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diff --git a/890-0.txt b/890-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cbc4b83 --- /dev/null +++ b/890-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19108 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire + Volume 1 + +Author: Edward Gibbon + +Commentator: H. H. Milman + +Release Date: April, 1997 [EBook #890] +[Most recently updated: March 28, 2020] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + + + + +Produced by David Reed, Dale R. Fredrickson and David Widger + + + + + + HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE + + Edward Gibbon, Esq. + + With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman + + Volume 1 + + 1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) + + + + + CONTENTS + + Introduction Preface By The Editor Preface Of The Author Preface To + The First Volume + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.—Part + I. Part II. Part III. + +Introduction—The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In The Age Of +The Antonines. + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of +The Antonines. + + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part I. + Part II. + +Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The Antonines. + + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part I. + Part II. + +The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus. Election Of Pertinax—His +Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination By The Prætorian Guards. + + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. Part II. + +Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The Prætorian +Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius Niger In Syria, And +Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare Against The Murderers Of +Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of Severus Over His Three +Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New Maxims Of Government. + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation Of +Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander +Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The Roman +Finances. + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of + Maximin.—Part I. Part II. Part III. + +The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa And Italy, +Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And Seditions.—Violent +Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus And Balbinus, And Of The +Three Gordians.—Usurpation And Secular Games Of Philip. + + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part I. + Part II. + +Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy By +Artaxerxes. + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. Part II. + Part III. + +The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In The Time Of +The Emperor Decius. + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And Gallienus.—The +General Irruption Of The Barbarians.—The Thirty Tyrants. + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. Part II. + Part III. + +Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, Triumph, And Death +Of Aurelian. + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part I. + Part II. Part III. + +Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.— Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And This Three Associates.—Part I. + Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, Galerius, +And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order And Tranquillity.—The +Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.— The New Form Of +Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of Diocletian And Maximian. + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part I. Part II. Part III. Part IV. + +Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of +Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxentius. Six Emperors At +The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And Galerius. —Victories Of +Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.— Reunion Of The Empire Under +The Authority Of Constantine. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. Part II. + Part III. Part IV. Part V. Part VI. Part VII. Part VIII. + Part IX. + +The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, Manners, +Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. + + + + + Introduction + + Preface By The Editor. + + + The great work of Gibbon is indispensable to the student of + history. The literature of Europe offers no substitute for “The + Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.” It has obtained undisputed + possession, as rightful occupant, of the vast period which it + comprehends. However some subjects, which it embraces, may have + undergone more complete investigation, on the general view of the + whole period, this history is the sole undisputed authority to + which all defer, and from which few appeal to the original + writers, or to more modern compilers. The inherent interest of + the subject, the inexhaustible labor employed upon it; the + immense condensation of matter; the luminous arrangement; the + general accuracy; the style, which, however monotonous from its + uniform stateliness, and sometimes wearisome from its elaborate + art, is throughout vigorous, animated, often picturesque, always + commands attention, always conveys its meaning with emphatic + energy, describes with singular breadth and fidelity, and + generalizes with unrivalled felicity of expression; all these + high qualifications have secured, and seem likely to secure, its + permanent place in historic literature. + + This vast design of Gibbon, the magnificent whole into which he + has cast the decay and ruin of the ancient civilization, the + formation and birth of the new order of things, will of itself, + independent of the laborious execution of his immense plan, + render “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” an + unapproachable subject to the future historian:* in the eloquent + language of his recent French editor, M. Guizot:— + + “The gradual decline of the most extraordinary dominion which has + ever invaded and oppressed the world; the fall of that immense + empire, erected on the ruins of so many kingdoms, republics, and + states both barbarous and civilized; and forming in its turn, by + its dismemberment, a multitude of states, republics, and + kingdoms; the annihilation of the religion of Greece and Rome; + the birth and the progress of the two new religions which have + shared the most beautiful regions of the earth; the decrepitude + of the ancient world, the spectacle of its expiring glory and + degenerate manners; the infancy of the modern world, the picture + of its first progress, of the new direction given to the mind and + character of man—such a subject must necessarily fix the + attention and excite the interest of men, who cannot behold with + indifference those memorable epochs, during which, in the fine + language of Corneille— + + ‘Un grand destin commence, un grand destin s’achève.’” + + This extent and harmony of design is unquestionably that which + distinguishes the work of Gibbon from all other great historical + compositions. He has first bridged the abyss between ancient and + modern times, and connected together the two great worlds of + history. The great advantage which the classical historians + possess over those of modern times is in unity of plan, of course + greatly facilitated by the narrower sphere to which their + researches were confined. Except Herodotus, the great historians + of Greece—we exclude the more modern compilers, like Diodorus + Siculus—limited themselves to a single period, or at least to the + contracted sphere of Grecian affairs. As far as the _Barbarians_ + trespassed within the Grecian boundary, or were necessarily + mingled up with Grecian politics, they were admitted into the + pale of Grecian history; but to Thucydides and to Xenophon, + excepting in the Persian inroad of the latter, Greece was the + world. Natural unity confined their narrative almost to + chronological order, the episodes were of rare occurrence and + extremely brief. To the Roman historians the course was equally + clear and defined. Rome was their centre of unity; and the + uniformity with which the circle of the Roman dominion spread + around, the regularity with which their civil polity expanded, + forced, as it were, upon the Roman historian that plan which + Polybius announces as the subject of his history, the means and + the manner by which the whole world became subject to the Roman + sway. How different the complicated politics of the European + kingdoms! Every national history, to be complete, must, in a + certain sense, be the history of Europe; there is no knowing to + how remote a quarter it may be necessary to trace our most + domestic events; from a country, how apparently disconnected, may + originate the impulse which gives its direction to the whole + course of affairs. + + In imitation of his classical models, Gibbon places _Rome_ as the + cardinal point from which his inquiries diverge, and to which + they bear constant reference; yet how immeasurable the space over + which those inquiries range! how complicated, how confused, how + apparently inextricable the causes which tend to the decline of + the Roman empire! how countless the nations which swarm forth, in + mingling and indistinct hordes, constantly changing the + geographical limits—incessantly confounding the natural + boundaries! At first sight, the whole period, the whole state of + the world, seems to offer no more secure footing to an historical + adventurer than the chaos of Milton—to be in a state of + irreclaimable disorder, best described in the language of the + poet:— + + “A dark Illimitable ocean, without bound, Without dimension, where + length, breadth, and height, And time, and place, are lost: where + eldest Night And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold Eternal anarchy, + amidst the noise Of endless wars, and by confusion stand.” + + We feel that the unity and harmony of narrative, which shall + comprehend this period of social disorganization, must be + ascribed entirely to the skill and luminous disposition of the + historian. It is in this sublime Gothic architecture of his work, + in which the boundless range, the infinite variety, the, at first + sight, incongruous gorgeousness of the separate parts, + nevertheless are all subordinate to one main and predominant + idea, that Gibbon is unrivalled. We cannot but admire the manner + in which he masses his materials, and arranges his facts in + successive groups, not according to chronological order, but to + their moral or political connection; the distinctness with which + he marks his periods of gradually increasing decay; and the skill + with which, though advancing on separate parallels of history, he + shows the common tendency of the slower or more rapid religious + or civil innovations. However these principles of composition may + demand more than ordinary attention on the part of the reader, + they can alone impress upon the memory the real course, and the + relative importance of the events. Whoever would justly + appreciate the superiority of Gibbon’s lucid arrangement, should + attempt to make his way through the regular but wearisome annals + of Tillemont, or even the less ponderous volumes of Le Beau. Both + these writers adhere, almost entirely, to chronological order; + the consequence is, that we are twenty times called upon to break + off, and resume the thread of six or eight wars in different + parts of the empire; to suspend the operations of a military + expedition for a court intrigue; to hurry away from a siege to a + council; and the same page places us in the middle of a campaign + against the barbarians, and in the depths of the Monophysite + controversy. In Gibbon it is not always easy to bear in mind the + exact dates but the course of events is ever clear and distinct; + like a skilful general, though his troops advance from the most + remote and opposite quarters, they are constantly bearing down + and concentrating themselves on one point—that which is still + occupied by the name, and by the waning power of Rome. Whether he + traces the progress of hostile religions, or leads from the + shores of the Baltic, or the verge of the Chinese empire, the + successive hosts of barbarians—though one wave has hardly burst + and discharged itself, before another swells up and + approaches—all is made to flow in the same direction, and the + impression which each makes upon the tottering fabric of the + Roman greatness, connects their distant movements, and measures + the relative importance assigned to them in the panoramic + history. The more peaceful and didactic episodes on the + development of the Roman law, or even on the details of + ecclesiastical history, interpose themselves as resting-places or + divisions between the periods of barbaric invasion. In short, + though distracted first by the two capitals, and afterwards by + the formal partition of the empire, the extraordinary felicity of + arrangement maintains an order and a regular progression. As our + horizon expands to reveal to us the gathering tempests which are + forming far beyond the boundaries of the civilized world—as we + follow their successive approach to the trembling frontier—the + compressed and receding line is still distinctly visible; though + gradually dismembered and the broken fragments assuming the form + of regular states and kingdoms, the real relation of those + kingdoms to the empire is maintained and defined; and even when + the Roman dominion has shrunk into little more than the province + of Thrace—when the name of Rome, confined, in Italy, to the walls + of the city—yet it is still the memory, the shade of the Roman + greatness, which extends over the wide sphere into which the + historian expands his later narrative; the whole blends into the + unity, and is manifestly essential to the double catastrophe of + his tragic drama. + + But the amplitude, the magnificence, or the harmony of design, + are, though imposing, yet unworthy claims on our admiration, + unless the details are filled up with correctness and accuracy. + No writer has been more severely tried on this point than Gibbon. + He has undergone the triple scrutiny of theological zeal + quickened by just resentment, of literary emulation, and of that + mean and invidious vanity which delights in detecting errors in + writers of established fame. On the result of the trial, we may + be permitted to summon competent witnesses before we deliver our + own judgment. + + M. Guizot, in his preface, after stating that in France and + Germany, as well as in England, in the most enlightened countries + of Europe, Gibbon is constantly cited as an authority, thus + proceeds:— + + “I have had occasion, during my labors, to consult the writings + of philosophers, who have treated on the finances of the Roman + empire; of scholars, who have investigated the chronology; of + theologians, who have searched the depths of ecclesiastical + history; of writers on law, who have studied with care the Roman + jurisprudence; of Orientalists, who have occupied themselves with + the Arabians and the Koran; of modern historians, who have + entered upon extensive researches touching the crusades and their + influence; each of these writers has remarked and pointed out, in + the ‘History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,’ some + negligences, some false or imperfect views, some omissions, which + it is impossible not to suppose voluntary; they have rectified + some facts, combated with advantage some assertions; but in + general they have taken the researches and the ideas of Gibbon, + as points of departure, or as proofs of the researches or of the + new opinions which they have advanced.” + + M. Guizot goes on to state his own impressions on reading + Gibbon’s history, and no authority will have greater weight with + those to whom the extent and accuracy of his historical + researches are known:— + + “After a first rapid perusal, which allowed me to feel nothing + but the interest of a narrative, always animated, and, + notwithstanding its extent and the variety of objects which it + makes to pass before the view, always perspicuous, I entered upon + a minute examination of the details of which it was composed; and + the opinion which I then formed was, I confess, singularly + severe. I discovered, in certain chapters, errors which appeared + to me sufficiently important and numerous to make me believe that + they had been written with extreme negligence; in others, I was + struck with a certain tinge of partiality and prejudice, which + imparted to the exposition of the facts that want of truth and + justice, which the English express by their happy term + _misrepresentation_. Some imperfect (_tronquées_) quotations; + some passages, omitted unintentionally or designedly cast a + suspicion on the honesty (_bonne foi_) of the author; and his + violation of the first law of history—increased to my eye by the + prolonged attention with which I occupied myself with every + phrase, every note, every reflection—caused me to form upon the + whole work, a judgment far too rigorous. After having finished my + labors, I allowed some time to elapse before I reviewed the + whole. A second attentive and regular perusal of the entire work, + of the notes of the author, and of those which I had thought it + right to subjoin, showed me how much I had exaggerated the + importance of the reproaches which Gibbon really deserved; I was + struck with the same errors, the same partiality on certain + subjects; but I had been far from doing adequate justice to the + immensity of his researches, the variety of his knowledge, and + above all, to that truly philosophical discrimination (_justesse + d’esprit_) which judges the past as it would judge the present; + which does not permit itself to be blinded by the clouds which + time gathers around the dead, and which prevent us from seeing + that, under the toga, as under the modern dress, in the senate as + in our councils, men were what they still are, and that events + took place eighteen centuries ago, as they take place in our + days. I then felt that his book, in spite of its faults, will + always be a noble work—and that we may correct his errors and + combat his prejudices, without ceasing to admit that few men have + combined, if we are not to say in so high a degree, at least in a + manner so complete, and so well regulated, the necessary + qualifications for a writer of history.” + + The present editor has followed the track of Gibbon through many + parts of his work; he has read his authorities with constant + reference to his pages, and must pronounce his deliberate + judgment, in terms of the highest admiration as to his general + accuracy. Many of his seeming errors are almost inevitable from + the close condensation of his matter. From the immense range of + his history, it was sometimes necessary to compress into a single + sentence, a whole vague and diffuse page of a Byzantine + chronicler. Perhaps something of importance may have thus + escaped, and his expressions may not quite contain the whole + substance of the passage from which they are taken. His limits, + at times, compel him to sketch; where that is the case, it is not + fair to expect the full details of the finished picture. At times + he can only deal with important results; and in his account of a + war, it sometimes requires great attention to discover that the + events which seem to be comprehended in a single campaign, occupy + several years. But this admirable skill in selecting and giving + prominence to the points which are of real weight and + importance—this distribution of light and shade—though perhaps it + may occasionally betray him into vague and imperfect statements, + is one of the highest excellencies of Gibbon’s historic manner. + It is the more striking, when we pass from the works of his chief + authorities, where, after laboring through long, minute, and + wearisome descriptions of the accessary and subordinate + circumstances, a single unmarked and undistinguished sentence, + which we may overlook from the inattention of fatigue, contains + the great moral and political result. + + Gibbon’s method of arrangement, though on the whole most + favorable to the clear comprehension of the events, leads + likewise to apparent inaccuracy. That which we expect to find in + one part is reserved for another. The estimate which we are to + form, depends on the accurate balance of statements in remote + parts of the work; and we have sometimes to correct and modify + opinions, formed from one chapter by those of another. Yet, on + the other hand, it is astonishing how rarely we detect + contradiction; the mind of the author has already harmonized the + whole result to truth and probability; the general impression is + almost invariably the same. The quotations of Gibbon have + likewise been called in question;—I have, _in general_, been more + inclined to admire their exactitude, than to complain of their + indistinctness, or incompleteness. Where they are imperfect, it + is commonly from the study of brevity, and rather from the desire + of compressing the substance of his notes into pointed and + emphatic sentences, than from dishonesty, or uncandid suppression + of truth. + + These observations apply more particularly to the accuracy and + fidelity of the historian as to his facts; his inferences, of + course, are more liable to exception. It is almost impossible to + trace the line between unfairness and unfaithfulness; between + intentional misrepresentation and undesigned false coloring. The + relative magnitude and importance of events must, in some + respect, depend upon the mind before which they are presented; + the estimate of character, on the habits and feelings of the + reader. Christians, like M. Guizot and ourselves, will see some + things, and some persons, in a different light from the historian + of the Decline and Fall. We may deplore the bias of his mind; we + may ourselves be on our guard against the danger of being misled, + and be anxious to warn less wary readers against the same perils; + but we must not confound this secret and unconscious departure + from truth, with the deliberate violation of that veracity which + is the only title of an historian to our confidence. Gibbon, it + may be fearlessly asserted, is rarely chargeable even with the + suppression of any material fact, which bears upon individual + character; he may, with apparently invidious hostility, enhance + the errors and crimes, and disparage the virtues of certain + persons; yet, in general, he leaves us the materials for forming + a fairer judgment; and if he is not exempt from his own + prejudices, perhaps we might write _passions_, yet it must be + candidly acknowledged, that his philosophical bigotry is not more + unjust than the theological partialities of those ecclesiastical + writers who were before in undisputed possession of this province + of history. + + We are thus naturally led to that great misrepresentation which + pervades his history—his false estimate of the nature and + influence of Christianity. + + But on this subject some preliminary caution is necessary, lest + that should be expected from a new edition, which it is + impossible that it should completely accomplish. We must first be + prepared with the only sound preservative against the false + impression likely to be produced by the perusal of Gibbon; and we + must see clearly the real cause of that false impression. The + former of these cautions will be briefly suggested in its proper + place, but it may be as well to state it, here, somewhat more at + length. The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression + produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his + confounding together, in one indistinguishable mass, the _origin_ + and _apostolic_ propagation of the new religion, with its _later_ + progress. No argument for the divine authority of Christianity + has been urged with greater force, or traced with higher + eloquence, than that deduced from its primary development, + explicable on no other hypothesis than a heavenly origin, and + from its rapid extension through great part of the Roman empire. + But this argument—one, when confined within reasonable limits, of + unanswerable force—becomes more feeble and disputable in + proportion as it recedes from the birthplace, as it were, of the + religion. The further Christianity advanced, the more causes + purely human were enlisted in its favor; nor can it be doubted + that those developed with such artful exclusiveness by Gibbon did + concur most essentially to its establishment. It is in the + Christian dispensation, as in the material world. In both it is + as the great First Cause, that the Deity is most undeniably + manifest. When once launched in regular motion upon the bosom of + space, and endowed with all their properties and relations of + weight and mutual attraction, the heavenly bodies appear to + pursue their courses according to secondary laws, which account + for all their sublime regularity. So Christianity proclaims its + Divine Author chiefly in its first origin and development. When + it had once received its impulse from above—when it had once been + infused into the minds of its first teachers—when it had gained + full possession of the reason and affections of the favored + few—it _might be_—and to the Protestant, the rational Christian, + it is impossible to define _when_ it really _was_—left to make + its way by its native force, under the ordinary secret agencies + of all-ruling Providence. The main question, the _divine origin + of the religion_, was dexterously eluded, or speciously conceded + by Gibbon; his plan enabled him to commence his account, in most + parts, _below the apostolic times_; and it was only by the + strength of the dark coloring with which he brought out the + failings and the follies of the succeeding ages, that a shadow of + doubt and suspicion was thrown back upon the primitive period of + Christianity. + + “The theologian,” says Gibbon, “may indulge the pleasing task of + describing religion as she descended from heaven, arrayed in her + native purity; a more melancholy duty is imposed upon the + historian:—he must discover the inevitable mixture of error and + corruption which she contracted in a long residence upon earth + among a weak and degenerate race of beings.” Divest this passage + of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the subsequent tone of the + whole disquisition, and it might commence a Christian history + written in the most Christian spirit of candor. But as the + historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding + the limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was + an Utopia which had no existence but in the imagination of the + theologian—as he _suggested_ rather than affirmed that the days + of Christian purity were a kind of poetic golden age;—so the + theologian, by venturing too far into the domain of the + historian, has been perpetually obliged to contest points on + which he had little chance of victory—to deny facts established + on unshaken evidence—and thence, to retire, if not with the shame + of defeat, yet with but doubtful and imperfect success. + + Paley, with his intuitive sagacity, saw through the difficulty of + answering Gibbon by the ordinary arts of controversy; his + emphatic sentence, “Who can refute a sneer?” contains as much + truth as point. But full and pregnant as this phrase is, it is + not quite the whole truth; it is the tone in which the progress + of Christianity is traced, in _comparison_ with the rest of the + splendid and prodigally ornamented work, which is the radical + defect in the “Decline and Fall.” Christianity alone receives no + embellishment from the magic of Gibbon’s language; his + imagination is dead to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a + general zone of jealous disparagement, or neutralized by a + painfully elaborate exposition of its darker and degenerate + periods. There are occasions, indeed, when its pure and exalted + humanity, when its manifestly beneficial influence, can compel + even him, as it were, to fairness, and kindle his unguarded + eloquence to its usual fervor; but, in general, he soon relapses + into a frigid apathy; _affects_ an ostentatiously severe + impartiality; notes all the faults of Christians in every age + with bitter and almost malignant sarcasm; reluctantly, and with + exception and reservation, admits their claim to admiration. This + inextricable bias appears even to influence his manner of + composition. While all the other assailants of the Roman empire, + whether warlike or religious, the Goth, the Hun, the Arab, the + Tartar, Alaric and Attila, Mahomet, and Zengis, and Tamerlane, + are each introduced upon the scene almost with dramatic + animation—their progress related in a full, complete, and + unbroken narrative—the triumph of Christianity alone takes the + form of a cold and critical disquisition. The successes of + barbarous energy and brute force call forth all the consummate + skill of composition; while the moral triumphs of Christian + benevolence—the tranquil heroism of endurance, the blameless + purity, the contempt of guilty fame and of honors destructive to + the human race, which, had they assumed the proud name of + philosophy, would have been blazoned in his brightest words, + because they own religion as their principle—sink into narrow + asceticism. The _glories_ of Christianity, in short, touch on no + chord in the heart of the writer; his imagination remains + unkindled; his words, though they maintain their stately and + measured march, have become cool, argumentative, and inanimate. + Who would obscure one hue of that gorgeous coloring in which + Gibbon has invested the dying forms of Paganism, or darken one + paragraph in his splendid view of the rise and progress of + Mahometanism? But who would not have wished that the same equal + justice had been done to Christianity; that its real character + and deeply penetrating influence had been traced with the same + philosophical sagacity, and represented with more sober, as would + become its quiet course, and perhaps less picturesque, but still + with lively and attractive, descriptiveness? He might have thrown + aside, with the same scorn, the mass of ecclesiastical fiction + which envelops the early history of the church, stripped off the + legendary romance, and brought out the facts in their primitive + nakedness and simplicity—if he had but allowed those facts the + benefit of the glowing eloquence which he denied to them alone. + He might have annihilated the whole fabric of post-apostolic + miracles, if he had left uninjured by sarcastic insinuation those + of the New Testament; he might have cashiered, with Dodwell, the + whole host of martyrs, which owe their existence to the prodigal + invention of later days, had he but bestowed fair room, and dwelt + with his ordinary energy on the sufferings of the genuine + witnesses to the truth of Christianity, the Polycarps, or the + martyrs of Vienne. + + And indeed, if, after all, the view of the early progress of + Christianity be melancholy and humiliating we must beware lest we + charge the whole of this on the infidelity of the historian. It + is idle, it is disingenuous, to deny or to dissemble the early + depravations of Christianity, its gradual but rapid departure + from its primitive simplicity and purity, still more, from its + spirit of universal love. It may be no unsalutary lesson to the + Christian world, that this silent, this unavoidable, perhaps, yet + fatal change shall have been drawn by an impartial, or even an + hostile hand. The Christianity of every age may take warning, + lest by its own narrow views, its want of wisdom, and its want of + charity, it give the same advantage to the future unfriendly + historian, and disparage the cause of true religion. + + The design of the present edition is partly corrective, partly + supplementary: corrective, by notes, which point out (it is + hoped, in a perfectly candid and dispassionate spirit with no + desire but to establish the truth) such inaccuracies or + misstatements as may have been detected, particularly with regard + to Christianity; and which thus, with the previous caution, may + counteract to a considerable extent the unfair and unfavorable + impression created against rational religion: supplementary, by + adding such additional information as the editor’s reading may + have been able to furnish, from original documents or books, not + accessible at the time when Gibbon wrote. + + The work originated in the editor’s habit of noting on the margin + of his copy of Gibbon references to such authors as had + discovered errors, or thrown new light on the subjects treated by + Gibbon. These had grown to some extent, and seemed to him likely + to be of use to others. The annotations of M. Guizot also + appeared to him worthy of being better known to the English + public than they were likely to be, as appended to the French + translation. + + The chief works from which the editor has derived his materials + are, I. The French translation, with notes by M. Guizot; 2d + edition, Paris, 1828. The editor has translated almost all the + notes of M. Guizot. Where he has not altogether agreed with him, + his respect for the learning and judgment of that writer has, in + general, induced him to retain the statement from which he has + ventured to differ, with the grounds on which he formed his own + opinion. In the notes on Christianity, he has retained all those + of M. Guizot, with his own, from the conviction, that on such a + subject, to many, the authority of a French statesman, a + Protestant, and a rational and sincere Christian, would appear + more independent and unbiassed, and therefore be more commanding, + than that of an English clergyman. + + The editor has not scrupled to transfer the notes of M. Guizot to + the present work. The well-known zeal for knowledge, displayed in + all the writings of that distinguished historian, has led to the + natural inference, that he would not be displeased at the attempt + to make them of use to the English readers of Gibbon. The notes + of M. Guizot are signed with the letter G. + + II. The German translation, with the notes of Wenck. + Unfortunately this learned translator died, after having + completed only the first volume; the rest of the work was + executed by a very inferior hand. + + The notes of Wenck are extremely valuable; many of them have been + adopted by M. Guizot; they are distinguished by the letter W.