +Bassianus, a man of a considerable family and fortune, and had elevated +his new kinsman to the rank of Cæsar. According to the system of +government instituted by Diocletian, Italy, and perhaps Africa, were +designed for his department in the empire. But the performance of the +promised favor was either attended with so much delay, or accompanied +with so many unequal conditions, that the fidelity of Bassianus was +alienated rather than secured by the honorable distinction which he had +obtained. His nomination had been ratified by the consent of Licinius; +and that artful prince, by the means of his emissaries, soon contrived +to enter into a secret and dangerous correspondence with the new Cæsar, +to irritate his discontents, and to urge him to the rash enterprise of +extorting by violence what he might in vain solicit from the justice of +Constantine. But the vigilant emperor discovered the conspiracy before +it was ripe for execution; and after solemnly renouncing the alliance +of Bassianus, despoiled him of the purple, and inflicted the deserved +punishment on his treason and ingratitude. The haughty refusal of +Licinius, when he was required to deliver up the criminals who had taken +refuge in his dominions, confirmed the suspicions already entertained of +his perfidy; and the indignities offered at Æmona, on the frontiers +of Italy, to the statues of Constantine, became the signal of discord +between the two princes. + +The first battle was fought near Cibalis, a city of Pannonia, +situated on the River Save, about fifty miles above Sirmium. From the +inconsiderable forces which in this important contest two such powerful +monarchs brought into the field, it may be inferred that the one was +suddenly provoked, and that the other was unexpectedly surprised. The +emperor of the West had only twenty thousand, and the sovereign of the +East no more than five and thirty thousand, men. The inferiority +of number was, however, compensated by the advantage of the ground. +Constantine had taken post in a defile about half a mile in breadth, +between a steep hill and a deep morass, and in that situation he +steadily expected and repulsed the first attack of the enemy. He pursued +his success, and advanced into the plain. But the veteran legions of +Illyricum rallied under the standard of a leader who had been trained to +arms in the school of Probus and Diocletian. The missile weapons on both +sides were soon exhausted; the two armies, with equal valor, rushed to +a closer engagement of swords and spears, and the doubtful contest had +already lasted from the dawn of the day to a late hour of the evening, +when the right wing, which Constantine led in person, made a vigorous +and decisive charge. The judicious retreat of Licinius saved the +remainder of his troops from a total defeat; but when he computed his +loss, which amounted to more than twenty thousand men, he thought it +unsafe to pass the night in the presence of an active and victorious +enemy. Abandoning his camp and magazines, he marched away with secrecy +and diligence at the head of the greatest part of his cavalry, and was +soon removed beyond the danger of a pursuit. His diligence preserved +his wife, his son, and his treasures, which he had deposited at Sirmium. +Licinius passed through that city, and breaking down the bridge on the +Save, hastened to collect a new army in Dacia and Thrace. In his flight +he bestowed the precarious title of Cæsar on Valens, his general of the +Illyrian frontier. + + + +Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.--Part +IV. + +The plain of Mardia in Thrace was the theatre of a second battle no less +obstinate and bloody than the former. The troops on both sides displayed +the same valor and discipline; and the victory was once more decided +by the superior abilities of Constantine, who directed a body of five +thousand men to gain an advantageous height, from whence, during the +heat of the action, they attacked the rear of the enemy, and made a very +considerable slaughter. The troops of Licinius, however, presenting a +double front, still maintained their ground, till the approach of +night put an end to the combat, and secured their retreat towards the +mountains of Macedonia. The loss of two battles, and of his bravest +veterans, reduced the fierce spirit of Licinius to sue for peace. His +ambassador Mistrianus was admitted to the audience of Constantine: he +expatiated on the common topics of moderation and humanity, which are +so familiar to the eloquence of the vanquished; represented in the most +insinuating language, that the event of the war was still doubtful, +whilst its inevitable calamities were alike pernicious to both the +contending parties; and declared that he was authorized to propose a +lasting and honorable peace in the name of the two emperors his +masters. Constantine received the mention of Valens with indignation and +contempt. "It was not for such a purpose," he sternly replied, "that we +have advanced from the shores of the western ocean in an uninterrupted +course of combats and victories, that, after rejecting an ungrateful +kinsman, we should accept for our colleague a contemptible slave. +The abdication of Valens is the first article of the treaty." It was +necessary to accept this humiliating condition; and the unhappy Valens, +after a reign of a few days, was deprived of the purple and of his life. +As soon as this obstacle was removed, the tranquillity of the Roman +world was easily restored. The successive defeats of Licinius had +ruined his forces, but they had displayed his courage and abilities. His +situation was almost desperate, but the efforts of despair are sometimes +formidable, and the good sense of Constantine preferred a great and +certain advantage to a third trial of the chance of arms. He consented +to leave his rival, or, as he again styled Licinius, his friend and +brother, in the possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; but +the provinces of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Macedonia, and Greece, were +yielded to the Western empire, and the dominions of Constantine +now extended from the confines of Caledonia to the extremity of +Peloponnesus. It was stipulated by the same treaty, that three royal +youths, the sons of emperors, should be called to the hopes of the +succession. Crispus and the young Constantine were soon afterwards +declared Cæsars in the West, while the younger Licinius was invested +with the same dignity in the East. In this double proportion of honors, +the conqueror asserted the superiority of his arms and power. + +The reconciliation of Constantine and Licinius, though it was imbittered +by resentment and jealousy, by the remembrance of recent injuries, and +by the apprehension of future dangers, maintained, however, above eight +years, the tranquility of the Roman world. As a very regular series of +the Imperial laws commences about this period, it would not be difficult +to transcribe the civil regulations which employed the leisure of +Constantine. But the most important of his institutions are intimately +connected with the new system of policy and religion, which was not +perfectly established till the last and peaceful years of his reign. +There are many of his laws, which, as far as they concern the rights and +property of individuals, and the practice of the bar, are more properly +referred to the private than to the public jurisprudence of the empire; +and he published many edicts of so local and temporary a nature, that +they would ill deserve the notice of a general history. Two laws, +however, may be selected from the crowd; the one for its importance, the +other for its singularity; the former for its remarkable benevolence, +the latter for its excessive severity. 1. The horrid practice, so +familiar to the ancients, of exposing or murdering their new-born +infants, was become every day more frequent in the provinces, and +especially in Italy. It was the effect of distress; and the distress +was principally occasioned by the intolerant burden of taxes, and by the +vexatious as well as cruel prosecutions of the officers of the revenue +against their insolvent debtors. The less opulent or less industrious +part of mankind, instead of rejoicing in an increase of family, deemed +it an act of paternal tenderness to release their children from the +impending miseries of a life which they themselves were unable to +support. The humanity of Constantine; moved, perhaps, by some recent and +extraordinary instances of despair, * engaged him to address an edict to +all the cities of Italy, and afterwards of Africa, directing immediate +and sufficient relief to be given to those parents who should produce +before the magistrates the children whom their own poverty would +not allow them to educate. But the promise was too liberal, and the +provision too vague, to effect any general or permanent benefit. The +law, though it may merit some praise, served rather to display than to +alleviate the public distress. It still remains an authentic monument to +contradict and confound those venal orators, who were too well satisfied +with their own situation to discover either vice or misery under the +government of a generous sovereign. 2. The laws of Constantine against +rapes were dictated with very little indulgence for the most amiable +weaknesses of human nature; since the description of that crime was +applied not only to the brutal violence which compelled, but even to the +gentle seduction which might persuade, an unmarried woman, under the +age of twenty-five, to leave the house of her parents. "The successful +ravisher was punished with death; and as if simple death was inadequate +to the enormity of his guilt, he was either burnt alive, or torn in +pieces by wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The virgin's declaration, +that she had been carried away with her own consent, instead of +saving her lover, exposed her to share his fate. The duty of a public +prosecution was intrusted to the parents of the guilty or unfortunate +maid; and if the sentiments of nature prevailed on them to dissemble +the injury, and to repair by a subsequent marriage the honor of their +family, they were themselves punished by exile and confiscation. The +slaves, whether male or female, who were convicted of having been +accessory to rape or seduction, were burnt alive, or put to death by +the ingenious torture of pouring down their throats a quantity of melted +lead. As the crime was of a public kind, the accusation was permitted +even to strangers. The commencement of the action was not limited to any +term of years, and the consequences of the sentence were extended to the +innocent offspring of such an irregular union." But whenever the offence +inspires less horror than the punishment, the rigor of penal law is +obliged to give way to the common feelings of mankind. The most odious +parts of this edict were softened or repealed in the subsequent reigns; +and even Constantine himself very frequently alleviated, by partial acts +of mercy, the stern temper of his general institutions. Such, indeed, +was the singular humor of that emperor, who showed himself as indulgent, +and even remiss, in the execution of his laws, as he was severe, and +even cruel, in the enacting of them. It is scarcely possible to observe +a more decisive symptom of weakness, either in the character of the +prince, or in the constitution of the government. + +The civil administration was sometimes interrupted by the military +defence of the empire. Crispus, a youth of the most amiable character, +who had received with the title of Cæsar the command of the Rhine, +distinguished his conduct, as well as valor, in several victories over +the Franks and Alemanni, and taught the barbarians of that frontier to +dread the eldest son of Constantine, and the grandson of Constantius. +The emperor himself had assumed the more difficult and important +province of the Danube. The Goths, who in the time of Claudius and +Aurelian had felt the weight of the Roman arms, respected the power +of the empire, even in the midst of its intestine divisions. But the +strength of that warlike nation was now restored by a peace of near +fifty years; a new generation had arisen, who no longer remembered the +misfortunes of ancient days; the Sarmatians of the Lake Mæotis followed +the Gothic standard either as subjects or as allies, and their united +force was poured upon the countries of Illyricum. Campona, Margus, and +Benonia, appear to have been the scenes of several memorable sieges and +battles; and though Constantine encountered a very obstinate resistance, +he prevailed at length in the contest, and the Goths were compelled to +purchased an ignominious retreat, by restoring the booty and prisoners +which they had taken. Nor was this advantage sufficient to satisfy +the indignation of the emperor. He resolved to chastise as well as to +repulse the insolent barbarians who had dared to invade the territories +of Rome. At the head of his legions he passed the Danube after repairing +the bridge which had been constructed by Trajan, penetrated into the +strongest recesses of Dacia, and when he had inflicted a severe revenge, +condescended to give peace to the suppliant Goths, on condition that, as +often as they were required, they should supply his armies with a body +of forty thousand soldiers. Exploits like these were no doubt honorable +to Constantine, and beneficial to the state; but it may surely be +questioned, whether they can justify the exaggerated assertion of +Eusebius, that all Scythia, as far as the extremity of the North, +divided as it was into so many names and nations of the most various +and savage manners, had been added by his victorious arms to the Roman +empire. + +In this exalted state of glory, it was impossible that Constantine +should any longer endure a partner in the empire. Confiding in the +superiority of his genius and military power, he determined, without any +previous injury, to exert them for the destruction of Licinius, whose +advanced age and unpopular vices seemed to offer a very easy conquest. +But the old emperor, awakened by the approaching danger, deceived the +expectations of his friends, as well as of his enemies. Calling forth +that spirit and those abilities by which he had deserved the friendship +of Galerius and the Imperial purple, he prepared himself for the +contest, collected the forces of the East, and soon filled the plains of +Hadrianople with his troops, and the Straits of the Hellespont with his +fleet. The army consisted of one hundred and fifty thousand foot, and +fifteen thousand horse; and as the cavalry was drawn, for the most part, +from Phrygia and Cappadocia, we may conceive a more favorable opinion +of the beauty of the horses, than of the courage and dexterity of their +riders. The fleet was composed of three hundred and fifty galleys of +three ranks of oars. A hundred and thirty of these were furnished by +Egypt and the adjacent coast of Africa. A hundred and ten sailed +from the ports of Phoenicia and the Isle of Cyprus; and the maritime +countries of Bithynia, Ionia, and Caria, were likewise obliged to +provide a hundred and ten galleys. The troops of Constantine were +ordered to a rendezvous at Thessalonica; they amounted to above a +hundred and twenty thousand horse and foot. Their emperor was satisfied +with their martial appearance, and his army contained more soldiers, +though fewer men, than that of his eastern competitor. The legions of +Constantine were levied in the warlike provinces of Europe; action had +confirmed their discipline, victory had elevated their hopes, and +there were among them a great number of veterans, who, after seventeen +glorious campaigns under the same leader, prepared themselves to deserve +an honorable dismission by a last effort of their valor. But the naval +preparations of Constantine were in every respect much inferior to those +of Licinius. The maritime cities of Greece sent their respective quotas +of men and ships to the celebrated harbor of Piræus, and their united +forces consisted of no more than two hundred small vessels--a very +feeble armament, if it is compared with those formidable fleets which +were equipped and maintained by the republic of Athens during the +Peloponnesian war. Since Italy was no longer the seat of government, +the naval establishments of Misenum and Ravenna had been gradually +neglected; and as the shipping and mariners of the empire were supported +by commerce rather than by war, it was natural that they should the +most abound in the industrious provinces of Egypt and Asia. It is +only surprising that the eastern emperor, who possessed so great a +superiority at sea, should have neglected the opportunity of carrying an +offensive war into the centre of his rival's dominions. + +Instead of embracing such an active resolution, which might have changed +the whole face of the war, the prudent Licinius expected the approach +of his rival in a camp near Hadrianople, which he had fortified with an +anxious care, that betrayed his apprehension of the event. Constantine +directed his march from Thessalonica towards that part of Thrace, till +he found himself stopped by the broad and rapid stream of the Hebrus, +and discovered the numerous army of Licinius, which filled the steep +ascent of the hill, from the river to the city of Hadrianople. Many +days were spent in doubtful and distant skirmishes; but at length the +obstacles of the passage and of the attack were removed by the intrepid +conduct of Constantine. In this place we might relate a wonderful +exploit of Constantine, which, though it can scarcely be paralleled +either in poetry or romance, is celebrated, not by a venal orator +devoted to his fortune, but by an historian, the partial enemy of his +fame. We are assured that the valiant emperor threw himself into the +River Hebrus, accompanied only by twelve horsemen, and that by the +effort or terror of his invincible arm, he broke, slaughtered, and put +to flight a host of a hundred and fifty thousand men. The credulity of +Zosimus prevailed so strongly over his passion, that among the events +of the memorable battle of Hadrianople, he seems to have selected and +embellished, not the most important, but the most marvellous. The +valor and danger of Constantine are attested by a slight wound which he +received in the thigh; but it may be discovered even from an imperfect +narration, and perhaps a corrupted text, that the victory was obtained +no less by the conduct of the general than by the courage of the hero; +that a body of five thousand archers marched round to occupy a thick +wood in the rear of the enemy, whose attention was diverted by the +construction of a bridge, and that Licinius, perplexed by so many artful +evolutions, was reluctantly drawn from his advantageous post to combat +on equal ground on the plain. The contest was no longer equal. +His confused multitude of new levies was easily vanquished by the +experienced veterans of the West. Thirty-four thousand men are reported +to have been slain. The fortified camp of Licinius was taken by assault +the evening of the battle; the greater part of the fugitives, who had +retired to the mountains, surrendered themselves the next day to the +discretion of the conqueror; and his rival, who could no longer keep the +field, confined himself within the walls of Byzantium. + +The siege of Byzantium, which was immediately undertaken by Constantine, +was attended with great labor and uncertainty. In the late civil wars, +the fortifications of that place, so justly considered as the key of +Europe and Asia, had been repaired and strengthened; and as long as +Licinius remained master of the sea, the garrison was much less exposed +to the danger of famine than the army of the besiegers. The naval +commanders of Constantine were summoned to his camp, and received his +positive orders to force the passage of the Hellespont, as the fleet +of Licinius, instead of seeking and destroying their feeble enemy, +continued inactive in those narrow straits, where its superiority of +numbers was of little use or advantage. Crispus, the emperor's eldest +son, was intrusted with the execution of this daring enterprise, which +he performed with so much courage and success, that he deserved the +esteem, and most probably excited the jealousy, of his father. The +engagement lasted two days; and in the evening of the first, the +contending fleets, after a considerable and mutual loss, retired into +their respective harbors of Europe and Asia. The second day, about noon, +a strong south wind sprang up, which carried the vessels of Crispus +against the enemy; and as the casual advantage was improved by his +skilful intrepidity, he soon obtained a complete victory. A hundred +and thirty vessels were destroyed, five thousand men were slain, and +Amandus, the admiral of the Asiatic fleet, escaped with the utmost +difficulty to the shores of Chalcedon. As soon as the Hellespont +was open, a plentiful convoy of provisions flowed into the camp of +Constantine, who had already advanced the operations of the siege. +He constructed artificial mounds of earth of an equal height with the +ramparts of Byzantium. The lofty towers which were erected on that +foundation galled the besieged with large stones and darts from the +military engines, and the battering rams had shaken the walls in several +places. If Licinius persisted much longer in the defence, he exposed +himself to be involved in the ruin of the place. Before he was +surrounded, he prudently removed his person and treasures to Chalcedon +in Asia; and as he was always desirous of associating companions to the +hopes and dangers of his fortune, he now bestowed the title of Cæsar +on Martinianus, who exercised one of the most important offices of the +empire. + +Such were still the resources, and such the abilities, of Licinius, +that, after so many successive defeats, he collected in Bithynia a new +army of fifty or sixty thousand men, while the activity of Constantine +was employed in the siege of Byzantium. The vigilant emperor did not, +however, neglect the last struggles of his antagonist. A considerable +part of his victorious army was transported over the Bosphorus in small +vessels, and the decisive engagement was fought soon after their landing +on the heights of Chrysopolis, or, as it is now called, of Scutari. The +troops of Licinius, though they were lately raised, ill armed, and +worse disciplined, made head against their conquerors with fruitless but +desperate valor, till a total defeat, and a slaughter of five and twenty +thousand men, irretrievably determined the fate of their leader. He +retired to Nicomedia, rather with the view of gaining some time for +negotiation, than with the hope of any effectual defence. Constantia, +his wife, and the sister of Constantine, interceded with her brother in +favor of her husband, and obtained from his policy, rather than from +his compassion, a solemn promise, confirmed by an oath, that after the +sacrifice of Martinianus, and the resignation of the purple, Licinius +himself should be permitted to pass the remainder of this life in peace +and affluence. The behavior of Constantia, and her relation to the +contending parties, naturally recalls the remembrance of that virtuous +matron who was the sister of Augustus, and the wife of Antony. But the +temper of mankind was altered, and it was no longer esteemed infamous +for a Roman to survive his honor and independence. Licinius solicited +and accepted the pardon of his offences, laid himself and his purple +at the feet of his lord and master, was raised from the ground with +insulting pity, was admitted the same day to the Imperial banquet, and +soon afterwards was sent away to Thessalonica, which had been chosen +for the place of his confinement. His confinement was soon terminated by +death, and it is doubtful whether a tumult of the soldiers, or a decree +of the senate, was suggested as the motive for his execution. According +to the rules of tyranny, he was accused of forming a conspiracy, and of +holding a treasonable correspondence with the barbarians; but as he was +never convicted, either by his own conduct or by any legal evidence, we +may perhaps be allowed, from his weakness, to presume his innocence. +The memory of Licinius was branded with infamy, his statues were thrown +down, and by a hasty edict, of such mischievous tendency that it +was almost immediately corrected, all his laws, and all the judicial +proceedings of his reign, were at once abolished. By this victory of +Constantine, the Roman world was again united under the authority of one +emperor, thirty-seven years after Diocletian had divided his power and +provinces with his associate Maximian. + +The successive steps of the elevation of Constantine, from his first +assuming the purple at York, to the resignation of Licinius, at +Nicomedia, have been related with some minuteness and precision, not +only as the events are in themselves both interesting and important, +but still more, as they contributed to the decline of the empire by the +expense of blood and treasure, and by the perpetual increase, as well +of the taxes, as of the military establishment. The foundation of +Constantinople, and the establishment of the Christian religion, were +the immediate and memorable consequences of this revolution. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part I. + + The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, + Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. + +A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment of +Christianity may be considered as a very essential part of the history +of the Roman empire. While that great body was invaded by open +violence, or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion +gently insinuated itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and +obscurity, derived new vigor from opposition, and finally erected the +triumphant banner of the Cross on the ruins of the Capitol. Nor was the +influence of Christianity confined to the period or to the limits of the +Roman empire. After a revolution of thirteen or fourteen centuries, +that religion is still professed by the nations of Europe, the most +distinguished portion of human kind in arts and learning as well as +in arms. By the industry and zeal of the Europeans, it has been widely +diffused to the most distant shores of Asia and Africa; and by the means +of their colonies has been firmly established from Canada to Chili, in a +world unknown to the ancients. + +But this inquiry, however useful or entertaining, is attended with +two peculiar difficulties. The scanty and suspicious materials of +ecclesiastical history seldom enable us to dispel the dark cloud that +hangs over the first age of the church. The great law of impartiality +too often obliges us to reveal the imperfections of the uninspired +teachers and believers of the gospel; and, to a careless observer, their +faults may seem to cast a shade on the faith which they professed. But +the scandal of the pious Christian, and the fallacious triumph of the +Infidel, should cease as soon as they recollect not only by whom, but +likewise to whom, the Divine Revelation was given. The theologian may +indulge the pleasing task of describing Religion as she descended from +Heaven, arrayed in her native purity. A more melancholy duty is imposed +on the historian. He must discover the inevitable mixture of error and +corruption, which she contracted in a long residence upon earth, among a +weak and degenerate race of beings. * + +Our curiosity is naturally prompted to inquire by what means the +Christian faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the established +religions of the earth. To this inquiry, an obvious but satisfactory +answer may be returned; that it was owing to the convincing evidence of +the doctrine itself, and to the ruling providence of its great Author. +But as truth and reason seldom find so favorable a reception in the +world, and as the wisdom of Providence frequently condescends to use the +passions of the human heart, and the general circumstances of mankind, +as instruments to execute its purpose, we may still be permitted, though +with becoming submission, to ask, not indeed what were the first, but +what were the secondary causes of the rapid growth of the Christian +church. It will, perhaps, appear, that it was most effectually favored +and assisted by the five following causes: I. The inflexible, and if we +may use the expression, the intolerant zeal of the Christians, derived, +it is true, from the Jewish religion, but purified from the narrow and +unsocial spirit, which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles +from embracing the law of Moses. II. The doctrine of a future life, +improved by every additional circumstance which could give weight and +efficacy to that important truth. III. The miraculous powers ascribed to +the primitive church. IV. The pure and austere morals of the Christians. +V. The union and discipline of the Christian republic, which gradually +formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman +empire. + +I. We have already described the religious harmony of the ancient +world, and the facility * with which the most different and even hostile +nations embraced, or at least respected, each other's superstitions. A +single people refused to join in the common intercourse of mankind. The +Jews, who, under the Assyrian and Persian monarchies, had languished +for many ages the most despised portion of their slaves, emerged from +obscurity under the successors of Alexander; and as they multiplied to +a surprising degree in the East, and afterwards in the West, they soon +excited the curiosity and wonder of other nations. The sullen obstinacy +with which they maintained their peculiar rites and unsocial manners, +seemed to mark them out as a distinct species of men, who boldly +professed, or who faintly disguised, their implacable habits to the rest +of human kind. Neither the violence of Antiochus, nor the arts of Herod, +nor the example of the circumjacent nations, could ever persuade the +Jews to associate with the institutions of Moses the elegant mythology +of the Greeks. According to the maxims of universal toleration, the +Romans protected a superstition which they despised. The polite Augustus +condescended to give orders, that sacrifices should be offered for +his prosperity in the temple of Jerusalem; whilst the meanest of the +posterity of Abraham, who should have paid the same homage to the +Jupiter of the Capitol, would have been an object of abhorrence to +himself and to his brethren. But the moderation of the conquerors was +insufficient to appease the jealous prejudices of their subjects, +who were alarmed and scandalized at the ensigns of paganism, which +necessarily introduced themselves into a Roman province. The mad attempt +of Caligula to place his own statue in the temple of Jerusalem was +defeated by the unanimous resolution of a people who dreaded death much +less than such an idolatrous profanation. Their attachment to the law of +Moses was equal to their detestation of foreign religions. The current +of zeal and devotion, as it was contracted into a narrow channel, ran +with the strength, and sometimes with the fury, of a torrent. + +This inflexible perseverance, which appeared so odious or so ridiculous +to the ancient world, assumes a more awful character, since Providence +has deigned to reveal to us the mysterious history of the chosen people. +But the devout and even scrupulous attachment to the Mosaic religion, +so conspicuous among the Jews who lived under the second temple, becomes +still more surprising, if it is compared with the stubborn incredulity +of their forefathers. When the law was given in thunder from Mount +Sinai, when the tides of the ocean and the course of the planets were +suspended for the convenience of the Israelites, and when temporal +rewards and punishments were the immediate consequences of their piety +or disobedience, they perpetually relapsed into rebellion against the +visible majesty of their Divine King, placed the idols of the nations in +the sanctuary of Jehovah, and imitated every fantastic ceremony that was +practised in the tents of the Arabs, or in the cities of Phoenicia. As +the protection of Heaven was deservedly withdrawn from the ungrateful +race, their faith acquired a proportionable degree of vigor and +purity. The contemporaries of Moses and Joshua had beheld with careless +indifference the most amazing miracles. Under the pressure of every +calamity, the belief of those miracles has preserved the Jews of a later +period from the universal contagion of idolatry; and in contradiction to +every known principle of the human mind, that singular people seems to +have yielded a stronger and more ready assent to the traditions of their +remote ancestors, than to the evidence of their own senses. + +The Jewish religion was admirably fitted for defence, but it was +never designed for conquest; and it seems probable that the number of +proselytes was never much superior to that of apostates. The divine +promises were originally made, and the distinguishing rite of +circumcision was enjoined, to a single family. When the posterity of +Abraham had multiplied like the sands of the sea, the Deity, from whose +mouth they received a system of laws and ceremonies, declared himself +the proper and as it were the national God of Israel and with the most +jealous care separated his favorite people from the rest of mankind. The +conquest of the land of Canaan was accompanied with so many wonderful +and with so many bloody circumstances, that the victorious Jews were +left in a state of irreconcilable hostility with all their neighbors. +They had been commanded to extirpate some of the most idolatrous tribes, +and the execution of the divine will had seldom been retarded by the +weakness of humanity. With the other nations they were forbidden to +contract any marriages or alliances; and the prohibition of receiving +them into the congregation, which in some cases was perpetual, almost +always extended to the third, to the seventh, or even to the tenth +generation. The obligation of preaching to the Gentiles the faith of +Moses had never been inculcated as a precept of the law, nor were the +Jews inclined to impose it on themselves as a voluntary duty. + +In the admission of new citizens, that unsocial people was actuated by +the selfish vanity of the Greeks, rather than by the generous policy of +Rome. The descendants of Abraham were flattered by the opinion that +they alone were the heirs of the covenant, and they were apprehensive of +diminishing the value of their inheritance by sharing it too easily with +the strangers of the earth. A larger acquaintance with mankind extended +their knowledge without correcting their prejudices; and whenever the +God of Israel acquired any new votaries, he was much more indebted to +the inconstant humor of polytheism than to the active zeal of his +own missionaries. The religion of Moses seems to be instituted for +a particular country as well as for a single nation; and if a strict +obedience had been paid to the order, that every male, three times in +the year, should present himself before the Lord Jehovah, it would have +been impossible that the Jews could ever have spread themselves beyond +the narrow limits of the promised land. That obstacle was indeed removed +by the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem; but the most considerable +part of the Jewish religion was involved in its destruction; and +the Pagans, who had long wondered at the strange report of an empty +sanctuary, were at a loss to discover what could be the object, or what +could be the instruments, of a worship which was destitute of temples +and of altars, of priests and of sacrifices. Yet even in their fallen +state, the Jews, still asserting their lofty and exclusive privileges, +shunned, instead of courting, the society of strangers. They still +insisted with inflexible rigor on those parts of the law which it was in +their power to practise. Their peculiar distinctions of days, of meats, +and a variety of trivial though burdensome observances, were so many +objects of disgust and aversion for the other nations, to whose habits +and prejudices they were diametrically opposite. The painful and even +dangerous rite of circumcision was alone capable of repelling a willing +proselyte from the door of the synagogue. + +Under these circumstances, Christianity offered itself to the world, +armed with the strength of the Mosaic law, and delivered from the weight +of its fetters. An exclusive zeal for the truth of religion, and the +unity of God, was as carefully inculcated in the new as in the ancient +system: and whatever was now revealed to mankind concerning the nature +and designs of the Supreme Being, was fitted to increase their reverence +for that mysterious doctrine. The divine authority of Moses and the +prophets was admitted, and even established, as the firmest basis of +Christianity. From the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted series +of predictions had announced and prepared the long-expected coming of +the Messiah, who, in compliance with the gross apprehensions of the +Jews, had been more frequently represented under the character of a King +and Conqueror, than under that of a Prophet, a Martyr, and the Son of +God. By his expiatory sacrifice, the imperfect sacrifices of the temple +were at once consummated and abolished. The ceremonial law, which +consisted only of types and figures, was succeeded by a pure and +spiritual worship, equally adapted to all climates, as well as to every +condition of mankind; and to the initiation of blood was substituted a +more harmless initiation of water. The promise of divine favor, instead +of being partially confined to the posterity of Abraham, was universally +proposed to the freeman and the slave, to the Greek and to the +barbarian, to the Jew and to the Gentile. Every privilege that could +raise the proselyte from earth to heaven, that could exalt his devotion, +secure his happiness, or even gratify that secret pride which, under the +semblance of devotion, insinuates itself into the human heart, was still +reserved for the members of the Christian church; but at the same time +all mankind was permitted, and even solicited, to accept the glorious +distinction, which was not only proffered as a favor, but imposed as an +obligation. It became the most sacred duty of a new convert to diffuse +among his friends and relations the inestimable blessing which he had +received, and to warn them against a refusal that would be severely +punished as a criminal disobedience to the will of a benevolent but +all-powerful Deity. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part II. + +The enfranchisement of the church from the bonds of the synagogue was a +work, however, of some time and of some difficulty. The Jewish converts, +who acknowledged Jesus in the character of the Messiah foretold by their +ancient oracles, respected him as a prophetic teacher of virtue and +religion; but they obstinately adhered to the ceremonies of their +ancestors, and were desirous of imposing them on the Gentiles, +who continually augmented the number of believers. These Judaizing +Christians seem to have argued with some degree of plausibility from the +divine origin of the Mosaic law, and from the immutable perfections +of its great Author. They affirmed, that if the Being, who is the same +through all eternity, had designed to abolish those sacred rites which +had served to distinguish his chosen people, the repeal of them would +have been no less clear and solemn than their first promulgation: that, +instead of those frequent declarations, which either suppose or assert +the perpetuity of the Mosaic religion, it would have been represented +as a provisionary scheme intended to last only to the coming of the +Messiah, who should instruct mankind in a more perfect mode of faith and +of worship: that the Messiah himself, and his disciples who conversed +with him on earth, instead of authorizing by their example the most +minute observances of the Mosaic law, would have published to the +world the abolition of those useless and obsolete ceremonies, without +suffering Christianity to remain during so many years obscurely +confounded among the sects of the Jewish church. Arguments like these +appear to have been used in the defence of the expiring cause of the +Mosaic law; but the industry of our learned divines has abundantly +explained the ambiguous language of the Old Testament, and the ambiguous +conduct of the apostolic teachers. It was proper gradually to unfold +the system of the gospel, and to pronounce, with the utmost caution and +tenderness, a sentence of condemnation so repugnant to the inclination +and prejudices of the believing Jews. + +The history of the church of Jerusalem affords a lively proof of the +necessity of those precautions, and of the deep impression which the +Jewish religion had made on the minds of its sectaries. The first +fifteen bishops of Jerusalem were all circumcised Jews; and the +congregation over which they presided united the law of Moses with the +doctrine of Christ. It was natural that the primitive tradition of a +church which was founded only forty days after the death of Christ, and +was governed almost as many years under the immediate inspection of his +apostle, should be received as the standard of orthodoxy. The distant +churches very frequently appealed to the authority of their venerable +Parent, and relieved her distresses by a liberal contribution of alms. +But when numerous and opulent societies were established in the great +cities of the empire, in Antioch, Alexandria, Ephesus, Corinth, and +Rome, the reverence which Jerusalem had inspired to all the Christian +colonies insensibly diminished. The Jewish converts, or, as they were +afterwards called, the Nazarenes, who had laid the foundations of the +church, soon found themselves overwhelmed by the increasing multitudes, +that from all the various religions of polytheism enlisted under the +banner of Christ: and the Gentiles, who, with the approbation of their +peculiar apostle, had rejected the intolerable weight of the Mosaic +ceremonies, at length refused to their more scrupulous brethren the +same toleration which at first they had humbly solicited for their own +practice. The ruin of the temple of