* + + III. The new edition of Le Beau’s “Histoire du Bas Empire, with + notes by M. St. Martin, and M. Brosset.” That distinguished + Armenian scholar, M. St. Martin (now, unhappily, deceased) had + added much information from Oriental writers, particularly from + those of Armenia, as well as from more general sources. Many of + his observations have been found as applicable to the work of + Gibbon as to that of Le Beau. + + IV. The editor has consulted the various answers made to Gibbon + on the first appearance of his work; he must confess, with little + profit. They were, in general, hastily compiled by inferior and + now forgotten writers, with the exception of Bishop Watson, whose + able apology is rather a general argument, than an examination of + misstatements. The name of Milner stands higher with a certain + class of readers, but will not carry much weight with the severe + investigator of history. + + V. Some few classical works and fragments have come to light, + since the appearance of Gibbon’s History, and have been noticed + in their respective places; and much use has been made, in the + latter volumes particularly, of the increase to our stores of + Oriental literature. The editor cannot, indeed, pretend to have + followed his author, in these gleanings, over the whole vast + field of his inquiries; he may have overlooked or may not have + been able to command some works, which might have thrown still + further light on these subjects; but he trusts that what he has + adduced will be of use to the student of historic truth. + + The editor would further observe, that with regard to some other + objectionable passages, which do not involve misstatement or + inaccuracy, he has intentionally abstained from directing + particular attention towards them by any special protest. + + The editor’s notes are marked M. + + A considerable part of the quotations (some of which in the later + editions had fallen into great confusion) have been verified, and + have been corrected by the latest and best editions of the + authors. + + June, 1845. + + In this new edition, the text and the notes have been carefully + revised, the latter by the editor. + + Some additional notes have been subjoined, distinguished by the + signature M. 1845. + + + + + Preface Of The Author. + + + It is not my intention to detain the reader by expatiating on the + variety or the importance of the subject, which I have undertaken + to treat; since the merit of the choice would serve to render the + weakness of the execution still more apparent, and still less + excusable. But as I have presumed to lay before the public a + first volume only of the History of the Decline and Fall of the + Roman Empire, it will, perhaps, be expected that I should + explain, in a few words, the nature and limits of my general + plan. + + The memorable series of revolutions, which in the course of about + thirteen centuries gradually undermined, and at length destroyed, + the solid fabric of human greatness, may, with some propriety, be + divided into the three following periods: + + I. The first of these periods may be traced from the age of + Trajan and the Antonines, when the Roman monarchy, having + attained its full strength and maturity, began to verge towards + its decline; and will extend to the subversion of the Western + Empire, by the barbarians of Germany and Scythia, the rude + ancestors of the most polished nations of modern Europe. This + extraordinary revolution, which subjected Rome to the power of a + Gothic conqueror, was completed about the beginning of the sixth + century. + + II. The second period of the Decline and Fall of Rome may be + supposed to commence with the reign of Justinian, who, by his + laws, as well as by his victories, restored a transient splendor + to the Eastern Empire. It will comprehend the invasion of Italy + by the Lombards; the conquest of the Asiatic and African + provinces by the Arabs, who embraced the religion of Mahomet; the + revolt of the Roman people against the feeble princes of + Constantinople; and the elevation of Charlemagne, who, in the + year eight hundred, established the second, or German Empire of + the West. + + III. The last and longest of these periods includes about six + centuries and a half; from the revival of the Western Empire, + till the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and the + extinction of a degenerate race of princes, who continued to + assume the titles of Cæsar and Augustus, after their dominions + were contracted to the limits of a single city; in which the + language, as well as manners, of the ancient Romans, had been + long since forgotten. The writer who should undertake to relate + the events of this period, would find himself obliged to enter + into the general history of the Crusades, as far as they + contributed to the ruin of the Greek Empire; and he would + scarcely be able to restrain his curiosity from making some + inquiry into the state of the city of Rome, during the darkness + and confusion of the middle ages. + + As I have ventured, perhaps too hastily, to commit to the press a + work which in every sense of the word, deserves the epithet of + imperfect. I consider myself as contracting an engagement to + finish, most probably in a second volume, the first of these + memorable periods; and to deliver to the Public the complete + History of the Decline and Fall of Rome, from the age of the + Antonines to the subversion of the Western Empire. With regard to + the subsequent periods, though I may entertain some hopes, I dare + not presume to give any assurances. The execution of the + extensive plan which I have described, would connect the ancient + and modern history of the world; but it would require many years + of health, of leisure, and of perseverance. + + BENTINCK STREET, _February_ 1, 1776. + + P. S. The entire History, which is now published, of the Decline + and Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, abundantly discharges + my engagements with the Public. Perhaps their favorable opinion + may encourage me to prosecute a work, which, however laborious it + may seem, is the most agreeable occupation of my leisure hours. + + BENTINCK STREET, _March_ 1, 1781. + + An Author easily persuades himself that the public opinion is + still favorable to his labors; and I have now embraced the + serious resolution of proceeding to the last period of my + original design, and of the Roman Empire, the taking of + Constantinople by the Turks, in the year one thousand four + hundred and fifty-three. The most patient Reader, who computes + that three ponderous volumes have been already employed on the + events of four centuries, may, perhaps, be alarmed at the long + prospect of nine hundred years. But it is not my intention to + expatiate with the same minuteness on the whole series of the + Byzantine history. At our entrance into this period, the reign of + Justinian, and the conquests of the Mahometans, will deserve and + detain our attention, and the last age of Constantinople (the + Crusades and the Turks) is connected with the revolutions of + Modern Europe. From the seventh to the eleventh century, the + obscure interval will be supplied by a concise narrative of such + facts as may still appear either interesting or important. + + BENTINCK STREET, _March_ 1, 1782. + + + + + Preface To The First Volume. + + + Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical + writer may ascribe to himself; if any merit, indeed, can be + assumed from the performance of an indispensable duty. I may + therefore be allowed to say, that I have carefully examined all + the original materials that could illustrate the subject which I + had undertaken to treat. Should I ever complete the extensive + design which has been sketched out in the Preface, I might + perhaps conclude it with a critical account of the authors + consulted during the progress of the whole work; and however such + an attempt might incur the censure of ostentation, I am persuaded + that it would be susceptible of entertainment, as well as + information. + + At present I shall content myself with a single observation. The + biographers, who, under the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, + composed, or rather compiled, the lives of the Emperors, from + Hadrian to the sons of Carus, are usually mentioned under the + names of Ælius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, + Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. But + there is so much perplexity in the titles of the MSS., and so + many disputes have arisen among the critics (see Fabricius, + Biblioth. Latin. l. iii. c. 6) concerning their number, their + names, and their respective property, that for the most part I + have quoted them without distinction, under the general and + well-known title of the _Augustan History._ + + + + + Preface To The Fourth Volume Of The Original Quarto Edition. + + + I now discharge my promise, and complete my design, of writing + the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, both in + the West and the East. The whole period extends from the age of + Trajan and the Antonines, to the taking of Constantinople by + Mahomet the Second; and includes a review of the Crusades, and + the state of Rome during the middle ages. Since the publication + of the first volume, twelve years have elapsed; twelve years, + according to my wish, “of health, of leisure, and of + perseverance.” I may now congratulate my deliverance from a long + and laborious service, and my satisfaction will be pure and + perfect, if the public favor should be extended to the conclusion + of my work. + + It was my first intention to have collected, under one view, the + numerous authors, of every age and language, from whom I have + derived the materials of this history; and I am still convinced + that the apparent ostentation would be more than compensated by + real use. If I have renounced this idea, if I have declined an + undertaking which had obtained the approbation of a + master-artist,* my excuse may be found in the extreme difficulty + of assigning a proper measure to such a catalogue. A naked list + of names and editions would not be satisfactory either to myself + or my readers: the characters of the principal Authors of the + Roman and Byzantine History have been occasionally connected with + the events which they describe; a more copious and critical + inquiry might indeed deserve, but it would demand, an elaborate + volume, which might swell by degrees into a general library of + historical writers. For the present, I shall content myself with + renewing my serious protestation, that I have always endeavored + to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a + sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and + that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully + marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact + were reduced to depend. + + I shall soon revisit the banks of the Lake of Lausanne, a country + which I have known and loved from my early youth. Under a mild + government, amidst a beauteous landscape, in a life of leisure + and independence, and among a people of easy and elegant manners, + I have enjoyed, and may again hope to enjoy, the varied pleasures + of retirement and society. But I shall ever glory in the name and + character of an Englishman: I am proud of my birth in a free and + enlightened country; and the approbation of that country is the + best and most honorable reward of my labors. Were I ambitious of + any other Patron than the Public, I would inscribe this work to a + Statesman, who, in a long, a stormy, and at length an unfortunate + administration, had many political opponents, almost without a + personal enemy; who has retained, in his fall from power, many + faithful and disinterested friends; and who, under the pressure + of severe infirmity, enjoys the lively vigor of his mind, and the + felicity of his incomparable temper. Lord North will permit me to + express the feelings of friendship in the language of truth: but + even truth and friendship should be silent, if he still dispensed + the favors of the crown. + + In a remote solitude, vanity may still whisper in my ear, that my + readers, perhaps, may inquire whether, in the conclusion of the + present work, I am now taking an everlasting farewell. They shall + hear all that I know myself, and all that I could reveal to the + most intimate friend. The motives of action or silence are now + equally balanced; nor can I pronounce, in my most secret + thoughts, on which side the scale will preponderate. I cannot + dissemble that six quartos must have tried, and may have + exhausted, the indulgence of the Public; that, in the repetition + of similar attempts, a successful Author has much more to lose + than he can hope to gain; that I am now descending into the vale + of years; and that the most respectable of my countrymen, the men + whom I aspire to imitate, have resigned the pen of history about + the same period of their lives. Yet I consider that the annals of + ancient and modern times may afford many rich and interesting + subjects; that I am still possessed of health and leisure; that + by the practice of writing, some skill and facility must be + acquired; and that, in the ardent pursuit of truth and knowledge, + I am not conscious of decay. To an active mind, indolence is more + painful than labor; and the first months of my liberty will be + occupied and amused in the excursions of curiosity and taste. By + such temptations, I have been sometimes seduced from the rigid + duty even of a pleasing and voluntary task: but my time will now + be my own; and in the use or abuse of independence, I shall no + longer fear my own reproaches or those of my friends. I am fairly + entitled to a year of jubilee: next summer and the following + winter will rapidly pass away; and experience only can determine + whether I shall still prefer the freedom and variety of study to + the design and composition of a regular work, which animates, + while it confines, the daily application of the Author. Caprice + and accident may influence my choice; but the dexterity of + self-love will contrive to applaud either active industry or + philosophic repose. + + _Downing_ Street_, May 1, 1788._ + + P. S. I shall embrace this opportunity of introducing two + _verbal_ remarks, which have not conveniently offered themselves + to my notice. 1. As often as I use the definitions of _beyond_ + the Alps, the Rhine, the Danube, &c., I generally suppose myself + at Rome, and afterwards at Constantinople; without observing + whether this relative geography may agree with the local, but + variable, situation of the reader, or the historian. 2. In proper + names of foreign, and especially of Oriental origin, it should be + always our aim to express, in our English version, a faithful + copy of the original. But this rule, which is founded on a just + regard to uniformity and truth, must often be relaxed; and the + exceptions will be limited or enlarged by the custom of the + language and the taste of the interpreter. Our alphabets may be + often defective; a harsh sound, an uncouth spelling, might offend + the ear or the eye of our countrymen; and some words, notoriously + corrupt, are fixed, and, as it were, naturalized in the vulgar + tongue. The prophet _Mohammed_ can no longer be stripped of the + famous, though improper, appellation of Mahomet: the well-known + cities of Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo, would almost be lost in + the strange descriptions of _Haleb_, _Demashk_, and _Al Cahira_: + the titles and offices of the Ottoman empire are fashioned by the + practice of three hundred years; and we are pleased to blend the + three Chinese monosyllables, _Con-fû-tzee_, in the respectable + name of Confucius, or even to adopt the Portuguese corruption of + Mandarin. But I would vary the use of Zoroaster and _Zerdusht_, + as I drew my information from Greece or Persia: since our + connection with India, the genuine _Timour_ is restored to the + throne of Tamerlane: our most correct writers have retrenched the + _Al_, the superfluous article, from the Koran; and we escape an + ambiguous termination, by adopting _Moslem_ instead of Musulman, + in the plural number. In these, and in a thousand examples, the + shades of distinction are often minute; and I can feel, where I + cannot explain, the motives of my choice. + + + + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antoninies.—Part I. + +Introduction—The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In The Age Of +The Antonines. + + In the second century of the Christian Æra, the empire of Rome + comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most + civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive + monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor. + The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had + gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their peaceful + inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and + luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with + decent reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the + sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the + executive powers of government. During a happy period of more + than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by + the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two + Antonines. It is the design of this, and of the two succeeding + chapters, to describe the prosperous condition of their empire; + and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the + most important circumstances of its decline and fall; a + revolution which will ever be remembered, and is still felt by + the nations of the earth. + + The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the + republic; and the emperors, for the most part, were satisfied + with preserving those dominions which had been acquired by the + policy of the senate, the active emulations of the consuls, and + the martial enthusiasm of the people. The seven first centuries + were filled with a rapid succession of triumphs; but it was + reserved for Augustus to relinquish the ambitious design of + subduing the whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of moderation + into the public councils. Inclined to peace by his temper and + situation, it was easy for him to discover that Rome, in her + present exalted situation, had much less to hope than to fear + from the chance of arms; and that, in the prosecution of remote + wars, the undertaking became every day more difficult, the event + more doubtful, and the possession more precarious, and less + beneficial. The experience of Augustus added weight to these + salutary reflections, and effectually convinced him that, by the + prudent vigor of his counsels, it would be easy to secure every + concession which the safety or the dignity of Rome might require + from the most formidable barbarians. Instead of exposing his + person and his legions to the arrows of the Parthians, he + obtained, by an honorable treaty, the restitution of the + standards and prisoners which had been taken in the defeat of + Crassus. + + His generals, in the early part of his reign, attempted the + reduction of Ethiopia and Arabia Felix. They marched near a + thousand miles to the south of the tropic; but the heat of the + climate soon repelled the invaders, and protected the un-warlike + natives of those sequestered regions. The northern countries of + Europe scarcely deserved the expense and labor of conquest. The + forests and morasses of Germany were filled with a hardy race of + barbarians, who despised life when it was separated from freedom; + and though, on the first attack, they seemed to yield to the + weight of the Roman power, they soon, by a signal act of despair, + regained their independence, and reminded Augustus of the + vicissitude of fortune. On the death of that emperor, his + testament was publicly read in the senate. He bequeathed, as a + valuable legacy to his successors, the advice of confining the + empire within those limits which nature seemed to have placed as + its permanent bulwarks and boundaries: on the west, the Atlantic + Ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the Euphrates on the + east; and towards the south, the sandy deserts of Arabia and + Africa. + + Happily for the repose of mankind, the moderate system + recommended by the wisdom of Augustus, was adopted by the fears + and vices of his immediate successors. Engaged in the pursuit of + pleasure, or in the exercise of tyranny, the first Cæsars seldom + showed themselves to the armies, or to the provinces; nor were + they disposed to suffer, that those triumphs which _their_ + indolence neglected, should be usurped by the conduct and valor + of their lieutenants. The military fame of a subject was + considered as an insolent invasion of the Imperial prerogative; + and it became the duty, as well as interest, of every Roman + general, to guard the frontiers intrusted to his care, without + aspiring to conquests which might have proved no less fatal to + himself than to the vanquished barbarians. + + The only accession which the Roman empire received, during the + first century of the Christian Æra, was the province of Britain. + In this single instance, the successors of Cæsar and Augustus + were persuaded to follow the example of the former, rather than + the precept of the latter. The proximity of its situation to the + coast of Gaul seemed to invite their arms; the pleasing though + doubtful intelligence of a pearl fishery attracted their avarice; + and as Britain was viewed in the light of a distinct and + insulated world, the conquest scarcely formed any exception to + the general system of continental measures. After a war of about + forty years, undertaken by the most stupid, maintained by the + most dissolute, and terminated by the most timid of all the + emperors, the far greater part of the island submitted to the + Roman yoke. The various tribes of Britain possessed valor without + conduct, and the love of freedom without the spirit of union. + They took up arms with savage fierceness; they laid them down, or + turned them against each other, with wild inconsistency; and + while they fought singly, they were successively subdued. Neither + the fortitude of Caractacus, nor the despair of Boadicea, nor the + fanaticism of the Druids, could avert the slavery of their + country, or resist the steady progress of the Imperial generals, + who maintained the national glory, when the throne was disgraced + by the weakest, or the most vicious of mankind. At the very time + when Domitian, confined to his palace, felt the terrors which he + inspired, his legions, under the command of the virtuous + Agricola, defeated the collected force of the Caledonians, at the + foot of the Grampian Hills; and his fleets, venturing to explore + an unknown and dangerous navigation, displayed the Roman arms + round every part of the island. The conquest of Britain was + considered as already achieved; and it was the design of Agricola + to complete and insure his success, by the easy reduction of + Ireland, for which, in his opinion, one legion and a few + auxiliaries were sufficient. The western isle might be improved + into a valuable possession, and the Britons would wear their + chains with the less reluctance, if the prospect and example of + freedom were on every side removed from before their eyes. + + But the superior merit of Agricola soon occasioned his removal + from the government of Britain; and forever disappointed this + rational, though extensive scheme of conquest. Before his + departure, the prudent general had provided for security as well + as for dominion. He had observed, that the island is almost + divided into two unequal parts by the opposite gulfs, or, as they + are now called, the Friths of Scotland. Across the narrow + interval of about forty miles, he had drawn a line of military + stations, which was afterwards fortified, in the reign of + Antoninus Pius, by a turf rampart, erected on foundations of + stone. This wall of Antoninus, at a small distance beyond the + modern cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, was fixed as the limit of + the Roman province. The native Caledonians preserved, in the + northern extremity of the island, their wild independence, for + which they were not less indebted to their poverty than to their + valor. Their incursions were frequently repelled and chastised; + but their country was never subdued. The masters of the fairest + and most wealthy climates of the globe turned with contempt from + gloomy hills, assailed by the winter tempest, from lakes + concealed in a blue mist, and from cold and lonely heaths, over + which the deer of the forest were chased by a troop of naked + barbarians. + + Such was the state of the Roman frontiers, and such the maxims of + Imperial policy, from the death of Augustus to the accession of + Trajan. That virtuous and active prince had received the + education of a soldier, and possessed the talents of a general. + The peaceful system of his predecessors was interrupted by scenes + of war and conquest; and the legions, after a long interval, + beheld a military emperor at their head. The first exploits of + Trajan were against the Dacians, the most warlike of men, who + dwelt beyond the Danube, and who, during the reign of Domitian, + had insulted, with impunity, the Majesty of Rome. To the strength + and fierceness of barbarians they added a contempt for life, + which was derived from a warm persuasion of the immortality and + transmigration of the soul. Decebalus, the Dacian king, approved + himself a rival not unworthy of Trajan; nor did he despair of his + own and the public fortune, till, by the confession of his + enemies, he had exhausted every resource both of valor and + policy. This memorable war, with a very short suspension of + hostilities, lasted five years; and as the emperor could exert, + without control, the whole force of the state, it was terminated + by an absolute submission of the barbarians. The new province of + Dacia, which formed a second exception to the precept of + Augustus, was about thirteen hundred miles in circumference. Its + natural boundaries were the Niester, the Teyss or Tibiscus, the + Lower Danube, and the Euxine Sea. The vestiges of a military road + may still be traced from the banks of the Danube to the + neighborhood of Bender, a place famous in modern history, and the + actual frontier of the Turkish and Russian empires. + + Trajan was ambitious of fame; and as long as mankind shall + continue to bestow more liberal applause on their destroyers than + on their benefactors, the thirst of military glory will ever be + the vice of the most exalted characters. The praises of + Alexander, transmitted by a succession of poets and historians, + had kindled a dangerous emulation in the mind of Trajan. Like + him, the Roman emperor undertook an expedition against the + nations of the East; but he lamented with a sigh, that his + advanced age scarcely left him any hopes of equalling the renown + of the son of Philip. Yet the success of Trajan, however + transient, was rapid and specious. The degenerate Parthians, + broken by intestine discord, fled before his arms. He descended + the River Tigris in triumph, from the mountains of Armenia to the + Persian Gulf. He enjoyed the honor of being the first, as he was + the last, of the Roman generals, who ever navigated that remote + sea. His fleets ravaged the coast of Arabia; and Trajan vainly + flattered himself that he was approaching towards the confines of + India. Every day the astonished senate received the intelligence + of new names and new nations, that acknowledged his sway. They + were informed that the kings of Bosphorus, Colchos, Iberia, + Albania, Osrhoene, and even the Parthian monarch himself, had + accepted their diadems from the hands of the emperor; that the + independent tribes of the Median and Carduchian hills had + implored his protection; and that the rich countries of Armenia, + Mesopotamia, and Assyria, were reduced into the state of + provinces. But the death of Trajan soon clouded the splendid + prospect; and it was justly to be dreaded, that so many distant + nations would throw off the unaccustomed yoke, when they were no + longer restrained by the powerful hand which had imposed it. + + + + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antoninies.—Part II. + + It was an ancient tradition, that when the Capitol was founded by + one of the Roman kings, the god Terminus (who presided over + boundaries, and was represented, according to the fashion of that + age, by a large stone) alone, among all the inferior deities, + refused to yield his place to Jupiter himself. A favorable + inference was drawn from his obstinacy, which was interpreted by + the augurs as a sure presage that the boundaries of the Roman + power would never recede. During many ages, the prediction, as it + is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment. But though + Terminus had resisted the Majesty of Jupiter, he submitted to the + authority of the emperor Hadrian. The resignation of all the + eastern conquests of Trajan was the first measure of his reign. + He restored to the Parthians the election of an independent + sovereign; withdrew the Roman garrisons from the provinces of + Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria; and, in compliance with the + precept of Augustus, once more established the Euphrates as the + frontier of the empire. Censure, which arraigns the public + actions and the private motives of princes, has ascribed to envy, + a conduct which might be attributed to the prudence and + moderation of Hadrian. The various character of that emperor, + capable, by turns, of the meanest and the most generous + sentiments, may afford some color to the suspicion. It was, + however, scarcely in his power to place the superiority of his + predecessor in a more conspicuous light, than by thus confessing + himself unequal to the task of defending the conquests of Trajan. + + The martial and ambitious spirit of Trajan formed a very singular + contrast with the moderation of his successor. The restless + activity of Hadrian was not less remarkable when compared with + the gentle repose of Antoninus Pius. The life of the former was + almost a perpetual journey; and as he possessed the various + talents of the soldier, the statesman, and the scholar, he + gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his duty. Careless of + the difference of seasons and of climates, he marched on foot, + and bare-headed, over the snows of Caledonia, and the sultry + plains of the Upper Egypt; nor was there a province of the empire + which, in the course of his reign, was not honored with the + presence of the monarch. But the tranquil life of Antoninus Pius + was spent in the bosom of Italy, and, during the twenty-three + years that he directed the public administration, the longest + journeys of that amiable prince extended no farther than from his + palace in Rome to the retirement of his Lanuvian villa. + + Notwithstanding this difference in their personal conduct, the + general system of Augustus was equally adopted and uniformly + pursued by Hadrian and by the two Antonines. They persisted in + the design of maintaining the dignity of the empire, without + attempting to enlarge its limits. By every honorable expedient + they invited the friendship of the barbarians; and endeavored to + convince mankind that the Roman power, raised above the + temptation of conquest, was actuated only by the love of order + and justice. During a long period of forty-three years, their + virtuous labors were crowned with success; and if we except a few + slight hostilities, that served to exercise the legions of the + frontier, the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius offer the fair + prospect of universal peace. The Roman name was revered among the + most remote nations of the earth. The fiercest barbarians + frequently submitted their differences to the arbitration of the + emperor; and we are informed by a contemporary historian that he + had seen ambassadors who were refused the honor which they came + to solicit of being admitted into the rank of subjects. + + The terror of the Roman arms added weight and dignity to the + moderation of the emperors. They preserved peace by a constant + preparation for war; and while justice regulated their conduct, + they announced to the nations on their confines, that they were + as little disposed to endure, as to offer an injury. The military + strength, which it had been sufficient for Hadrian and the elder + Antoninus to display, was exerted against the Parthians and the + Germans by the emperor Marcus. The hostilities of the barbarians + provoked the resentment of that philosophic monarch, and, in the + prosecution of a just defence, Marcus and his generals obtained + many signal victories, both on the Euphrates and on the Danube. + The military establishment of the Roman empire, which thus + assured either its tranquillity or success, will now become the + proper and important object of our attention. + + In the purer ages of the commonwealth, the use of arms was + reserved for those ranks of citizens who had a country to love, a + property to defend, and some share in enacting those laws, which + it was their interest as well as duty to maintain. But in + proportion as the public freedom was lost in extent of conquest, + war was gradually improved into an art, and degraded into a + trade. The legions themselves, even at the time when they were + recruited in the most distant provinces, were supposed to consist + of Roman citizens. That distinction was generally considered, + either as a legal qualification or as a proper recompense for the + soldier; but a more serious regard was paid to the essential + merit of age, strength, and military stature. In all levies, a + just preference was given to the climates of the North over those + of the South: the race of men born to the exercise of arms was + sought for in the country rather than in cities; and it was very + reasonably presumed, that the hardy occupations of smiths, + carpenters, and huntsmen, would supply more vigor and resolution + than the sedentary trades which are employed in the service of + luxury. After every qualification of property had been laid + aside, the armies of the Roman emperors were still commanded, for + the most part, by officers of liberal birth and education; but + the common soldiers, like the mercenary troops of modern Europe, + were drawn from the meanest, and very frequently from the most + profligate, of mankind. + + That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated + patriotism, is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in + the preservation and prosperity of the free government of which + we are members. Such a sentiment, which had rendered the legions + of the republic almost invincible, could make but a very feeble + impression on the mercenary servants of a despotic prince; and it + became necessary to supply that defect by other motives, of a + different, but not less forcible nature—honor and religion. The + peasant, or mechanic, imbibed the useful prejudice that he was + advanced to the more dignified profession of arms, in which his + rank and reputation would depend on his own valor; and that, + although the prowess of a private soldier must often escape the + notice of fame, his own behavior might sometimes confer glory or + disgrace on the company, the legion, or even the army, to whose + honors he was associated. On his first entrance into the service, + an oath was administered to him with every circumstance of + solemnity. He promised never to desert his standard, to submit + his own will to the commands of his leaders, and to sacrifice his + life for the safety of the emperor and the empire. The attachment + of the Roman troops to their standards was inspired by the united + influence of religion and of honor. The golden eagle, which + glittered in the front of the legion, was the object of their + fondest devotion; nor was it esteemed less impious than it was + ignominious, to abandon that sacred ensign in the hour of danger. + These motives, which derived their strength from the imagination, + were enforced by fears and hopes of a more substantial kind. + Regular pay, occasional donatives, and a stated recompense, after + the appointed time of service, alleviated the hardships of the + military life, whilst, on the other hand, it was impossible for + cowardice or disobedience to escape the severest punishment. The + centurions were authorized to chastise with blows, the generals + had a right to punish with death; and it was an inflexible maxim + of Roman discipline, that a good soldier should dread his + officers far more than the enemy. From such laudable arts did the + valor of the Imperial troops receive a degree of firmness and + docility unattainable by the impetuous and irregular passions of + barbarians. + + And yet so sensible were the Romans of the imperfection of valor + without skill and practice, that, in their language, the name of + an army was borrowed from the word which signified exercise. + Military exercises were the important and unremitted object of + their discipline. The recruits and young soldiers were constantly + trained, both in the morning and in the evening, nor was age or + knowledge allowed to excuse the veterans from the daily + repetition of what they had completely learnt. Large sheds were + erected in the winter-quarters of the troops, that their useful + labors might not receive any interruption from the most + tempestuous weather; and it was carefully observed, that the arms + destined to this imitation of war, should be of double the weight + which was required in real action. It is not the purpose of this + work to enter into any minute description of the Roman exercises. + We shall only remark, that they comprehended whatever could add + strength to the body, activity to the limbs, or grace to the + motions. The soldiers were diligently instructed to march, to + run, to leap, to swim, to carry heavy burdens, to handle every + species of arms that was used either for offence or for defence, + either in distant engagement or in a closer onset; to form a + variety of evolutions; and to move to the sound of flutes in the + Pyrrhic or martial dance. In the midst of peace, the Roman troops + familiarized themselves with the practice of war; and it is + prettily remarked by an ancient historian who had fought against + them, that the effusion of blood was the only circumstance which + distinguished a field of battle from a field of exercise.* It was + the policy of the ablest generals, and even of the emperors + themselves, to encourage these military studies by their presence + and example; and we are informed that Hadrian, as well as Trajan, + frequently condescended to instruct the unexperienced soldiers, + to reward the diligent, and sometimes to dispute with them the + prize of superior strength or dexterity. Under the reigns of + those princes, the science of tactics was cultivated with + success; and as long as the empire retained any vigor, their + military instructions were respected as the most perfect model of + Roman discipline. + + Nine centuries of war had gradually introduced into the service + many alterations and improvements. The legions, as they are + described by Polybius, in the time of the Punic wars, differed + very materially from those which achieved the victories of Cæsar, + or defended the monarchy of Hadrian and the Antonines. The + constitution of the Imperial legion may be described in a few + words. The heavy-armed infantry, which composed its principal + strength, was divided into ten cohorts, and fifty-five companies, + under the orders of a correspondent number of tribunes and + centurions. The first cohort, which always claimed the post of + honor and the custody of the eagle, was formed of eleven hundred + and five soldiers, the most approved for valor and fidelity. The + remaining nine cohorts consisted each of five hundred and + fifty-five; and the whole body of legionary infantry amounted to + six thousand one hundred men. Their arms were uniform, and + admirably adapted to the nature of their service: an open helmet, + with a lofty crest; a breastplate, or coat of mail; greaves on + their legs, and an ample buckler on their left arm. The buckler + was of an oblong and concave figure, four feet in length, and two + and a half in breadth, framed of a light wood, covered with a + bull’s hide, and strongly guarded with plates of brass. Besides a + lighter spear, the legionary soldier grasped in his right hand + the formidable _pilum_, a ponderous javelin, whose utmost length + was about six feet, and which was terminated by a massy + triangular point of steel of eighteen inches. This instrument was + indeed much inferior to our modern fire-arms; since it was + exhausted by a single discharge, at the distance of only ten or + twelve paces. Yet when it was launched by a firm and skilful + hand, there was not any cavalry that durst venture within its + reach, nor any shield or corselet that could sustain the + impetuosity of its weight. As soon as the Roman had darted his + _pilum_, he drew his sword, and rushed forwards to close with the + enemy. His sword was a short well-tempered Spanish blade, that + carried a double edge, and was alike suited to the purpose of + striking or of pushing; but the soldier was always instructed to + prefer the latter use of his weapon, as his own body remained + less exposed, whilst he inflicted a more dangerous wound on his + adversary. The legion was usually drawn up eight deep; and the + regular distance of three feet was left between the files as well + as ranks. A body of troops, habituated to preserve this open + order, in a long front and a rapid charge, found themselves + prepared to execute every disposition which the circumstances of + war, or the skill of their leader, might suggest. The soldier + possessed a free space for his arms and motions, and sufficient + intervals were allowed, through which seasonable reinforcements + might be introduced to the relief of the exhausted combatants. + The tactics of the Greeks and Macedonians were formed on very + different principles. The strength of the phalanx depended on + sixteen ranks of long pikes, wedged together in the closest + array. But it was soon discovered by reflection, as well as by + the event, that the strength of the phalanx was unable to contend + with the activity of the legion. + + The cavalry, without which the force of the legion would have + remained imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the + first, as the companion of the first cohort, consisted of a + hundred and thirty-two men; whilst each of the other nine + amounted only to sixty-six. The entire establishment formed a + regiment, if we may use the modern expression, of seven hundred + and twenty-six horse, naturally connected with its respective + legion, but occasionally separated to act in the line, and to + compose a part of the wings of the army. The cavalry of the + emperors was no longer composed, like that of the ancient + republic, of the noblest youths of Rome and Italy, who, by + performing their military service on horseback, prepared + themselves for the offices of senator and consul; and solicited, + by deeds of valor, the future suffrages of their countrymen. + Since the alteration of manners and government, the most wealthy + of the equestrian order were engaged in the administration of + justice, and of the revenue; and whenever they embraced the + profession of arms, they were immediately intrusted with a troop + of horse, or a cohort of foot. Trajan and Hadrian formed their + cavalry from the same provinces, and the same class of their + subjects, which recruited the ranks of the legion. The horses + were bred, for the most part, in Spain or Cappadocia. The Roman + troopers despised the complete armor with which the cavalry of + the East was encumbered. _Their_ more useful arms consisted in a + helmet, an oblong shield, light boots, and a coat of mail. A + javelin, and a long broad sword, were their principal weapons of + offence. The use of lances and of iron maces they seem to have + borrowed from the barbarians. + + The safety and honor of the empire was principally intrusted to + the legions, but the policy of Rome condescended to adopt every + useful instrument of war. Considerable levies were regularly made + among the provincials, who had not yet deserved the honorable + distinction of Romans. Many dependent princes and communities, + dispersed round the frontiers, were permitted, for a while, to + hold their freedom and security by the tenure of military + service. Even select troops of hostile barbarians were frequently + compelled or persuaded to consume their dangerous valor in remote + climates, and for the benefit of the state. All these were + included under the general name of auxiliaries; and howsoever + they might vary according to the difference of times and + circumstances, their numbers were seldom much inferior to those + of the legions themselves. Among the auxiliaries, the bravest and + most faithful bands were placed under the command of præfects and + centurions, and severely trained in the arts of Roman discipline; + but the far greater part retained those arms, to which the nature + of their country, or their early habits of life, more peculiarly + adapted them. By this institution, each legion, to whom a certain + proportion of auxiliaries was allotted, contained within itself + every species of lighter troops, and of missile weapons; and was + capable of encountering every nation, with the advantages of its + respective arms and discipline. Nor was the legion destitute of + what, in modern language, would be styled a train of artillery. + It consisted in ten military engines of the largest, and + fifty-five of a smaller size; but all of which, either in an + oblique or horizontal manner, discharged stones and darts with + irresistible violence. + + + + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antoninies.—Part III. + + The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a + fortified city. As soon as the space was marked out, the pioneers + carefully levelled the ground, and removed every impediment that + might interrupt its perfect regularity. Its form was an exact + quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a square of about seven + hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of twenty + thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops would + expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that extent. In + the midst of the camp, the prætorium, or general’s quarters, rose + above the others; the cavalry, the infantry, and the auxiliaries + occupied their respective stations; the streets were broad and + perfectly straight, and a vacant space of two hundred feet was + left on all sides between the tents and the rampart. The rampart + itself was usually twelve feet high, armed with a line of strong + and intricate palisades, and defended by a ditch of twelve feet + in depth as well as in breadth. This important labor was + performed by the hands of the legionaries themselves; to whom the + use of the spade and the pickaxe was no less familiar than that + of the sword or _pilum_. Active valor may often be the present of + nature; but such patient diligence can be the fruit only of habit + and discipline. + + Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp was + almost instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their ranks + without delay or confusion. Besides their arms, which the + legionaries scarcely considered as an encumbrance, they were + laden with their kitchen furniture, the instruments of + fortification, and the provision of many days. Under this weight, + which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, they were + trained by a regular step to advance, in about six hours, near + twenty miles. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw aside + their baggage, and by easy and rapid evolutions converted the + column of march into an order of battle. The slingers and archers + skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries formed the first line, + and were seconded or sustained by the strength of the legions; + the cavalry covered the flanks, and the military engines were + placed in the rear. + + Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors defended + their extensive conquests, and preserved a military spirit, at a + time when every other virtue was oppressed by luxury and + despotism. If, in the consideration of their armies, we pass from + their discipline to their numbers, we shall not find it easy to + define them with any tolerable accuracy. We may compute, however, + that the legion, which was itself a body of six thousand eight + hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with its attendant + auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred men. + The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was + composed of no less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and + most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and + seventy-five thousand men. Instead of being confined within the + walls of fortified cities, which the Romans considered as the + refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the legions were encamped on + the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the + barbarians. As their stations, for the most part, remained fixed + and permanent, we may venture to describe the distribution of the + troops. Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal + strength lay upon the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of sixteen + legions, in the following proportions: two in the Lower, and + three in the Upper Germany; one in Rhætia, one in Noricum, four + in Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in Dacia. The defence of the + Euphrates was intrusted to eight legions, six of whom were + planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia. With regard to + Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from any + important scene of war, a single legion maintained the domestic + tranquillity of each of those great provinces. Even Italy was not + left destitute of a military force. Above twenty thousand chosen + soldiers, distinguished by the titles of City Cohorts and + Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of the monarch and the + capital. As the authors of almost every revolution that + distracted the empire, the Prætorians will, very soon, and very + loudly, demand our attention; but, in their arms and + institutions, we cannot find any circumstance which discriminated + them from the legions, unless it were a more splendid appearance, + and a less rigid discipline. + + The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to + their greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful + purpose of government. The ambition of the Romans was confined to + the land; nor was that warlike people ever actuated by the + enterprising spirit which had prompted the navigators of Tyre, of + Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to enlarge the bounds of the + world, and to explore the most remote coasts of the ocean. To the + Romans the ocean remained an object of terror rather than of + curiosity; the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after the + destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was + included within their provinces. The policy of the emperors was + directed only to preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and + to protect the commerce of their subjects. With these moderate + views, Augustus stationed two permanent fleets in the most + convenient ports of Italy, the one at Ravenna, on the Adriatic, + the other at Misenum, in the Bay of Naples. Experience seems at + length to have convinced the ancients, that as soon as their + galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars, they + were suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Augustus + himself, in the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of + his own light frigates (they were called Liburnians) over the + lofty but unwieldy castles of his rival. Of these Liburnians he + composed the two fleets of Ravenna and Misenum, destined to + command, the one the eastern, the other the western division of + the Mediterranean; and to each of the squadrons he attached a + body of several thousand marines. Besides these two ports, which + may be considered as the principal seats of the Roman navy, a + very considerable force was stationed at Frejus, on the coast of + Provence, and the Euxine was guarded by forty ships, and three + thousand soldiers. To all these we add the fleet which preserved + the communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great number of + vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harass + the country, or to intercept the passage of the barbarians. If we + review this general state of the Imperial forces; of the cavalry + as well as infantry; of the legions, the auxiliaries, the guards, + and the navy; the most liberal computation will not allow us to + fix the entire establishment by sea and by land at more than four + hundred and fifty thousand men: a military power, which, however + formidable it may seem, was equalled by a monarch of the last + century, whose kingdom was confined within a single province of + the Roman empire. + + We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the + strength which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines. + We shall now endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe + the provinces once united under their sway, but, at present, + divided into so many independent and hostile states. + + Spain, the western extremity of the empire, of Europe, and of the + ancient world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the same + natural limits; the Pyrenæan Mountains, the Mediterranean, and + the Atlantic Ocean. That great peninsula, at present so unequally + divided between two sovereigns, was distributed by Augustus into + three provinces, Lusitania, Bætica, and Tarraconensis. The + kingdom of Portugal now fills the place of the warlike country of + the Lusitanians; and the loss sustained by the former on the side + of the East, is compensated by an accession of territory towards + the North. The confines of Grenada and Andalusia correspond with + those of ancient Bætica. The remainder of Spain, Gallicia, and + the Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two Castiles, + Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to form + the third and most considerable of the Roman governments, which, + from the name of its capital, was styled the province of + Tarragona. Of the native barbarians, the Celtiberians were the + most powerful, as the Cantabrians and Asturians proved the most + obstinate. Confident in the strength of their mountains, they + were the last who submitted to the arms of Rome, and the first + who threw off the yoke of the Arabs. + + Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the + Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater + extent than modern France. To the dominions of that powerful + monarchy, with its recent acquisitions of Alsace and Lorraine, we + must add the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of Switzerland, the four + electorates of the Rhine, and the territories of Liege, + Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. When Augustus gave + laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a division of + Gaul, equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the + course of the rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, + which had comprehended above a hundred independent states. The + sea-coast of the Mediterranean, Languedoc, Provence, and + Dauphiné, received their provincial appellation from the colony + of Narbonne. The government of Aquitaine was extended from the + Pyrenees to the Loire. The country between the Loire and the + Seine was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed a new + denomination from the celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or Lyons. + The Belgic lay beyond the Seine, and in more ancient times had + been bounded only by the Rhine; but a little before the age of + Cæsar, the Germans, abusing their superiority of valor, had + occupied a considerable portion of the Belgic territory. The + Roman conquerors very eagerly embraced so flattering a + circumstance, and the Gallic frontier of the Rhine, from Basil to + Leyden, received the pompous names of the Upper and the Lower + Germany. Such, under the reign of the Antonines, were the six + provinces of Gaul; the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, the Celtic, or + Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the two Germanies. + + We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of Britain, + and to fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this island. It + comprehended all England, Wales, and the Lowlands of Scotland, as + far as the Friths of Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Before Britain lost + her freedom, the country was irregularly divided between thirty + tribes of barbarians, of whom the most considerable were the + Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in the North, the Silures in + South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk. As far as we + can either trace or credit the resemblance of manners and + language, Spain, Gaul, and Britain were peopled by the same hardy + race of savages. Before they yielded to the Roman arms, they + often disputed the field, and often renewed the contest. After + their submission, they constituted the western division of the + European provinces, which extended from the columns of Hercules + to the wall of Antoninus, and from the mouth of the Tagus to the + sources of the Rhine and Danube. + + Before the Roman conquest, the country which is now called + Lombardy, was not considered as a part of Italy. It had been + occupied by a powerful colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves + along the banks of the Po, from Piedmont to Romagna, carried + their arms and diffused their name from the Alps to the Apennine. + The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast which now forms the + republic of Genoa. Venice was yet unborn; but the territories of + that state, which lie to the east of the Adige, were inhabited by + the Venetians. The middle part of the peninsula, that now + composes the duchy of Tuscany and the ecclesiastical state, was + the ancient seat of the Etruscans and Umbrians; to the former of + whom Italy was indebted for the first rudiments of civilized + life. The Tyber rolled at the foot of the seven hills of Rome, + and the country of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Volsci, from + that river to the frontiers of Naples, was the theatre of her + infant victories. On that celebrated ground the first consuls + deserved triumphs, their successors adorned villas, and their + posterity have erected convents. Capua and Campania possessed the + immediate territory of Naples; the rest of the kingdom was + inhabited by many warlike nations, the Marsi, the Samnites, the + Apulians, and the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts had been covered + by the flourishing colonies of the Greeks. We may remark, that + when Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions, the little + province of Istria was annexed to that seat of Roman sovereignty. + + The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of + the Rhine and the Danube. The latter of those mighty streams, + which rises at the distance of only thirty miles from the former, + flows above thirteen hundred miles, for the most part to the + south-east, collects the tribute of sixty navigable rivers, and + is, at length, through six mouths, received into the Euxine, + which appears scarcely equal to such an accession of waters. The + provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general appellation of + Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were esteemed the most + warlike of the empire; but they deserve to be more particularly + considered under the names of Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, + Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. + + The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name of the + Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the banks + of the Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with the + Inn. The greatest part of the flat country is subject to the + elector of Bavaria; the city of Augsburg is protected by the + constitution of the German empire; the Grisons are safe in their + mountains, and the country of Tirol is ranked among the numerous + provinces of the house of Austria. + + The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, + the Danube, and the Save,—Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, + the Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia,—was known to the ancients under + the names of Noricum and Pannonia. In their original state of + independence, their fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. + Under the Roman government they were frequently united, and they + still remain the patrimony of a single family. They now contain + the residence of a German prince, who styles himself Emperor of + the Romans, and form the centre, as well as strength, of the + Austrian power. It may not be improper to observe, that if we + except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern skirts of Austria, and a + part of Hungary between the Teyss and the Danube, all the other + dominions of the House of Austria were comprised within the + limits of the Roman Empire. + + Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly belonged, + was a long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the Adriatic. + The best part of the sea-coast, which still retains its ancient + appellation, is a province of the Venetian state, and the seat of + the little republic of Ragusa. The inland parts have assumed the + Sclavonian names of Croatia and Bosnia; the former obeys an + Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish pacha; but the whole + country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, whose savage + independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the + Christian and Mahometan power. + + After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the + Save, it acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister. + It formerly divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, as we + have already seen, was a conquest of Trajan, and the only + province beyond the river. If we inquire into the present state + of those countries, we shall find that, on the left hand of the + Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been annexed, after many + revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the principalities + of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of the + Ottoman Porte. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, which, + during the middle ages, was broken into the barbarian kingdoms of + Servia and Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish slavery. + + The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the Turks + on the extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, + preserves the memory of their ancient state under the Roman + empire. In the time of the Antonines, the martial regions of + Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus and Rhodope, to the Bosphorus + and the Hellespont, had assumed the form of a province. + Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, the new + city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the + Bosphorus, has ever since remained the capital of a great + monarchy. The kingdom of Macedonia, which, under the reign of + Alexander, gave laws to Asia, derived more solid advantages from + the policy of the two Philips; and with its dependencies of + Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the Ægean to the Ionian Sea. + When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and Argos, of Sparta and + Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so many immortal + republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single province of the + Roman empire, which, from the superior influence of the Achæan + league, was usually denominated the province of Achaia. + + Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors. The + provinces of Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of + Trajan, are all comprehended within the limits of the Turkish + power. But, instead of following the arbitrary divisions of + despotism and ignorance, it will be safer for us, as well as more + agreeable, to observe the indelible characters of nature. The + name of Asia Minor is attributed with some propriety to the + peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the + Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. The + most extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus + and the River Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the + exclusive title of Asia. The jurisdiction of that province + extended over the ancient monarchies of Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, + the maritime countries of the Pamphylians, Lycians, and Carians, + and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, which equalled in arts, though + not in arms, the glory of their parent. The kingdoms of Bithynia + and Pontus possessed the northern side of the peninsula from + Constantinople to Trebizond. On the opposite side, the province + of Cilicia was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland + country, separated from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and + from Armenia by the Euphrates, had once formed the independent + kingdom of Cappadocia. In this place we may observe, that the + northern shores of the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in Asia, and + beyond the Danube in Europe, acknowledged the sovereignty of the + emperors, and received at their hands either tributary princes or + Roman garrisons. Budzak, Crim Tartary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, + are the modern appellations of those savage countries. + + Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the + Seleucidæ, who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful + revolt of the Parthians confined their dominions between the + Euphrates and the Mediterranean. When Syria became subject to the + Romans, it formed the eastern frontier of their empire: nor did + that province, in its utmost latitude, know any other bounds than + the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards the south, + the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Phœnicia and Palestine + were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the + jurisdiction of Syria. The former of these was a narrow and rocky + coast; the latter was a territory scarcely superior to Wales, + either in fertility or extent. * Yet Phœnicia and Palestine will + forever live in the memory of mankind; since America, as well as + Europe, has received letters from the one, and religion from the + other. A sandy desert, alike destitute of wood and water, skirts + along the doubtful confine of Syria, from the Euphrates to the + Red Sea. The wandering life of the Arabs was inseparably + connected with their independence; and wherever, on some spots + less barren than the rest, they ventured to for many settled + habitations, they soon became subjects to the Roman empire. + + The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what + portion of the globe they should ascribe Egypt. By its situation + that celebrated kingdom is included within the immense peninsula + of Africa; but it is accessible only on the side of Asia, whose + revolutions, in almost every period of history, Egypt has humbly + obeyed. A Roman præfect was seated on the splendid throne of the + Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of the Mamelukes is now in the + hands of a Turkish pacha. The Nile flows down the country, above + five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to the + Mediterranean, and marks on either side the extent of fertility + by the measure of its inundations. Cyrene, situate towards the + west, and along the sea-coast, was first a Greek colony, + afterwards a province of Egypt, and is now lost in the desert of + Barca. * + + From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above + fifteen hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the + Mediterranean and the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth + seldom exceeds fourscore or a hundred miles. The eastern division + was considered by the Romans as the more peculiar and proper + province of Africa. Till the arrival of the Phœnician colonies, + that fertile country was inhabited by the Libyans, the most + savage of mankind. Under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, + it became the centre of commerce and empire; but the republic of + Carthage is now degenerated into the feeble and disorderly states + of Tripoli and Tunis. The military government of Algiers + oppresses the wide extent of Numidia, as it was once united under + Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the time of Augustus, the limits + of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, two thirds of the + country acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the epithet of + Cæsariensis. The genuine Mauritania, or country of the Moors, + which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was + distinguished by the appellation of Tingitana, is represented by + the modern kingdom of Fez. Salle, on the Ocean, so infamous at + present for its piratical depredations, was noticed by the + Romans, as the extreme object of their power, and almost of their + geography. A city of their foundation may still be discovered + near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom we condescend + to style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, that his + more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were + ever comprehended within the Roman province. The western parts of + Africa are intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so + idly celebrated by the fancy of poets; but which is now diffused + over the immense ocean that rolls between the ancient and the new + continent. + + Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may + observe, that Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of + about twelve miles, through which the Atlantic flows into the + Mediterranean. The columns of Hercules, so famous among the + ancients, were two mountains which seemed to have been torn + asunder by some convulsion of the elements; and at the foot of + the European mountain, the fortress of Gibraltar is now seated. + The whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its coasts and its + islands, were comprised within the Roman dominion. Of the larger + islands, the two Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and + Minorca from their respective size, are subject at present, the + former to Spain, the latter to Great Britain. * It is easier to + deplore the fate, than to describe the actual condition, of + Corsica. Two Italian sovereigns assume a regal title from + Sardinia and Sicily. Crete, or Candia, with Cyprus, and most of + the smaller islands of Greece and Asia, have been subdued by the + Turkish arms, whilst the little rock of Malta defies their power, + and has emerged, under the government of its military Order, into + fame and opulence. + + This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments have + formed so many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to + forgive the vanity or ignorance of the ancients. Dazzled with the + extensive sway, the irresistible strength, and the real or + affected moderation of the emperors, they permitted themselves to + despise, and sometimes to forget, the outlying countries which + had been left in the enjoyment of a barbarous independence; and + they gradually usurped the license of confounding the Roman + monarchy with the globe of the earth. But the temper, as well as + knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more sober and + accurate language. He may impress a juster image of the greatness + of Rome, by observing that the empire was above two thousand + miles in breadth, from the wall of Antoninus and the northern + limits of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and the tropic of Cancer; that it + extended in length more than three thousand miles from the + Western Ocean to the Euphrates; that it was situated in the + finest part of the Temperate Zone, between the twenty-fourth and + fifty-sixth degrees of northern latitude; and that it was + supposed to contain above sixteen hundred thousand square miles, + for the most part of fertile and well-cultivated land. + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part I. + +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of +The Antonines. + + It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of conquest, that we + should estimate the greatness of Rome. The sovereign of the + Russian deserts commands a larger portion of the globe. In the + seventh summer after his passage of the Hellespont, Alexander + erected the Macedonian trophies on the banks of the Hyphasis. + Within less than a century, the irresistible Zingis, and the + Mogul princes of his race, spread their cruel devastations and + transient empire from the Sea of China, to the confines of Egypt + and Germany. But the firm edifice of Roman power was raised and + preserved by the wisdom of ages. The obedient provinces of Trajan + and the Antonines were united by laws, and adorned by arts. They + might occasionally suffer from the partial abuse of delegated + authority; but the general principle of government was wise, + simple, and beneficent. They enjoyed the religion of their + ancestors, whilst in civil honors and advantages they were + exalted, by just degrees, to an equality with their conquerors. + + I. The policy of the emperors and the senate, as far as it + concerned religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of + the enlightened, and by the habits of the superstitious, part of + their subjects. The various modes of worship, which prevailed in + the Roman world, were all considered by the people, as equally + true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and by the + magistrate, as equally useful. And thus toleration produced not + only mutual indulgence, but even religious concord. + + The superstition of the people was not imbittered by any mixture + of theological rancor; nor was it confined by the chains of any + speculative system. The devout polytheist, though fondly attached + to his national rites, admitted with implicit faith the different + religions of the earth. Fear, gratitude, and curiosity, a dream + or an omen, a singular disorder, or a distant journey, + perpetually disposed him to multiply the articles of his belief, + and to enlarge the list of his protectors. The thin texture of + the Pagan mythology was interwoven with various but not + discordant materials. As soon as it was allowed that sages and + heroes, who had lived or who had died for the benefit of their + country, were exalted to a state of power and immortality, it was + universally confessed, that they deserved, if not the adoration, + at least the reverence, of all mankind. The deities of a thousand + groves and a thousand streams possessed, in peace, their local + and respective influence; nor could the Romans who deprecated the + wrath of the Tiber, deride the Egyptian who presented his + offering to the beneficent genius of the Nile. The visible powers + of nature, the planets, and the elements were the same throughout + the universe. The invisible governors of the moral world were + inevitably cast in a similar mould of fiction and allegory. Every + virtue, and even vice, acquired its divine representative; every + art and profession its patron, whose attributes, in the most + distant ages and countries, were uniformly derived from the + character of their peculiar votaries. A republic of gods of such + opposite tempers and interests required, in every system, the + moderating hand of a supreme magistrate, who, by the progress of + knowledge and flattery, was gradually invested with the sublime + perfections of an Eternal Parent, and an Omnipotent Monarch. Such + was the mild spirit of antiquity, that the nations were less + attentive to the difference, than to the resemblance, of their + religious worship. The Greek, the Roman, and the Barbarian, as + they met before their respective altars, easily persuaded + themselves, that under various names, and with various + ceremonies, they adored the same deities. The elegant mythology + of Homer gave a beautiful, and almost a regular form, to the + polytheism of the ancient world. + + The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from the nature + of man, rather than from that of God. They meditated, however, on + the Divine Nature, as a very curious and important speculation; + and in the profound inquiry, they displayed the strength and + weakness of the human understanding. Of the four most celebrated + schools, the Stoics and the Platonists endeavored to reconcile + the jaring interests of reason and piety. They have left us the + most sublime proofs of the existence and perfections of the first + cause; but, as it was impossible for them to conceive the + creation of matter, the workman in the Stoic philosophy was not + sufficiently distinguished from the work; whilst, on the + contrary, the spiritual God of Plato and his disciples resembled + an idea, rather than a substance. The opinions of the Academics + and Epicureans were of a less religious cast; but whilst the + modest science of the former induced them to doubt, the positive + ignorance of the latter urged them to deny, the providence of a + Supreme Ruler. The spirit of inquiry, prompted by emulation, and + supported by freedom, had divided the public teachers of + philosophy into a variety of contending sects; but the ingenious + youth, who, from every part, resorted to Athens, and the other + seats of learning in the Roman empire, were alike instructed in + every school to reject and to despise the religion of the + multitude. How, indeed, was it possible that a philosopher should + accept, as divine truths, the idle tales of the poets, and the + incoherent traditions of antiquity; or that he should adore, as + gods, those imperfect beings whom he must have despised, as men? + Against such unworthy adversaries, Cicero condescended to employ + the arms of reason and eloquence; but the satire of Lucian was a + much more adequate, as well as more efficacious, weapon. We may + be well assured, that a writer, conversant with the world, would + never have ventured to expose the gods of his country to public + ridicule, had they not already been the objects of secret + contempt among the polished and enlightened orders of society. + + Notwithstanding the fashionable irreligion which prevailed in the + age of the Antonines, both the interest of the priests and the + credulity of the people were sufficiently respected. In their + writings and conversation, the philosophers of antiquity asserted + the independent dignity of reason; but they resigned their + actions to the commands of law and of custom. Viewing, with a + smile of pity and indulgence, the various errors of the vulgar, + they diligently practised the ceremonies of their fathers, + devoutly frequented the temples of the gods; and sometimes + condescending to act a part on the theatre of superstition, they + concealed the sentiments of an atheist under the sacerdotal + robes. Reasoners of such a temper were scarcely inclined to + wrangle about their respective modes of faith, or of worship. It + was indifferent to them what shape the folly of the multitude + might choose to assume; and they approached with the same inward + contempt, and the same external reverence, the altars of the + Libyan, the Olympian, or the Capitoline Jupiter. + + It is not easy to conceive from what motives a spirit of + persecution could introduce itself into the Roman councils. The + magistrates could not be actuated by a blind, though honest + bigotry, since the magistrates were themselves philosophers; and + the schools of Athens had given laws to the senate. They could + not be impelled by ambition or avarice, as