the city, and of the public religion +of the Jews, was severely felt by the Nazarenes; as in their manners, +though not in their faith, they maintained so intimate a connection +with their impious countrymen, whose misfortunes were attributed by the +Pagans to the contempt, and more justly ascribed by the Christians to +the wrath, of the Supreme Deity. The Nazarenes retired from the ruins +of Jerusalem * to the little town of Pella beyond the Jordan, where that +ancient church languished above sixty years in solitude and obscurity. +They still enjoyed the comfort of making frequent and devout visits to +the Holy City, and the hope of being one day restored to those seats +which both nature and religion taught them to love as well as to revere. +But at length, under the reign of Hadrian, the desperate fanaticism +of the Jews filled up the measure of their calamities; and the Romans, +exasperated by their repeated rebellions, exercised the rights of +victory with unusual rigor. The emperor founded, under the name of Ælia +Capitolina, a new city on Mount Sion, to which he gave the privileges +of a colony; and denouncing the severest penalties against any of the +Jewish people who should dare to approach its precincts, he fixed a +vigilant garrison of a Roman cohort to enforce the execution of his +orders. The Nazarenes had only one way left to escape the common +proscription, and the force of truth was on this occasion assisted by +the influence of temporal advantages. They elected Marcus for their +bishop, a prelate of the race of the Gentiles, and most probably +a native either of Italy or of some of the Latin provinces. At his +persuasion, the most considerable part of the congregation renounced +the Mosaic law, in the practice of which they had persevered above +a century. By this sacrifice of their habits and prejudices, they +purchased a free admission into the colony of Hadrian, and more firmly +cemented their union with the Catholic church. + +When the name and honors of the church of Jerusalem had been restored to +Mount Sion, the crimes of heresy and schism were imputed to the obscure +remnant of the Nazarenes, which refused to accompany their Latin bishop. +They still preserved their former habitation of Pella, spread themselves +into the villages adjacent to Damascus, and formed an inconsiderable +church in the city of Beroea, or, as it is now called, of Aleppo, +in Syria. The name of Nazarenes was deemed too honorable for those +Christian Jews, and they soon received, from the supposed poverty of +their understanding, as well as of their condition, the contemptuous +epithet of Ebionites. In a few years after the return of the church of +Jerusalem, it became a matter of doubt and controversy, whether a man +who sincerely acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah, but who still continued +to observe the law of Moses, could possibly hope for salvation. The +humane temper of Justin Martyr inclined him to answer this question in +the affirmative; and though he expressed himself with the most guarded +diffidence, he ventured to determine in favor of such an imperfect +Christian, if he were content to practise the Mosaic ceremonies, without +pretending to assert their general use or necessity. But when Justin was +pressed to declare the sentiment of the church, he confessed that there +were very many among the orthodox Christians, who not only excluded +their Judaizing brethren from the hope of salvation, but who declined +any intercourse with them in the common offices of friendship, +hospitality, and social life. The more rigorous opinion prevailed, as it +was natural to expect, over the milder; and an eternal bar of separation +was fixed between the disciples of Moses and those of Christ. The +unfortunate Ebionites, rejected from one religion as apostates, and +from the other as heretics, found themselves compelled to assume a more +decided character; and although some traces of that obsolete sect may be +discovered as late as the fourth century, they insensibly melted away, +either into the church or the synagogue. + +While the orthodox church preserved a just medium between excessive +veneration and improper contempt for the law of Moses, the various +heretics deviated into equal but opposite extremes of error and +extravagance. From the acknowledged truth of the Jewish religion, the +Ebionites had concluded that it could never be abolished. From its +supposed imperfections, the Gnostics as hastily inferred that it never +was instituted by the wisdom of the Deity. There are some objections +against the authority of Moses and the prophets, which too readily +present themselves to the sceptical mind; though they can only be +derived from our ignorance of remote antiquity, and from our incapacity +to form an adequate judgment of the divine economy. These objections +were eagerly embraced and as petulantly urged by the vain science of +the Gnostics. As those heretics were, for the most part, averse to +the pleasures of sense, they morosely arraigned the polygamy of the +patriarchs, the gallantries of David, and the seraglio of Solomon. The +conquest of the land of Canaan, and the extirpation of the unsuspecting +natives, they were at a loss how to reconcile with the common notions of +humanity and justice. * But when they recollected the sanguinary list of +murders, of executions, and of massacres, which stain almost every page +of the Jewish annals, they acknowledged that the barbarians of Palestine +had exercised as much compassion towards their idolatrous enemies, as +they had ever shown to their friends or countrymen. Passing from the +sectaries of the law to the law itself, they asserted that it was +impossible that a religion which consisted only of bloody sacrifices and +trifling ceremonies, and whose rewards as well as punishments were all +of a carnal and temporal nature, could inspire the love of virtue, or +restrain the impetuosity of passion. The Mosaic account of the creation +and fall of man was treated with profane derision by the Gnostics, who +would not listen with patience to the repose of the Deity after six +days' labor, to the rib of Adam, the garden of Eden, the trees of life +and of knowledge, the speaking serpent, the forbidden fruit, and the +condemnation pronounced against human kind for the venial offence of +their first progenitors. The God of Israel was impiously represented by +the Gnostics as a being liable to passion and to error, capricious +in his favor, implacable in his resentment, meanly jealous of his +superstitious worship, and confining his partial providence to a single +people, and to this transitory life. In such a character they could +discover none of the features of the wise and omnipotent Father of the +universe. They allowed that the religion of the Jews was somewhat less +criminal than the idolatry of the Gentiles; but it was their fundamental +doctrine, that the Christ whom they adored as the first and brightest +emanation of the Deity appeared upon earth to rescue mankind from their +various errors, and to reveal a new system of truth and perfection. +The most learned of the fathers, by a very singular condescension, have +imprudently admitted the sophistry of the Gnostics. * Acknowledging that +the literal sense is repugnant to every principle of faith as well as +reason, they deem themselves secure and invulnerable behind the ample +veil of allegory, which they carefully spread over every tender part of +the Mosaic dispensation. + +It has been remarked with more ingenuity than truth, that the virgin +purity of the church was never violated by schism or heresy before the +reign of Trajan or Hadrian, about one hundred years after the death +of Christ. We may observe with much more propriety, that, during that +period, the disciples of the Messiah were indulged in a freer latitude, +both of faith and practice, than has ever been allowed in succeeding +ages. As the terms of communion were insensibly narrowed, and the +spiritual authority of the prevailing party was exercised with +increasing severity, many of its most respectable adherents, who were +called upon to renounce, were provoked to assert their private opinions, +to pursue the consequences of their mistaken principles, and openly to +erect the standard of rebellion against the unity of the church. The +Gnostics were distinguished as the most polite, the most learned, and +the most wealthy of the Christian name; and that general appellation, +which expressed a superiority of knowledge, was either assumed by their +own pride, or ironically bestowed by the envy of their adversaries. They +were almost without exception of the race of the Gentiles, and their +principal founders seem to have been natives of Syria or Egypt, where +the warmth of the climate disposes both the mind and the body to +indolent and contemplative devotion. The Gnostics blended with the +faith of Christ many sublime but obscure tenets, which they derived from +oriental philosophy, and even from the religion of Zoroaster, concerning +the eternity of matter, the existence of two principles, and the +mysterious hierarchy of the invisible world. As soon as they launched +out into that vast abyss, they delivered themselves to the guidance of +a disordered imagination; and as the paths of error are various and +infinite, the Gnostics were imperceptibly divided into more than fifty +particular sects, of whom the most celebrated appear to have been the +Basilidians, the Valentinians, the Marcionites, and, in a still later +period, the Manichæans. Each of these sects could boast of its bishops +and congregations, of its doctors and martyrs; and, instead of the Four +Gospels adopted by the church, the heretics produced a multitude of +histories, in which the actions and discourses of Christ and of his +apostles were adapted to their respective tenets. The success of +the Gnostics was rapid and extensive. They covered Asia and Egypt, +established themselves in Rome, and sometimes penetrated into the +provinces of the West. For the most part they arose in the second +century, flourished during the third, and were suppressed in the fourth +or fifth, by the prevalence of more fashionable controversies, and by +the superior ascendant of the reigning power. Though they constantly +disturbed the peace, and frequently disgraced the name, of religion, +they contributed to assist rather than to retard the progress of +Christianity. The Gentile converts, whose strongest objections and +prejudices were directed against the law of Moses, could find admission +into many Christian societies, which required not from their untutored +mind any belief of an antecedent revelation. Their faith was insensibly +fortified and enlarged, and the church was ultimately benefited by the +conquests of its most inveterate enemies. + +But whatever difference of opinion might subsist between the Orthodox, +the Ebionites, and the Gnostics, concerning the divinity or the +obligation of the Mosaic law, they were all equally animated by the +same exclusive zeal; and by the same abhorrence for idolatry, which had +distinguished the Jews from the other nations of the ancient world. The +philosopher, who considered the system of polytheism as a composition of +human fraud and error, could disguise a smile of contempt under the +mask of devotion, without apprehending that either the mockery, or the +compliance, would expose him to the resentment of any invisible, or, as +he conceived them, imaginary powers. But the established religions of +Paganism were seen by the primitive Christians in a much more odious and +formidable light. It was the universal sentiment both of the church +and of heretics, that the dæmons were the authors, the patrons, and the +objects of idolatry. Those rebellious spirits who had been degraded +from the rank of angels, and cast down into the infernal pit, were still +permitted to roam upon earth, to torment the bodies, and to seduce the +minds, of sinful men. The dæmons soon discovered and abused the natural +propensity of the human heart towards devotion, and artfully withdrawing +the adoration of mankind from their Creator, they usurped the place +and honors of the Supreme Deity. By the success of their malicious +contrivances, they at once gratified their own vanity and revenge, and +obtained the only comfort of which they were yet susceptible, the hope +of involving the human species in the participation of their guilt and +misery. It was confessed, or at least it was imagined, that they +had distributed among themselves the most important characters of +polytheism, one dæmon assuming the name and attributes of Jupiter, +another of Æsculapius, a third of Venus, and a fourth perhaps of Apollo; +and that, by the advantage of their long experience and ærial nature, +they were enabled to execute, with sufficient skill and dignity, the +parts which they had undertaken. They lurked in the temples, instituted +festivals and sacrifices, invented fables, pronounced oracles, and were +frequently allowed to perform miracles. The Christians, who, by +the interposition of evil spirits, could so readily explain every +preternatural appearance, were disposed and even desirous to admit the +most extravagant fictions of the Pagan mythology. But the belief of the +Christian was accompanied with horror. The most trifling mark of respect +to the national worship he considered as a direct homage yielded to the +dæmon, and as an act of rebellion against the majesty of God. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part III. + +In consequence of this opinion, it was the first but arduous duty of +a Christian to preserve himself pure and undefiled by the practice +of idolatry. The religion of the nations was not merely a speculative +doctrine professed in the schools or preached in the temples. The +innumerable deities and rites of polytheism were closely interwoven +with every circumstance of business or pleasure, of public or of +private life; and it seemed impossible to escape the observance of them, +without, at the same time, renouncing the commerce of mankind, and all +the offices and amusements of society. The important transactions of +peace and war were prepared or concluded by solemn sacrifices, in which +the magistrate, the senator, and the soldier, were obliged to preside +or to participate. The public spectacles were an essential part of the +cheerful devotion of the Pagans, and the gods were supposed to accept, +as the most grateful offering, the games that the prince and people +celebrated in honor of their peculiar festivals. The Christians, who +with pious horror avoided the abomination of the circus or the theatre, +found himself encompassed with infernal snares in every convivial +entertainment, as often as his friends, invoking the hospitable +deities, poured out libations to each other's happiness. When the bride, +struggling with well-affected reluctance, was forced into hymenæal pomp +over the threshold of her new habitation, or when the sad procession of +the dead slowly moved towards the funeral pile; the Christian, on these +interesting occasions, was compelled to desert the persons who were the +dearest to him, rather than contract the guilt inherent to those impious +ceremonies. Every art and every trade that was in the least concerned in +the framing or adorning of idols was polluted by the stain of idolatry; +a severe sentence, since it devoted to eternal misery the far greater +part of the community, which is employed in the exercise of liberal or +mechanic professions. If we cast our eyes over the numerous remains of +antiquity, we shall perceive, that besides the immediate representations +of the gods, and the holy instruments of their worship, the elegant +forms and agreeable fictions consecrated by the imagination of the +Greeks, were introduced as the richest ornaments of the houses, the +dress, and the furniture of the Pagan. Even the arts of music and +painting, of eloquence and poetry, flowed from the same impure origin. +In the style of the fathers, Apollo and the Muses were the organs of the +infernal spirit; Homer and Virgil were the most eminent of his servants; +and the beautiful mythology which pervades and animates the compositions +of their genius, is destined to celebrate the glory of the dæmons. +Even the common language of Greece and Rome abounded with familiar but +impious expressions, which the imprudent Christian might too carelessly +utter, or too patiently hear. + +The dangerous temptations which on every side lurked in ambush to +surprise the unguarded believer, assailed him with redoubled violence on +the days of solemn festivals. So artfully were they framed and disposed +throughout the year, that superstition always wore the appearance of +pleasure, and often of virtue. Some of the most sacred festivals in the +Roman ritual were designed to salute the new calends of January with +vows of public and private felicity; to indulge the pious remembrance of +the dead and living; to ascertain the inviolable bounds of property; +to hail, on the return of spring, the genial powers of fecundity; to +perpetuate the two memorable areas of Rome, the foundation of the city +and that of the republic, and to restore, during the humane license +of the Saturnalia, the primitive equality of mankind. Some idea may +be conceived of the abhorrence of the Christians for such impious +ceremonies, by the scrupulous delicacy which they displayed on a much +less alarming occasion. On days of general festivity, it was the custom +of the ancients to adorn their doors with lamps and with branches +of laurel, and to crown their heads with a garland of flowers. This +innocent and elegant practice might perhaps have been tolerated as a +mere civil institution. But it most unluckily happened that the doors +were under the protection of the household gods, that the laurel was +sacred to the lover of Daphne, and that garlands of flowers, though +frequently worn as a symbol of joy or mourning, had been dedicated +in their first origin to the service of superstition. The trembling +Christians, who were persuaded in this instance to comply with the +fashion of their country, and the commands of the magistrate, labored +under the most gloomy apprehensions, from the reproaches of his own +conscience, the censures of the church, and the denunciations of divine +vengeance. + +Such was the anxious diligence which was required to guard the chastity +of the gospel from the infectious breath of idolatry. The superstitious +observances of public or private rites were carelessly practised, from +education and habit, by the followers of the established religion. But +as often as they occurred, they afforded the Christians an opportunity +of declaring and confirming their zealous opposition. By these frequent +protestations their attachment to the faith was continually fortified; +and in proportion to the increase of zeal, they combated with the more +ardor and success in the holy war, which they had undertaken against the +empire of the demons. + +II. The writings of Cicero represent in the most lively colors the +ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the ancient philosophers +with regard to the immortality of the soul. When they are desirous of +arming their disciples against the fear of death, they inculcate, as +an obvious, though melancholy position, that the fatal stroke of our +dissolution releases us from the calamities of life; and that those can +no longer suffer, who no longer exist. Yet there were a few sages of +Greece and Rome who had conceived a more exalted, and, in some respects, +a juster idea of human nature, though it must be confessed, that in +the sublime inquiry, their reason had been often guided by their +imagination, and that their imagination had been prompted by their +vanity. When they viewed with complacency the extent of their own mental +powers, when they exercised the various faculties of memory, of +fancy, and of judgment, in the most profound speculations, or the most +important labors, and when they reflected on the desire of fame, which +transported them into future ages, far beyond the bounds of death and of +the grave, they were unwilling to confound themselves with the beasts +of the field, or to suppose that a being, for whose dignity they +entertained the most sincere admiration, could be limited to a spot of +earth, and to a few years of duration. With this favorable prepossession +they summoned to their aid the science, or rather the language, of +Metaphysics. They soon discovered, that as none of the properties of +matter will apply to the operations of the mind, the human soul must +consequently be a substance distinct from the body, pure, simple, and +spiritual, incapable of dissolution, and susceptible of a much higher +degree of virtue and happiness after the release from its corporeal +prison. From these specious and noble principles, the philosophers who +trod in the footsteps of Plato deduced a very unjustifiable conclusion, +since they asserted, not only the future immortality, but the past +eternity, of the human soul, which they were too apt to consider as a +portion of the infinite and self-existing spirit, which pervades and +sustains the universe. A doctrine thus removed beyond the senses and the +experience of mankind, might serve to amuse the leisure of a philosophic +mind; or, in the silence of solitude, it might sometimes impart a ray +of comfort to desponding virtue; but the faint impression which had +been received in the schools, was soon obliterated by the commerce and +business of active life. We are sufficiently acquainted with the eminent +persons who flourished in the age of Cicero, and of the first Cæsars, +with their actions, their characters, and their motives, to be assured +that their conduct in this life was never regulated by any serious +conviction of the rewards or punishments of a future state. At the bar +and in the senate of Rome the ablest orators were not apprehensive of +giving offence to their hearers, by exposing that doctrine as an idle +and extravagant opinion, which was rejected with contempt by every man +of a liberal education and understanding. + +Since therefore the most sublime efforts of philosophy can extend no +further than feebly to point out the desire, the hope, or, at most, +the probability, of a future state, there is nothing, except a +divine revelation, that can ascertain the existence, and describe the +condition, of the invisible country which is destined to receive the +souls of men after their separation from the body. But we may perceive +several defects inherent to the popular religions of Greece and Rome, +which rendered them very unequal to so arduous a task. 1. The general +system of their mythology was unsupported by any solid proofs; and the +wisest among the Pagans had already disclaimed its usurped authority. 