the temporal and + ecclesiastical powers were united in the same hands. The pontiffs + were chosen among the most illustrious of the senators; and the + office of Supreme Pontiff was constantly exercised by the + emperors themselves. They knew and valued the advantages of + religion, as it is connected with civil government. They + encouraged the public festivals which humanize the manners of the + people. They managed the arts of divination as a convenient + instrument of policy; and they respected, as the firmest bond of + society, the useful persuasion, that, either in this or in a + future life, the crime of perjury is most assuredly punished by + the avenging gods. But whilst they acknowledged the general + advantages of religion, they were convinced that the various + modes of worship contributed alike to the same salutary purposes; + and that, in every country, the form of superstition, which had + received the sanction of time and experience, was the best + adapted to the climate, and to its inhabitants. Avarice and taste + very frequently despoiled the vanquished nations of the elegant + statues of their gods, and the rich ornaments of their temples; + but, in the exercise of the religion which they derived from + their ancestors, they uniformly experienced the indulgence, and + even protection, of the Roman conquerors. The province of Gaul + seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal + toleration. Under the specious pretext of abolishing human + sacrifices, the emperors Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the + dangerous power of the Druids: but the priests themselves, their + gods and their altars, subsisted in peaceful obscurity till the + final destruction of Paganism. + + Rome, the capital of a great monarchy, was incessantly filled + with subjects and strangers from every part of the world, who all + introduced and enjoyed the favorite superstitions of their native + country. Every city in the empire was justified in maintaining + the purity of its ancient ceremonies; and the Roman senate, using + the common privilege, sometimes interposed, to check this + inundation of foreign rites. * The Egyptian superstition, of all + the most contemptible and abject, was frequently prohibited: the + temples of Serapis and Isis demolished, and their worshippers + banished from Rome and Italy. But the zeal of fanaticism + prevailed over the cold and feeble efforts of policy. The exiles + returned, the proselytes multiplied, the temples were restored + with increasing splendor, and Isis and Serapis at length assumed + their place among the Roman Deities. Nor was this indulgence a + departure from the old maxims of government. In the purest ages + of the commonwealth, Cybele and Æsculapius had been invited by + solemn embassies; and it was customary to tempt the protectors of + besieged cities, by the promise of more distinguished honors than + they possessed in their native country. Rome gradually became the + common temple of her subjects; and the freedom of the city was + bestowed on all the gods of mankind. + + II. The narrow policy of preserving, without any foreign mixture, + the pure blood of the ancient citizens, had checked the fortune, + and hastened the ruin, of Athens and Sparta. The aspiring genius + of Rome sacrificed vanity to ambition, and deemed it more + prudent, as well as honorable, to adopt virtue and merit for her + own wheresoever they were found, among slaves or strangers, + enemies or barbarians. During the most flourishing æra of the + Athenian commonwealth, the number of citizens gradually decreased + from about thirty to twenty-one thousand. If, on the contrary, we + study the growth of the Roman republic, we may discover, that, + notwithstanding the incessant demands of wars and colonies, the + citizens, who, in the first census of Servius Tullius, amounted + to no more than eighty-three thousand, were multiplied, before + the commencement of the social war, to the number of four hundred + and sixty-three thousand men, able to bear arms in the service of + their country. When the allies of Rome claimed an equal share of + honors and privileges, the senate indeed preferred the chance of + arms to an ignominious concession. The Samnites and the Lucanians + paid the severe penalty of their rashness; but the rest of the + Italian states, as they successively returned to their duty, were + admitted into the bosom of the republic, and soon contributed to + the ruin of public freedom. Under a democratical government, the + citizens exercise the powers of sovereignty; and those powers + will be first abused, and afterwards lost, if they are committed + to an unwieldy multitude. But when the popular assemblies had + been suppressed by the administration of the emperors, the + conquerors were distinguished from the vanquished nations, only + as the first and most honorable order of subjects; and their + increase, however rapid, was no longer exposed to the same + dangers. Yet the wisest princes, who adopted the maxims of + Augustus, guarded with the strictest care the dignity of the + Roman name, and diffused the freedom of the city with a prudent + liberality. + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part II. + + Till the privileges of Romans had been progressively extended to + all the inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction was + preserved between Italy and the provinces. The former was + esteemed the centre of public unity, and the firm basis of the + constitution. Italy claimed the birth, or at least the residence, + of the emperors and the senate. The estates of the Italians were + exempt from taxes, their persons from the arbitrary jurisdiction + of governors. Their municipal corporations, formed after the + perfect model of the capital, * were intrusted, under the + immediate eye of the supreme power, with the execution of the + laws. From the foot of the Alps to the extremity of Calabria, all + the natives of Italy were born citizens of Rome. Their partial + distinctions were obliterated, and they insensibly coalesced into + one great nation, united by language, manners, and civil + institutions, and equal to the weight of a powerful empire. The + republic gloried in her generous policy, and was frequently + rewarded by the merit and services of her adopted sons. Had she + always confined the distinction of Romans to the ancient families + within the walls of the city, that immortal name would have been + deprived of some of its noblest ornaments. Virgil was a native of + Mantua; Horace was inclined to doubt whether he should call + himself an Apulian or a Lucanian; it was in Padua that an + historian was found worthy to record the majestic series of Roman + victories. The patriot family of the Catos emerged from Tusculum; + and the little town of Arpinum claimed the double honor of + producing Marius and Cicero, the former of whom deserved, after + Romulus and Camillus, to be styled the Third Founder of Rome; and + the latter, after saving his country from the designs of + Catiline, enabled her to contend with Athens for the palm of + eloquence. + + The provinces of the empire (as they have been described in the + preceding chapter) were destitute of any public force, or + constitutional freedom. In Etruria, in Greece, and in Gaul, it + was the first care of the senate to dissolve those dangerous + confederacies, which taught mankind that, as the Roman arms + prevailed by division, they might be resisted by union. Those + princes, whom the ostentation of gratitude or generosity + permitted for a while to hold a precarious sceptre, were + dismissed from their thrones, as soon as they had performed their + appointed task of fashioning to the yoke the vanquished nations. + The free states and cities which had embraced the cause of Rome + were rewarded with a nominal alliance, and insensibly sunk into + real servitude. The public authority was everywhere exercised by + the ministers of the senate and of the emperors, and that + authority was absolute, and without control. But the same + salutary maxims of government, which had secured the peace and + obedience of Italy were extended to the most distant conquests. A + nation of Romans was gradually formed in the provinces, by the + double expedient of introducing colonies, and of admitting the + most faithful and deserving of the provincials to the freedom of + Rome. + + “Wheresoever the Roman conquers, he inhabits,” is a very just + observation of Seneca, confirmed by history and experience. The + natives of Italy, allured by pleasure or by interest, hastened to + enjoy the advantages of victory; and we may remark, that, about + forty years after the reduction of Asia, eighty thousand Romans + were massacred in one day, by the cruel orders of Mithridates. + These voluntary exiles were engaged, for the most part, in the + occupations of commerce, agriculture, and the farm of the + revenue. But after the legions were rendered permanent by the + emperors, the provinces were peopled by a race of soldiers; and + the veterans, whether they received the reward of their service + in land or in money, usually settled with their families in the + country, where they had honorably spent their youth. Throughout + the empire, but more particularly in the western parts, the most + fertile districts, and the most convenient situations, were + reserved for the establishment of colonies; some of which were of + a civil, and others of a military nature. In their manners and + internal policy, the colonies formed a perfect representation of + their great parent; and they were soon endeared to the natives by + the ties of friendship and alliance, they effectually diffused a + reverence for the Roman name, and a desire, which was seldom + disappointed, of sharing, in due time, its honors and advantages. + The municipal cities insensibly equalled the rank and splendor of + the colonies; and in the reign of Hadrian, it was disputed which + was the preferable condition, of those societies which had issued + from, or those which had been received into, the bosom of Rome. + The right of Latium, as it was called, * conferred on the cities + to which it had been granted, a more partial favor. The + magistrates only, at the expiration of their office, assumed the + quality of Roman citizens; but as those offices were annual, in a + few years they circulated round the principal families. Those of + the provincials who were permitted to bear arms in the legions; + those who exercised any civil employment; all, in a word, who + performed any public service, or displayed any personal talents, + were rewarded with a present, whose value was continually + diminished by the increasing liberality of the emperors. Yet + even, in the age of the Antonines, when the freedom of the city + had been bestowed on the greater number of their subjects, it was + still accompanied with very solid advantages. The bulk of the + people acquired, with that title, the benefit of the Roman laws, + particularly in the interesting articles of marriage, testaments, + and inheritances; and the road of fortune was open to those whose + pretensions were seconded by favor or merit. The grandsons of the + Gauls, who had besieged Julius Cæsar in Alesia, commanded + legions, governed provinces, and were admitted into the senate of + Rome. Their ambition, instead of disturbing the tranquillity of + the state, was intimately connected with its safety and + greatness. + + So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over + national manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, + with the progress of their arms, the use of the Latin tongue. The + ancient dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the + Venetian, sunk into oblivion; but in the provinces, the east was + less docile than the west to the voice of its victorious + preceptors. This obvious difference marked the two portions of + the empire with a distinction of colors, which, though it was in + some degree concealed during the meridian splendor of prosperity, + became gradually more visible, as the shades of night descended + upon the Roman world. The western countries were civilized by the + same hands which subdued them. As soon as the barbarians were + reconciled to obedience, their minds were open to any new + impressions of knowledge and politeness. The language of Virgil + and Cicero, though with some inevitable mixture of corruption, + was so universally adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and + Pannonia, that the faint traces of the Punic or Celtic idioms + were preserved only in the mountains, or among the peasants. + Education and study insensibly inspired the natives of those + countries with the sentiments of Romans; and Italy gave fashions, + as well as laws, to her Latin provincials. They solicited with + more ardor, and obtained with more facility, the freedom and + honors of the state; supported the national dignity in letters + and in arms; and at length, in the person of Trajan, produced an + emperor whom the Scipios would not have disowned for their + countryman. The situation of the Greeks was very different from + that of the barbarians. The former had been long since civilized + and corrupted. They had too much taste to relinquish their + language, and too much vanity to adopt any foreign institutions. + Still preserving the prejudices, after they had lost the virtues, + of their ancestors, they affected to despise the unpolished + manners of the Roman conquerors, whilst they were compelled to + respect their superior wisdom and power. Nor was the influence of + the Grecian language and sentiments confined to the narrow limits + of that once celebrated country. Their empire, by the progress of + colonies and conquest, had been diffused from the Adriatic to the + Euphrates and the Nile. Asia was covered with Greek cities, and + the long reign of the Macedonian kings had introduced a silent + revolution into Syria and Egypt. In their pompous courts, those + princes united the elegance of Athens with the luxury of the + East, and the example of the court was imitated, at an humble + distance, by the higher ranks of their subjects. Such was the + general division of the Roman empire into the Latin and Greek + languages. To these we may add a third distinction for the body + of the natives in Syria, and especially in Egypt, the use of + their ancient dialects, by secluding them from the commerce of + mankind, checked the improvements of those barbarians. The + slothful effeminacy of the former exposed them to the contempt, + the sullen ferociousness of the latter excited the aversion, of + the conquerors. Those nations had submitted to the Roman power, + but they seldom desired or deserved the freedom of the city: and + it was remarked, that more than two hundred and thirty years + elapsed after the ruin of the Ptolemies, before an Egyptian was + admitted into the senate of Rome. + + It is a just though trite observation, that victorious Rome was + herself subdued by the arts of Greece. Those immortal writers who + still command the admiration of modern Europe, soon became the + favorite object of study and imitation in Italy and the western + provinces. But the elegant amusements of the Romans were not + suffered to interfere with their sound maxims of policy. Whilst + they acknowledged the charms of the Greek, they asserted the + dignity of the Latin tongue, and the exclusive use of the latter + was inflexibly maintained in the administration of civil as well + as military government. The two languages exercised at the same + time their separate jurisdiction throughout the empire: the + former, as the natural idiom of science; the latter, as the legal + dialect of public transactions. Those who united letters with + business were equally conversant with both; and it was almost + impossible, in any province, to find a Roman subject, of a + liberal education, who was at once a stranger to the Greek and to + the Latin language. + + It was by such institutions that the nations of the empire + insensibly melted away into the Roman name and people. But there + still remained, in the centre of every province and of every + family, an unhappy condition of men who endured the weight, + without sharing the benefits, of society. In the free states of + antiquity, the domestic slaves were exposed to the wanton rigor + of despotism. The perfect settlement of the Roman empire was + preceded by ages of violence and rapine. The slaves consisted, + for the most part, of barbarian captives, * taken in thousands by + the chance of war, purchased at a vile price, accustomed to a + life of independence, and impatient to break and to revenge their + fetters. Against such internal enemies, whose desperate + insurrections had more than once reduced the republic to the + brink of destruction, the most severe regulations, and the most + cruel treatment, seemed almost justified by the great law of + self-preservation. But when the principal nations of Europe, + Asia, and Africa were united under the laws of one sovereign, the + source of foreign supplies flowed with much less abundance, and + the Romans were reduced to the milder but more tedious method of + propagation. * In their numerous families, and particularly in + their country estates, they encouraged the marriage of their + slaves. The sentiments of nature, the habits of education, and + the possession of a dependent species of property, contributed to + alleviate the hardships of servitude. The existence of a slave + became an object of greater value, and though his happiness still + depended on the temper and circumstances of the master, the + humanity of the latter, instead of being restrained by fear, was + encouraged by the sense of his own interest. The progress of + manners was accelerated by the virtue or policy of the emperors; + and by the edicts of Hadrian and the Antonines, the protection of + the laws was extended to the most abject part of mankind. The + jurisdiction of life and death over the slaves, a power long + exercised and often abused, was taken out of private hands, and + reserved to the magistrates alone. The subterraneous prisons were + abolished; and, upon a just complaint of intolerable treatment, + the injured slave obtained either his deliverance, or a less + cruel master. + + Hope, the best comfort of our imperfect condition, was not denied + to the Roman slave; and if he had any opportunity of rendering + himself either useful or agreeable, he might very naturally + expect that the diligence and fidelity of a few years would be + rewarded with the inestimable gift of freedom. The benevolence of + the master was so frequently prompted by the meaner suggestions + of vanity and avarice, that the laws found it more necessary to + restrain than to encourage a profuse and undistinguishing + liberality, which might degenerate into a very dangerous abuse. + It was a maxim of ancient jurisprudence, that a slave had not any + country of his own; he acquired with his liberty an admission + into the political society of which his patron was a member. The + consequences of this maxim would have prostituted the privileges + of the Roman city to a mean and promiscuous multitude. Some + seasonable exceptions were therefore provided; and the honorable + distinction was confined to such slaves only as, for just causes, + and with the approbation of the magistrate, should receive a + solemn and legal manumission. Even these chosen freedmen obtained + no more than the private rights of citizens, and were rigorously + excluded from civil or military honors. Whatever might be the + merit or fortune of their sons, _they_ likewise were esteemed + unworthy of a seat in the senate; nor were the traces of a + servile origin allowed to be completely obliterated till the + third or fourth generation. Without destroying the distinction of + ranks, a distant prospect of freedom and honors was presented, + even to those whom pride and prejudice almost disdained to number + among the human species. + + It was once proposed to discriminate the slaves by a peculiar + habit; but it was justly apprehended that there might be some + danger in acquainting them with their own numbers. Without + interpreting, in their utmost strictness, the liberal + appellations of legions and myriads, we may venture to pronounce, + that the proportion of slaves, who were valued as property, was + more considerable than that of servants, who can be computed only + as an expense. The youths of a promising genius were instructed + in the arts and sciences, and their price was ascertained by the + degree of their skill and talents. Almost every profession, + either liberal or mechanical, might be found in the household of + an opulent senator. The ministers of pomp and sensuality were + multiplied beyond the conception of modern luxury. It was more + for the interest of the merchant or manufacturer to purchase, + than to hire his workmen; and in the country, slaves were + employed as the cheapest and most laborious instruments of + agriculture. To confirm the general observation, and to display + the multitude of slaves, we might allege a variety of particular + instances. It was discovered, on a very melancholy occasion, that + four hundred slaves were maintained in a single palace of Rome. + The same number of four hundred belonged to an estate which an + African widow, of a very private condition, resigned to her son, + whilst she reserved for herself a much larger share of her + property. A freedman, under the name of Augustus, though his + fortune had suffered great losses in the civil wars, left behind + him three thousand six hundred yoke of oxen, two hundred and + fifty thousand head of smaller cattle, and what was almost + included in the description of cattle, four thousand one hundred + and sixteen slaves. + + The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of + citizens, of provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with + such a degree of accuracy, as the importance of the object would + deserve. We are informed, that when the Emperor Claudius + exercised the office of censor, he took an account of six + millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, + who, with the proportion of women and children, must have + amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of + subjects of an inferior rank was uncertain and fluctuating. But, + after weighing with attention every circumstance which could + influence the balance, it seems probable that there existed, in + the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there + were citizens, of either sex, and of every age; and that the + slaves were at least equal in number to the free inhabitants of + the Roman world. * The total amount of this imperfect calculation + would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons; a + degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern + Europe, and forms the most numerous society that has ever been + united under the same system of government. + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part III. + + Domestic peace and union were the natural consequences of the + moderate and comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans. If we + turn our eyes towards the monarchies of Asia, we shall behold + despotism in the centre, and weakness in the extremities; the + collection of the revenue, or the administration of justice, + enforced by the presence of an army; hostile barbarians + established in the heart of the country, hereditary satraps + usurping the dominion of the provinces, and subjects inclined to + rebellion, though incapable of freedom. But the obedience of the + Roman world was uniform, voluntary, and permanent. The vanquished + nations, blended into one great people, resigned the hope, nay, + even the wish, of resuming their independence, and scarcely + considered their own existence as distinct from the existence of + Rome. The established authority of the emperors pervaded without + an effort the wide extent of their dominions, and was exercised + with the same facility on the banks of the Thames, or of the + Nile, as on those of the Tyber. The legions were destined to + serve against the public enemy, and the civil magistrate seldom + required the aid of a military force. In this state of general + security, the leisure, as well as opulence, both of the prince + and people, were devoted to improve and to adorn the Roman + empire. + + Among the innumerable monuments of architecture constructed by + the Romans, how many have escaped the notice of history, how few + have resisted the ravages of time and barbarism! And yet, even + the majestic ruins that are still scattered over Italy and the + provinces, would be sufficient to prove that those countries were + once the seat of a polite and powerful empire. Their greatness + alone, or their beauty, might deserve our attention: but they are + rendered more interesting, by two important circumstances, which + connect the agreeable history of the arts with the more useful + history of human manners. Many of those works were erected at + private expense, and almost all were intended for public benefit. + + It is natural to suppose that the greatest number, as well as the + most considerable of the Roman edifices, were raised by the + emperors, who possessed so unbounded a command both of men and + money. Augustus was accustomed to boast that he had found his + capital of brick, and that he had left it of marble. The strict + economy of Vespasian was the source of his magnificence. The + works of Trajan bear the stamp of his genius. The public + monuments with which Hadrian adorned every province of the + empire, were executed not only by his orders, but under his + immediate inspection. He was himself an artist; and he loved the + arts, as they conduced to the glory of the monarch. They were + encouraged by the Antonines, as they contributed to the happiness + of the people. But if the emperors were the first, they were not + the only architects of their dominions. Their example was + universally imitated by their principal subjects, who were not + afraid of declaring to the world that they had spirit to + conceive, and wealth to accomplish, the noblest undertakings. + Scarcely had the proud structure of the Coliseum been dedicated + at Rome, before the edifices, of a smaller scale indeed, but of + the same design and materials, were erected for the use, and at + the expense, of the cities of Capua and Verona. The inscription + of the stupendous bridge of Alcantara attests that it was thrown + over the Tagus by the contribution of a few Lusitanian + communities. When Pliny was intrusted with the government of + Bithynia and Pontus, provinces by no means the richest or most + considerable of the empire, he found the cities within his + jurisdiction striving with each other in every useful and + ornamental work, that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, + or the gratitude of their citizens. It was the duty of the + proconsul to supply their deficiencies, to direct their taste, + and sometimes to moderate their emulation. The opulent senators + of Rome and the provinces esteemed it an honor, and almost an + obligation, to adorn the splendor of their age and country; and + the influence of fashion very frequently supplied the want of + taste or generosity. Among a crowd of these private benefactors, + we may select Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, who lived in + the age of the Antonines. Whatever might be the motive of his + conduct, his magnificence would have been worthy of the greatest + kings. + + The family of Herod, at least after it had been favored by + fortune, was lineally descended from Cimon and Miltiades, Theseus + and Cecrops, Æacus and Jupiter. But the posterity of so many gods + and heroes was fallen into the most abject state. His grandfather + had suffered by the hands of justice, and Julius Atticus, his + father, must have ended his life in poverty and contempt, had he + not discovered an immense treasure buried under an old house, the + last remains of his patrimony. According to the rigor of the law, + the emperor might have asserted his claim, and the prudent + Atticus prevented, by a frank confession, the officiousness of + informers. But the equitable Nerva, who then filled the throne, + refused to accept any part of it, and commanded him to use, + without scruple, the present of fortune. The cautious Athenian + still insisted, that the treasure was too considerable for a + subject, and that he knew not how to _use it_. _Abuse it then_, + replied the monarch, with a good-natured peevishness; for it is + your own. Many will be of opinion, that Atticus literally obeyed + the emperor’s last instructions; since he expended the greatest + part of his fortune, which was much increased by an advantageous + marriage, in the service of the public. He had obtained for his + son Herod the prefecture of the free cities of Asia; and the + young magistrate, observing that the town of Troas was + indifferently supplied with water, obtained from the munificence + of Hadrian three hundred myriads of drachms, (about a hundred + thousand pounds,) for the construction of a new aqueduct. But in + the execution of the work, the charge amounted to more than + double the estimate, and the officers of the revenue began to + murmur, till the generous Atticus silenced their complaints, by + requesting that he might be permitted to take upon himself the + whole additional expense. + + The ablest preceptors of Greece and Asia had been invited by + liberal rewards to direct the education of young Herod. Their + pupil soon became a celebrated orator, according to the useless + rhetoric of that age, which, confining itself to the schools, + disdained to visit either the Forum or the Senate. He was honored + with the consulship at Rome: but the greatest part of his life + was spent in a philosophic retirement at Athens, and his adjacent + villas; perpetually surrounded by sophists, who acknowledged, + without reluctance, the superiority of a rich and generous rival. + The monuments of his genius have perished; some considerable + ruins still preserve the fame of his taste and munificence: + modern travellers have measured the remains of the stadium which + he constructed at Athens. It was six hundred feet in length, + built entirely of white marble, capable of admitting the whole + body of the people, and finished in four years, whilst Herod was + president of the Athenian games. To the memory of his wife + Regilla he dedicated a theatre, scarcely to be paralleled in the + empire: no wood except cedar, very curiously carved, was employed + in any part of the building. The Odeum, * designed by Pericles + for musical performances, and the rehearsal of new tragedies, had + been a trophy of the victory of the arts over barbaric greatness; + as the timbers employed in the construction consisted chiefly of + the masts of the Persian vessels. Notwithstanding the repairs + bestowed on that ancient edifice by a king of Cappadocia, it was + again fallen to decay. Herod restored its ancient beauty and + magnificence. Nor was the liberality of that illustrious citizen + confined to the walls of Athens. The most splendid ornaments + bestowed on the temple of Neptune in the Isthmus, a theatre at + Corinth, a stadium at Delphi, a bath at Thermopylæ, and an + aqueduct at Canusium in Italy, were insufficient to exhaust his + treasures. The people of Epirus, Thessaly, Euboea, Boeotia, and + Peloponnesus, experienced his favors; and many inscriptions of + the cities of Greece and Asia gratefully style Herodes Atticus + their patron and benefactor. + + In the commonwealths of Athens and Rome, the modest simplicity of + private houses announced the equal condition of freedom; whilst + the sovereignty of the people was represented in the majestic + edifices designed to the public use; nor was this republican + spirit totally extinguished by the introduction of wealth and + monarchy. It was in works of national honor and benefit, that the + most virtuous of the emperors affected to display their + magnificence. The golden palace of Nero excited a just + indignation, but the vast extent of ground which had been usurped + by his selfish luxury was more nobly filled under the succeeding + reigns by the Coliseum, the baths of Titus, the Claudian portico, + and the temples dedicated to the goddess of Peace, and to the + genius of Rome. These monuments of architecture, the property of + the Roman people, were adorned with the most beautiful + productions of Grecian painting and sculpture; and in the temple + of Peace, a very curious library was open to the curiosity of the + learned. * At a small distance from thence was situated the Forum + of Trajan. It was surrounded by a lofty portico, in the form of a + quadrangle, into which four triumphal arches opened a noble and + spacious entrance: in the centre arose a column of marble, whose + height, of one hundred and ten feet, denoted the elevation of the + hill that had been cut away. This column, which still subsists in + its ancient beauty, exhibited an exact representation of the + Dacian victories of its founder. The veteran soldier contemplated + the story of his own campaigns, and by an easy illusion of + national vanity, the peaceful citizen associated himself to the + honors of the triumph. All the other quarters of the capital, and + all the provinces of the empire, were embellished by the same + liberal spirit of public magnificence, and were filled with + amphitheatres, theatres, temples, porticoes, triumphal arches, + baths and aqueducts, all variously conducive to the health, the + devotion, and the pleasures of the meanest citizen. The last + mentioned of those edifices deserve our peculiar attention. The + boldness of the enterprise, the solidity of the execution, and + the uses to which they were subservient, rank the aqueducts among + the noblest monuments of Roman genius and power. The aqueducts of + the capital claim a just preeminence; but the curious traveller, + who, without the light of history, should examine those of + Spoleto, of Metz, or of Segovia, would very naturally conclude + that those provincial towns had formerly been the residence of + some potent monarch. The solitudes of Asia and Africa were once + covered with flourishing cities, whose populousness, and even + whose existence, was derived from such artificial supplies of a + perennial stream of fresh water. + + We have computed the inhabitants, and contemplated the public + works, of the Roman empire. The observation of the number and + greatness of its cities will serve to confirm the former, and to + multiply the latter. It may not be unpleasing to collect a few + scattered instances relative to that subject without forgetting, + however, that from the vanity of nations and the poverty of + language, the vague appellation of city has been indifferently + bestowed on Rome and upon Laurentum. + + I. _Ancient_ Italy is said to have contained eleven hundred and + ninety-seven cities; and for whatsoever æra of antiquity the + expression might be intended, there is not any reason to believe + the country less populous in the age of the Antonines, than in + that of Romulus. The petty states of Latium were contained within + the metropolis of the empire, by whose superior influence they + had been attracted. * Those parts of Italy which have so long + languished under the lazy tyranny of priests and viceroys, had + been afflicted only by the more tolerable calamities of war; and + the first symptoms of decay which they experienced, were amply + compensated by the rapid improvements of the Cisalpine Gaul. The + splendor of Verona may be traced in its remains: yet Verona was + less celebrated than Aquileia or Padua, Milan or Ravenna. II. The + spirit of improvement had passed the Alps, and been felt even in + the woods of Britain, which were gradually cleared away to open a + free space for convenient and elegant habitations. York was the + seat of government; London was already enriched by commerce; and + Bath was celebrated for the salutary effects of its medicinal + waters. Gaul could boast of her twelve hundred cities; and + though, in the northern parts, many of them, without excepting + Paris itself, were little more than the rude and imperfect + townships of a rising people, the southern provinces imitated the + wealth and elegance of Italy. Many were the cities of Gaul, + Marseilles, Arles, Nismes, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Bourdeaux, Autun, + Vienna, Lyons, Langres, and Treves, whose ancient condition might + sustain an equal, and perhaps advantageous comparison with their + present state. With regard to Spain, that country flourished as a + province, and has declined as a kingdom. Exhausted by the abuse + of her strength, by America, and by superstition, her pride might + possibly be confounded, if we required such a list of three + hundred and sixty cities, as Pliny has exhibited under the reign + of Vespasian. III. Three hundred African cities had once + acknowledged the authority of Carthage, nor is it likely that + their numbers diminished under the administration of the + emperors: Carthage itself rose with new splendor from its ashes; + and that capital, as well as Capua and Corinth, soon recovered + all the advantages which can be separated from independent + sovereignty. IV. The provinces of the East present the contrast + of Roman magnificence with Turkish barbarism. The ruins of + antiquity scattered over uncultivated fields, and ascribed, by + ignorance, to the power of magic, scarcely afford a shelter to + the oppressed peasant or wandering Arab. Under the reign of the + Cæsars, the proper Asia alone contained five hundred populous + cities, enriched with all the gifts of nature, and adorned with + all the refinements of art. Eleven cities of Asia had once + disputed the honor of dedicating a temple of Tiberius, and their + respective merits were examined by the senate. Four of them were + immediately rejected as unequal to the burden; and among these + was Laodicea, whose splendor is still displayed in its ruins. + Laodicea collected a very considerable revenue from its flocks of + sheep, celebrated for the fineness of their wool, and had + received, a little before the contest, a legacy of above four + hundred thousand pounds by the testament of a generous citizen. + If such was the poverty of Laodicea, what must have been the + wealth of those cities, whose claim appeared preferable, and + particularly of Pergamus, of Smyrna, and of Ephesus, who so long + disputed with each other the titular primacy of Asia? The + capitals of Syria and Egypt held a still superior rank in the + empire; Antioch and Alexandria looked down with disdain on a + crowd of dependent cities, and yielded, with reluctance, to the + majesty of Rome itself. + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part IV. + + All these cities were connected with each other, and with the + capital, by the public highways, which, issuing from the Forum of + Rome, traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were + terminated only by the frontiers of the empire. If we carefully + trace the distance from the wall of Antoninus to Rome, and from + thence to Jerusalem, it will be found that the great chain of + communication, from the north-west to the south-east point of the + empire, was drawn out to the length of four thousand and eighty + Roman miles. The public roads were accurately divided by + mile-stones, and ran in a direct line from one city to another, + with very little respect for the obstacles either of nature or + private property. Mountains were perforated, and bold arches + thrown over the broadest and most rapid streams. The middle part + of the road was raised into a terrace which commanded the + adjacent country, consisted of several strata of sand, gravel, + and cement, and was paved with large stones, or, in some places + near the capital, with granite. Such was the solid construction + of the Roman highways, whose firmness has not entirely yielded to + the effort of fifteen centuries. They united the subjects of the + most distant provinces by an easy and familiar intercourse; but + their primary object had been to facilitate the marches of the + legions; nor was any country considered as completely subdued, + till it had been rendered, in all its parts, pervious to the arms + and authority of the conqueror. The advantage of receiving the + earliest intelligence, and of conveying their orders with + celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their + extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses + were everywhere erected at the distance only of five or six + miles; each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, + and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred + miles in a day along the Roman roads. * The use of posts was + allowed to those who claimed it by an Imperial mandate; but + though originally intended for the public service, it was + sometimes indulged to the business or conveniency of private + citizens. Nor was the communication of the Roman empire less free + and open by sea than it was by land. The provinces surrounded and + enclosed the Mediterranean: and Italy, in the shape of an immense + promontory, advanced into the midst of that great lake. The + coasts of Italy are, in general, destitute of safe harbors; but + human industry had corrected the deficiencies of nature; and the + artificial port of Ostia, in particular, situate at the mouth of + the Tyber, and formed by the emperor Claudius, was a useful + monument of Roman greatness. From this port, which was only + sixteen miles from the capital, a favorable breeze frequently + carried vessels in seven days to the columns of Hercules, and in + nine or ten, to Alexandria in Egypt. + + Whatever evils either reason or declamation have imputed to + extensive empire, the power of Rome was attended with some + beneficial consequences to mankind; and the same freedom of + intercourse which extended the vices, diffused likewise the + improvements, of social life. In the more remote ages of + antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The East was in the + immemorial possession of arts and luxury; whilst the West was + inhabited by rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained + agriculture, or to whom it was totally unknown. Under the + protection of an established government, the productions of + happier climates, and the industry of more civilized nations, + were gradually introduced into the western countries of Europe; + and the natives were encouraged, by an open and profitable + commerce, to multiply the former, as well as to improve the + latter. It would be almost impossible to enumerate all the + articles, either of the animal or the vegetable reign, which were + successively imported into Europe from Asia and Egypt: but it + will not be unworthy of the dignity, and much less of the + utility, of an historical work, slightly to touch on a few of the + principal heads. 1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and the + fruits, that grow in our European gardens, are of foreign + extraction, which, in many cases, is betrayed even by their + names: the apple was a native of Italy, and when the Romans had + tasted the richer flavor of the apricot, the peach, the + pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they contented + themselves with applying to all these new fruits the common + denomination of apple, discriminating them from each other by the + additional epithet of their country. 2. In the time of Homer, the + vine grew wild in the island of Sicily, and most probably in the + adjacent continent; but it was not improved by the skill, nor did + it afford a liquor grateful to the taste, of the savage + inhabitants. A thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, that + of the fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, more than + two thirds were produced from her soil. The blessing was soon + communicated to the Narbonnese province of Gaul; but so intense + was the cold to the north of the Cevennes, that, in the time of + Strabo, it was thought impossible to ripen the grapes in those + parts of Gaul. This difficulty, however, was gradually + vanquished; and there is some reason to believe, that the + vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of the Antonines. 3. + The olive, in the western world, followed the progress of peace, + of which it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the + foundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that + useful plant: it was naturalized in those countries; and at + length carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul. The timid errors + of the ancients, that it required a certain degree of heat, and + could only flourish in the neighborhood of the sea, were + insensibly exploded by industry and experience. 4. The + cultivation of flax was transported from Egypt to Gaul, and + enriched the whole country, however it might impoverish the + particular lands on which it was sown. 5. The use of artificial + grasses became familiar to the farmers both of Italy and the + provinces, particularly the Lucerne, which derived its name and + origin from Media. The assured supply of wholesome and plentiful + food for the cattle during winter, multiplied the number of the + docks and herds, which in their turn contributed to the fertility + of the soil. To all these improvements may be added an assiduous + attention to mines and fisheries, which, by employing a multitude + of laborious hands, serve to increase the pleasures of the rich + and the subsistence of the poor. The elegant treatise of + Columella describes the advanced state of the Spanish husbandry + under the reign of Tiberius; and it may be observed, that those + famines, which so frequently afflicted the infant republic, were + seldom or never experienced by the extensive empire of Rome. The + accidental scarcity, in any single province, was immediately + relieved by the plenty of its more fortunate neighbors. + + Agriculture is the foundation of manufactures; since the + productions of nature are the materials of art. Under the Roman + empire, the labor of an industrious and ingenious people was + variously, but incessantly, employed in the service of the rich. + In their dress, their table, their houses, and their furniture, + the favorites of fortune united every refinement of conveniency, + of elegance, and of splendor, whatever could soothe their pride + or gratify their sensuality. Such refinements, under the odious + name of luxury, have been severely arraigned by the moralists of + every age; and it might perhaps be more conducive to the virtue, + as well as happiness, of mankind, if all possessed the + necessaries, and none the superfluities, of life. But in the + present imperfect condition of society, luxury, though it may + proceed from vice or folly, seems to be the only means that can + correct the unequal distribution of property. The diligent + mechanic, and the skilful artist, who have obtained no share in + the division of the earth, receive a voluntary tax from the + possessors of land; and the latter are prompted, by a sense of + interest, to improve those estates, with whose produce they may + purchase additional pleasures. This operation, the particular + effects of which are felt in every society, acted with much more + diffusive energy in the Roman world. The provinces would soon + have been exhausted of their wealth, if the manufactures and + commerce of luxury had not insensibly restored to the industrious + subjects the sums which were exacted from them by the arms and + authority of Rome. As long as the circulation was confined within + the bounds of the empire, it impressed the political machine with + a new degree of activity, and its consequences, sometimes + beneficial, could never become pernicious. + + But it is no easy task to confine luxury within the limits of an + empire. The most remote countries of the ancient world were + ransacked to supply the pomp and delicacy of Rome. The forests of + Scythia afforded some valuable furs. Amber was brought over land + from the shores of the Baltic to the Danube; and the barbarians + were astonished at the price which they received in exchange for + so useless a commodity. There was a considerable demand for + Babylonian carpets, and other manufactures of the East; but the + most important and unpopular branch of foreign trade was carried + on with Arabia and India. Every year, about the time of the + summer solstice, a fleet of a hundred and twenty vessels sailed + from Myos-hormos, a port of Egypt, on the Red Sea. By the + periodical assistance of the monsoons, they traversed the ocean + in about forty days. The coast of Malabar, or the island of + Ceylon, was the usual term of their navigation, and it was in + those markets that the merchants from the more remote countries + of Asia expected their arrival. The return of the fleet of Egypt + was fixed to the months of December or January; and as soon as + their rich cargo had been transported on the backs of camels, + from the Red Sea to the Nile, and had descended that river as far + as Alexandria, it was poured, without delay, into the capital of + the empire. The objects of oriental traffic were splendid and + trifling; silk, a pound of which was esteemed not inferior in + value to a pound of gold; precious stones, among which the pearl + claimed the first rank after the diamond; and a variety of + aromatics, that were consumed in religious worship and the pomp + of funerals. The labor and risk of the voyage was rewarded with + almost incredible profit; but the profit was made upon Roman + subjects, and a few individuals were enriched at the expense of + the public. As the natives of Arabia and India were contented + with the productions and manufactures of their own country, + silver, on the side of the Romans, was the principal, if not the + only * instrument of commerce. It was a complaint worthy of the + gravity of the senate, that, in the purchase of female ornaments, + the wealth of the state was irrecoverably given away to foreign + and hostile nations. The annual loss is computed, by a writer of + an inquisitive but censorious temper, at upwards of eight hundred + thousand pounds sterling. Such was the style of discontent, + brooding over the dark prospect of approaching poverty. And yet, + if we compare the proportion between gold and silver, as it stood + in the time of Pliny, and as it was fixed in the reign of + Constantine, we shall discover within that period a very + considerable increase. There is not the least reason to suppose + that gold was become more scarce; it is therefore evident that + silver was grown more common; that whatever might be the amount + of the Indian and Arabian exports, they were far from exhausting + the wealth of the Roman world; and that the produce of the mines + abundantly supplied the demands of commerce. + + Notwithstanding the propensity of mankind to exalt the past, and + to depreciate the present, the tranquil and prosperous state of + the empire was warmly felt, and honestly confessed, by the + provincials as well as Romans. “They acknowledged that the true + principles of social life, laws, agriculture, and science, which + had been first invented by the wisdom of Athens, were now firmly + established by the power of Rome, under whose auspicious + influence the fiercest barbarians were united by an equal + government and common language. They affirm, that with the + improvement of arts, the human species were visibly multiplied. + They celebrate the increasing splendor of the cities, the + beautiful face of the country, cultivated and adorned like an + immense garden; and the long festival of peace which was enjoyed + by so many nations, forgetful of the ancient animosities, and + delivered from the apprehension of future danger.” Whatever + suspicions may be suggested by the air of rhetoric and + declamation, which seems to prevail in these passages, the + substance of them is perfectly agreeable to historic truth. + + It was scarcely possible that the eyes of contemporaries should + discover in the public felicity the latent causes of decay and + corruption. This long peace, and the uniform government of the + Romans, introduced a slow and secret poison into the vitals of + the empire. The minds of men were gradually reduced to the same + level, the fire of genius was extinguished, and even the military + spirit evaporated. The natives of Europe were brave and robust. + Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum supplied the legions with + excellent soldiers, and constituted the real strength of the + monarchy. Their personal valor remained, but they no longer + possessed that public courage which is nourished by the love of + independence, the sense of national honor, the presence of + danger, and the habit of command. They received laws and + governors from the will of their sovereign, and trusted for their + defence to a mercenary army. The posterity of their boldest + leaders was contented with the rank of citizens and subjects. The + most aspiring spirits resorted to the court or standard of the + emperors; and the deserted provinces, deprived of political + strength or union, insensibly sunk into the languid indifference + of private life. + + The love of letters, almost inseparable from peace and + refinement, was fashionable among the subjects of Hadrian and the + Antonines, who were themselves men of learning and curiosity. It + was diffused over the whole extent of their empire; the most + northern tribes of Britons had acquired a taste for rhetoric; + Homer as well as Virgil were transcribed and studied on the banks + of the Rhine and Danube; and the most liberal rewards sought out + the faintest glimmerings of literary merit. The sciences of + physic and astronomy were successfully cultivated by the Greeks; + the observations of Ptolemy and the writings of Galen are studied + by those who have improved their discoveries and corrected their + errors; but if we except the inimitable Lucian, this age of + indolence passed away without having produced a single writer of + original genius, or who excelled in the arts of elegant + composition.* The authority of Plato and Aristotle, of Zeno and + Epicurus, still reigned in the schools; and their systems, + transmitted with blind deference from one generation of disciples + to another, precluded every generous attempt to exercise the + powers, or enlarge the limits, of the human mind. The beauties of + the poets and orators, instead of kindling a fire like their own, + inspired only cold and servile imitations: or if any ventured to + deviate from those models, they deviated at the same time from + good sense and propriety. On the revival of letters, the youthful + vigor of the imagination, after a long repose, national + emulation, a new religion, new languages, and a new world, called + forth the genius of Europe. But the provincials of Rome, trained + by a uniform artificial foreign education, were engaged in a very + unequal competition with those bold ancients, who, by expressing + their genuine feelings in their native tongue, had already + occupied every place of honor. The name of Poet was almost + forgotten; that of Orator was usurped by the sophists. A cloud of + critics, of compilers, of commentators, darkened the face of + learning, and the decline of genius was soon followed by the + corruption of taste. + + The sublime Longinus, who, in somewhat a later period, and in the + court of a Syrian queen, preserved the spirit of ancient Athens, + observes and laments this degeneracy of his contemporaries, which + debased their sentiments, enervated their courage, and depressed + their talents. “In the same manner,” says he, “as some children + always remain pygmies, whose infant limbs have been too closely + confined, thus our tender minds, fettered by the prejudices and + habits of a just servitude, are unable to expand themselves, or + to attain that well-proportioned greatness which we admire in the + ancients; who, living under a popular government, wrote with the + same freedom as they acted.” This diminutive stature of mankind, + if we pursue the metaphor, was daily sinking below the old + standard, and the Roman world was indeed peopled by a race of + pygmies; when the fierce giants of the north broke in, and mended + the puny breed. They restored a manly spirit of freedom; and + after the revolution of ten centuries, freedom became the happy + parent of taste and science. + + + + + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + I. + +Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The Antonines. + + The obvious definition of a monarchy seems to be that of a state, + in which a single person, by whatsoever name he may be + distinguished, is intrusted with the execution of the laws, the + management of the revenue, and the command of the army. But, + unless public liberty is protected by intrepid and vigilant + guardians, the authority of so formidable a magistrate will soon + degenerate into despotism. The influence of the clergy, in an age + of superstition, might be usefully employed to assert the rights + of mankind; but so intimate is the connection between the throne + and the altar, that the banner of the church has very seldom been + seen on the side of the people. * A martial nobility and stubborn + commons, possessed of arms, tenacious of property, and collected + into constitutional assemblies, form the only balance capable of + preserving a free constitution against enterprises of an aspiring + prince. + + Every barrier of the Roman constitution had been levelled by the + vast ambition of the dictator; every fence had been extirpated by + the cruel hand of the triumvir. After the victory of Actium, the + fate of the Roman world depended on the will of Octavianus, + surnamed Cæsar, by his uncle’s adoption, and afterwards Augustus, + by the flattery of the senate. The conqueror was at the head of + forty-four veteran legions, conscious of their own strength, and + of the weakness of the constitution, habituated, during twenty + years’ civil war, to every act of blood and violence, and + passionately devoted to the house of Cæsar, from whence alone + they had received, and expected the most lavish rewards. The + provinces, long oppressed by the ministers of the republic, + sighed for the government of a single person, who would be the + master, not the accomplice, of those petty tyrants. The people of + Rome, viewing, with a secret pleasure, the humiliation of the + aristocracy, demanded only bread and public shows; and were + supplied with both by the liberal hand of Augustus. The rich and + polite Italians, who had almost universally embraced the + philosophy of Epicurus, enjoyed the present blessings of ease and + tranquillity, and suffered not the pleasing dream to be + interrupted by the memory of their old tumultuous freedom. With + its power, the senate had lost its dignity; many of the most + noble families were extinct. The republicans of spirit and + ability had perished in the field of battle, or in the + proscription . The door of the assembly had been designedly left + open, for a mixed multitude of more than a thousand persons, who + reflected disgrace upon their rank, instead of deriving honor + from it. + + The reformation of the senate was one of the first steps in which + Augustus laid aside the tyrant, and professed himself the father + of his country. He was elected censor; and, in concert with his + faithful Agrippa, he examined the list of the senators, expelled + a few members, * whose vices or whose obstinacy required a public + example, persuaded near two hundred to prevent the shame of an + expulsion by a voluntary retreat, raised the qualification of a + senator to about ten thousand pounds, created a sufficient number + of patrician families, and accepted for himself the honorable + title of Prince of the Senate, which had always been bestowed, by + the censors, on the citizen the most eminent for his honors and + services. But whilst he thus restored the dignity, he destroyed + the independence, of the senate. The principles of a free + constitution are irrecoverably lost, when the legislative power + is nominated by the executive. + + Before an assembly thus modelled and prepared, Augustus + pronounced a studied oration, which displayed his patriotism, and + disguised his ambition. “He lamented, yet excused, his past + conduct. Filial piety had required at his hands the revenge of + his father’s murder; the humanity of his own nature had sometimes + given way to the stern laws of necessity, and to a forced + connection with two unworthy colleagues: as long as Antony lived, + the republic forbade him to abandon her to a degenerate Roman, + and a barbarian queen. He was now at liberty to satisfy his duty + and his inclination. He solemnly restored the senate and people + to all their ancient rights; and wished only to mingle with the + crowd of his fellow-citizens, and to share the blessings which he + had obtained for his country.” + + It would require the pen of Tacitus (if Tacitus had assisted at + this assembly) to describe the various emotions of the senate, + those that were suppressed, and those that were affected. It was + dangerous to trust the sincerity of Augustus; to seem to distrust + it was still more dangerous. The respective advantages of + monarchy and a republic have often divided speculative inquirers; + the present greatness of the Roman state, the corruption of + manners, and the license of the soldiers, supplied new arguments + to the advocates of monarchy; and these general views of + government were again warped by the hopes and fears of each + individual. Amidst this confusion of sentiments, the answer of + the senate was unanimous and decisive. They refused to accept the + resignation of Augustus; they conjured him not to desert the + republic, which he had saved. After a decent resistance, the + crafty tyrant submitted to the orders of the senate; and + consented to receive the government of the provinces, and the + general command of the Roman armies, under the well-known names + of Proconsul and Imperator. But he would receive them only for + ten years. Even before the expiration of that period, he hope + that the wounds of civil discord would be completely healed, and + that the republic, restored to its pristine health and vigor, + would no longer require the dangerous interposition of so + extraordinary a magistrate. The memory of this comedy, repeated + several times during the life of Augustus, was preserved to the + last ages of the empire, by the peculiar pomp with which the + perpetual monarchs of Rome always solemnized the tenth years of + their reign. + + Without any violation of the principles of the constitution, the + general of the Roman armies might receive and exercise an + authority almost despotic over the soldiers, the enemies, and the + subjects of the republic. With regard to the soldiers, the + jealousy of freedom had, even from the earliest ages of Rome, + given way to the hopes of conquest, and a just sense of military + discipline. The dictator, or consul, had a right to command the + service of the Roman youth; and to punish an obstinate or + cowardly disobedience by the most severe and ignominious + penalties, by striking the offender out of the list of citizens, + by confiscating his property, and by selling his person into + slavery. The most sacred rights of freedom, confirmed by the + Porcian and Sempronian laws, were suspended by the military + engagement. In his camp the general exercised an absolute power + of life and death; his jurisdiction was not confined by any forms + of trial, or rules of proceeding, and the execution of the + sentence was immediate and without appeal. The choice of the + enemies of Rome was regularly decided by the legislative + authority. The most important resolutions of peace and war were + seriously debated in the senate, and solemnly ratified by the + people. But when the arms of the legions were carried to a great + distance from Italy, the general assumed the liberty of directing + them against whatever people, and in whatever manner, they judged + most advantageous for the public service. It was from the + success, not from the justice, of their enterprises, that they + expected the honors of a triumph. In the use of victory, + especially after they were no longer controlled by the + commissioners of the senate, they exercised the most unbounded + despotism. When Pompey commanded in the East, he rewarded his + soldiers and allies, dethroned princes, divided kingdoms, founded + colonies, and distributed the treasures of Mithridates. On his + return to Rome, he obtained, by a single act of the senate and + people, the universal ratification of all his proceedings. Such + was the power over the soldiers, and over the enemies of Rome, + which was either granted to, or assumed by, the generals of the + republic. They were, at the same time, the governors, or rather + monarchs, of the conquered provinces, united the civil with the + military character, administered justice as well as the finances, + and exercised both the executive and legislative power of the + state. + + From what has already been observed in the first chapter of this + work, some notion may be formed of the armies and provinces thus + intrusted to the ruling hand of Augustus. But as it was + impossible that he could personally command the regions of so + many distant frontiers, he was indulged by the senate, as Pompey + had already been, in the permission of devolving the execution of + his great office on a sufficient number of lieutenants. In rank + and authority these officers seemed not inferior to the ancient + proconsuls; but their station was dependent and precarious. They + received and held their commissions at the will of a superior, to + whose _auspicious_ influence the merit of their action was + legally attributed. They were the representatives of the emperor. + The emperor alone was the general of the republic, and his + jurisdiction, civil as well as military, extended over all the + conquests of Rome. It was some satisfaction, however, to the + senate, that he always delegated his power to the members of + their body. The imperial lieutenants were of consular or + prætorian dignity; the legions were commanded by senators, and + the præfecture of Egypt was the only important trust committed to + a Roman knight. + + Within six days after Augustus had been compelled to accept so + very liberal a grant, he resolved to gratify the pride of the + senate by an easy sacrifice. He represented to them, that they + had enlarged his powers, even beyond that degree which might be + required by the melancholy condition of the times. They had not + permitted him to refuse the laborious command of the armies and + the frontiers; but he must insist on being allowed to restore the + more peaceful and secure provinces to the mild administration of + the civil magistrate. In the division of the provinces, Augustus + provided for his own power and for the dignity of the republic. + The proconsuls of the senate, particularly those of Asia, Greece, + and Africa, enjoyed a more honorable character than the + lieutenants of the emperor, who commanded in Gaul or Syria. The + former were attended by lictors, the latter by soldiers. * A law + was passed, that wherever the emperor was present, his + extraordinary commission should supersede the ordinary + jurisdiction of the governor; a custom was introduced, that the + new conquests belonged to the imperial portion; and it was soon + discovered that the authority of the _Prince_, the favorite + epithet of Augustus, was the same in every part of the empire. + + In return for this imaginary concession, Augustus obtained an + important privilege, which rendered him master of Rome and Italy. + By a dangerous exception to the ancient maxims, he was authorized + to preserve his military command, supported by a numerous body of + guards, even in time of peace, and in the heart of the capital. + His command, indeed, was confined to those citizens who were + engaged in the service by the military oath; but such was the + propensity of the Romans to servitude, that the oath was + voluntarily taken by the magistrates, the senators, and the + equestrian order, till the homage of flattery was insensibly + converted into an annual and solemn protestation of fidelity. + + Although Augustus considered a military force as the firmest + foundation, he wisely rejected it, as a very odious instrument of + government. It was more agreeable to his temper, as well as to + his policy, to reign under the venerable names of ancient + magistracy, and artfully to collect, in his own person, all the + scattered rays of civil jurisdiction. With this view, he + permitted the senate to confer upon him, for his life, the powers + of the consular and tribunitian offices, which were, in the same + manner, continued to all his successors. The consuls had + succeeded to the kings of Rome, and represented the dignity of + the state. They superintended the ceremonies of religion, levied + and commanded the legions, gave audience to foreign ambassadors, + and presided in the assemblies both of the senate and people. The + general control of the finances was intrusted to their care; and + though they seldom had leisure to administer justice in person, + they were considered as the supreme guardians of law, equity, and + the public peace. Such was their ordinary jurisdiction; but + whenever the senate empowered the first magistrate to consult the + safety of the commonwealth, he was raised by that decree above + the laws, and exercised, in the defence of liberty, a temporary + despotism. The character of the tribunes was, in every respect, + different from that of the consuls. The appearance of the former + was modest and humble; but their persons were sacred and + inviolable. Their force was suited rather for opposition than for + action. They were instituted to defend the oppressed, to pardon + offences, to arraign the enemies of the people, and, when they + judged it necessary, to stop, by a single word, the whole machine + of government. As long as the republic subsisted, the dangerous + influence, which either the consul or the tribune might derive + from their respective jurisdiction, was diminished by several + important restrictions. Their authority expired with the year in + which they were elected; the former office was divided between + two, the latter among ten persons; and, as both in their private + and public interest they were averse to each other, their mutual + conflicts contributed, for the most part, to strengthen rather + than to destroy the balance of the constitution. * But when the + consular and tribunitian powers were united, when they were + vested for life in a single person, when the general of the army + was, at the same time, the minister of the senate and the + representative of the Roman people, it was impossible to resist + the exercise, nor was it easy to define the limits, of his + imperial prerogative. + + To these accumulated honors, the policy of Augustus soon added + the splendid as well as important dignities of supreme pontiff, + and of censor. By the former he acquired the management of the + religion, and by the latter a legal inspection over the manners + and fortunes, of the Roman people. If so many distinct and + independent powers did not exactly unite with each other, the + complaisance of the senate was prepared to supply every + deficiency by the most ample and extraordinary concessions. The + emperors, as the first ministers of the republic, were exempted + from the obligation and penalty of many inconvenient laws: they + were authorized to convoke the senate, to make several motions in + the same day, to recommend candidates for the honors of the + state, to enlarge the bounds of the city, to employ the revenue + at their discretion, to declare peace and war, to ratify + treaties; and by a most comprehensive clause, they were empowered + to execute whatsoever they should judge advantageous to the + empire, and agreeable to the majesty of things private or public, + human of divine. + + When all the various powers of executive government were + committed to the _Imperial magistrate_, the ordinary magistrates + of the commonwealth languished in obscurity, without vigor, and + almost without business. The names and forms of the ancient + administration were preserved by Augustus with the most anxious + care. The usual number of consuls, prætors, and tribunes, were + annually invested with their respective ensigns of office, and + continued to discharge some of their least important functions. + Those honors still attracted the vain ambition of the Romans; and + the emperors themselves, though invested for life with the powers + of the consulship, frequently aspired to the title of that annual + dignity, which they condescended to share with the most + illustrious of their fellow-citizens. In the election of these + magistrates, the people, during the reign of Augustus, were + permitted to expose all the inconveniences of a wild democracy. + That artful prince, instead of discovering the least symptom of + impatience, humbly solicited their suffrages for himself or his + friends, and scrupulously practised all the duties of an ordinary + candidate. But we may venture to ascribe to his councils the + first measure of the succeeding reign, by which the elections + were transferred to the senate. The assemblies of the people were + forever abolished, and the emperors were delivered from a + dangerous multitude, who, without restoring liberty, might have + disturbed, and perhaps endangered, the established government. + + By declaring themselves the protectors of the people, Marius and + Cæsar had subverted the constitution of their country. But as + soon as the senate had been humbled and disarmed, such an + assembly, consisting of five or six hundred persons, was found a + much more tractable and useful instrument of dominion. It was on + the dignity of the senate that Augustus and his successors + founded their new empire; and they affected, on every occasion, + to adopt the language and principles of Patricians. In the + administration of their own powers, they frequently consulted the + great national council, and _seemed_ to refer to its decision the + most important concerns of peace and war. Rome, Italy, and the + internal provinces, were subject to the immediate jurisdiction of + the senate. With regard to civil objects, it was the supreme + court of appeal; with regard to criminal matters, a tribunal, + constituted for the trial of all offences that were committed by + men in any public station, or that affected the peace and majesty + of the Roman people. The exercise of the judicial power became + the most frequent and serious occupation of the senate; and the + important causes that were pleaded before them afforded a last + refuge to the spirit of ancient eloquence. As a council of state, + and as a court of justice, the senate possessed very considerable + prerogatives; but in its legislative capacity, in which it was + supposed virtually to represent the people, the rights of + sovereignty were acknowledged to reside in that assembly. Every + power was derived from their authority, every law was ratified by + their sanction. Their regular meetings were held on three stated + days in every month, the Calends, the Nones, and the Ides. The + debates were conducted with decent freedom; and the emperors + themselves, who gloried in the name of senators, sat, voted, and + divided with their equals. + + To resume, in a few words, the system of the Imperial government; + as it was instituted by Augustus, and maintained by those princes + who understood their own interest and that of the people, it may + be defined an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms of a + commonwealth. The masters of the Roman world surrounded their + throne with darkness, concealed their irresistible strength, and + humbly professed themselves the accountable ministers of the + senate, whose supreme decrees they dictated and obeyed. + + The face of the court corresponded with the forms of the + administration. The emperors, if we except those tyrants whose + capricious folly violated every law of nature and decency, + disdained that pomp and ceremony which might offend their + countrymen, but could add nothing to their real power. In all the + offices of life, they affected to confound themselves with their + subjects, and maintained with them an equal intercourse of visits + and entertainments. Their habit, their palace, their table, were + suited only to the rank of an opulent senator. Their family, + however numerous or splendid, was composed entirely of their + domestic slaves and freedmen. Augustus or Trajan would have + blushed at employing the meanest of the Romans in those menial + offices, which, in the household and bedchamber of a limited + monarch, are so eagerly solicited by the proudest