2. +The description of the infernal regions had been abandoned to the fancy +of painters and of poets, who peopled them with so many phantoms and +monsters, who dispensed their rewards and punishments with so little +equity, that a solemn truth, the most congenial to the human heart, was +opposed and disgraced by the absurd mixture of the wildest fictions. 3. +The doctrine of a future state was scarcely considered among the devout +polytheists of Greece and Rome as a fundamental article of faith. The +providence of the gods, as it related to public communities rather than +to private individuals, was principally displayed on the visible theatre +of the present world. The petitions which were offered on the altars +of Jupiter or Apollo, expressed the anxiety of their worshippers for +temporal happiness, and their ignorance or indifference concerning a +future life. The important truth of the of the immortality of the soul +was inculcated with more diligence, as well as success, in India, in +Assyria, in Egypt, and in Gaul; and since we cannot attribute such a +difference to the superior knowledge of the barbarians, we must ascribe +it to the influence of an established priesthood, which employed the +motives of virtue as the instrument of ambition. + +We might naturally expect that a principle so essential to religion, +would have been revealed in the clearest terms to the chosen people +of Palestine, and that it might safely have been intrusted to the +hereditary priesthood of Aaron. It is incumbent on us to adore the +mysterious dispensations of Providence, when we discover that the +doctrine of the immortality of the soul is omitted in the law of Moses +it is darkly insinuated by the prophets; and during the long period +which clasped between the Egyptian and the Babylonian servitudes, the +hopes as well as fears of the Jews appear to have been confined within +the narrow compass of the present life. After Cyrus had permitted the +exiled nation to return into the promised land, and after Ezra had +restored the ancient records of their religion, two celebrated sects, +the Sadducees and the Pharisees, insensibly arose at Jerusalem. The +former, selected from the more opulent and distinguished ranks of +society, were strictly attached to the literal sense of the Mosaic law, +and they piously rejected the immortality of the soul, as an opinion +that received no countenance from the divine book, which they revered +as the only rule of their faith. To the authority of Scripture the +Pharisees added that of tradition, and they accepted, under the name of +traditions, several speculative tenets from the philosophy or religion +of the eastern nations. The doctrines of fate or predestination, of +angels and spirits, and of a future state of rewards and punishments, +were in the number of these new articles of belief; and as the +Pharisees, by the austerity of their manners, had drawn into their party +the body of the Jewish people, the immortality of the soul became the +prevailing sentiment of the synagogue, under the reign of the Asmonæan +princes and pontiffs. The temper of the Jews was incapable of contenting +itself with such a cold and languid assent as might satisfy the mind of +a Polytheist; and as soon as they admitted the idea of a future +state, they embraced it with the zeal which has always formed the +characteristic of the nation. Their zeal, however, added nothing to +its evidence, or even probability: and it was still necessary that the +doctrine of life and immortality, which had been dictated by nature, +approved by reason, and received by superstition, should obtain the +sanction of divine truth from the authority and example of Christ. + +When the promise of eternal happiness was proposed to mankind on +condition of adopting the faith, and of observing the precepts, of the +gospel, it is no wonder that so advantageous an offer should have been +accepted by great numbers of every religion, of every rank, and of every +province in the Roman empire. The ancient Christians were animated by +a contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of +immortality, of which the doubtful and imperfect faith of modern +ages cannot give us any adequate notion. In the primitive church, the +influence of truth was very powerfully strengthened by an opinion, +which, however it may deserve respect for its usefulness and antiquity, +has not been found agreeable to experience. It was universally believed, +that the end of the world, and the kingdom of heaven, were at hand. +* The near approach of this wonderful event had been predicted by the +apostles; the tradition of it was preserved by their earliest disciples, +and those who understood in their literal senses the discourse of Christ +himself, were obliged to expect the second and glorious coming of +the Son of Man in the clouds, before that generation was totally +extinguished, which had beheld his humble condition upon earth, and +which might still be witness of the calamities of the Jews under +Vespasian or Hadrian. The revolution of seventeen centuries has +instructed us not to press too closely the mysterious language of +prophecy and revelation; but as long as, for wise purposes, this error +was permitted to subsist in the church, it was productive of the most +salutary effects on the faith and practice of Christians, who lived in +the awful expectation of that moment, when the globe itself, and all +the various race of mankind, should tremble at the appearance of their +divine Judge. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part IV. + +The ancient and popular doctrine of the Millennium was intimately +connected with the second coming of Christ. As the works of the creation +had been finished in six days, their duration in their present state, +according to a tradition which was attributed to the prophet Elijah, was +fixed to six thousand years. By the same analogy it was inferred, that +this long period of labor and contention, which was now almost elapsed, +would be succeeded by a joyful Sabbath of a thousand years; and that +Christ, with the triumphant band of the saints and the elect who had +escaped death, or who had been miraculously revived, would reign upon +earth till the time appointed for the last and general resurrection. So +pleasing was this hope to the mind of believers, that the New Jerusalem, +the seat of this blissful kingdom, was quickly adorned with all the +gayest colors of the imagination. A felicity consisting only of pure and +spiritual pleasure would have appeared too refined for its inhabitants, +who were still supposed to possess their human nature and senses. A +garden of Eden, with the amusements of the pastoral life, was no longer +suited to the advanced state of society which prevailed under the Roman +empire. A city was therefore erected of gold and precious stones, and +a supernatural plenty of corn and wine was bestowed on the adjacent +territory; in the free enjoyment of whose spontaneous productions, the +happy and benevolent people was never to be restrained by any jealous +laws of exclusive property. The assurance of such a Millennium was +carefully inculcated by a succession of fathers from Justin Martyr, and +Irenæus, who conversed with the immediate disciples of the apostles, +down to Lactantius, who was preceptor to the son of Constantine. Though +it might not be universally received, it appears to have been the +reigning sentiment of the orthodox believers; and it seems so well +adapted to the desires and apprehensions of mankind, that it must +have contributed in a very considerable degree to the progress of +the Christian faith. But when the edifice of the church was almost +completed, the temporary support was laid aside. The doctrine of +Christ's reign upon earth was at first treated as a profound allegory, +was considered by degrees as a doubtful and useless opinion, and was +at length rejected as the absurd invention of heresy and fanaticism. A +mysterious prophecy, which still forms a part of the sacred canon, but +which was thought to favor the exploded sentiment, has very narrowly +escaped the proscription of the church. + +Whilst the happiness and glory of a temporal reign were promised to the +disciples of Christ, the most dreadful calamities were denounced against +an unbelieving world. The edification of a new Jerusalem was to advance +by equal steps with the destruction of the mystic Babylon; and as +long as the emperors who reigned before Constantine persisted in the +profession of idolatry, the epithet of babylon was applied to the city +and to the empire of Rome. A regular series was prepared of all the +moral and physical evils which can afflict a flourishing nation; +intestine discord, and the invasion of the fiercest barbarians from +the unknown regions of the North; pestilence and famine, comets and +eclipses, earthquakes and inundations. All these were only so many +preparatory and alarming signs of the great catastrophe of Rome, when +the country of the Scipios and Cæsars should be consumed by a flame from +Heaven, and the city of the seven hills, with her palaces, her temples, +and her triumphal arches, should be buried in a vast lake of fire and +brimstone. It might, however, afford some consolation to Roman vanity, +that the period of their empire would be that of the world itself; +which, as it had once perished by the element of water, was destined to +experience a second and a speedy destruction from the element of fire. +In the opinion of a general conflagration, the faith of the Christian +very happily coincided with the tradition of the East, the philosophy of +the Stoics, and the analogy of Nature; and even the country, which, from +religious motives, had been chosen for the origin and principal scene of +the conflagration, was the best adapted for that purpose by natural and +physical causes; by its deep caverns, beds of sulphur, and numerous +volcanoes, of which those of Ætna, of Vesuvius, and of Lipari, exhibit +a very imperfect representation. The calmest and most intrepid sceptic +could not refuse to acknowledge that the destruction of the present +system of the world by fire, was in itself extremely probable. The +Christian, who founded his belief much less on the fallacious arguments +of reason than on the authority of tradition and the interpretation +of Scripture, expected it with terror and confidence as a certain and +approaching event; and as his mind was perpetually filled with the +solemn idea, he considered every disaster that happened to the empire as +an infallible symptom of an expiring world. + +The condemnation of the wisest and most virtuous of the Pagans, on +account of their ignorance or disbelief of the divine truth, seems to +offend the reason and the humanity of the present age. But the primitive +church, whose faith was of a much firmer consistence, delivered over, +without hesitation, to eternal torture, the far greater part of the +human species. A charitable hope might perhaps be indulged in favor of +Socrates, or some other sages of antiquity, who had consulted the light +of reason before that of the gospel had arisen. But it was unanimously +affirmed, that those who, since the birth or the death of Christ, had +obstinately persisted in the worship of the dæmons, neither deserved +nor could expect a pardon from the irritated justice of the Deity. These +rigid sentiments, which had been unknown to the ancient world, appear to +have infused a spirit of bitterness into a system of love and harmony. +The ties of blood and friendship were frequently torn asunder by the +difference of religious faith; and the Christians, who, in this world, +found themselves oppressed by the power of the Pagans, were sometimes +seduced by resentment and spiritual pride to delight in the prospect of +their future triumph. "You are fond of spectacles," exclaims the stern +Tertullian; "expect the greatest of all spectacles, the last and eternal +judgment of the universe. How shall I admire, how laugh, how rejoice, +how exult, when I behold so many proud monarchs, so many fancied gods, +groaning in the lowest abyss of darkness; so many magistrates, who +persecuted the name of the Lord, liquefying in fiercer fires than they +ever kindled against the Christians; so many sage philosophers blushing +in red-hot flames with their deluded scholars; so many celebrated poets +trembling before the tribunal, not of Minos, but of Christ; so many +tragedians, more tuneful in the expression of their own sufferings; so +many dancers." * But the humanity of the reader will permit me to draw +a veil over the rest of this infernal description, which the zealous +African pursues in a long variety of affected and unfeeling witticisms. + +Doubtless there were many among the primitive Christians of a temper +more suitable to the meekness and charity of their profession. There +were many who felt a sincere compassion for the danger of their friends +and countrymen, and who exerted the most benevolent zeal to save them +from the impending destruction. The careless Polytheist, assailed by +new and unexpected terrors, against which neither his priests nor +his philosophers could afford him any certain protection, was very +frequently terrified and subdued by the menace of eternal tortures. His +fears might assist the progress of his faith and reason; and if he +could once persuade himself to suspect that the Christian religion might +possibly be true, it became an easy task to convince him that it was the +safest and most prudent party that he could possibly embrace. + +III. The supernatural gifts, which even in this life were ascribed to +the Christians above the rest of mankind, must have conduced to their +own comfort, and very frequently to the conviction of infidels. Besides +the occasional prodigies, which might sometimes be effected by the +immediate interposition of the Deity when he suspended the laws of +Nature for the service of religion, the Christian church, from the time +of the apostles and their first disciples, has claimed an uninterrupted +succession of miraculous powers, the gift of tongues, of vision, and +of prophecy, the power of expelling dæmons, of healing the sick, and +of raising the dead. The knowledge of foreign languages was frequently +communicated to the contemporaries of Irenæus, though Irenæus himself +was left to struggle with the difficulties of a barbarous dialect, +whilst he preached the gospel to the natives of Gaul. The divine +inspiration, whether it was conveyed in the form of a waking or of a +sleeping vision, is described as a favor very liberally bestowed on all +ranks of the faithful, on women as on elders, on boys as well as upon +bishops. When their devout minds were sufficiently prepared by a course +of prayer, of fasting, and of vigils, to receive the extraordinary +impulse, they were transported out of their senses, and delivered in +ecstasy what was inspired, being mere organs of the Holy Spirit, just as +a pipe or flute is of him who blows into it. We may add, that the design +of these visions was, for the most part, either to disclose the future +history, or to guide the present administration, of the church. The +expulsion of the dæmons from the bodies of those unhappy persons whom +they had been permitted to torment, was considered as a signal though +ordinary triumph of religion, and is repeatedly alleged by the +ancient apoligists, as the most convincing evidence of the truth of +Christianity. The awful ceremony was usually performed in a public +manner, and in the presence of a great number of spectators; the patient +was relieved by the power or skill of the exorcist, and the vanquished +dæmon was heard to confess that he was one of the fabled gods of +antiquity, who had impiously usurped the adoration of mankind. But the +miraculous cure of diseases of the most inveterate or even preternatural +kind, can no longer occasion any surprise, when we recollect, that +in the days of Iranæus, about the end of the second century, the +resurrection of the dead was very far from being esteemed an uncommon +event; that the miracle was frequently performed on necessary occasions, +by great fasting and the joint supplication of the church of the place, +and that the persons thus restored to their prayers had lived afterwards +among them many years. At such a period, when faith could boast of so +many wonderful victories over death, it seems difficult to account for +the scepticism of those philosophers, who still rejected and derided +the doctrine of the resurrection. A noble Grecian had rested on this +important ground the whole controversy, and promised Theophilus, Bishop +of Antioch, that if he could be gratified with the sight of a single +person who had been actually raised from the dead, he would immediately +embrace the Christian religion. It is somewhat remarkable, that the +prelate of the first eastern church, however anxious for the conversion +of his friend, thought proper to decline this fair and reasonable +challenge. + +The miracles of the primitive church, after obtaining the sanction of +ages, have been lately attacked in a very free and ingenious inquiry, +which, though it has met with the most favorable reception from the +public, appears to have excited a general scandal among the divines +of our own as well as of the other Protestant churches of Europe. Our +different sentiments on this subject will be much less influenced by any +particular arguments, than by our habits of study and reflection; and, +above all, by the degree of evidence which we have accustomed ourselves +to require for the proof of a miraculous event. The duty of an historian +does not call upon him to interpose his private judgment in this nice +and important controversy; but he ought not to dissemble the difficulty +of adopting such a theory as may reconcile the interest of religion with +that of reason, of making a proper application of that theory, and of +defining with precision the limits of that happy period, exempt from +error and from deceit, to which we might be disposed to extend the gift +of supernatural powers. From the first of the fathers to the last of the +popes, a succession of bishops, of saints, of martyrs, and of miracles, +is continued without interruption; and the progress of superstition +was so gradual, and almost imperceptible, that we know not in what +particular link we should break the chain of tradition. Every age bears +testimony to the wonderful events by which it was distinguished, and +its testimony appears no less weighty and respectable than that of the +preceding generation, till we are insensibly led on to accuse our own +inconsistency, if in the eighth or in the twelfth century we deny to the +venerable Bede, or to the holy Bernard, the same degree of confidence +which, in the second century, we had so liberally granted to Justin +or to Irenæus. If the truth of any of those miracles is appreciated by +their apparent use and propriety, every age had unbelievers to convince, +heretics to confute, and idolatrous nations to convert; and sufficient +motives might always be produced to justify the interposition of Heaven. +And yet, since every friend to revelation is persuaded of the reality, +and every reasonable man is convinced of the cessation, of miraculous +powers, it is evident that there must have been some period in which +they were either suddenly or gradually withdrawn from the Christian +church. Whatever æra is chosen for that purpose, the death of the +apostles, the conversion of the Roman empire, or the extinction of the +Arian heresy, the insensibility of the Christians who lived at that +time will equally afford a just matter of surprise. They still supported +their pretensions after they had lost their power. Credulity performed +the office of faith; fanaticism was permitted to assume the language of +inspiration, and the effects of accident or contrivance were ascribed +to supernatural causes. The recent experience of genuine miracles should +have instructed the Christian world in the ways of Providence, and +habituated their eye (if we may use a very inadequate expression) to the +style of the divine artist. Should the most skilful painter of modern +Italy presume to decorate his feeble imitations with the name of Raphael +or of Correggio, the insolent fraud would be soon discovered, and +indignantly rejected. + +Whatever opinion may be entertained of the miracles of the primitive +church since the time of the apostles, this unresisting softness of +temper, so conspicuous among the believers of the second and third +centuries, proved of some accidental benefit to the cause of truth and +religion. In modern times, a latent and even involuntary scepticism +adheres to the most pious dispositions. Their admission of supernatural +truths is much less an active consent than a cold and passive +acquiescence. Accustomed long since to observe and to respect the +variable order of Nature, our reason, or at least our imagination, is +not sufficiently prepared to sustain the visible action of the Deity. +But, in the first ages of Christianity, the situation of mankind was +extremely different. The most curious, or the most credulous, among the +Pagans, were often persuaded to enter into a society which asserted an +actual claim of miraculous powers. The primitive Christians perpetually +trod on mystic ground, and their minds were exercised by the habits of +believing the most extraordinary events. They felt, or they fancied, +that on every side they were incessantly assaulted by dæmons, comforted +by visions, instructed by prophecy, and surprisingly delivered from +danger, sickness, and from death itself, by the supplications of the +church. The real or imaginary prodigies, of which they so frequently +conceived themselves to be the objects, the instruments, or the +spectators, very happily disposed them to adopt with the same ease, +but with far greater justice, the authentic wonders of the evangelic +history; and thus miracles that exceeded not the measure of their own +experience, inspired them with the most lively assurance of mysteries +which were acknowledged to surpass the limits of their understanding. It +is this deep impression of supernatural truths, which has been so much +celebrated under the name of faith; a state of mind described as +the surest pledge of the divine favor and of future felicity, and +recommended as the first, or perhaps the only merit of a Christian. +According to the more rigid doctors, the moral virtues, which may be +equally practised by infidels, are destitute of any value or efficacy in +the work of our justification. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part V. + +IV. But the primitive Christian demonstrated his faith by his virtues; +and it was very justly supposed that the divine persuasion, which +enlightened or subdued the understanding, must, at the same time, purify +the heart, and direct the actions, of the believer. The first apologists +of Christianity who justify the innocence of their brethren, and the +writers of a later period who celebrate the sanctity of their ancestors, +display, in the most lively colors, the reformation of manners which was +introduced into the world by the preaching of the gospel. As it is my +intention to remark only such human causes as were permitted to second +the influence of revelation, I shall slightly mention two motives which +might naturally render the lives of the primitive Christians much purer +and more austere than those of their Pagan contemporaries, or their +degenerate successors; repentance for their past sins, and the laudable +desire of supporting the reputation of the society in which they were +engaged. * + +It is a very ancient reproach, suggested by the ignorance or the malice +of infidelity, that the Christians allured into their party the most +atrocious criminals, who, as soon as they were touched by a sense of +remorse, were easily persuaded to wash away, in the water of baptism, +the guilt of their past conduct, for which the temples of the gods +refused to grant them any expiation. But this reproach, when it is +cleared from misrepresentation, contributes as much to the honor as +it did to the increase of the church. The friends of Christianity may +acknowledge without a blush, that many of the most eminent saints had +been before their baptism the most abandoned sinners. Those persons, who +in the world had followed, though in an imperfect manner, the dictates +of benevolence and propriety, derived such a calm satisfaction from the +opinion of their own rectitude, as rendered them much less susceptible +of the sudden emotions of shame, of grief, and of terror, which have +given birth to so many wonderful conversions. After the example of their +divine Master, the missionaries of the gospel disdained not the society +of men, and especially of women, oppressed by the consciousness, and +very often by the effects, of their vices. As they emerged from sin +and superstition to the glorious hope of immortality, they resolved to +devote themselves to a life, not only of virtue, but of penitence. The +desire of perfection became the ruling passion of their soul; and it is +well known, that while reason embraces a cold mediocrity, our passions +hurry us, with rapid violence, over the space which lies between the +most opposite extremes. + +When the new converts had been enrolled in the number of the faithful, +and were admitted to the sacraments of the church, they found themselves +restrained from relapsing into their past disorders by another +consideration of a less spiritual, but of a very innocent and +respectable nature. Any particular society that has departed from +the great body of the nation, or the religion to which it belonged, +immediately becomes the object of universal as well as invidious +observation. In proportion to the smallness of its numbers, the +character of the society may be affected by the virtues and vices of the +persons who compose it; and every member is engaged to watch with the +most vigilant attention over his own behavior, and over that of his +brethren, since, as he must expect to incur a part of the common +disgrace, he may hope to enjoy a share of the common reputation. When +the Christians of Bithynia were brought before the tribunal of the +younger Pliny, they assured the proconsul, that, far from being engaged +in any unlawful conspiracy, they were bound by a solemn obligation to +abstain from the commission of those crimes which disturb the private +or public peace of society, from theft, robbery, adultery, perjury, and +fraud. Near a century afterwards, Tertullian with an honest pride, +could boast, that very few Christians had suffered by the hand of the +executioner, except on account of their religion. Their serious and +sequestered life, averse to the gay luxury of the age, inured them to +chastity, temperance, economy, and all the sober and domestic virtues. +As the greater number were of some trade or profession, it was incumbent +on them, by the strictest integrity and the fairest dealing, to remove +the suspicions which the profane are too apt to conceive against the +appearances of sanctity. The contempt of the world exercised them in +the habits of humility, meekness, and patience. The more they were +persecuted, the more closely they adhered to each other. Their mutual +charity and unsuspecting confidence has been remarked by infidels, and +was too often abused by perfidious friends. + +It is a very honorable circumstance for the morals of the primitive +Christians, that even their faults, or rather errors, were derived +from an excess of virtue. The bishops and doctors of the church, whose +evidence attests, and whose authority might influence, the professions, +the principles, and even the practice of their contemporaries, had +studied the Scriptures with less skill than devotion; and they often +received, in the most literal sense, those rigid precepts of Christ +and the apostles, to which the prudence of succeeding commentators has +applied a looser and more figurative mode of interpretation. Ambitious +to exalt the perfection of the gospel above the wisdom of philosophy, +the zealous fathers have carried the duties of self-mortification, of +purity, and of patience, to a height which it is scarcely possible to +attain, and much less to preserve, in our present state of weakness and +corruption. A doctrine so extraordinary and so sublime must inevitably +command the veneration of the people; but it was ill calculated to +obtain the suffrage of those worldly philosophers, who, in the conduct +of this transitory life, consult only the feelings of nature and the +interest of society. + +There are two very natural propensities which we may distinguish in the +most virtuous and liberal dispositions, the love of pleasure and the +love of action. If the former is refined by art and learning, improved +by the charms of social intercourse, and corrected by a just regard to +economy, to health, and to reputation, it is productive of the greatest +part of the happiness of private life. The love of action is a principle +of a much stronger and more doubtful nature. It often leads to anger, +to ambition, and to revenge; but when it is guided by the sense of +propriety and benevolence, it becomes the parent of every virtue, and if +those virtues are accompanied with equal abilities, a family, a state, +or an empire, may be indebted for their safety and prosperity to the +undaunted courage of a single man. To the love of pleasure we may +therefore ascribe most of the agreeable, to the love of action we +may attribute most of the useful and respectable, qualifications. The +character in which both the one and the other should be united and +harmonized, would seem to constitute the most perfect idea of human +nature. The insensible and inactive disposition, which should be +supposed alike destitute of both, would be rejected, by the common +consent of mankind, as utterly incapable of procuring any happiness to +the individual, or any public benefit to the world. But it was not +in this world, that the primitive Christians were desirous of making +themselves either agreeable or useful. * + +The acquisition of knowledge, the exercise of our reason or fancy, and +the cheerful flow of unguarded conversation, may employ the leisure of +a liberal mind. Such amusements, however, were rejected with abhorrence, +or admitted with the utmost caution, by the severity of the fathers, +who despised all knowledge that was not useful to salvation, and who +considered all levity of discours eas a criminal abuse of the gift of +speech. In our present state of existence the body is so inseparably +connected with the soul, that it seems to be our interest to taste, +with innocence and moderation, the enjoyments of which that faithful +companion is susceptible. Very different was the reasoning of our devout +predecessors; vainly aspiring to imitate the perfection of angels, they +disdained, or they affected to disdain, every earthly and corporeal +delight. Some of our senses indeed are necessary for our preservation, +others for our subsistence, and others again for our information; +and thus far it was impossible to reject the use of them. The first +sensation of pleasure was marked as the first moment of their abuse. The +unfeeling candidate for heaven was instructed, not only to resist the +grosser allurements of the taste or smell, but even to shut his ears +against the profane harmony of sounds, and to view with indifference the +most finished productions of human art. Gay apparel, magnificent houses, +and elegant furniture, were supposed to unite the double guilt of pride +and of sensuality; a simple and mortified appearance was more suitable +to the Christian who was certain of his sins and doubtful of his +salvation. In their censures of luxury, the fathers are extremely minute +and circumstantial; and among the various articles which excite their +pious indignation, we may enumerate false hair, garments of any color +except white, instruments of music, vases of gold or silver, downy +pillows, (as Jacob reposed his head on a stone,) white bread, foreign +wines, public salutations, the use of warm baths, and the practice of +shaving the beard, which, according to the expression of Tertullian, is +a lie against our own faces, and an impious attempt to improve the works +of the Creator. When Christianity was introduced among the rich and the +polite, the observation of these singular laws was left, as it would be +at present, to the few who were ambitious of superior sanctity. But it +is always easy, as well as agreeable, for the inferior ranks of mankind +to claim a merit from the contempt of that pomp and pleasure which +fortune has placed beyond their reach. The virtue of the primitive +Christians, like that of the first Romans, was very frequently guarded +by poverty and ignorance. + +The chaste severity of the fathers, in whatever related to the commerce +of the two sexes, flowed from the same principle; their abhorrence +of every enjoyment which might gratify the sensual, and degrade the +spiritual, nature of man. It was their favorite opinion, that if Adam +had preserved his obedience to the Creator, he would have lived forever +in a state of virgin purity, and that some harmless mode of vegetation +might have peopled paradise with a race of innocent and immortal beings. +The use of marriage was permitted only to his fallen posterity, as a +necessary expedient to continue the human species, and as a restraint, +however imperfect, on the natural licentiousness of desire. The +hesitation of the orthodox casuists on this interesting subject, betrays +the perplexity of men, unwilling to approve an institution which they +were compelled to tolerate. The enumeration of the very whimsical laws, +which they most circumstantially imposed on the marriage-bed, would +force a smile from the young and a blush from the fair. It was their +unanimous sentiment, that a first marriage was adequate to all the +purposes of nature and of society. The sensual connection was refined +into a resemblance of the mystic union of Christ with his church, and +was pronounced to be indissoluble either by divorce or by death. +The practice of second nuptials was branded with the name of a legal +adultery; and the persons who were guilty of so scandalous an offence +against Christian purity, were soon excluded from the honors, and even +from the alms, of the church. Since desire was imputed as a crime, and +marriage was tolerated as a defect, it was consistent with the same +principles to consider a state of celibacy as the nearest approach to +the divine perfection. It was with the utmost difficulty that ancient +Rome could support the institution of six vestals; but the primitive +church was filled with a great number of persons of either sex, who had +devoted themselves to the profession of perpetual chastity. A few of +these, among whom we may reckon the learned Origen, judged it the +most prudent to disarm the tempter. Some were insensible and some were +invincible against the assaults of the flesh. Disdaining an ignominious +flight, the virgins of the warm climate of Africa encountered the enemy +in the closest engagement; they permitted priests and deacons to share +their bed, and gloried amidst the flames in their unsullied purity. But +insulted Nature sometimes vindicated her rights, and this new species of +martyrdom served only to introduce a new scandal into the church. Among +the Christian ascetics, however, (a name which they soon acquired from +their painful exercise,) many, as they were less presumptuous, were +probably more successful. The loss of sensual pleasure was supplied +and compensated by spiritual pride. Even the multitude of Pagans +were inclined to estimate the merit of the sacrifice by its apparent +difficulty; and it was in the praise of these chaste spouses of +Christ that the fathers have poured forth the troubled stream of +their eloquence. Such are the early traces of monastic principles and +institutions, which, in a subsequent age, have counterbalanced all the +temporal advantages of Christianity. + +The Christians were not less averse to the business than to the +pleasures of this world. The defence of our persons and property they +knew not how to reconcile with the patient doctrine which enjoined an +unlimited forgiveness of past injuries, and commanded them to invite the +repetition of fresh insults. Their simplicity was offended by the use of +oaths, by the pomp of magistracy, and by the active contention of public +life; nor could their humane ignorance be convinced that it was lawful +on any occasion to shed the blood of our fellow-creatures, either by +the sword of justice, or by that of war; even though their criminal +or hostile attempts should threaten the peace and safety of the whole +community. It was acknowledged, that, under a less perfect law, +the powers of the Jewish constitution had been exercised, with the +approbation of Heaven, by inspired prophets and by anointed kings. The +Christians felt and confessed that such institutions might be necessary +for the present system of the world, and they cheerfully submitted to +the authority of their Pagan governors. But while they inculcated the +maxims of passive obedience, they refused to take any active part in +the civil administration or the military defence of the empire. Some +indulgence might, perhaps, be allowed to those persons who, before +their conversion, were already engaged in such violent and sanguinary +occupations; but it was impossible that the Christians, without +renouncing a more sacred duty, could assume the character of soldiers, +of magistrates, or of princes. This indolent, or even criminal disregard +to the public welfare, exposed them to the contempt and reproaches +of the Pagans who very frequently asked, what must be the fate of the +empire, attacked on every side by the barbarians, if all mankind should +adopt the pusillanimous sentiments of the new sect. To this insulting +question the Christian apologists returned obscure and ambiguous +answers, as they were unwilling to reveal the secret cause of their +security; the expectation that, before the conversion of mankind was +accomplished, war, government, the Roman empire, and the world itself, +would be no more. It may be observed, that, in this instance likewise, +the situation of the first Christians coincided very happily with +their religious scruples, and that their aversion to an active life +contributed rather to excuse them from the service, than to exclude them +from the honors, of the state and army. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part VI. + +V. But the human character, however it may be exalted or depressed by a +temporary enthusiasm, will return by degrees to its proper and natural +level, and will resume those passions that seem the most adapted to its +present condition. The primitive Christians were dead to the business +and pleasures of the world; but their love of action, which could never +be entirely extinguished, soon revived, and found a new occupation in +the government of the church. A separate society, which attacked the +established religion of the empire, was obliged to adopt some form +of internal policy, and to appoint a sufficient number of ministers, +intrusted not only with the spiritual functions, but even with the +temporal direction of the Christian commonwealth. The safety of that +society, its honor, its aggrandizement, were productive, even in the +most pious minds, of a spirit of patriotism, such as the first of +the Romans had felt for the republic, and sometimes of a similar +indifference, in the use of whatever means might probably conduce to so +desirable an end. The ambition of raising themselves or their friends +to the honors and offices of the church, was disguised by the laudable +intention of devoting to the public benefit the power and consideration, +which, for that purpose only, it became their duty to solicit. In the +exercise of their functions, they were frequently called upon to detect +the errors of heresy or the arts of faction, to oppose the designs +of perfidious brethren, to stigmatize their characters with deserved +infamy, and to expel them from the bosom of a society whose peace and +happiness they had attempted to disturb. The ecclesiastical governors of +the Christians were taught to unite the wisdom of the serpent with the +innocence of the dove; but as the former was refined, so the latter was +insensibly corrupted, by the habits of government. If the church as +well as in the world, the persons who were placed in any public station +rendered themselves considerable by their eloquence and firmness, by +their knowledge of mankind, and by their dexterity in business; and +while they concealed from others, and perhaps from themselves, the +secret motives of their conduct, they too frequently relapsed into all +the turbulent passions of active life, which were tinctured with an +additional degree of bitterness and obstinacy from the infusion of +spiritual zeal. + +The government of the church has often been the subject, as well as +the prize, of religious contention. The hostile disputants of Rome, +of Paris, of Oxford, and of Geneva, have alike struggled to reduce the +primitive and apostolic model to the respective standards of their +own policy. The few who have pursued this inquiry with more candor and +impartiality, are of opinion, that the apostles declined the office +of legislation, and rather chose to endure some partial scandals and +divisions, than to exclude the Christians of a future age from the +liberty of varying their forms of ecclesiastical government according +to the changes of times and circumstances. The scheme of policy, which, +under their approbation, was adopted for the use of the first century, +may be discovered from the practice of Jerusalem, of Ephesus, or of +Corinth. The societies which were instituted in the cities of the Roman +empire, were united only by the ties of faith and charity. Independence +and equality formed the basis of their internal constitution. The +want of discipline and human learning was supplied by the occasional +assistance of the prophets, who were called to that function without +distinction of age, of sex, * or of natural abilities, and who, as +often as they felt the divine impulse, poured forth the effusions of the +Spirit in the assembly of the faithful. But these extraordinary gifts +were frequently abused or misapplied by the prophetic teachers. They +displayed them at an improper season, presumptuously disturbed the +service of the assembly, and, by their pride or mistaken zeal, they +introduced, particularly into the apostolic church of Corinth, a long +and melancholy train of disorders. As the institution of prophets became +useless, and even pernicious, their powers were withdrawn, and their +office abolished. The public functions of religion were solely intrusted +to the established ministers of the church, the bishops and the +presbyters; two appellations which, in their first origin, appear to +have distinguished the same office and the same order of persons. +The name of Presbyter was expressive of their age, or rather of their +gravity and wisdom. The title of Bishop denoted their inspection over +the faith and manners of the Christians who were committed to their +pastoral care. In proportion to the respective numbers of the faithful, +a larger or smaller number of these episcopal presbyters guided each +infant congregation with equal authority and with united counsels. + +But the most perfect equality of freedom requires the directing hand +of a superior magistrate: and the order of public deliberations soon +introduces the office of a president, invested at least with +the authority of collecting the sentiments, and of executing the +resolutions, of the assembly. A regard for the public tranquillity, +which would so frequently have been interrupted by annual or by +occasional elections, induced the primitive Christians to constitute an +honorable and perpetual magistracy, and to choose one of the wisest and +most holy among their presbyterians to execute, during his life, +the duties of their ecclesiastical governor. It was under these +circumstances that the lofty title of Bishop began to raise itself above +the humble appellation of Presbyter; and while the latter remained the +most natural distinction for the members of every Christian senate, +the former was appropriated to the dignity of its new president. The +advantages of this episcopal form of government, which appears to have +been introduced before the end of the first century, were so obvious, +and so important for the future greatness, as well as the present peace, +of Christianity, that it was adopted without delay by all the societies +which were already scattered over the empire, had acquired in a very +early period the sanction of antiquity, and is still revered by the most +powerful churches, both of the East and of the West, as a primitive +and even as a divine establishment. It is needless to observe, that the +pious and humble presbyters, who were first dignified with the episcopal +title, could not possess, and would probably have rejected, the power +and pomp which now encircles the tiara of the Roman pontiff, or the +mitre of a German prelate. But we may define, in a few words, the narrow +limits of their original jurisdiction, which was chiefly of a spiritual, +though in some instances of a temporal nature. It consisted in the +administration of the sacraments and discipline of the church, the +superintendency of religious ceremonies, which imperceptibly increased +in number and variety, the consecration of ecclesiastical ministers, to +whom the bishop assigned their respective functions, the management of +the public fund, and the determination of all such differences as the +faithful were unwilling to expose before the tribunal of an idolatrous +judge. These powers, during a short period, were exercised according +to the advice of the presbyteral college, and with the consent and +approbation of the assembly of Christians. The primitive bishops were +considered only as the first of their equals, and the honorable servants +of a free people. Whenever the episcopal chair became vacant by death, +a new president was chosen among the presbyters by the suffrages of the +whole congregation, every member of which supposed himself invested with +a sacred and sacerdotal character. + +Such was the mild and equal constitution by which the Christians were +governed more than a hundred years after the death of the apostles. +Every society formed within itself a separate and independent republic; +and although the most distant of these little states maintained a +mutual as well as friendly intercourse of letters and deputations, +the Christian world was not yet connected by any supreme authority or +legislative assembly. As the numbers of the faithful were gradually +multiplied, they discovered the advantages that might result from a +closer union of their interest and designs. Towards the end of the +second century, the churches of Greece and Asia adopted the useful +institutions of provincial synods, * and they may justly be supposed to +have borrowed the model of a representative council from the celebrated +examples of their own country, the Amphictyons, the Achæan league, or +the assemblies of the Ionian cities. It was soon established as a custom +and as a law, that the bishops of the independent churches should meet +in the capital of the province at the stated periods of spring and +autumn. Their deliberations were assisted by the advice of a few +distinguished presbyters, and moderated by the presence of a listening +multitude. Their decrees, which were styled Canons, regulated every +important controversy of faith and discipline; and it was natural to +believe that a liberal effusion of the Holy Spirit would be poured +on the united assembly of the delegates of the Christian people. The +institution of synods was so well suited to private ambition, and +to public interest, that in the space of a few years it was received +throughout the whole empire. A regular correspondence was established +between the provincial councils, which mutually communicated and +approved their respective proceedings; and the catholic church soon +assumed the form, and acquired the strength, of a great foederative +republic. + +As the legislative authority of the particular churches was insensibly +superseded by the use of councils, the bishops obtained by their +alliance a much larger share of executive and arbitrary power; and as +soon as they were connected by a sense of their common interest, they +were enabled to attack with united vigor, the original rights of their +clergy and people. The prelates of the third century imperceptibly +changed the language of exhortation into that of command, scattered the +seeds of future usurpations, and supplied, by scripture allegories and +declamatory rhetoric, their deficiency of force and of reason. They +exalted the unity and power of the church, as it was represented in the +Episcopal Office, of which every bishop enjoyed an equal and undivided +portion. Princes and magistrates, it was often repeated, might boast an +earthly claim to a transitory dominion; it was the episcopal authority +alone which was derived from the Deity, and extended itself over this +and over another world. The bishops were the vicegerents of Christ, +the successors of the apostles, and the mystic substitutes of the high +priest of the Mosaic law. Their exclusive privilege of conferring +the sacerdotal character, invaded the freedom both of clerical and of +popular elections; and if, in the administration of the church, they +still consulted the judgment of the presbyters, or the inclination of +the people, they most carefully inculcated the merit of such a voluntary +condescension. The bishops acknowledged the supreme authority which +resided in the assembly of their brethren; but in the government of his +peculiar diocese, each of them exacted from his flock the same implicit +obedience as if that favorite metaphor had been literally just, and +as if the shepherd had been of a more exalted nature than that of his +sheep. This obedience, however, was not imposed without some efforts on +one side, and some resistance on the other. The democratical part of the +constitution was, in many places, very warmly supported by the zealous +or interested opposition of the inferior clergy. But their patriotism +received the ignominious epithets of faction and schism; and the +episcopal cause was indebted for its rapid progress to the labors of +many active prelates, who, like Cyprian of Carthage, could reconcile the +arts of the most ambitious statesman with the Christian virtues which +seem adapted to the character of a saint and martyr. + +The same causes which at first had destroyed the equality of the +presbyters introduced among the bishops a preeminence of rank, and from +thence a superiority of jurisdiction. As often as in the spring and +autumn they met in provincial synod, the difference of personal merit +and reputation was very sensibly felt among the members of the assembly, +and the multitude was governed by the wisdom and eloquence of the few. +But the order of public proceedings required a more regular and less +invidious distinction; the office of perpetual presidents in the +councils of each province was conferred on the bishops of the principal +city; and these aspiring prelates, who soon acquired the lofty titles of +Metropolitans and Primates, secretly prepared themselves to usurp over +their episcopal brethren the same authority which the bishops had so +lately assumed above the college of presbyters. Nor was it long before +an emulation of preeminence and power prevailed among the Metropolitans +themselves, each of them affecting to display, in the most pompous +terms, the temporal honors and advantages of the city over which he +presided; the numbers and opulence of the Christians who were subject to +their pastoral care; the saints and martyrs who had arisen among them; +and the purity with which they preserved the tradition of the faith, as +it had been transmitted through a series of orthodox bishops from the +apostle or the apostolic disciple, to whom the foundation of their +church was ascribed. From every cause, either of a civil or of an +ecclesiastical nature, it was easy to foresee that Rome must enjoy +the respect, and would soon claim the obedience of the provinces. The +society of the faithful bore a just proportion to the capital of the +empire; and the Roman church was the greatest, the most numerous, +and, in regard to the West, the most ancient of all the Christian +establishments, many of which had received their religion from the pious +labors of her missionaries. Instead of one apostolic founder, the utmost +boast of Antioch, of Ephesus, or of Corinth, the banks of the Tyber were +supposed to have been honored with the preaching and martyrdom of +the two most eminent among the apostles; and the bishops of Rome very +prudently claimed the inheritance of whatsoever prerogatives were +attributed either to the person or to the office of St. Peter. The +bishops of Italy and of the provinces were disposed to allow them +a primacy of order and association (such was their very accurate +expression) in the Christian aristocracy. But the power of a monarch was +rejected with abhorrence, and the aspiring genius of Rome experienced +from the nations of Asia and Africa a more vigorous resistance to her +spiritual, than she had formerly done to her temporal, dominion. The +patriotic Cyprian, who ruled with the most absolute sway the church of +Carthage and the provincial synods, opposed with resolution and success +the ambition of the Roman pontiff, artfully connected his own cause with +that of the eastern bishops, and, like Hannibal, sought out new allies +in the heart of Asia. If this Punic war was carried on without any +effusion of blood, it was owing much less to the moderation than to the +weakness of the contending prelates. Invectives and excommunications +were their only weapons; and these, during the progress of the whole +controversy, they hurled against each other with equal fury and +devotion. The hard necessity of censuring either a pope, or a saint and +martyr, distresses the modern Catholics whenever they are obliged to +relate the particulars of a dispute in which the champions of religion +indulged such passions as seem much more adapted to the senate or to the +camp. + +The progress of the ecclesiastical authority gave birth to the memorable +distinction of the laity and of the clergy, which had been unknown to +the Greeks and Romans. The former of these appellations comprehended the +body of the Christian people; the latter, according to the signification +of the word, was appropriated to the chosen portion that had been set +apart for the service of religion; a celebrated order of men, which +has furnished the most important, though not always the most edifying, +subjects for modern history. Their mutual hostilities sometimes +disturbed the peace of the infant church, but their zeal and activity +were united in the common cause, and the love of power, which (under +the most artful disguises) could insinuate itself into the breasts +of bishops and martyrs, animated them to increase the number of their +subjects, and to enlarge the limits of the Christian empire. They +were destitute of any temporal force, and they were for a long +time discouraged and oppressed, rather than assisted, by the civil +magistrate; but they had acquired, and they employed within their own +society, the two most efficacious instruments of government, rewards and +punishments; the former derived from the pious liberality, the latter +from the devout apprehensions, of the faithful. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part VII + +I. The community of goods, which had so agreeably amused the imagination +of Plato, and which subsisted in some degree among the austere sect of +the Essenians, was adopted for a short time in the primitive church. +The fervor of the first proselytes prompted them to sell those worldly +possessions, which they despised, to lay the price of them at the feet +of the apostles, and to content themselves with receiving an equal share +out of the general distribution. The progress of the Christian religion +relaxed, and gradually abolished, this generous institution, which, in +hands less pure than those of the apostles, would too soon have been +corrupted and abused by the returning selfishness of human nature; and +the converts who embraced the new religion were permitted to retain the +possession of their patrimony, to receive legacies and inheritances, and +to increase their separate property by all the lawful means of trade and +industry. Instead of an absolute sacrifice, a moderate proportion was +accepted by the ministers of the gospel; and in their weekly or monthly +assemblies, every believer, according to the exigency of the occasion, +and the measure of his wealth and piety, presented his voluntary +offering for the use of the common fund. Nothing, however +inconsiderable, was refused; but it was diligently inculcated; that, in +the article of Tithes, the Mosaic law was still of divine obligation; +and that since the Jews, under a less perfect discipline, had been +commanded to pay a tenth part of all that they possessed, it would +become the disciples of Christ to distinguish themselves by a superior +degree of liberality, and to acquire some merit by resigning a +superfluous treasure, which must so soon be annihilated with the world +itself. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that the revenue of each +particular church, which was of so uncertain and fluctuating a nature, +must have varied with the poverty or the opulence of the faithful, +as they were dispersed in obscure villages, or collected in the great +cities of the empire. In the time of the emperor Decius, it was the +opinion of the magistrates, that the Christians of Rome were possessed +of very considerable wealth; that vessels of gold and silver were used +in their religious worship, and that many among their proselytes had +sold their lands and houses to increase the public riches of the +sect, at the expense, indeed, of their unfortunate children, who found +themselves beggars, because their parents had been saints. We should +listen with distrust to the suspicions of strangers and enemies: on this +occasion, however, they receive a very specious and probable color from +the two following circumstances, the only ones that have reached our +knowledge, which define any precise sums, or convey any distinct idea. +Almost at the same period, the bishop of Carthage, from a society less +opulent than that of Rome, collected a hundred thousand sesterces, +(above eight hundred and fifty pounds sterling,) on a sudden call of +charity to redeem the brethren of Numidia, who had been carried away +captives by the barbarians of the desert. About a hundred years +before the reign of Decius, the Roman church had received, in a single +donation, the sum of two hundred thousand sesterces from a stranger +of Pontus, who proposed to fix his residence in the capital. These +oblations, for the most part, were made in money; nor was the society of +Christians either desirous or capable of acquiring, to any considerable +degree, the encumbrance of landed property. It had been provided by +several laws, which were enacted with the same design as our statutes +of mortmain, that no real estates should be given or bequeathed to +any corporate body, without either a special privilege or a particular +dispensation from the emperor or from the senate; who were seldom +disposed to grant them in favor of a sect, at first the object of +their contempt, and at last of their fears and jealousy. A transaction, +however, is related under the reign of Alexander Severus, which +discovers that the restraint was sometimes eluded or suspended, and that +the Christians were permitted to claim and to possess lands within +the limits of Rome itself. The progress of Christianity, and the civil +confusion of the empire, contributed to relax the severity of the laws; +and before the close of the third century many considerable estates +were bestowed on the opulent churches of Rome, Milan, Carthage, Antioch, +Alexandria, and the other great cities of Italy and the provinces. + +The bishop was the natural steward of the church; the public stock was +intrusted to his care without account or control; the presbyters were +confined to their spiritual functions, and the more dependent order of +the deacons was solely employed in the management and distribution +of the ecclesiastical revenue. If we may give credit to the vehement +declamations of Cyprian, there were too many among his African brethren, +who, in the execution of their charge, violated every precept, not only +of evangelical perfection, but even of moral virtue. By some of these +unfaithful stewards the riches of the church were lavished in sensual +pleasures; by others they were perverted to the purposes of private +gain, of fraudulent purchases, and of rapacious usury. But as long as +the contributions of the Christian people were free and unconstrained, +the abuse of their confidence could not be very frequent, and the +general uses to which their liberality was applied reflected honor on +the religious society. A decent portion was reserved for the maintenance +of the bishop and his clergy; a sufficient sum was allotted for the +expenses of the public worship, of which the feasts of love, the +agap, as they were called, constituted a very pleasing part. The +whole remainder was the sacred patrimony of the poor. According to +the discretion of the bishop, it was distributed to support widows and +orphans, the lame, the sick, and the aged of the community; to comfort +strangers and pilgrims, and to alleviate the misfortunes of prisoners +and captives, more especially when their sufferings had been occasioned +by their firm attachment to the cause of religion. A generous +intercourse of charity united the most distant provinces, and the +smaller congregations were cheerfully assisted by the alms of their more +opulent brethren. Such an institution, which paid less regard to the +merit than to the distress of the object, very materially conduced to +the progress of Christianity. The Pagans, who were actuated by a +sense of humanity, while they derided the doctrines, acknowledged the +benevolence, of the new sect. The prospect of immediate relief and +of future protection allured into its hospitable bosom many of those +unhappy persons whom the neglect of the world would have abandoned to +the miseries of want, of sickness, and of old age. There is some reason +likewise to believe that great numbers of infants, who, according to the +inhuman practice of the times, had been exposed by their parents, were +frequently rescued from death, baptized, educated, and maintained by the +piety of the Christians, and at the expense of the public treasure. + +II. It is the undoubted right of every society to exclude from its +communion and benefits such among its members as reject or violate +those regulations which have been established by general consent. In +the exercise of this power, the censures of the Christian church were +chiefly directed against scandalous sinners, and particularly those who +were guilty of murder, of fraud, or of incontinence; against the authors +or the followers of any heretical opinions which had been condemned by +the judgment of the episcopal order; and against those unhappy persons, +who, whether from choice or compulsion, had polluted themselves after +their baptism by any act of idolatrous worship. The consequences of +excommunication were of a temporal as well as a spiritual nature. The +Christian against whom it was pronounced, was deprived of any part in +the oblations of the faithful. The ties both of religious and of +private friendship were dissolved: he found himself a profane object of +abhorrence to the persons whom he the most esteemed, or by whom he +had been the most tenderly beloved; and as far as an expulsion from a +respectable society could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace, +he was shunned or suspected by the generality of mankind. The situation +of these unfortunate exiles was in itself very painful and melancholy; +but, as it usually happens, their apprehensions far exceeded their +sufferings. The benefits of the Christian communion were those of +eternal life; nor could they erase from their minds the awful opinion, +that to those ecclesiastical governors by whom they were condemned, +the Deity had committed the keys of Hell and of Paradise. The heretics, +indeed, who might be supported by the consciousness of their intentions, +and by the flattering hope that they alone had discovered the true path +of salvation, endeavored to regain, in their separate assemblies, those +comforts, temporal as well as spiritual, which they no longer derived +from the great society of Christians. But almost all those who had +reluctantly yielded to the power of vice or idolatry were sensible of +their fallen condition, and anxiously desirous of being restored to the +benefits of the Christian communion. + +With regard to the treatment of these penitents, two opposite opinions, +the one of justice, the other of mercy, divided the primitive church. +The more rigid and inflexible casuists refused them forever, and without +exception, the meanest place in the holy community, which they had +disgraced or deserted; and leaving them to the remorse of a guilty +conscience, indulged them only with a faint ray of hope that the +contrition of their life and death might possibly be accepted by the +Supreme Being. A milder sentiment was embraced in practice as well as +in theory, by the purest and most respectable of the Christian churches. +The gates of reconciliation and of heaven were seldom shut against +the returning penitent; but a severe and solemn form of discipline +was instituted, which, while it served to expiate his crime, might +powerfully deter the spectators from the imitation of his example. +Humbled by a public confession, emaciated by fasting and clothed in +sackcloth, the penitent lay prostrate at the door of the assembly, +imploring with tears the pardon of his offences, and soliciting the +prayers of the faithful. If the fault was of a very heinous nature, +whole years of penance were esteemed an inadequate satisfaction to the +divine justice; and it was always by slow and painful gradations that +the sinner, the heretic, or the apostate, was readmitted into the bosom +of the church. A sentence of perpetual excommunication was, however, +reserved for some crimes of an extraordinary magnitude, and particularly +for the inexcusable relapses of those penitents who had already +experienced and abused the clemency of their ecclesiastical superiors. +According to the circumstances or the number of the guilty, the exercise +of the Christian discipline was varied by the discretion of the bishops. +The councils of Ancyra and Illiberis were held about the same time, the +one in Galatia, the other in Spain; but their respective canons, which +are still extant, seem to breathe a very different spirit. The Galatian, +who after his baptism had repeatedly sacrificed to idols, might obtain +his pardon by a penance of seven years; and if he had seduced others to +imitate his example, only three years more were added to the term of his +exile. But the unhappy Spaniard, who had committed the same offence, was +deprived of the hope of reconciliation, even in the article of death; +and his idolatry was placed at the head of a list of seventeen other +crimes, against which a sentence no less terrible was pronounced. Among +these we may distinguish the inexpiable guilt of calumniating a bishop, +a presbyter, or even a deacon. + +The well-tempered mixture of liberality and rigor, the judicious +dispensation of rewards and punishments, according to the maxims of +policy as well as justice, constituted the human strength of the church. +The Bishops, whose paternal care extended itself to the government of +both worlds, were sensible of the importance of these prerogatives; and +covering their ambition with the fair pretence of the love of order, +they were jealous of any rival in the exercise of a discipline so +necessary to prevent the desertion of those troops which had enlisted +themselves under the banner of the cross, and whose numbers every day +became more considerable. From the imperious declamations of Cyprian, +we should naturally conclude that the doctrines of excommunication and +penance formed the most essential part of religion; and that it was much +less dangerous for the disciples of Christ to neglect the observance of +the moral duties, than to despise the censures and authority of their +bishops. Sometimes we might imagine that we were listening to the voice +of Moses, when he commanded the earth to open, and to swallow up, in +consuming flames, the rebellious race which refused obedience to the +priesthood of Aaron; and we should sometimes suppose that we hear a +Roman consul asserting the majesty of the republic, and declaring his +inflexible resolution to enforce the rigor of the laws. * "If such +irregularities are suffered with impunity," (it is thus that the bishop +of Carthage chides the lenity of his colleague,) "if such irregularities +are suffered, there is an end of Episcopal Vigor; an end of the sublime +and divine power of governing the Church, an end of Christianity +itself." Cyprian had renounced those temporal honors, which it is +probable he would never have obtained; * but the acquisition of +such absolute command over the consciences and understanding of a +congregation, however obscure or despised by the world, is more truly +grateful to the pride of the human heart, than the possession of the +most despotic power, imposed by arms and conquest on a reluctant people. + +In the course of this important, though perhaps tedious inquiry, I +have attempted to display the secondary causes which so efficaciously +assisted the truth of the Christian religion. If among these causes we +have discovered any artificial ornaments, any accidental circumstances, +or any mixture of error and passion, it cannot appear surprising that +mankind should be the most sensibly affected by such motives as were +suited to their imperfect nature. It was by the aid of these causes, +exclusive zeal, the immediate expectation of another world, the claim +of miracles, the practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of the +primitive church, that Christianity spread itself with so much success +in the Roman empire. To the first of these the Christians were indebted +for their invincible valor, which disdained to capitulate with the +enemy whom they were resolved to vanquish. The three succeeding causes +supplied their valor with the most formidable arms. The last of these +causes united their courage, directed their arms, and gave their efforts +that irresistible weight, which even a small band of well-trained +and intrepid volunteers has so often possessed over an undisciplined +multitude, ignorant of the subject, and careless of the event of the +war. In the various religions of Polytheism, some wandering fanatics of +Egypt and Syria, who addressed themselves to the credulous superstition +of the populace, were perhaps the only order of priests that derived +their whole support and credit from their sacerdotal profession, and +were very deeply affected by a personal concern for the safety or +prosperity of their tutelar deities. The ministers of Polytheism, both +in Rome and in the provinces, were, for the most part, men of a noble +birth, and of an affluent fortune, who received, as an honorable +distinction, the care of a celebrated temple, or of a public sacrifice, +exhibited, very frequently at their own expense, the sacred games, and +with cold indifference performed the ancient rites, according to the +laws and fashion of their country. As they were engaged in the ordinary +occupations of life, their zeal and devotion were seldom animated by +a sense of interest, or by the habits of an ecclesiastical character. +Confined to their respective temples and cities, they remained without +any connection of discipline or government; and whilst they acknowledged +the supreme jurisdiction of the senate, of the college of pontiffs, and +of the emperor, those civil magistrates contented themselves with the +easy task of maintaining in peace and dignity the general worship of +mankind. We have already seen how various, how loose, and how uncertain +were the religious sentiments of Polytheists. They were abandoned, +almost without control, to the natural workings of a superstitious +fancy. The accidental circumstances of their life and situation +determined the object as well as the degree of their devotion; and +as long as their adoration was successively prostituted to a thousand +deities, it was scarcely possible that their hearts could be susceptible +of a very sincere or lively passion for any of them. + +When Christianity appeared in the world, even these faint and imperfect +impressions had lost much of their original power. Human reason, which +by its unassisted strength is incapable of perceiving the mysteries of +faith, had already obtained an easy triumph over the folly of Paganism; +and when Tertullian or Lactantius employ their labors in exposing its +falsehood and extravagance, they are obliged to transcribe the eloquence +of Cicero or the wit of Lucian. The contagion of these sceptical +writings had been diffused far beyond the number of their readers. The +fashion of incredulity was communicated from the philosopher to the man +of pleasure or business, from the noble to the plebeian, and from the +master to the menial slave who waited at his table, and who eagerly +listened to the freedom of his conversation. On public occasions the +philosophic part of mankind affected to treat with respect and decency +the religious institutions of their country; but their secret contempt +penetrated through the thin and awkward disguise; and even the people, +when they discovered that their deities were rejected and derided by +those whose rank or understanding they were accustomed to reverence, +were filled with doubts and apprehensions concerning the truth of those +doctrines, to which they had yielded the most implicit belief. The +decline of ancient prejudice exposed a very numerous portion of human +kind to the danger of a painful and comfortless situation. A state +of scepticism and suspense may amuse a few inquisitive minds. But the +practice of superstition is so congenial to the multitude, that if they +are forcibly awakened, they still regret the loss of their pleasing +vision. Their love of the marvellous and supernatural, their curiosity +with regard to future events, and their strong propensity to extend +their hopes and fears beyond the limits of the visible world, were +the principal causes which favored the establishment of Polytheism. So +urgent on the vulgar is the necessity of believing, that the fall of any +system of mythology will most probably be succeeded by the introduction +of some other mode of superstition. Some deities of a more recent +and fashionable cast might soon have occupied the deserted temples of +Jupiter and Apollo, if, in the decisive moment, the wisdom of Providence +had not interposed a genuine revelation, fitted to inspire the most +rational esteem and conviction, whilst, at the same time, it was +adorned with all that could attract the curiosity, the wonder, and the +veneration of the people. In their actual disposition, as many were +almost disengaged from their artificial prejudices, but equally +susceptible and desirous of a devout attachment; an object much less +deserving would have been sufficient to fill the vacant place in their +hearts, and to gratify the uncertain eagerness of their passions. Those +who are inclined to pursue this reflection, instead of viewing with +astonishment the rapid progress of Christianity, will perhaps be +surprised that its success was not still more rapid and still more +universal. + +It has been observed, with truth as well as propriety, that the +conquests of Rome prepared and facilitated those of Christianity. In the +second chapter of this work we have attempted to explain in what manner +the most civilized provinces of Europe, Asia, and Africa were united +under the dominion of one sovereign, and gradually connected by the +most intimate ties of laws, of manners, and of language. The Jews of +Palestine, who had fondly expected a temporal deliverer, gave so cold +a reception to the miracles of the divine prophet, that it was found +unnecessary to publish, or at least to preserve, any Hebrew gospel. The +authentic histories of the actions of Christ were composed in the Greek +language, at a considerable distance from Jerusalem, and after the +Gentile converts were grown extremely numerous. As soon as those +histories were translated into the Latin tongue, they were perfectly +intelligible to all the subjects of Rome, excepting only to the +peasants of Syria and Egypt, for whose benefit particular versions were +afterwards made. The public highways, which had been constructed for +the use of the legions, opened an easy passage for the Christian +missionaries from Damascus to Corinth, and from Italy to the extremity +of Spain or Britain; nor did those spiritual conquerors encounter any +of the obstacles which usually retard or prevent the introduction of a +foreign religion into a distant country. There is the strongest reason +to believe, that before the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, the +faith of Christ had been preached in every province, and in all +the great cities of the empire; but the foundation of the several +congregations, the numbers of the faithful who composed them, and their +proportion to the unbelieving multitude, are now buried in obscurity, +or disguised by fiction and declamation. Such imperfect circumstances, +however, as have reached our knowledge concerning the increase of the +Christian name in Asia and Greece, in Egypt, in Italy, and in the West, +we shall now proceed to relate, without neglecting the real or imaginary +acquisitions which lay beyond the frontiers of the Roman empire. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part VIII. + +The rich provinces that extend from the Euphrates to the Ionian +Sea, were the principal theatre on which the apostle of the Gentiles +displayed his zeal and piety. The seeds of the gospel, which he +had scattered in a fertile soil, were diligently cultivated by his +disciples; and it should seem that, during the two first centuries, the +most considerable body of Christians was contained within those limits. +Among the societies which were instituted in Syria, none were more +ancient or more illustrious than those of Damascus, of Berea or Aleppo, +and of Antioch. The prophetic introduction of the Apocalypse has +described and immortalized the seven churches of Asia; Ephesus, Smyrna, +Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardes, Laodicea and Philadelphia; and their +colonies were soon diffused over that populous country. In a very early +period, the islands of Cyprus and Crete, the provinces of Thrace and +Macedonia, gave a favorable reception to the new religion; and Christian +republics were soon founded in the cities of Corinth, of Sparta, and +of Athens. The antiquity of the Greek and Asiatic churches allowed a +sufficient space of time for their increase and multiplication; and +even the swarms of Gnostics and other heretics serve to display the +flourishing condition of the orthodox church, since the appellation of +heretics has always been applied to the less numerous party. To these +domestic testimonies we may add the confession, the complaints, and the +apprehensions of the Gentiles themselves. From the writings of Lucian, a +philosopher who had studied mankind, and who describes their manners in +the most lively colors, we may learn that, under the reign of Commodus, +his native country of Pontus was filled with Epicureans and Christians. +Within fourscore years after the death of Christ, the humane Pliny +laments the magnitude of the evil which he vainly attempted to +eradicate. In his very curious epistle to the emperor Trajan, he +affirms, that the temples were almost deserted, that the sacred victims +scarcely found any purchasers, and that the superstition had not only +infected the cities, but had even spread itself into the villages and +the open country of Pontus and Bithynia. + +Without descending into a minute scrutiny of the expressions or of the +motives of those writers who either celebrate or lament the progress of +Christianity in the East, it may in general be observed, that none +of them have left us any grounds from whence a just estimate might +be formed of the real numbers of the faithful in those provinces. One +circumstance, however, has been fortunately preserved, which seems to +cast a more distinct light on this obscure but interesting subject. +Under the reign of Theodosius, after Christianity had enjoyed, during +more than sixty years, the sunshine of Imperial favor, the ancient and +illustrious church of Antioch consisted of one hundred thousand persons, +three thousand of whom were supported out of the public oblations. +The splendor and dignity of the queen of the East, the acknowledged +populousness of Cæsarea, Seleucia, and Alexandria, and the destruction +of two hundred and fifty thousand souls in the earthquake which +afflicted Antioch under the elder Justin, are so many convincing proofs +that the whole number of its inhabitants was not less than half a +million, and that the Christians, however multiplied by zeal and +power, did not exceed a fifth part of that great city. How different +a proportion must we adopt when we compare the persecuted with the +triumphant church, the West with the East, remote villages with populous +towns, and countries recently converted to the faith with the place +where the believers first received the appellation of Christians! It +must not, however, be dissembled, that, in another passage, Chrysostom, +to whom we are indebted for this useful information, computes the +multitude of the faithful as even superior to that of the Jews and +Pagans. But the solution of this apparent difficulty is easy and +obvious. The eloquent preacher draws a parallel between the civil +and the ecclesiastical constitution of Antioch; between the list of +Christians who had acquired heaven by baptism, and the list of citizens +who had a right to share the public liberality. Slaves, strangers, +and infants were comprised in the former; they were excluded from the +latter. + +The extensive commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to Palestine, +gave an easy entrance to the new religion. It was at first embraced by +great numbers of the Theraputæ, or Essenians, of the Lake Mareotis, +a Jewish sect which had abated much of its reverence for the Mosaic +ceremonies. The austere life of the Essenians, their fasts and +excommunications, the community of goods, the love of celibacy, their +zeal for martyrdom, and the warmth though not the purity of their faith, +already offered a very lively image of the primitive discipline. It was +in the school of Alexandria that the Christian theology