nobles of + Britain. + + The deification of the emperors is the only instance in which + they departed from their accustomed prudence and modesty. The + Asiatic Greeks were the first inventors, the successors of + Alexander the first objects, of this servile and impious mode of + adulation. * It was easily transferred from the kings to the + governors of Asia; and the Roman magistrates very frequently were + adored as provincial deities, with the pomp of altars and + temples, of festivals and sacrifices. It was natural that the + emperors should not refuse what the proconsuls had accepted; and + the divine honors which both the one and the other received from + the provinces, attested rather the despotism than the servitude + of Rome. But the conquerors soon imitated the vanquished nations + in the arts of flattery; and the imperious spirit of the first + Cæsar too easily consented to assume, during his lifetime, a + place among the tutelar deities of Rome. The milder temper of his + successor declined so dangerous an ambition, which was never + afterwards revived, except by the madness of Caligula and + Domitian. Augustus permitted indeed some of the provincial cities + to erect temples to his honor, on condition that they should + associate the worship of Rome with that of the sovereign; he + tolerated private superstition, of which he might be the object; + but he contented himself with being revered by the senate and the + people in his human character, and wisely left to his successor + the care of his public deification. A regular custom was + introduced, that on the decease of every emperor who had neither + lived nor died like a tyrant, the senate by a solemn decree + should place him in the number of the gods: and the ceremonies of + his apotheosis were blended with those of his funeral. This + legal, and, as it should seem, injudicious profanation, so + abhorrent to our stricter principles, was received with a very + faint murmur, by the easy nature of Polytheism; but it was + received as an institution, not of religion, but of policy. We + should disgrace the virtues of the Antonines by comparing them + with the vices of Hercules or Jupiter. Even the characters of + Cæsar or Augustus were far superior to those of the popular + deities. But it was the misfortune of the former to live in an + enlightened age, and their actions were too faithfully recorded + to admit of such a mixture of fable and mystery, as the devotion + of the vulgar requires. As soon as their divinity was established + by law, it sunk into oblivion, without contributing either to + their own fame, or to the dignity of succeeding princes. + + In the consideration of the Imperial government, we have + frequently mentioned the artful founder, under his well-known + title of Augustus, which was not, however, conferred upon him + till the edifice was almost completed. The obscure name of + Octavianus he derived from a mean family, in the little town of + Aricia. It was stained with the blood of the proscription; and he + was desirous, had it been possible, to erase all memory of his + former life. The illustrious surname of Cæsar he had assumed, as + the adopted son of the dictator: but he had too much good sense, + either to hope to be confounded, or to wish to be compared with + that extraordinary man. It was proposed in the senate to dignify + their minister with a new appellation; and after a serious + discussion, that of Augustus was chosen, among several others, as + being the most expressive of the character of peace and sanctity, + which he uniformly affected. _Augustus_ was therefore a personal, + _Cæsar_ a family distinction. The former should naturally have + expired with the prince on whom it was bestowed; and however the + latter was diffused by adoption and female alliance, Nero was the + last prince who could allege any hereditary claim to the honors + of the Julian line. But, at the time of his death, the practice + of a century had inseparably connected those appellations with + the Imperial dignity, and they have been preserved by a long + succession of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from + the fall of the republic to the present time. A distinction was, + however, soon introduced. The sacred title of Augustus was always + reserved for the monarch, whilst the name of Cæsar was more + freely communicated to his relations; and, from the reign of + Hadrian, at least, was appropriated to the second person in the + state, who was considered as the presumptive heir of the empire. + * + + + + + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + II. + + The tender respect of Augustus for a free constitution which he + had destroyed, can only be explained by an attentive + consideration of the character of that subtle tyrant. A cool + head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly disposition, prompted + him at the age of nineteen to assume the mask of hypocrisy, which + he never afterwards laid aside. With the same hand, and probably + with the same temper, he signed the proscription of Cicero, and + the pardon of Cinna. His virtues, and even his vices, were + artificial; and according to the various dictates of his + interest, he was at first the enemy, and at last the father, of + the Roman world. When he framed the artful system of the Imperial + authority, his moderation was inspired by his fears. He wished to + deceive the people by an image of civil liberty, and the armies + by an image of civil government. + + I. The death of Cæsar was ever before his eyes. He had lavished + wealth and honors on his adherents; but the most favored friends + of his uncle were in the number of the conspirators. The fidelity + of the legions might defend his authority against open rebellion; + but their vigilance could not secure his person from the dagger + of a determined republican; and the Romans, who revered the + memory of Brutus, would applaud the imitation of his virtue. + Cæsar had provoked his fate, as much as by the ostentation of his + power, as by his power itself. The consul or the tribune might + have reigned in peace. The title of king had armed the Romans + against his life. Augustus was sensible that mankind is governed + by names; nor was he deceived in his expectation, that the senate + and people would submit to slavery, provided they were + respectfully assured that they still enjoyed their ancient + freedom. A feeble senate and enervated people cheerfully + acquiesced in the pleasing illusion, as long as it was supported + by the virtue, or even by the prudence, of the successors of + Augustus. It was a motive of self-preservation, not a principle + of liberty, that animated the conspirators against Caligula, + Nero, and Domitian. They attacked the person of the tyrant, + without aiming their blow at the authority of the emperor. + + There appears, indeed, _one_ memorable occasion, in which the + senate, after seventy years of patience, made an ineffectual + attempt to re-assume its long-forgotten rights. When the throne + was vacant by the murder of Caligula, the consuls convoked that + assembly in the Capitol, condemned the memory of the Cæsars, gave + the watchword _liberty_ to the few cohorts who faintly adhered to + their standard, and during eight-and-forty hours acted as the + independent chiefs of a free commonwealth. But while they + deliberated, the prætorian guards had resolved. The stupid + Claudius, brother of Germanicus, was already in their camp, + invested with the Imperial purple, and prepared to support his + election by arms. The dream of liberty was at an end; and the + senate awoke to all the horrors of inevitable servitude. Deserted + by the people, and threatened by a military force, that feeble + assembly was compelled to ratify the choice of the prætorians, + and to embrace the benefit of an amnesty, which Claudius had the + prudence to offer, and the generosity to observe. + + II. The insolence of the armies inspired Augustus with fears of a + still more alarming nature. The despair of the citizens could + only attempt, what the power of the soldiers was, at any time, + able to execute. How precarious was his own authority over men + whom he had taught to violate every social duty! He had heard + their seditious clamors; he dreaded their calmer moments of + reflection. One revolution had been purchased by immense rewards; + but a second revolution might double those rewards. The troops + professed the fondest attachment to the house of Cæsar; but the + attachments of the multitude are capricious and inconstant. + Augustus summoned to his aid whatever remained in those fierce + minds of Roman prejudices; enforced the rigor of discipline by + the sanction of law; and, interposing the majesty of the senate + between the emperor and the army, boldly claimed their + allegiance, as the first magistrate of the republic. + + During a long period of two hundred and twenty years from the + establishment of this artful system to the death of Commodus, the + dangers inherent to a military government were, in a great + measure, suspended. The soldiers were seldom roused to that fatal + sense of their own strength, and of the weakness of the civil + authority, which was, before and afterwards, productive of such + dreadful calamities. Caligula and Domitian were assassinated in + their palace by their own domestics: * the convulsions which + agitated Rome on the death of the former, were confined to the + walls of the city. But Nero involved the whole empire in his + ruin. In the space of eighteen months, four princes perished by + the sword; and the Roman world was shaken by the fury of the + contending armies. Excepting only this short, though violent + eruption of military license, the two centuries from Augustus to + Commodus passed away unstained with civil blood, and undisturbed + by revolutions. The emperor was elected by the _authority of the + senate, and the consent of the soldiers_. The legions respected + their oath of fidelity; and it requires a minute inspection of + the Roman annals to discover three inconsiderable rebellions, + which were all suppressed in a few months, and without even the + hazard of a battle. + + In elective monarchies, the vacancy of the throne is a moment big + with danger and mischief. The Roman emperors, desirous to spare + the legions that interval of suspense, and the temptation of an + irregular choice, invested their designed successor with so large + a share of present power, as should enable him, after their + decease, to assume the remainder, without suffering the empire to + perceive the change of masters. Thus Augustus, after all his + fairer prospects had been snatched from him by untimely deaths, + rested his last hopes on Tiberius, obtained for his adopted son + the censorial and tribunitian powers, and dictated a law, by + which the future prince was invested with an authority equal to + his own, over the provinces and the armies. Thus Vespasian + subdued the generous mind of his eldest son. Titus was adored by + the eastern legions, which, under his command, had recently + achieved the conquest of Judæa. His power was dreaded, and, as + his virtues were clouded by the intemperance of youth, his + designs were suspected. Instead of listening to such unworthy + suspicions, the prudent monarch associated Titus to the full + powers of the Imperial dignity; and the grateful son ever + approved himself the humble and faithful minister of so indulgent + a father. + + The good sense of Vespasian engaged him indeed to embrace every + measure that might confirm his recent and precarious elevation. + The military oath, and the fidelity of the troops, had been + consecrated, by the habits of a hundred years, to the name and + family of the Cæsars; and although that family had been continued + only by the fictitious rite of adoption, the Romans still + revered, in the person of Nero, the grandson of Germanicus, and + the lineal successor of Augustus. It was not without reluctance + and remorse, that the prætorian guards had been persuaded to + abandon the cause of the tyrant. The rapid downfall of Galba, + Otho, and Vitellus, taught the armies to consider the emperors as + the creatures of _their_ will, and the instruments of _their_ + license. The birth of Vespasian was mean: his grandfather had + been a private soldier, his father a petty officer of the + revenue; his own merit had raised him, in an advanced age, to the + empire; but his merit was rather useful than shining, and his + virtues were disgraced by a strict and even sordid parsimony. + Such a prince consulted his true interest by the association of a + son, whose more splendid and amiable character might turn the + public attention from the obscure origin, to the future glories, + of the Flavian house. Under the mild administration of Titus, the + Roman world enjoyed a transient felicity, and his beloved memory + served to protect, above fifteen years, the vices of his brother + Domitian. + + Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of + Domitian, before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to + stem the torrent of public disorders, which had multiplied under + the long tyranny of his predecessor. His mild disposition was + respected by the good; but the degenerate Romans required a more + vigorous character, whose justice should strike terror into the + guilty. Though he had several relations, he fixed his choice on a + stranger. He adopted Trajan, then about forty years of age, and + who commanded a powerful army in the Lower Germany; and + immediately, by a decree of the senate, declared him his + colleague and successor in the empire. It is sincerely to be + lamented, that whilst we are fatigued with the disgustful + relation of Nero’s crimes and follies, we are reduced to collect + the actions of Trajan from the glimmerings of an abridgment, or + the doubtful light of a panegyric. There remains, however, one + panegyric far removed beyond the suspicion of flattery. Above two + hundred and fifty years after the death of Trajan, the senate, in + pouring out the customary acclamations on the accession of a new + emperor, wished that he might surpass the felicity of Augustus, + and the virtue of Trajan. + + We may readily believe, that the father of his country hesitated + whether he ought to intrust the various and doubtful character of + his kinsman Hadrian with sovereign power. In his last moments the + arts of the empress Plotina either fixed the irresolution of + Trajan, or boldly supposed a fictitious adoption; the truth of + which could not be safely disputed, and Hadrian was peaceably + acknowledged as his lawful successor. Under his reign, as has + been already mentioned, the empire flourished in peace and + prosperity. He encouraged the arts, reformed the laws, asserted + military discipline, and visited all his provinces in person. His + vast and active genius was equally suited to the most enlarged + views, and the minute details of civil policy. But the ruling + passions of his soul were curiosity and vanity. As they + prevailed, and as they were attracted by different objects, + Hadrian was, by turns, an excellent prince, a ridiculous sophist, + and a jealous tyrant. The general tenor of his conduct deserved + praise for its equity and moderation. Yet in the first days of + his reign, he put to death four consular senators, his personal + enemies, and men who had been judged worthy of empire; and the + tediousness of a painful illness rendered him, at last, peevish + and cruel. The senate doubted whether they should pronounce him a + god or a tyrant; and the honors decreed to his memory were + granted to the prayers of the pious Antoninus. + + The caprice of Hadrian influenced his choice of a successor. + After revolving in his mind several men of distinguished merit, + whom he esteemed and hated, he adopted Ælius Verus a gay and + voluptuous nobleman, recommended by uncommon beauty to the lover + of Antinous. But whilst Hadrian was delighting himself with his + own applause, and the acclamations of the soldiers, whose consent + had been secured by an immense donative, the new Cæsar was + ravished from his embraces by an untimely death. He left only one + son. Hadrian commended the boy to the gratitude of the Antonines. + He was adopted by Pius; and, on the accession of Marcus, was + invested with an equal share of sovereign power. Among the many + vices of this younger Verus, he possessed one virtue; a dutiful + reverence for his wiser colleague, to whom he willingly abandoned + the ruder cares of empire. The philosophic emperor dissembled his + follies, lamented his early death, and cast a decent veil over + his memory. + + As soon as Hadrian’s passion was either gratified or + disappointed, he resolved to deserve the thanks of posterity, by + placing the most exalted merit on the Roman throne. His + discerning eye easily discovered a senator about fifty years of + age, blameless in all the offices of life; and a youth of about + seventeen, whose riper years opened a fair prospect of every + virtue: the elder of these was declared the son and successor of + Hadrian, on condition, however, that he himself should + immediately adopt the younger. The two Antonines (for it is of + them that we are now speaking,) governed the Roman world + forty-two years, with the same invariable spirit of wisdom and + virtue. Although Pius had two sons, he preferred the welfare of + Rome to the interest of his family, gave his daughter Faustina, + in marriage to young Marcus, obtained from the senate the + tribunitian and proconsular powers, and, with a noble disdain, or + rather ignorance of jealousy, associated him to all the labors of + government. Marcus, on the other hand, revered the character of + his benefactor, loved him as a parent, obeyed him as his + sovereign, and, after he was no more, regulated his own + administration by the example and maxims of his predecessor. + Their united reigns are possibly the only period of history in + which the happiness of a great people was the sole object of + government. + + Titus Antoninus Pius has been justly denominated a second Numa. + The same love of religion, justice, and peace, was the + distinguishing characteristic of both princes. But the situation + of the latter opened a much larger field for the exercise of + those virtues. Numa could only prevent a few neighboring villages + from plundering each other’s harvests. Antoninus diffused order + and tranquillity over the greatest part of the earth. His reign + is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials + for history; which is, indeed, little more than the register of + the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. In private life, + he was an amiable, as well as a good man. The native simplicity + of his virtue was a stranger to vanity or affectation. He enjoyed + with moderation the conveniences of his fortune, and the innocent + pleasures of society; and the benevolence of his soul displayed + itself in a cheerful serenity of temper. + + The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was of severer and more + laborious kind. It was the well-earned harvest of many a learned + conference, of many a patient lecture, and many a midnight + lucubration. At the age of twelve years he embraced the rigid + system of the Stoics, which taught him to submit his body to his + mind, his passions to his reason; to consider virtue as the only + good, vice as the only evil, all things external as things + indifferent. His meditations, composed in the tumult of the camp, + are still extant; and he even condescended to give lessons of + philosophy, in a more public manner than was perhaps consistent + with the modesty of sage, or the dignity of an emperor. But his + life was the noblest commentary on the precepts of Zeno. He was + severe to himself, indulgent to the imperfections of others, just + and beneficent to all mankind. He regretted that Avidius Cassius, + who excited a rebellion in Syria, had disappointed him, by a + voluntary death, * of the pleasure of converting an enemy into a + friend; and he justified the sincerity of that sentiment, by + moderating the zeal of the senate against the adherents of the + traitor. War he detested, as the disgrace and calamity of human + nature; but when the necessity of a just defence called upon him + to take up arms, he readily exposed his person to eight winter + campaigns, on the frozen banks of the Danube, the severity of + which was at last fatal to the weakness of his constitution. His + memory was revered by a grateful posterity, and above a century + after his death, many persons preserved the image of Marcus + Antoninus among those of their household gods. + + If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the + world, during which the condition of the human race was most + happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that + which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of + Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman empire was governed by + absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The + armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four + successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded + involuntary respect. The forms of the civil administration were + carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, + who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with + considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. + Such princes deserved the honor of restoring the republic, had + the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational + freedom. + + The labors of these monarchs were overpaid by the immense reward + that inseparably waited on their success; by the honest pride of + virtue, and by the exquisite delight of beholding the general + happiness of which they were the authors. A just but melancholy + reflection imbittered, however, the noblest of human enjoyments. + They must often have recollected the instability of a happiness + which depended on the character of single man. The fatal moment + was perhaps approaching, when some licentious youth, or some + jealous tyrant, would abuse, to the destruction, that absolute + power, which they had exerted for the benefit of their people. + The ideal restraints of the senate and the laws might serve to + display the virtues, but could never correct the vices, of the + emperor. The military force was a blind and irresistible + instrument of oppression; and the corruption of Roman manners + would always supply flatterers eager to applaud, and ministers + prepared to serve, the fear or the avarice, the lust or the + cruelty, of their master. + + These gloomy apprehensions had been already justified by the + experience of the Romans. The annals of the emperors exhibit a + strong and various picture of human nature, which we should + vainly seek among the mixed and doubtful characters of modern + history. In the conduct of those monarchs we may trace the utmost + lines of vice and virtue; the most exalted perfection, and the + meanest degeneracy of our own species. The golden age of Trajan + and the Antonines had been preceded by an age of iron. It is + almost superfluous to enumerate the unworthy successors of + Augustus. Their unparalleled vices, and the splendid theatre on + which they were acted, have saved them from oblivion. The dark, + unrelenting Tiberius, the furious Caligula, the feeble Claudius, + the profligate and cruel Nero, the beastly Vitellius, and the + timid, inhuman Domitian, are condemned to everlasting infamy. + During fourscore years (excepting only the short and doubtful + respite of Vespasian’s reign) Rome groaned beneath an unremitting + tyranny, which exterminated the ancient families of the republic, + and was fatal to almost every virtue and every talent that arose + in that unhappy period. + + Under the reign of these monsters, the slavery of the Romans was + accompanied with two peculiar circumstances, the one occasioned + by their former liberty, the other by their extensive conquests, + which rendered their condition more completely wretched than that + of the victims of tyranny in any other age or country. From these + causes were derived, 1. The exquisite sensibility of the + sufferers; and, 2. The impossibility of escaping from the hand of + the oppressor. + + I. When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a race of + princes whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, their + table, and their bed, with the blood of their favorites, there is + a saying recorded of a young nobleman, that he never departed + from the sultan’s presence, without satisfying himself whether + his head was still on his shoulders. The experience of every day + might almost justify the scepticism of Rustan. Yet the fatal + sword, suspended above him by a single thread, seems not to have + disturbed the slumbers, or interrupted the tranquillity, of the + Persian. The monarch’s frown, he well knew, could level him with + the dust; but the stroke of lightning or apoplexy might be + equally fatal; and it was the part of a wise man to forget the + inevitable calamities of human life in the enjoyment of the + fleeting hour. He was dignified with the appellation of the + king’s slave; had, perhaps, been purchased from obscure parents, + in a country which he had never known; and was trained up from + his infancy in the severe discipline of the seraglio. His name, + his wealth, his honors, were the gift of a master, who might, + without injustice, resume what he had bestowed. Rustan’s + knowledge, if he possessed any, could only serve to confirm his + habits by prejudices. His language afforded not words for any + form of government, except absolute monarchy. The history of the + East informed him, that such had ever been the condition of + mankind. The Koran, and the interpreters of that divine book, + inculcated to him, that the sultan was the descendant of the + prophet, and the vicegerent of heaven; that patience was the + first virtue of a Mussulman, and unlimited obedience the great + duty of a subject. + + The minds of the Romans were very differently prepared for + slavery. Oppressed beneath the weight of their own corruption and + of military violence, they for a long while preserved the + sentiments, or at least the ideas, of their free-born ancestors. + The education of Helvidius and Thrasea, of Tacitus and Pliny, was + the same as that of Cato and Cicero. From Grecian philosophy, + they had imbibed the justest and most liberal notions of the + dignity of human nature, and the origin of civil society. The + history of their own country had taught them to revere a free, a + virtuous, and a victorious commonwealth; to abhor the successful + crimes of Cæsar and Augustus; and inwardly to despise those + tyrants whom they adored with the most abject flattery. As + magistrates and senators they were admitted into the great + council, which had once dictated laws to the earth, whose + authority was so often prostituted to the vilest purposes of + tyranny. Tiberius, and those emperors who adopted his maxims, + attempted to disguise their murders by the formalities of + justice, and perhaps enjoyed a secret pleasure in rendering the + senate their accomplice as well as their victim. By this + assembly, the last of the Romans were condemned for imaginary + crimes and real virtues. Their infamous accusers assumed the + language of independent patriots, who arraigned a dangerous + citizen before the tribunal of his country; and the public + service was rewarded by riches and honors. The servile judges + professed to assert the majesty of the commonwealth, violated in + the person of its first magistrate, whose clemency they most + applauded when they trembled the most at his inexorable and + impending cruelty. The tyrant beheld their baseness with just + contempt, and encountered their secret sentiments of detestation + with sincere and avowed hatred for the whole body of the senate. + + II. The division of Europe into a number of independent states, + connected, however, with each other by the general resemblance of + religion, language, and manners, is productive of the most + beneficial consequences to the liberty of mankind. A modern + tyrant, who should find no resistance either in his own breast, + or in his people, would soon experience a gentle restrain from + the example of his equals, the dread of present censure, the + advice of his allies, and the apprehension of his enemies. The + object of his displeasure, escaping from the narrow limits of his + dominions, would easily obtain, in a happier climate, a secure + refuge, a new fortune adequate to his merit, the freedom of + complaint, and perhaps the means of revenge. But the empire of + the Romans filled the world, and when the empire fell into the + hands of a single person, the world became a safe and dreary + prison for his enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether + he was condemned to drag his gilded chain in Rome and the senate, + or to were out a life of exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or + the frozen bank of the Danube, expected his fate in silent + despair. To resist was fatal, and it was impossible to fly. On + every side he was encompassed with a vast extent of sea and land, + which he could never hope to traverse without being discovered, + seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the + frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the + ocean, inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of + fierce manners and unknown language, or dependent kings, who + would gladly purchase the emperor’s protection by the sacrifice + of an obnoxious fugitive. “Wherever you are,” said Cicero to the + exiled Marcellus, “remember that you are equally within the power + of the conqueror.” + + + + + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part I. + + The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus. Election Of + Pertinax—His Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination By The + Prætorian Guards. + + The mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the Stoics + was unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the most + amiable, and the only defective part of his character. His + excellent understanding was often deceived by the unsuspecting + goodness of his heart. Artful men, who study the passions of + princes, and conceal their own, approached his person in the + disguise of philosophic sanctity, and acquired riches and honors + by affecting to despise them. His excessive indulgence to his + brother, * his wife, and his son, exceeded the bounds of private + virtue, and became a public injury, by the example and + consequences of their vices. + + Faustina, the daughter of Pius and the wife of Marcus, has been + as much celebrated for her gallantries as for her beauty. The + grave simplicity of the philosopher was ill calculated to engage + her wanton levity, or to fix that unbounded passion for variety, + which often discovered personal merit in the meanest of mankind. + The Cupid of the ancients was, in general, a very sensual deity; + and the amours of an empress, as they exact on her side the + plainest advances, are seldom susceptible of much sentimental + delicacy. Marcus was the only man in the empire who seemed + ignorant or insensible of the irregularities of Faustina; which, + according to the prejudices of every age, reflected some disgrace + on the injured husband. He promoted several of her lovers to + posts of honor and profit, and during a connection of thirty + years, invariably gave her proofs of the most tender confidence, + and of a respect which ended not with her life. In his + Meditations, he thanks the gods, who had bestowed on him a wife + so faithful, so gentle, and of such a wonderful simplicity of + manners. The obsequious senate, at his earnest request, declared + her a goddess. She was represented in her temples, with the + attributes of Juno, Venus, and Ceres; and it was decreed, that, + on the day of their nuptials, the youth of either sex should pay + their vows before the altar of their chaste patroness. + + The monstrous vices of the son have cast a shade on the purity of + the father’s virtues. It has been objected to Marcus, that he + sacrificed the happiness of millions to a fond partiality for a + worthless boy; and that he chose a successor in his own family, + rather than in the republic. Nothing however, was neglected by + the anxious father, and by the men of virtue and learning whom he + summoned to his assistance, to expand the narrow mind of young + Commodus, to correct his growing vices, and to render him worthy + of the throne for which he was designed. But the power of + instruction is seldom of much efficacy, except in those happy + dispositions where it is almost superfluous. The distasteful + lesson of a grave philosopher was, in a moment, obliterated by + the whisper of a profligate favorite; and Marcus himself blasted + the fruits of this labored education, by admitting his son, at + the age of fourteen or fifteen, to a full participation of the + Imperial power. He lived but four years afterwards: but he lived + long enough to repent a rash measure, which raised the impetuous + youth above the restraint of reason and authority. + + Most of the crimes which disturb the internal peace of society, + are produced by the restraints which the necessary but unequal + laws of property have imposed on the appetites of mankind, by + confining to a few the possession of those objects that are + coveted by many. Of all our passions and appetites, the love of + power is of the most imperious and unsociable nature, since the + pride of one man requires the submission of the multitude. In the + tumult of civil discord, the laws of society lose their force, + and their place is seldom supplied by those of humanity. The + ardor of contention, the pride of victory, the despair of + success, the memory of past injuries, and the fear of future + dangers, all contribute to inflame the mind, and to silence the + voice of pity. From such motives almost every page of history has + been stained with civil blood; but these motives will not account + for the unprovoked cruelties of Commodus, who had nothing to wish + and every thing to enjoy. The beloved son of Marcus succeeded to + his father, amidst the acclamations of the senate and armies; and + when he ascended the throne, the happy youth saw round him + neither competitor to remove, nor enemies to punish. In this + calm, elevated station, it was surely natural that he should + prefer the love of mankind to their detestation, the mild glories + of his five predecessors to the ignominious fate of Nero and + Domitian. + + Yet Commodus was not, as he has been represented, a tiger born + with an insatiate thirst of human blood, and capable, from his + infancy, of the most inhuman actions. Nature had formed him of a + weak rather than a wicked disposition. His simplicity and + timidity rendered him the slave of his attendants, who gradually + corrupted his mind. His cruelty, which at first obeyed the + dictates of others, degenerated into habit, and at length became + the ruling passion of his soul. + + Upon the death of his father, Commodus found himself embarrassed + with the command of a great army, and the conduct of a difficult + war against the Quadi and Marcomanni. The servile and profligate + youths whom Marcus had banished, soon regained their station and + influence about the new emperor. They exaggerated the hardships + and dangers of a campaign in the wild countries beyond the + Danube; and they assured the indolent prince that the terror of + his name, and the arms of his lieutenants, would be sufficient to + complete the conquest of the dismayed barbarians, or to impose + such conditions as were more advantageous than any conquest. By a + dexterous application to his sensual appetites, they compared the + tranquillity, the splendor, the refined pleasures of Rome, with + the tumult of a Pannonian camp, which afforded neither leisure + nor materials for luxury. Commodus listened to the pleasing + advice; but whilst he hesitated between his own inclination and + the awe which he still retained for his father’s counsellors, the + summer insensibly elapsed, and his triumphal entry into the + capital was deferred till the autumn. His graceful person, + popular address, and imagined virtues, attracted the public + favor; the honorable peace which he had recently granted to the + barbarians, diffused a universal joy; his impatience to revisit + Rome was fondly ascribed to the love of his country; and his + dissolute course of amusements was faintly condemned in a prince + of nineteen years of age. + + During the three first years of his reign, the forms, and even + the spirit, of the old administration, were maintained by those + faithful counsellors, to whom Marcus had recommended his son, and + for whose wisdom and integrity Commodus still entertained a + reluctant esteem. The young prince and his profligate favorites + revelled in all the license of sovereign power; but his hands + were yet unstained with blood; and he had even displayed a + generosity of sentiment, which might perhaps have ripened into + solid virtue. A fatal incident decided his fluctuating character. + + One evening, as the emperor was returning to the palace, through + a dark and narrow portico in the amphitheatre, an assassin, who + waited his passage, rushed upon him with a drawn sword, loudly + exclaiming, “_The senate sends you this._” The menace prevented + the deed; the assassin was seized by the guards, and immediately + revealed the authors of the conspiracy. It had been formed, not + in the state, but within the walls of the palace. Lucilla, the + emperor’s sister, and widow of Lucius Verus, impatient of the + second rank, and jealous of the reigning empress, had armed the + murderer against her brother’s life. She had not ventured to + communicate the black design to her second husband, Claudius + Pompeiarus, a senator of distinguished merit and unshaken + loyalty; but among the crowd of her lovers (for she imitated the + manners of Faustina) she found men of desperate fortunes and wild + ambition, who were prepared to serve her more violent, as well as + her tender passions. The conspirators experienced the rigor of + justice, and the abandoned princess was punished, first with + exile, and afterwards with death. + + But the words of the assassin sunk deep into the mind of + Commodus, and left an indelible impression of fear and hatred + against the whole body of the senate. * Those whom he had dreaded + as importunate ministers, he now suspected as secret enemies. The + Delators, a race of men discouraged, and almost extinguished, + under the former reigns, again became formidable, as soon as they + discovered that the emperor was desirous of finding disaffection + and treason in the senate. That assembly, whom Marcus had ever + considered as the great council of the nation, was composed of + the most distinguished of the Romans; and distinction of every + kind soon became criminal. The possession of wealth stimulated + the diligence of the informers; rigid virtue implied a tacit + censure of the irregularities of Commodus; important services + implied a dangerous superiority of merit; and the friendship of + the father always insured the aversion of the son. Suspicion was + equivalent to proof; trial to condemnation. The execution of a + considerable senator was attended with the death of all who might + lament or revenge his fate; and when Commodus had once tasted + human blood, he became incapable of pity or remorse. + + Of these innocent victims of tyranny, none died more lamented + than the two brothers of the Quintilian family, Maximus and + Condianus; whose fraternal love has saved their names from + oblivion, and endeared their memory to posterity. Their studies + and their occupations, their pursuits and their pleasures, were + still the same. In the enjoyment of a great estate, they never + admitted the idea of a separate interest: some fragments are now + extant of a treatise which they composed in common; and in every + action of life it was observed that their two bodies were + animated by one soul. The Antonines, who valued their virtues, + and delighted in their union, raised them, in the same year, to + the consulship; and Marcus afterwards intrusted to their joint + care the civil administration of Greece, and a great military + command, in which they obtained a signal victory over the + Germans. The kind cruelty of Commodus united them in death. + + The tyrant’s rage, after having shed the noblest blood of the + senate, at length recoiled on the principal instrument of his + cruelty. Whilst Commodus was immersed in blood and luxury, he + devolved the detail of the public business on Perennis, a servile + and ambitious minister, who had obtained his post by the murder + of his predecessor, but who possessed a considerable share of + vigor and ability. By acts of extortion, and the forfeited + estates of the nobles sacrificed to his avarice, he had + accumulated an immense treasure. The Prætorian guards were under + his immediate command; and his son, who already discovered a + military genius, was at the head of the Illyrian legions. + Perennis aspired to the empire; or what, in the eyes of Commodus, + amounted to the same crime, he was capable of aspiring to it, had + he not been prevented, surprised, and put to death. The fall of a + minister is a very trifling incident in the general history of + the empire; but it was hastened by an extraordinary circumstance, + which proved how much the nerves of discipline were already + relaxed. The legions of Britain, discontented with the + administration of Perennis, formed a deputation of fifteen + hundred select men, with instructions to march to Rome, and lay + their complaints before the emperor. These military petitioners, + by their own determined behaviour, by inflaming the divisions of + the guards, by exaggerating the strength of the British army, and + by alarming the fears of Commodus, exacted and obtained the + minister’s death, as the only redress of their grievances. This + presumption of a distant army, and their discovery of the + weakness of government, was a sure presage of the most dreadful + convulsions. + + The negligence of the public administration was betrayed, soon + afterwards, by a new disorder, which arose from the smallest + beginnings. A spirit of desertion began to prevail among the + troops: and the deserters, instead of seeking their safety in + flight or concealment, infested the highways. Maternus, a private + soldier, of a daring boldness above his station, collected these + bands of robbers into a little army, set open the prisons, + invited the slaves to assert their freedom, and plundered with + impunity the rich and defenceless cities of Gaul and Spain. The + governors of the provinces, who had long been the spectators, and + perhaps the partners, of his depredations, were, at length, + roused from their supine indolence by the threatening commands of + the emperor. Maternus found that he was encompassed, and foresaw + that he must be overpowered. A great effort of despair was his + last resource. He ordered his followers to disperse, to pass the + Alps in small parties and various disguises, and to assemble at + Rome, during the licentious tumult of the festival of Cybele. To + murder Commodus, and to ascend the vacant throne, was the + ambition of no vulgar robber. His measures were so ably concerted + that his concealed troops already filled the streets of Rome. The + envy of an accomplice discovered and ruined this singular + enterprise, in a moment when it was ripe for execution. + + Suspicious princes often promote the last of mankind, from a vain + persuasion, that those who have no dependence, except on their + favor, will have no attachment, except to the person of their + benefactor. Cleander, the successor of Perennis, was a Phrygian + by birth; of a nation over whose stubborn, but servile temper, + blows only could prevail. He had been sent from his native + country to Rome, in the capacity of a slave. As a slave he + entered the Imperial palace, rendered himself useful to his + master’s passions, and rapidly ascended to the most exalted + station which a subject could enjoy. His influence over the mind + of Commodus was much greater than that of his predecessor; for + Cleander was devoid of any ability or virtue which could inspire + the emperor with envy or distrust. Avarice was the reigning + passion of his soul, and the great principle of his + administration. The rank of Consul, of Patrician, of Senator, was + exposed to public sale; and it would have been considered as + disaffection, if any one had refused to purchase these empty and + disgraceful honors with the greatest part of his fortune. In the + lucrative provincial employments, the minister shared with the + governor the spoils of the people. The execution of the laws was + penal and arbitrary. A wealthy criminal might obtain, not only + the reversal of the sentence by which he was justly condemned, + but might likewise inflict whatever punishment he pleased on the + accuser, the witnesses, and the judge. + + By these means, Cleander, in the space of three years, had + accumulated more wealth than had ever yet been possessed by any + freedman. Commodus was perfectly satisfied with the magnificent + presents which the artful courtier laid at his feet in the most + seasonable moments. To divert the public envy, Cleander, under + the emperor’s name, erected baths, porticos, and places of + exercise, for the use of the people. He flattered himself that + the Romans, dazzled and amused by this apparent liberality, would + be less affected by the bloody scenes which were daily exhibited; + that they would forget the death of Byrrhus, a senator to whose + superior merit the late emperor had granted one of his daughters; + and that they would forgive the execution of Arrius Antoninus, + the last representative of the name and virtues of the Antonines. + The former, with more integrity than prudence, had attempted to + disclose, to his brother-in-law, the true character of Cleander. + An equitable sentence pronounced by the latter, when proconsul of + Asia, against a worthless creature of the favorite, proved fatal + to him. After the fall of Perennis, the terrors of Commodus had, + for a short time, assumed the appearance of a return to virtue. + He repealed the most odious of his acts; loaded his memory with + the public execration, and ascribed to the pernicious counsels of + that wicked minister all the errors of his inexperienced youth. + But his repentance lasted only thirty days; and, under Cleander’s + tyranny, the administration of Perennis was often regretted. + + + + + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part II. + + Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure of the + calamities of Rome. The first could be only imputed to the just + indignation of the gods; but a monopoly of corn, supported by the + riches and power of the minister, was considered as the immediate + cause of the second. The popular discontent, after it had long + circulated in whispers, broke out in the assembled circus. The + people quitted their favorite amusements for the more delicious + pleasure of revenge, rushed in crowds towards a palace in the + suburbs, one of the emperor’s retirements, and demanded, with + angry clamors, the head of the public enemy. Cleander, who + commanded the Prætorian guards, ordered a body of cavalry to + sally forth, and disperse the seditious multitude. The multitude + fled with precipitation towards the city; several were slain, and + many more were trampled to death; but when the cavalry entered + the streets, their pursuit was checked by a shower of stones and + darts from the roofs and windows of the houses. The foot guards, + who had been long jealous of the prerogatives and insolence of + the Prætorian cavalry, embraced the party of the people. The + tumult became a regular engagement, and threatened a general + massacre. The Prætorians, at length, gave way, oppressed with + numbers; and the tide of popular fury returned with redoubled + violence against the gates of the palace, where Commodus lay, + dissolved in luxury, and alone unconscious of the civil war. It + was death to approach his person with the unwelcome news. He + would have perished in this supine security, had not two women, + his eldest sister Fadilla, and Marcia, the most favored of his + concubines, ventured to break into his presence. Bathed in tears, + and with dishevelled hair, they threw themselves at his feet; and + with all the pressing eloquence of fear, discovered to the + affrighted emperor the crimes of the minister, the rage of the + people, and the impending ruin, which, in a few minutes, would + burst over his palace and person. Commodus started from his dream + of pleasure, and commanded that the head of Cleander should be + thrown out to the people. The desired spectacle instantly + appeased the tumult; and the son of Marcus might even yet have + regained the affection and confidence of his subjects. + + But every sentiment of virtue and humanity was extinct in the + mind of Commodus. Whilst he thus abandoned the reins of empire to + these unworthy favorites, he valued nothing in sovereign power, + except the unbounded license of indulging his sensual appetites. + His hours were spent in a seraglio of three hundred beautiful + women, and as many boys, of every rank, and of every province; + and, wherever the arts of seduction proved ineffectual, the + brutal lover had recourse to violence. The ancient historians + have expatiated on these abandoned scenes of prostitution, which + scorned every restraint of nature or modesty; but it would not be + easy to translate their too faithful descriptions into the + decency of modern language. The intervals of lust were filled up + with the basest amusements. The influence of a polite age, and + the labor of an attentive education, had never been able to + infuse into his rude and brutish mind the least tincture of + learning; and he was the first of the Roman emperors totally + devoid of taste for the pleasures of the understanding. Nero + himself excelled, or affected to excel, in the elegant arts of + music and poetry: nor should we despise his pursuits, had he not + converted the pleasing relaxation of a leisure hour into the + serious business and ambition of his life. But Commodus, from his + earliest infancy, discovered an aversion to whatever was rational + or liberal, and a fond attachment to the amusements of the + populace; the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the combats + of gladiators, and the hunting of wild beasts. The masters in + every branch of learning, whom Marcus provided for his son, were + heard with inattention and disgust; whilst the Moors and + Parthians, who taught him to dart the javelin and to shoot with + the bow, found a disciple who delighted in his application, and + soon equalled the most skilful of his instructors in the + steadiness of the eye and the dexterity of the hand. + + The servile crowd, whose fortune depended on their master’s + vices, applauded these ignoble pursuits. The perfidious voice of + flattery reminded him, that by exploits of the same nature, by + the defeat of the Nemæan lion, and the slaughter of the wild boar + of Erymanthus, the Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among + the gods, and an immortal memory among men. They only forgot to + observe, that, in the first ages of society, when the fiercer + animals often dispute with man the possession of an unsettled + country, a successful war against those savages is one of the + most innocent and beneficial labors of heroism. In the civilized + state of the Roman empire, the wild beasts had long since retired + from the face of man, and the neighborhood of populous cities. To + surprise them in their solitary haunts, and to transport them to + Rome, that they might be slain in pomp by the hand of an emperor, + was an enterprise equally ridiculous for the prince and + oppressive for the people. Ignorant of these distinctions, + Commodus eagerly embraced the glorious resemblance, and styled + himself (as we still read on his medals ) the _Roman_ _Hercules_. + * The club and the lion’s hide were placed by the side of the + throne, amongst the ensigns of sovereignty; and statues were + erected, in which Commodus was represented in the character, and + with the attributes, of the god, whose valor and dexterity he + endeavored to emulate in the daily course of his ferocious + amusements. + + Elated with these praises, which gradually extinguished the + innate sense of shame, Commodus resolved to exhibit before the + eyes of the Roman people those exercises, which till then he had + decently confined within the walls of his palace, and to the + presence of a few favorites. On the appointed day, the various + motives of flattery, fear, and curiosity, attracted to the + amphitheatre an innumerable multitude of spectators; and some + degree of applause was deservedly bestowed on the uncommon skill + of the Imperial performer. Whether he aimed at the head or heart + of the animal, the wound was alike certain and mortal. With + arrows whose point was shaped into the form of crescent, Commodus + often intercepted the rapid career, and cut asunder the long, + bony neck of the ostrich. A panther was let loose; and the archer + waited till he had leaped upon a trembling malefactor. In the + same instant the shaft flew, the beast dropped dead, and the man + remained unhurt. The dens of the amphitheatre disgorged at once a + hundred lions: a hundred darts from the unerring hand of Commodus + laid them dead as they run raging round the _Arena_. Neither the + huge bulk of the elephant, nor the scaly hide of the rhinoceros, + could defend them from his stroke. Æthiopia and India yielded + their most extraordinary productions; and several animals were + slain in the amphitheatre, which had been seen only in the + representations of art, or perhaps of fancy. In all these + exhibitions, the securest precautions were used to protect the + person of the Roman Hercules from the desperate spring of any + savage, who might possibly disregard the dignity of the emperor + and the sanctity of the god.* + + But the meanest of the populace were affected with shame and + indignation when they beheld their sovereign enter the lists as a + gladiator, and glory in a profession which the laws and manners + of the Romans had branded with the justest note of infamy. He + chose the habit and arms of the _Secutor_, whose combat with the + _Retiarius_ formed one of the most lively scenes in the bloody + sports of the amphitheatre. The _Secutor_ was armed with a + helmet, sword, and buckler; his naked antagonist had only a large + net and a trident; with the one he endeavored to entangle, with + the other to despatch his enemy. If he missed the first throw, he + was obliged to fly from the pursuit of the _Secutor_, till he had + prepared his net for a second cast. The emperor fought in this + character seven hundred and thirty-five several times. These + glorious achievements were carefully recorded in the public acts + of the empire; and that he might omit no circumstance of infamy, + he received from the common fund of gladiators a stipend so + exorbitant that it became a new and most ignominious tax upon the + Roman people. It may be easily supposed, that in these + engagements the master of the world was always successful; in the + amphitheatre, his victories were not often sanguinary; but when + he exercised his skill in the school of gladiators, or his own + palace, his wretched antagonists were frequently honored with a + mortal wound from the hand of Commodus, and obliged to seal their + flattery with their blood. He now disdained the appellation of + Hercules. The name of Paulus, a celebrated Secutor, was the only + one which delighted his ear. It was inscribed on his colossal + statues, and repeated in the redoubled acclamations of the + mournful and applauding senate. Claudius Pompeianus, the virtuous + husband of Lucilla, was the only senator who asserted the honor + of his rank. As a father, he permitted his sons to consult their + safety by attending the amphitheatre. As a Roman, he declared, + that his own life was in the emperor’s hands, but that he would + never behold the son of Marcus prostituting his person and + dignity. Notwithstanding his manly resolution Pompeianus escaped + the resentment of the tyrant, and, with his honor, had the good + fortune to preserve his life. + + Commodus had now attained the summit of vice and infamy. Amidst + the acclamations of a flattering court, he was unable to disguise + from himself, that he had deserved the contempt and hatred of + every man of sense and virtue in his empire. His ferocious spirit + was irritated by the consciousness of that hatred, by the envy of + every kind of merit, by the just apprehension of danger, and by + the habit of slaughter, which he contracted in his daily + amusements. History has preserved a long list of consular + senators sacrificed to his wanton suspicion, which sought out, + with peculiar anxiety, those unfortunate persons connected, + however remotely, with the family of the Antonines, without + sparing even the ministers of his crimes or pleasures. His + cruelty proved at last fatal to himself. He had shed with + impunity the noblest blood of Rome: he perished as soon as he was + dreaded by his own domestics. Marcia, his favorite concubine, + Eclectus, his chamberlain, and Lætus, his Prætorian præfect, + alarmed by the fate of their companions and predecessors, + resolved to prevent the destruction which every hour hung over + their heads, either from the mad caprice of the tyrant, * or the + sudden indignation of the people. Marcia seized the occasion of + presenting a draught of wine to her lover, after he had fatigued + himself with hunting some wild beasts. Commodus retired to sleep; + but whilst he was laboring with the effects of poison and + drunkenness, a robust youth, by profession a wrestler, entered + his chamber, and strangled him without resistance. The body was + secretly conveyed out of the palace, before the least suspicion + was entertained in the city, or even in the court, of the + emperor’s death. Such was the fate of the son of Marcus, and so + easy was it to destroy a hated tyrant, who, by the artificial + powers of government, had oppressed, during thirteen years, so + many millions of subjects, each of whom was equal to their master + in personal strength and personal abilities. + + The measures of the conspirators were conducted with the + deliberate coolness and celerity which the greatness of the + occasion required. They resolved instantly to fill the vacant + throne with an emperor whose character would justify and maintain + the action that had been committed. They fixed on Pertinax, + præfect of the city, an ancient senator of consular rank, whose + conspicuous merit had broke through the obscurity of his birth, + and raised him to the first honors of the state. He had + successively governed most of the provinces of the empire; and in + all his great employments, military as well as civil, he had + uniformly distinguished himself by the firmness, the prudence, + and the integrity of his conduct. He now remained almost alone of + the friends and ministers of Marcus; and when, at a late hour of + the night, he was awakened with the news, that the chamberlain + and the præfect were at his door, he received them with intrepid + resignation, and desired they would execute their master’s + orders. Instead of death, they offered him the throne of the + Roman world. During some moments he distrusted their intentions + and assurances. Convinced at length of the death of Commodus, he + accepted the purple with a sincere reluctance, the natural effect + of his knowledge both of the duties and of the dangers of the + supreme rank. + + Lætus conducted without delay his new emperor to the camp of the + Prætorians, diffusing at the same time through the city a + seasonable report that Commodus died suddenly of an apoplexy; and + that the virtuous Pertinax had already succeeded to the throne. + The guards were rather surprised than pleased with the suspicious + death of a prince, whose indulgence and liberality they alone had + experienced; but the emergency of the occasion, the authority of + their præfect, the reputation of Pertinax, and the clamors of the + people, obliged them to stifle their secret discontents, to + accept the donative promised by the new emperor, to swear + allegiance to him, and with joyful acclamations and laurels in + their hands to conduct him to the senate house, that the military + consent might be ratified by the civil authority. + + This important night was now far spent; with the dawn of day, and + the commencement of the new year, the senators expected a summons + to attend an ignominious ceremony. * In spite of all + remonstrances, even of those of his creatures who yet preserved + any regard for prudence or decency, Commodus had resolved to pass + the night in the gladiators’ school, and from thence to take + possession of the consulship, in the habit and with the + attendance of that infamous crew. On a sudden, before the break + of day, the senate was called together in the temple of Concord, + to meet the guards, and to ratify the election of a new emperor. + For a few minutes they sat in silent suspense, doubtful of their + unexpected deliverance, and suspicious of the cruel artifices of + Commodus: but when at length they were assured that the tyrant + was no more, they resigned themselves to all the transports of + joy and indignation. Pertinax, who modestly represented the + meanness of his extraction, and pointed out several noble + senators more deserving than himself of the empire, was + constrained by their dutiful violence to ascend the throne, and + received all the titles of Imperial power, confirmed by the most + sincere vows of fidelity. The memory of Commodus was branded with + eternal infamy. The names of tyrant, of gladiator, of public + enemy resounded in every corner of the house. They decreed in + tumultuous votes, that his honors should be reversed, his titles + erased from the public monuments, his statues thrown down, his + body dragged with a hook into the stripping room of the + gladiators, to satiate the public fury; and they expressed some + indignation against those officious servants who had already + presumed to screen his remains from the justice of the senate. + But Pertinax could not refuse those last rites to the memory of + Marcus, and the tears of his first protector Claudius Pompeianus, + who lamented the cruel fate of his brother-in-law, and lamented + still more that he had deserved it. + + These effusions of impotent rage against a dead emperor, whom the + senate had flattered when alive with the most abject servility, + betrayed a just but ungenerous spirit of revenge. The legality of + these decrees was, however, supported by the principles of the + Imperial constitution. To censure, to depose, or to punish with + death, the first magistrate of the republic, who had abused his + delegated trust, was the ancient and undoubted prerogative of the + Roman senate; but the feeble assembly was obliged to content + itself with inflicting on a fallen tyrant that public justice, + from which, during his life and reign, he had been shielded by + the strong arm of military despotism. * + + Pertinax found a nobler way of condemning his predecessor’s + memory; by the contrast of his own virtues with the vices of + Commodus. On the day of his accession, he resigned over to his + wife and son his whole private fortune; that they might have no + pretence to solicit favors at the expense of the state. He + refused to flatter the vanity of the former with the title of + Augusta; or to corrupt the inexperienced youth of the latter by + the rank of Cæsar. Accurately distinguishing between the duties + of a parent and those of a sovereign, he educated his son with a + severe simplicity, which, while it gave him no assured prospect + of the throne, might in time have rendered him worthy of it. In + public, the behavior of Pertinax was grave and affable. He lived + with the virtuous part of the senate, (and, in a private station, + he had been acquainted with the true character of each + individual,) without either pride or jealousy; considered them as + friends and companions, with whom he had shared the danger of the + tyranny, and with whom he wished to enjoy the security of the + present time. He very frequently invited them to familiar + entertainments, the frugality of which was ridiculed by those who + remembered and regretted the luxurious prodigality of Commodus. + + To heal, as far as it was possible, the wounds inflicted by the + hand of tyranny, was the pleasing, but melancholy, task of + Pertinax. The innocent victims, who yet survived, were recalled + from exile, released from prison, and restored to the full + possession of their honors and fortunes. The unburied bodies of + murdered senators (for the cruelty of Commodus endeavored to + extend itself beyond death) were deposited in the sepulchres of + their ancestors; their memory was justified and every consolation + was bestowed on their ruined and afflicted families. Among these + consolations, one of the most grateful was the punishment of the + Delators; the common enemies of their master, of virtue, and of + their country. Yet even in the inquisition of these legal + assassins, Pertinax proceeded with a steady temper, which gave + every thing to justice, and nothing to popular prejudice and + resentment. + + The finances of the state demanded the most vigilant care of the + emperor. Though every measure of injustice and extortion had been + adopted, which could collect the property of the subject into the + coffers of the prince, the rapaciousness of Commodus had been so + very inadequate to his extravagance, that, upon his death, no + more than eight thousand pounds were found in the exhausted + treasury, to defray the current expenses of government, and to + discharge the pressing demand of a liberal donative, which the + new emperor had been obliged to promise to the Prætorian guards. + Yet under these distressed circumstances, Pertinax had the + generous firmness to remit all the oppressive taxes invented by + Commodus, and to cancel all the unjust claims of the treasury; + declaring, in a decree of the senate, “that he was better + satisfied to administer a poor republic with innocence, than to + acquire riches by the ways of tyranny and dishonor.” Economy and + industry he considered as the pure and genuine sources of wealth; + and from them he soon derived a copious supply for the public + necessities. The expense of the household was immediately reduced + to one half. All the instruments of luxury Pertinax exposed to + public auction, gold and silver plate, chariots of a singular + construction, a superfluous wardrobe of silk and embroidery, and + a great number of beautiful slaves of both sexes; excepting only, + with attentive humanity, those who were born in a state of + freedom, and had been ravished from the arms of their weeping + parents. At the same time that he obliged the worthless favorites + of the tyrant to resign a part of their ill-gotten wealth, he + satisfied the just creditors of the state, and unexpectedly + discharged the long arrears of honest services. He removed the + oppressive restrictions which had been laid upon commerce, and + granted all the uncultivated lands in Italy and the provinces to + those who would improve them; with an exemption from tribute + during the term of ten years. + + Such a uniform conduct had already secured to Pertinax the + noblest reward of a sovereign, the love and esteem of his people. + Those who remembered the virtues of Marcus were happy to + contemplate in their new emperor the features of that bright + original; and flattered themselves, that they should long enjoy + the benign influence of his administration. A hasty zeal to + reform the corrupted state, accompanied with less prudence than + might have been expected from the years and experience of + Pertinax, proved fatal to himself and to his country. His honest + indiscretion united against him the servile crowd, who found + their private benefit in the public disorders, and who preferred + the favor of a tyrant to the inexorable equality of the laws. + + Amidst the general joy, the sullen and angry countenance of the + Prætorian guards betrayed their inward dissatisfaction. They had + reluctantly submitted to Pertinax; they dreaded the strictness of + the ancient discipline, which he was preparing to restore; and + they regretted the license of the former reign. Their discontents + were secretly fomented by Lætus, their præfect, who found, when + it was too late, that his new emperor would reward a servant, but + would not be ruled by a favorite. On the third day of his reign, + the soldiers seized on a noble senator, with a design to carry + him to the camp, and to invest him with the Imperial purple. + Instead of being dazzled by the dangerous honor, the affrighted + victim escaped from their violence, and took refuge at the feet + of Pertinax. A short time afterwards, Sosius Falco, one of the + consuls of the year, a rash youth, but of an ancient and opulent + family, listened to the voice of ambition; and a conspiracy was + formed during a short absence of Pertinax, which was crushed by + his sudden return to Rome, and his resolute behavior. Falco was + on the point of being justly condemned to death as a public enemy + had he not been saved by the earnest and sincere entreaties of + the injured emperor, who conjured the senate, that the purity of + his reign might not be stained by the blood even of a guilty + senator. + + These disappointments served only to irritate the rage of the + Prætorian guards. On the twenty-eighth of March, eighty-six days + only after the death of Commodus, a general sedition broke out in + the camp, which the officers wanted either power or inclination + to suppress. Two or three hundred of the most desperate soldiers + marched at noonday, with arms in their hands and fury in their + looks, towards the Imperial palace. The gates were thrown open by + their companions upon guard, and by the domestics of the old + court, who had already formed a secret conspiracy against the + life of the too virtuous emperor. On the news of their approach, + Pertinax, disdaining either flight or concealment, advanced to + meet his assassins; and recalled to their minds his own + innocence, and the sanctity of their recent oath. For a few + moments they stood in silent suspense, ashamed of their atrocious + design, and awed by the venerable aspect and majestic firmness of + their sovereign, till at length, the despair of pardon reviving + their fury, a barbarian of the country of Tongress levelled the + first blow against Pertinax, who was instantly despatched with a + multitude of wounds. His head, separated from his body, and + placed on a lance, was carried in triumph to the Prætorian camp, + in the sight of a mournful and indignant people, who lamented the + unworthy fate of that excellent prince, and the transient + blessings of a reign, the memory of which could serve only to + aggravate their approaching misfortunes. + + + + + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. + +Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The Prætorian +Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius Niger In Syria, And +Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare Against The Murderers Of +Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of Severus Over His Three +Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New Maxims Of Government. + + The power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive + monarchy, than in a small community. It has been calculated by + the ablest politicians, that no state, without being soon + exhausted, can maintain above the hundredth part of its members + in arms and idleness. But although this relative proportion may + be uniform, the influence of the army over the rest of the + society will vary according to the degree of its positive + strength. The advantages of military science and discipline + cannot be exerted, unless a proper number of soldiers are united + into one body, and actuated by one soul. With a handful of men, + such a union would be ineffectual; with an unwieldy host, it + would be impracticable; and the powers of the machine would be + alike destroyed by the extreme minuteness or the excessive weight + of its springs. To illustrate this observation, we need only + reflect, that there is no superiority of natural strength, + artificial weapons, or acquired skill, which could enable one man + to keep in constant subjection one hundred of his + fellow-creatures: the tyrant of a single town, or a small + district, would soon discover that a hundred armed followers were + a weak defence against ten thousand peasants or citizens; but a + hundred thousand well-disciplined soldiers will command, with + despotic sway, ten millions of subjects; and a body of ten or + fifteen thousand guards will strike terror into the most numerous + populace that ever crowded the streets of an immense capital. + + The Prætorian bands, whose licentious fury was the first symptom + and cause of the decline of the Roman empire, scarcely amounted + to the last-mentioned number.