appears to have +assumed a regular and scientific form; and when Hadrian visited Egypt, +he found a church composed of Jews and of Greeks, sufficiently important +to attract the notice of that inquisitive prince. But the progress of +Christianity was for a long time confined within the limits of a single +city, which was itself a foreign colony, and till the close of the +second century the predecessors of Demetrius were the only prelates +of the Egyptian church. Three bishops were consecrated by the hands +of Demetrius, and the number was increased to twenty by his successor +Heraclas. The body of the natives, a people distinguished by a sullen +inflexibility of temper, entertained the new doctrine with coldness and +reluctance; and even in the time of Origen, it was rare to meet with an +Egyptian who had surmounted his early prejudices in favor of the sacred +animals of his country. As soon, indeed, as Christianity ascended the +throne, the zeal of those barbarians obeyed the prevailing impulsion; +the cities of Egypt were filled with bishops, and the deserts of Thebais +swarmed with hermits. + +A perpetual stream of strangers and provincials flowed into the +capacious bosom of Rome. Whatever was strange or odious, whoever was +guilty or suspected, might hope, in the obscurity of that immense +capital, to elude the vigilance of the law. In such a various conflux +of nations, every teacher, either of truth or falsehood, every founder, +whether of a virtuous or a criminal association, might easily multiply +his disciples or accomplices. The Christians of Rome, at the time of the +accidental persecution of Nero, are represented by Tacitus as already +amounting to a very great multitude, and the language of that great +historian is almost similar to the style employed by Livy, when he +relates the introduction and the suppression of the rites of Bacchus. +After the Bacchanals had awakened the severity of the senate, it was +likewise apprehended that a very great multitude, as it were another +people, had been initiated into those abhorred mysteries. A more careful +inquiry soon demonstrated, that the offenders did not exceed seven +thousand; a number indeed sufficiently alarming, when considered as the +object of public justice. It is with the same candid allowance that +we should interpret the vague expressions of Tacitus, and in a former +instance of Pliny, when they exaggerate the crowds of deluded fanatics +who had forsaken the established worship of the gods. The church of Rome +was undoubtedly the first and most populous of the empire; and we are +possessed of an authentic record which attests the state of religion in +that city about the middle of the third century, and after a peace of +thirty-eight years. The clergy, at that time, consisted of a bishop, +forty-six presbyters, seven deacons, as many sub-deacons, forty-two +acolythes, and fifty readers, exorcists, and porters. The number of +widows, of the infirm, and of the poor, who were maintained by the +oblations of the faithful, amounted to fifteen hundred. From reason, +as well as from the analogy of Antioch, we may venture to estimate the +Christians of Rome at about fifty thousand. The populousness of that +great capital cannot perhaps be exactly ascertained; but the most +modest calculation will not surely reduce it lower than a million of +inhabitants, of whom the Christians might constitute at the most a +twentieth part. + +The western provincials appeared to have derived the knowledge of +Christianity from the same source which had diffused among them +the language, the sentiments, and the manners of Rome. In this more +important circumstance, Africa, as well as Gaul, was gradually fashioned +to the imitation of the capital. Yet notwithstanding the many favorable +occasions which might invite the Roman missionaries to visit their Latin +provinces, it was late before they passed either the sea or the Alps; +nor can we discover in those great countries any assured traces either +of faith or of persecution that ascend higher than the reign of the +Antonines. The slow progress of the gospel in the cold climate of Gaul, +was extremely different from the eagerness with which it seems to have +been received on the burning sands of Africa. The African Christians +soon formed one of the principal members of the primitive church. The +practice introduced into that province of appointing bishops to the most +inconsiderable towns, and very frequently to the most obscure villages, +contributed to multiply the splendor and importance of their religious +societies, which during the course of the third century were animated +by the zeal of Tertullian, directed by the abilities of Cyprian, and +adorned by the eloquence of Lactantius. But if, on the contrary, we turn +our eyes towards Gaul, we must content ourselves with discovering, in +the time of Marcus Antoninus, the feeble and united congregations +of Lyons and Vienna; and even as late as the reign of Decius, we are +assured, that in a few cities only, Arles, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Limoges, +Clermont, Tours, and Paris, some scattered churches were supported by +the devotion of a small number of Christians. Silence is indeed very +consistent with devotion; but as it is seldom compatible with zeal, +we may perceive and lament the languid state of Christianity in those +provinces which had exchanged the Celtic for the Latin tongue, since +they did not, during the three first centuries, give birth to a single +ecclesiastical writer. From Gaul, which claimed a just preeminence of +learning and authority over all the countries on this side of the +Alps, the light of the gospel was more faintly reflected on the remote +provinces of Spain and Britain; and if we may credit the vehement +assertions of Tertullian, they had already received the first rays +of the faith, when he addressed his apology to the magistrates of the +emperor Severus. But the obscure and imperfect origin of the western +churches of Europe has been so negligently recorded, that if we would +relate the time and manner of their foundation, we must supply the +silence of antiquity by those legends which avarice or superstition long +afterwards dictated to the monks in the lazy gloom of their convents. +Of these holy romances, that of the apostle St. James can alone, by +its singular extravagance, deserve to be mentioned. From a peaceful +fisherman of the Lake of Gennesareth, he was transformed into a valorous +knight, who charged at the head of the Spanish chivalry in their battles +against the Moors. The gravest historians have celebrated his exploits; +the miraculous shrine of Compostella displayed his power; and the sword +of a military order, assisted by the terrors of the Inquisition, was +sufficient to remove every objection of profane criticism. + +The progress of Christianity was not confined to the Roman empire; and +according to the primitive fathers, who interpret facts by prophecy, the +new religion, within a century after the death of its divine Author, had +already visited every part of the globe. "There exists not," says Justin +Martyr, "a people, whether Greek or Barbarian, or any other race of men, +by whatsoever appellation or manners they may be distinguished, however +ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell under tents, or +wander about in covered wagons, among whom prayers are not offered up in +the name of a crucified Jesus to the Father and Creator of all things." +But this splendid exaggeration, which even at present it would be +extremely difficult to reconcile with the real state of mankind, can be +considered only as the rash sally of a devout but careless writer, the +measure of whose belief was regulated by that of his wishes. But neither +the belief nor the wishes of the fathers can alter the truth of history. +It will still remain an undoubted fact, that the barbarians of Scythia +and Germany, who afterwards subverted the Roman monarchy, were involved +in the darkness of paganism; and that even the conversion of Iberia, of +Armenia, or of Æthiopia, was not attempted with any degree of success +till the sceptre was in the hands of an orthodox emperor. Before that +time, the various accidents of war and commerce might indeed diffuse +an imperfect knowledge of the gospel among the tribes of Caledonia, and +among the borderers of the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates. Beyond +the last-mentioned river, Edessa was distinguished by a firm and early +adherence to the faith. From Edessa the principles of Christianity were +easily introduced into the Greek and Syrian cities which obeyed the +successors of Artaxerxes; but they do not appear to have made any deep +impression on the minds of the Persians, whose religious system, by the +labors of a well disciplined order of priests, had been constructed with +much more art and solidity than the uncertain mythology of Greece and +Rome. + + + +Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.--Part IX. + +From this impartial though imperfect survey of the progress of +Christianity, it may perhaps seem probable, that the number of its +proselytes has been excessively magnified by fear on the one side, and +by devotion on the other. According to the irreproachable testimony of +Origen, the proportion of the faithful was very inconsiderable, when +compared with the multitude of an unbelieving world; but, as we are left +without any distinct information, it is impossible to determine, and +it is difficult even to conjecture, the real numbers of the primitive +Christians. The most favorable calculation, however, that can be deduced +from the examples of Antioch and of Rome, will not permit us to imagine +that more than a fraction of the population placedthemselves under +the banner of the cross before the +important conversion of Constantine. But their habits of faith, of zeal, +and of union, seemed to multiply their numbers; and the same causes +which contributed to their future increase, served to render their +actual strength more apparent and more formidable. + +Such is the constitution of civil society, that whilst a few persons are +distinguished by riches, by honors, and by knowledge, the body of the +people is condemned to obscurity, ignorance and poverty. The Christian +religion, which addressed itself to the whole human race, must +consequently collect a far greater number of proselytes from the +lower than from the superior ranks of life. This innocent and natural +circumstance has been improved into a very odious imputation, which +seems to be less strenuously denied by the apologists, than it is urged +by the adversaries, of the faith; that the new sect of Christians was +almost entirely composed of the dregs of the populace, of peasants and +mechanics, of boys and women, of beggars and slaves, the last of whom +might sometimes introduce the missionaries into the rich and noble +families to which they belonged. These obscure teachers (such was the +charge of malice and infidelity) are as mute in public as they are +loquacious and dogmatical in private. Whilst they cautiously avoid +the dangerous encounter of philosophers, they mingle with the rude and +illiterate crowd, and insinuate themselves into those minds, whom their +age, their sex, or their education, has the best disposed to receive the +impression of superstitious terrors. + +This unfavorable picture, though not devoid of a faint resemblance, +betrays, by its dark coloring and distorted features, the pencil of an +enemy. As the humble faith of Christ diffused itself through the world, +it was embraced by several persons who derived some consequence from the +advantages of nature or fortune. Aristides, who presented an eloquent +apology to the emperor Hadrian, was an Athenian philosopher. Justin +Martyr had sought divine knowledge in the schools of Zeno, of Aristotle, +of Pythagoras, and of Plato, before he fortunately was accosted by the +old man, or rather the angel, who turned his attention to the study of +the Jewish prophets. Clemens of Alexandria had acquired much various +reading in the Greek, and Tertullian in the Latin, language. Julius +Africanus and Origen possessed a very considerable share of the learning +of their times; and although the style of Cyprian is very different from +that of Lactantius, we might almost discover that both those writers had +been public teachers of rhetoric. Even the study of philosophy was at +length introduced among the Christians, but it was not always productive +of the most salutary effects; knowledge was as often the parent of +heresy as of devotion, and the description which was designed for the +followers of Artemon, may, with equal propriety, be applied to the +various sects that resisted the successors of the apostles. "They +presume to alter the Holy Scriptures, to abandon the ancient rule of +faith, and to form their opinions according to the subtile precepts of +logic. The science of the church is neglected for the study of geometry, +and they lose sight of heaven while they are employed in measuring the +earth. Euclid is perpetually in their hands. Aristotle and Theophrastus +are the objects of their admiration; and they express an uncommon +reverence for the works of Galen. Their errors are derived from the +abuse of the arts and sciences of the infidels, and they corrupt the +simplicity of the gospel by the refinements of human reason." + +Nor can it be affirmed with truth, that the advantages of birth and +fortune were always separated from the profession of Christianity. +Several Roman citizens were brought before the tribunal of Pliny, and he +soon discovered, that a great number of persons of every order of men in +Bithynia had deserted the religion of their ancestors. His unsuspected +testimony may, in this instance, obtain more credit than the bold +challenge of Tertullian, when he addresses himself to the fears as well +as the humanity of the proconsul of Africa, by assuring him, that if he +persists in his cruel intentions, he must decimate Carthage, and that +he will find among the guilty many persons of his own rank, senators and +matrons of nobles' extraction, and the friends or relations of his most +intimate friends. It appears, however, that about forty years afterwards +the emperor Valerian was persuaded of the truth of this assertion, since +in one of his rescripts he evidently supposes, that senators, Roman +knights, and ladies of quality, were engaged in the Christian sect. The +church still continued to increase its outward splendor as it lost its +internal purity; and, in the reign of Diocletian, the palace, the courts +of justice, and even the army, concealed a multitude of Christians, who +endeavored to reconcile the interests of the present with those of a +future life. + +And yet these exceptions are either too few in number, or too recent in +time, entirely to remove the imputation of ignorance and obscurity which +has been so arrogantly cast on the first proselytes of Christianity. * +Instead of employing in our defence the fictions of later ages, it will +be more prudent to convert the occasion of scandal into a subject of +edification. Our serious thoughts will suggest to us, that the apostles +themselves were chosen by Providence among the fishermen of Galilee, +and that the lower we depress the temporal condition of the first +Christians, the more reason we shall find to admire their merit and +success. It is incumbent on us diligently to remember, that the kingdom +of heaven was promised to the poor in spirit, and that minds afflicted +by calamity and the contempt of mankind, cheerfully listen to the divine +promise of future happiness; while, on the contrary, the fortunate are +satisfied with the possession of this world; and the wise abuse in doubt +and dispute their vain superiority of reason and knowledge. + +We stand in need of such reflections to comfort us for the loss of some +illustrious characters, which in our eyes might have seemed the most +worthy of the heavenly present. The names of Seneca, of the elder and +the younger Pliny, of Tacitus, of Plutarch, of Galen, of the slave +Epictetus, and of the emperor Marcus Antoninus, adorn the age in which +they flourished, and exalt the dignity of human nature. They filled with +glory their respective stations, either in active or contemplative life; +their excellent understandings were improved by study; Philosophy had +purified their minds from the prejudices of the popular superstition; +and their days were spent in the pursuit of truth and the practice of +virtue. Yet all these sages (it is no less an object of surprise than of +concern) overlooked or rejected the perfection of the Christian system. +Their language or their silence equally discover their contempt for the +growing sect, which in their time had diffused itself over the Roman +empire. Those among them who condescended to mention the Christians, +consider them only as obstinate and perverse enthusiasts, who exacted an +implicit submission to their mysterious doctrines, without being able +to produce a single argument that could engage the attention of men of +sense and learning. + +It is at least doubtful whether any of these philosophers perused the +apologies * which the primitive Christians repeatedly published in +behalf of themselves and of their religion; but it is much to be +lamented that such a cause was not defended by abler advocates. +They expose with superfluous with and eloquence the extravagance of +Polytheism. They interest our compassion by displaying the innocence and +sufferings of their injured brethren. But when they would demonstrate +the divine origin of Christianity, they insist much more strongly on the +predictions which announced, than on the miracles which accompanied, the +appearance of the Messiah. Their favorite argument might serve to +edify a Christian or to convert a Jew, since both the one and the other +acknowledge the authority of those prophecies, and both are +obliged, with devout reverence, to search for their sense and their +accomplishment. But this mode of persuasion loses much of its weight +and influence, when it is addressed to those who neither understand +nor respect the Mosaic dispensation and the prophetic style. In the +unskilful hands of Justin and of the succeeding apologists, the sublime +meaning of the Hebrew oracles evaporates in distant types, affected +conceits, and cold allegories; and even their authenticity was rendered +suspicious to an unenlightened Gentile, by the mixture of pious +forgeries, which, under the names of Orpheus, Hermes, and the Sibyls, +were obtruded on him as of equal value with the genuine inspirations of +Heaven. The adoption of fraud and sophistry in the defence of revelation +too often reminds us of the injudicious conduct of those poets who +load their invulnerable heroes with a useless weight of cumbersome and +brittle armor. + +But how shall we excuse the supine inattention of the Pagan and +philosophic world, to those evidences which were represented by the hand +of Omnipotence, not to their reason, but to their senses? During the age +of Christ, of his apostles, and of their first disciples, the doctrine +which they preached was confirmed by innumerable prodigies. The lame +walked, the blind saw, the sick were healed, the dead were raised, +dæmons were expelled, and the laws of Nature were frequently suspended +for the benefit of the church. But the sages of Greece and Rome turned +aside from the awful spectacle, and, pursuing the ordinary occupations +of life and study, appeared unconscious of any alterations in the moral +or physical government of the world. Under the reign of Tiberius, the +whole earth, or at least a celebrated province of the Roman empire, +was involved in a preternatural darkness of three hours. Even this +miraculous event, which ought to have excited the wonder, the curiosity, +and the devotion of mankind, passed without notice in an age of science +and history. It happened during the lifetime of Seneca and the elder +Pliny, who must have experienced the immediate effects, or received the +earliest intelligence, of the prodigy. Each of these philosophers, in +a laborious work, has recorded all the great phenomena of Nature, +earthquakes, meteors comets, and eclipses, which his indefatigable +curiosity could collect. Both the one and the other have omitted to +mention the greatest phenomenon to which the mortal eye has been witness +since the creation of the globe. A distinct chapter of Pliny is designed +for eclipses of an extraordinary nature and unusual duration; but he +contents himself with describing the singular defect of light which +followed the murder of Cæsar, when, during the greatest part of a year, +the orb of the sun appeared pale and without splendor. The season +of obscurity, which cannot surely be compared with the preternatural +darkness of the Passion, had been already celebrated by most of the +poets and historians of that memorable age. + +End Of Vol. I. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of +the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + +***** This file should be named 890-8.txt or 890-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/9/890/ + +Produced by David Reed and Dale R. 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