* They derived their institution + from Augustus. That crafty tyrant, sensible that laws might + color, but that arms alone could maintain, his usurped dominion, + had gradually formed this powerful body of guards, in constant + readiness to protect his person, to awe the senate, and either to + prevent or to crush the first motions of rebellion. He + distinguished these favored troops by a double pay and superior + privileges; but, as their formidable aspect would at once have + alarmed and irritated the Roman people, three cohorts only were + stationed in the capital, whilst the remainder was dispersed in + the adjacent towns of Italy. But after fifty years of peace and + servitude, Tiberius ventured on a decisive measure, which forever + rivetted the fetters of his country. Under the fair pretences of + relieving Italy from the heavy burden of military quarters, and + of introducing a stricter discipline among the guards, he + assembled them at Rome, in a permanent camp, which was fortified + with skilful care, and placed on a commanding situation. + + Such formidable servants are always necessary, but often fatal to + the throne of despotism. By thus introducing the Prætorian guards + as it were into the palace and the senate, the emperors taught + them to perceive their own strength, and the weakness of the + civil government; to view the vices of their masters with + familiar contempt, and to lay aside that reverential awe, which + distance only, and mystery, can preserve towards an imaginary + power. In the luxurious idleness of an opulent city, their pride + was nourished by the sense of their irresistible weight; nor was + it possible to conceal from them, that the person of the + sovereign, the authority of the senate, the public treasure, and + the seat of empire, were all in their hands. To divert the + Prætorian bands from these dangerous reflections, the firmest and + best established princes were obliged to mix blandishments with + commands, rewards with punishments, to flatter their pride, + indulge their pleasures, connive at their irregularities, and to + purchase their precarious faith by a liberal donative; which, + since the elevation of Claudius, was enacted as a legal claim, on + the accession of every new emperor. + + The advocate of the guards endeavored to justify by arguments the + power which they asserted by arms; and to maintain that, + according to the purest principles of the constitution, _their_ + consent was essentially necessary in the appointment of an + emperor. The election of consuls, of generals, and of + magistrates, however it had been recently usurped by the senate, + was the ancient and undoubted right of the Roman people. But + where was the Roman people to be found? Not surely amongst the + mixed multitude of slaves and strangers that filled the streets + of Rome; a servile populace, as devoid of spirit as destitute of + property. The defenders of the state, selected from the flower of + the Italian youth, and trained in the exercise of arms and + virtue, were the genuine representatives of the people, and the + best entitled to elect the military chief of the republic. These + assertions, however defective in reason, became unanswerable when + the fierce Prætorians increased their weight, by throwing, like + the barbarian conqueror of Rome, their swords into the scale. + + The Prætorians had violated the sanctity of the throne by the + atrocious murder of Pertinax; they dishonored the majesty of it + by their subsequent conduct. The camp was without a leader, for + even the præfect Lætus, who had excited the tempest, prudently + declined the public indignation. Amidst the wild disorder, + Sulpicianus, the emperor’s father-in-law, and governor of the + city, who had been sent to the camp on the first alarm of mutiny, + was endeavoring to calm the fury of the multitude, when he was + silenced by the clamorous return of the murderers, bearing on a + lance the head of Pertinax. Though history has accustomed us to + observe every principle and every passion yielding to the + imperious dictates of ambition, it is scarcely credible that, in + these moments of horror, Sulpicianus should have aspired to + ascend a throne polluted with the recent blood of so near a + relation and so excellent a prince. He had already begun to use + the only effectual argument, and to treat for the Imperial + dignity; but the more prudent of the Prætorians, apprehensive + that, in this private contract, they should not obtain a just + price for so valuable a commodity, ran out upon the ramparts; + and, with a loud voice, proclaimed that the Roman world was to be + disposed of to the best bidder by public auction. + + This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military + license, diffused a universal grief, shame, and indignation + throughout the city. It reached at length the ears of Didius + Julianus, a wealthy senator, who, regardless of the public + calamities, was indulging himself in the luxury of the table. His + wife and his daughter, his freedmen and his parasites, easily + convinced him that he deserved the throne, and earnestly conjured + him to embrace so fortunate an opportunity. The vain old man + hastened to the Prætorian camp, where Sulpicianus was still in + treaty with the guards, and began to bid against him from the + foot of the rampart. The unworthy negotiation was transacted by + faithful emissaries, who passed alternately from one candidate to + the other, and acquainted each of them with the offers of his + rival. Sulpicianus had already promised a donative of five + thousand drachms (above one hundred and sixty pounds) to each + soldier; when Julian, eager for the prize, rose at once to the + sum of six thousand two hundred and fifty drachms, or upwards of + two hundred pounds sterling. The gates of the camp were instantly + thrown open to the purchaser; he was declared emperor, and + received an oath of allegiance from the soldiers, who retained + humanity enough to stipulate that he should pardon and forget the + competition of Sulpicianus. * + + It was now incumbent on the Prætorians to fulfil the conditions + of the sale. They placed their new sovereign, whom they served + and despised, in the centre of their ranks, surrounded him on + every side with their shields, and conducted him in close order + of battle through the deserted streets of the city. The senate + was commanded to assemble; and those who had been the + distinguished friends of Pertinax, or the personal enemies of + Julian, found it necessary to affect a more than common share of + satisfaction at this happy revolution. After Julian had filled + the senate house with armed soldiers, he expatiated on the + freedom of his election, his own eminent virtues, and his full + assurance of the affections of the senate. The obsequious + assembly congratulated their own and the public felicity; engaged + their allegiance, and conferred on him all the several branches + of the Imperial power. From the senate Julian was conducted, by + the same military procession, to take possession of the palace. + The first objects that struck his eyes, were the abandoned trunk + of Pertinax, and the frugal entertainment prepared for his + supper. The one he viewed with indifference, the other with + contempt. A magnificent feast was prepared by his order, and he + amused himself, till a very late hour, with dice, and the + performances of Pylades, a celebrated dancer. Yet it was + observed, that after the crowd of flatterers dispersed, and left + him to darkness, solitude, and terrible reflection, he passed a + sleepless night; revolving most probably in his mind his own rash + folly, the fate of his virtuous predecessor, and the doubtful and + dangerous tenure of an empire which had not been acquired by + merit, but purchased by money. + + He had reason to tremble. On the throne of the world he found + himself without a friend, and even without an adherent. The + guards themselves were ashamed of the prince whom their avarice + had persuaded them to accept; nor was there a citizen who did not + consider his elevation with horror, as the last insult on the + Roman name. The nobility, whose conspicuous station, and ample + possessions, exacted the strictest caution, dissembled their + sentiments, and met the affected civility of the emperor with + smiles of complacency and professions of duty. But the people, + secure in their numbers and obscurity, gave a free vent to their + passions. The streets and public places of Rome resounded with + clamors and imprecations. The enraged multitude affronted the + person of Julian, rejected his liberality, and, conscious of the + impotence of their own resentment, they called aloud on the + legions of the frontiers to assert the violated majesty of the + Roman empire. + + The public discontent was soon diffused from the centre to the + frontiers of the empire. The armies of Britain, of Syria, and of + Illyricum, lamented the death of Pertinax, in whose company, or + under whose command, they had so often fought and conquered. They + received with surprise, with indignation, and perhaps with envy, + the extraordinary intelligence, that the Prætorians had disposed + of the empire by public auction; and they sternly refused to + ratify the ignominious bargain. Their immediate and unanimous + revolt was fatal to Julian, but it was fatal at the same time to + the public peace, as the generals of the respective armies, + Clodius Albinus, Pescennius Niger, and Septimius Severus, were + still more anxious to succeed than to revenge the murdered + Pertinax. Their forces were exactly balanced. Each of them was at + the head of three legions, with a numerous train of auxiliaries; + and however different in their characters, they were all soldiers + of experience and capacity. + + Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain, surpassed both his + competitors in the nobility of his extraction, which he derived + from some of the most illustrious names of the old republic. But + the branch from which he claimed his descent was sunk into mean + circumstances, and transplanted into a remote province. It is + difficult to form a just idea of his true character. Under the + philosophic cloak of austerity, he stands accused of concealing + most of the vices which degrade human nature. But his accusers + are those venal writers who adored the fortune of Severus, and + trampled on the ashes of an unsuccessful rival. Virtue, or the + appearances of virtue, recommended Albinus to the confidence and + good opinion of Marcus; and his preserving with the son the same + interest which he had acquired with the father, is a proof at + least that he was possessed of a very flexible disposition. The + favor of a tyrant does not always suppose a want of merit in the + object of it; he may, without intending it, reward a man of worth + and ability, or he may find such a man useful to his own service. + It does not appear that Albinus served the son of Marcus, either + as the minister of his cruelties, or even as the associate of his + pleasures. He was employed in a distant honorable command, when + he received a confidential letter from the emperor, acquainting + him of the treasonable designs of some discontented generals, and + authorizing him to declare himself the guardian and successor of + the throne, by assuming the title and ensigns of Cæsar. The + governor of Britain wisely declined the dangerous honor, which + would have marked him for the jealousy, or involved him in the + approaching ruin, of Commodus. He courted power by nobler, or, at + least, by more specious arts. On a premature report of the death + of the emperor, he assembled his troops; and, in an eloquent + discourse, deplored the inevitable mischiefs of despotism, + described the happiness and glory which their ancestors had + enjoyed under the consular government, and declared his firm + resolution to reinstate the senate and people in their legal + authority. This popular harangue was answered by the loud + acclamations of the British legions, and received at Rome with a + secret murmur of applause. Safe in the possession of his little + world, and in the command of an army less distinguished indeed + for discipline than for numbers and valor, Albinus braved the + menaces of Commodus, maintained towards Pertinax a stately + ambiguous reserve, and instantly declared against the usurpation + of Julian. The convulsions of the capital added new weight to his + sentiments, or rather to his professions of patriotism. A regard + to decency induced him to decline the lofty titles of Augustus + and Emperor; and he imitated perhaps the example of Galba, who, + on a similar occasion, had styled himself the Lieutenant of the + senate and people. + + Personal merit alone had raised Pescennius Niger, from an obscure + birth and station, to the government of Syria; a lucrative and + important command, which in times of civil confusion gave him a + near prospect of the throne. Yet his parts seem to have been + better suited to the second than to the first rank; he was an + unequal rival, though he might have approved himself an excellent + lieutenant, to Severus, who afterwards displayed the greatness of + his mind by adopting several useful institutions from a + vanquished enemy. In his government Niger acquired the esteem of + the soldiers and the love of the provincials. His rigid + discipline fortified the valor and confirmed the obedience of the + former, whilst the voluptuous Syrians were less delighted with + the mild firmness of his administration, than with the affability + of his manners, and the apparent pleasure with which he attended + their frequent and pompous festivals. As soon as the intelligence + of the atrocious murder of Pertinax had reached Antioch, the + wishes of Asia invited Niger to assume the Imperial purple and + revenge his death. The legions of the eastern frontier embraced + his cause; the opulent but unarmed provinces, from the frontiers + of Æthiopia to the Hadriatic, cheerfully submitted to his power; + and the kings beyond the Tigris and the Euphrates congratulated + his election, and offered him their homage and services. The mind + of Niger was not capable of receiving this sudden tide of + fortune: he flattered himself that his accession would be + undisturbed by competition and unstained by civil blood; and + whilst he enjoyed the vain pomp of triumph, he neglected to + secure the means of victory. Instead of entering into an + effectual negotiation with the powerful armies of the West, whose + resolution might decide, or at least must balance, the mighty + contest; instead of advancing without delay towards Rome and + Italy, where his presence was impatiently expected, Niger trifled + away in the luxury of Antioch those irretrievable moments which + were diligently improved by the decisive activity of Severus. + + The country of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which occupied the space + between the Danube and the Hadriatic, was one of the last and + most difficult conquests of the Romans. In the defence of + national freedom, two hundred thousand of these barbarians had + once appeared in the field, alarmed the declining age of + Augustus, and exercised the vigilant prudence of Tiberius at the + head of the collected force of the empire. The Pannonians yielded + at length to the arms and institutions of Rome. Their recent + subjection, however, the neighborhood, and even the mixture, of + the unconquered tribes, and perhaps the climate, adapted, as it + has been observed, to the production of great bodies and slow + minds, all contributed to preserve some remains of their original + ferocity, and under the tame and uniform countenance of Roman + provincials, the hardy features of the natives were still to be + discerned. Their warlike youth afforded an inexhaustible supply + of recruits to the legions stationed on the banks of the Danube, + and which, from a perpetual warfare against the Germans and + Sarmazans, were deservedly esteemed the best troops in the + service. + + The Pannonian army was at this time commanded by Septimius + Severus, a native of Africa, who, in the gradual ascent of + private honors, had concealed his daring ambition, which was + never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of + pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of + humanity. On the first news of the murder of Pertinax, he + assembled his troops, painted in the most lively colors the + crime, the insolence, and the weakness of the Prætorian guards, + and animated the legions to arms and to revenge. He concluded + (and the peroration was thought extremely eloquent) with + promising every soldier about four hundred pounds; an honorable + donative, double in value to the infamous bribe with which Julian + had purchased the empire. The acclamations of the army + immediately saluted Severus with the names of Augustus, Pertinax, + and Emperor; and he thus attained the lofty station to which he + was invited, by conscious merit and a long train of dreams and + omens, the fruitful offsprings either of his superstition or + policy. + + The new candidate for empire saw and improved the peculiar + advantage of his situation. His province extended to the Julian + Alps, which gave an easy access into Italy; and he remembered the + saying of Augustus, that a Pannonian army might in ten days + appear in sight of Rome. By a celerity proportioned to the + greatness of the occasion, he might reasonably hope to revenge + Pertinax, punish Julian, and receive the homage of the senate and + people, as their lawful emperor, before his competitors, + separated from Italy by an immense tract of sea and land, were + apprised of his success, or even of his election. During the + whole expedition, he scarcely allowed himself any moments for + sleep or food; marching on foot, and in complete armor, at the + head of his columns, he insinuated himself into the confidence + and affection of his troops, pressed their diligence, revived + their spirits, animated their hopes, and was well satisfied to + share the hardships of the meanest soldier, whilst he kept in + view the infinite superiority of his reward. + + The wretched Julian had expected, and thought himself prepared, + to dispute the empire with the governor of Syria; but in the + invincible and rapid approach of the Pannonian legions, he saw + his inevitable ruin. The hasty arrival of every messenger + increased his just apprehensions. He was successively informed, + that Severus had passed the Alps; that the Italian cities, + unwilling or unable to oppose his progress, had received him with + the warmest professions of joy and duty; that the important place + of Ravenna had surrendered without resistance, and that the + Hadriatic fleet was in the hands of the conqueror. The enemy was + now within two hundred and fifty miles of Rome; and every moment + diminished the narrow span of life and empire allotted to Julian. + + He attempted, however, to prevent, or at least to protract, his + ruin. He implored the venal faith of the Prætorians, filled the + city with unavailing preparations for war, drew lines round the + suburbs, and even strengthened the fortifications of the palace; + as if those last intrenchments could be defended, without hope of + relief, against a victorious invader. Fear and shame prevented + the guards from deserting his standard; but they trembled at the + name of the Pannonian legions, commanded by an experienced + general, and accustomed to vanquish the barbarians on the frozen + Danube. They quitted, with a sigh, the pleasures of the baths and + theatres, to put on arms, whose use they had almost forgotten, + and beneath the weight of which they were oppressed. The + unpractised elephants, whose uncouth appearance, it was hoped, + would strike terror into the army of the north, threw their + unskilful riders; and the awkward evolutions of the marines, + drawn from the fleet of Misenum, were an object of ridicule to + the populace; whilst the senate enjoyed, with secret pleasure, + the distress and weakness of the usurper. + + Every motion of Julian betrayed his trembling perplexity. He + insisted that Severus should be declared a public enemy by the + senate. He entreated that the Pannonian general might be + associated to the empire. He sent public ambassadors of consular + rank to negotiate with his rival; he despatched private assassins + to take away his life. He designed that the Vestal virgins, and + all the colleges of priests, in their sacerdotal habits, and + bearing before them the sacred pledges of the Roman religion, + should advance in solemn procession to meet the Pannonian + legions; and, at the same time, he vainly tried to interrogate, + or to appease, the fates, by magic ceremonies and unlawful + sacrifices. + + + + + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part II. + + Severus, who dreaded neither his arms nor his enchantments, + guarded himself from the only danger of secret conspiracy, by the + faithful attendance of six hundred chosen men, who never quitted + his person or their cuirasses, either by night or by day, during + the whole march. Advancing with a steady and rapid course, he + passed, without difficulty, the defiles of the Apennine, received + into his party the troops and ambassadors sent to retard his + progress, and made a short halt at Interamnia, about seventy + miles from Rome. His victory was already secure, but the despair + of the Prætorians might have rendered it bloody; and Severus had + the laudable ambition of ascending the throne without drawing the + sword. His emissaries, dispersed in the capital, assured the + guards, that provided they would abandon their worthless prince, + and the perpetrators of the murder of Pertinax, to the justice of + the conqueror, he would no longer consider that melancholy event + as the act of the whole body. The faithless Prætorians, whose + resistance was supported only by sullen obstinacy, gladly + complied with the easy conditions, seized the greatest part of + the assassins, and signified to the senate, that they no longer + defended the cause of Julian. That assembly, convoked by the + consul, unanimously acknowledged Severus as lawful emperor, + decreed divine honors to Pertinax, and pronounced a sentence of + deposition and death against his unfortunate successor. Julian + was conducted into a private apartment of the baths of the + palace, and beheaded as a common criminal, after having + purchased, with an immense treasure, an anxious and precarious + reign of only sixty-six days. The almost incredible expedition of + Severus, who, in so short a space of time, conducted a numerous + army from the banks of the Danube to those of the Tyber, proves + at once the plenty of provisions produced by agriculture and + commerce, the goodness of the roads, the discipline of the + legions, and the indolent, subdued temper of the provinces. + + The first cares of Severus were bestowed on two measures, the one + dictated by policy, the other by decency; the revenge, and the + honors, due to the memory of Pertinax. Before the new emperor + entered Rome, he issued his commands to the Prætorian guards, + directing them to wait his arrival on a large plain near the + city, without arms, but in the habits of ceremony, in which they + were accustomed to attend their sovereign. He was obeyed by those + haughty troops, whose contrition was the effect of their just + terrors. A chosen part of the Illyrian army encompassed them with + levelled spears. Incapable of flight or resistance, they expected + their fate in silent consternation. Severus mounted the tribunal, + sternly reproached them with perfidy and cowardice, dismissed + them with ignominy from the trust which they had betrayed, + despoiled them of their splendid ornaments, and banished them, on + pain of death, to the distance of a hundred miles from the + capital. During the transaction, another detachment had been sent + to seize their arms, occupy their camp, and prevent the hasty + consequences of their despair. + + The funeral and consecration of Pertinax was next solemnized with + every circumstance of sad magnificence. The senate, with a + melancholy pleasure, performed the last rites to that excellent + prince, whom they had loved, and still regretted. The concern of + his successor was probably less sincere; he esteemed the virtues + of Pertinax, but those virtues would forever have confined his + ambition to a private station. Severus pronounced his funeral + oration with studied eloquence, inward satisfaction, and + well-acted sorrow; and by this pious regard to his memory, + convinced the credulous multitude, that he alone was worthy to + supply his place. Sensible, however, that arms, not ceremonies, + must assert his claim to the empire, he left Rome at the end of + thirty days, and without suffering himself to be elated by this + easy victory, prepared to encounter his more formidable rivals. + + The uncommon abilities and fortune of Severus have induced an + elegant historian to compare him with the first and greatest of + the Cæsars. The parallel is, at least, imperfect. Where shall we + find, in the character of Severus, the commanding superiority of + soul, the generous clemency, and the various genius, which could + reconcile and unite the love of pleasure, the thirst of + knowledge, and the fire of ambition? In one instance only, they + may be compared, with some degree of propriety, in the celerity + of their motions, and their civil victories. In less than four + years, Severus subdued the riches of the East, and the valor of + the West. He vanquished two competitors of reputation and + ability, and defeated numerous armies, provided with weapons and + discipline equal to his own. In that age, the art of + fortification, and the principles of tactics, were well + understood by all the Roman generals; and the constant + superiority of Severus was that of an artist, who uses the same + instruments with more skill and industry than his rivals. I shall + not, however, enter into a minute narrative of these military + operations; but as the two civil wars against Niger and against + Albinus were almost the same in their conduct, event, and + consequences, I shall collect into one point of view the most + striking circumstances, tending to develop the character of the + conqueror and the state of the empire. + + Falsehood and insincerity, unsuitable as they seem to the dignity + of public transactions, offend us with a less degrading idea of + meanness, than when they are found in the intercourse of private + life. In the latter, they discover a want of courage; in the + other, only a defect of power: and, as it is impossible for the + most able statesmen to subdue millions of followers and enemies + by their own personal strength, the world, under the name of + policy, seems to have granted them a very liberal indulgence of + craft and dissimulation. Yet the arts of Severus cannot be + justified by the most ample privileges of state reason. He + promised only to betray, he flattered only to ruin; and however + he might occasionally bind himself by oaths and treaties, his + conscience, obsequious to his interest, always released him from + the inconvenient obligation. + + If his two competitors, reconciled by their common danger, had + advanced upon him without delay, perhaps Severus would have sunk + under their united effort. Had they even attacked him, at the + same time, with separate views and separate armies, the contest + might have been long and doubtful. But they fell, singly and + successively, an easy prey to the arts as well as arms of their + subtle enemy, lulled into security by the moderation of his + professions, and overwhelmed by the rapidity of his action. He + first marched against Niger, whose reputation and power he the + most dreaded: but he declined any hostile declarations, + suppressed the name of his antagonist, and only signified to the + senate and people his intention of regulating the eastern + provinces. In private, he spoke of Niger, his old friend and + intended successor, with the most affectionate regard, and highly + applauded his generous design of revenging the murder of + Pertinax. To punish the vile usurper of the throne, was the duty + of every Roman general. To persevere in arms, and to resist a + lawful emperor, acknowledged by the senate, would alone render + him criminal. The sons of Niger had fallen into his hands among + the children of the provincial governors, detained at Rome as + pledges for the loyalty of their parents. As long as the power of + Niger inspired terror, or even respect, they were educated with + the most tender care, with the children of Severus himself; but + they were soon involved in their father’s ruin, and removed first + by exile, and afterwards by death, from the eye of public + compassion. + + Whilst Severus was engaged in his eastern war, he had reason to + apprehend that the governor of Britain might pass the sea and the + Alps, occupy the vacant seat of empire, and oppose his return + with the authority of the senate and the forces of the West. The + ambiguous conduct of Albinus, in not assuming the Imperial title, + left room for negotiation. Forgetting, at once, his professions + of patriotism, and the jealousy of sovereign power, he accepted + the precarious rank of Cæsar, as a reward for his fatal + neutrality. Till the first contest was decided, Severus treated + the man, whom he had doomed to destruction, with every mark of + esteem and regard. Even in the letter, in which he announced his + victory over Niger, he styles Albinus the brother of his soul and + empire, sends him the affectionate salutations of his wife Julia, + and his young family, and entreats him to preserve the armies and + the republic faithful to their common interest. The messengers + charged with this letter were instructed to accost the Cæsar with + respect, to desire a private audience, and to plunge their + daggers into his heart. The conspiracy was discovered, and the + too credulous Albinus, at length, passed over to the continent, + and prepared for an unequal contest with his rival, who rushed + upon him at the head of a veteran and victorious army. + + The military labors of Severus seem inadequate to the importance + of his conquests. Two engagements, * the one near the Hellespont, + the other in the narrow defiles of Cilicia, decided the fate of + his Syrian competitor; and the troops of Europe asserted their + usual ascendant over the effeminate natives of Asia. The battle + of Lyons, where one hundred and fifty thousand Romans were + engaged, was equally fatal to Albinus. The valor of the British + army maintained, indeed, a sharp and doubtful contest, with the + hardy discipline of the Illyrian legions. The fame and person of + Severus appeared, during a few moments, irrecoverably lost, till + that warlike prince rallied his fainting troops, and led them on + to a decisive victory. The war was finished by that memorable + day. + + The civil wars of modern Europe have been distinguished, not only + by the fierce animosity, but likewise by the obstinate + perseverance, of the contending factions. They have generally + been justified by some principle, or, at least, colored by some + pretext, of religion, freedom, or loyalty. The leaders were + nobles of independent property and hereditary influence. The + troops fought like men interested in the decision of the quarrel; + and as military spirit and party zeal were strongly diffused + throughout the whole community, a vanquished chief was + immediately supplied with new adherents, eager to shed their + blood in the same cause. But the Romans, after the fall of the + republic, combated only for the choice of masters. Under the + standard of a popular candidate for empire, a few enlisted from + affection, some from fear, many from interest, none from + principle. The legions, uninflamed by party zeal, were allured + into civil war by liberal donatives, and still more liberal + promises. A defeat, by disabling the chief from the performance + of his engagements, dissolved the mercenary allegiance of his + followers, and left them to consult their own safety by a timely + desertion of an unsuccessful cause. It was of little moment to + the provinces, under whose name they were oppressed or governed; + they were driven by the impulsion of the present power, and as + soon as that power yielded to a superior force, they hastened to + implore the clemency of the conqueror, who, as he had an immense + debt to discharge, was obliged to sacrifice the most guilty + countries to the avarice of his soldiers. In the vast extent of + the Roman empire, there were few fortified cities capable of + protecting a routed army; nor was there any person, or family, or + order of men, whose natural interest, unsupported by the powers + of government, was capable of restoring the cause of a sinking + party. + + Yet, in the contest between Niger and Severus, a single city + deserves an honorable exception. As Byzantium was one of the + greatest passages from Europe into Asia, it had been provided + with a strong garrison, and a fleet of five hundred vessels was + anchored in the harbor. The impetuosity of Severus disappointed + this prudent scheme of defence; he left to his generals the siege + of Byzantium, forced the less guarded passage of the Hellespont, + and, impatient of a meaner enemy, pressed forward to encounter + his rival. Byzantium, attacked by a numerous and increasing army, + and afterwards by the whole naval power of the empire, sustained + a siege of three years, and remained faithful to the name and + memory of Niger. The citizens and soldiers (we know not from what + cause) were animated with equal fury; several of the principal + officers of Niger, who despaired of, or who disdained, a pardon, + had thrown themselves into this last refuge: the fortifications + were esteemed impregnable, and, in the defence of the place, a + celebrated engineer displayed all the mechanic powers known to + the ancients. Byzantium, at length, surrendered to famine. The + magistrates and soldiers were put to the sword, the walls + demolished, the privileges suppressed, and the destined capital + of the East subsisted only as an open village, subject to the + insulting jurisdiction of Perinthus. The historian Dion, who had + admired the flourishing, and lamented the desolate, state of + Byzantium, accused the revenge of Severus, for depriving the + Roman people of the strongest bulwark against the barbarians of + Pontus and Asia The truth of this observation was but too well + justified in the succeeding age, when the Gothic fleets covered + the Euxine, and passed through the undefined Bosphorus into the + centre of the Mediterranean. + + Both Niger and Albinus were discovered and put to death in their + flight from the field of battle. Their fate excited neither + surprise nor compassion. They had staked their lives against the + chance of empire, and suffered what they would have inflicted; + nor did Severus claim the arrogant superiority of suffering his + rivals to live in a private station. But his unforgiving temper, + stimulated by avarice, indulged a spirit of revenge, where there + was no room for apprehension. The most considerable of the + provincials, who, without any dislike to the fortunate candidate, + had obeyed the governor under whose authority they were + accidentally placed, were punished by death, exile, and + especially by the confiscation of their estates. Many cities of + the East were stripped of their ancient honors, and obliged to + pay, into the treasury of Severus, four times the amount of the + sums contributed by them for the service of Niger. + + Till the final decision of the war, the cruelty of Severus was, + in some measure, restrained by the uncertainty of the event, and + his pretended reverence for the senate. The head of Albinus, + accompanied with a menacing letter, announced to the Romans that + he was resolved to spare none of the adherents of his unfortunate + competitors. He was irritated by the just suspicion that he had + never possessed the affections of the senate, and he concealed + his old malevolence under the recent discovery of some + treasonable correspondences. Thirty-five senators, however, + accused of having favored the party of Albinus, he freely + pardoned, and, by his subsequent behavior, endeavored to convince + them, that he had forgotten, as well as forgiven, their supposed + offences. But, at the same time, he condemned forty-one other + senators, whose names history has recorded; their wives, + children, and clients attended them in death, * and the noblest + provincials of Spain and Gaul were involved in the same ruin. + Such rigid justice—for so he termed it—was, in the opinion of + Severus, the only conduct capable of insuring peace to the people + or stability to the prince; and he condescended slightly to + lament, that to be mild, it was necessary that he should first be + cruel. + + The true interest of an absolute monarch generally coincides with + that of his people. Their numbers, their wealth, their order, and + their security, are the best and only foundations of his real + greatness; and were he totally devoid of virtue, prudence might + supply its place, and would dictate the same rule of conduct. + Severus considered the Roman empire as his property, and had no + sooner secured the possession, than he bestowed his care on the + cultivation and improvement of so valuable an acquisition. + Salutary laws, executed with inflexible firmness, soon corrected + most of the abuses with which, since the death of Marcus, every + part of the government had been infected. In the administration + of justice, the judgments of the emperor were characterized by + attention, discernment, and impartiality; and whenever he + deviated from the strict line of equity, it was generally in + favor of the poor and oppressed; not so much indeed from any + sense of humanity, as from the natural propensity of a despot to + humble the pride of greatness, and to sink all his subjects to + the same common level of absolute dependence. His expensive taste + for building, magnificent shows, and above all a constant and + liberal distribution of corn and provisions, were the surest + means of captivating the affection of the Roman people. The + misfortunes of civil discord were obliterated. The calm of peace + and prosperity was once more experienced in the provinces; and + many cities, restored by the munificence of Severus, assumed the + title of his colonies, and attested by public monuments their + gratitude and felicity. The fame of the Roman arms was revived by + that warlike and successful emperor, and he boasted, with a just + pride, that, having received the empire oppressed with foreign + and domestic wars, he left it established in profound, universal, + and honorable peace. + + Although the wounds of civil war appeared completely healed, its + mortal poison still lurked in the vitals of the constitution. + Severus possessed a considerable share of vigor and ability; but + the daring soul of the first Cæsar, or the deep policy of + Augustus, were scarcely equal to the task of curbing the + insolence of the victorious legions. By gratitude, by misguided + policy, by seeming necessity, Severus was reduced to relax the + nerves of discipline. The vanity of his soldiers was flattered + with the honor of wearing gold rings; their ease was indulged in + the permission of living with their wives in the idleness of + quarters. He increased their pay beyond the example of former + times, and taught them to expect, and soon to claim, + extraordinary donatives on every public occasion of danger or + festivity. Elated by success, enervated by luxury, and raised + above the level of subjects by their dangerous privileges, they + soon became incapable of military fatigue, oppressive to the + country, and impatient of a just subordination. Their officers + asserted the superiority of rank by a more profuse and elegant + luxury. There is still extant a letter of Severus, lamenting the + licentious stage of the army, * and exhorting one of his generals + to begin the necessary reformation from the tribunes themselves; + since, as he justly observes, the officer who has forfeited the + esteem, will never command the obedience, of his soldiers. Had + the emperor pursued the train of reflection, he would have + discovered, that the primary cause of this general corruption + might be ascribed, not indeed to the example, but to the + pernicious indulgence, however, of the commander-in-chief. + + The Prætorians, who murdered their emperor and sold the empire, + had received the just punishment of their treason; but the + necessary, though dangerous, institution of guards was soon + restored on a new model by Severus, and increased to four times + the ancient number. Formerly these troops had been recruited in + Italy; and as the adjacent provinces gradually imbibed the softer + manners of Rome, the levies were extended to Macedonia, Noricum, + and Spain. In the room of these elegant troops, better adapted to + the pomp of courts than to the uses of war, it was established by + Severus, that from all the legions of the frontiers, the soldiers + most distinguished for strength, valor, and fidelity, should be + occasionally draughted; and promoted, as an honor and reward, + into the more eligible service of the guards. By this new + institution, the Italian youth were diverted from the exercise of + arms, and the capital was terrified by the strange aspect and + manners of a multitude of barbarians. But Severus flattered + himself, that the legions would consider these chosen Prætorians + as the representatives of the whole military order; and that the + present aid of fifty thousand men, superior in arms and + appointments to any force that could be brought into the field + against them, would forever crush the hopes of rebellion, and + secure the empire to himself and his posterity. + + The command of these favored and formidable troops soon became + the first office of the empire. As the government degenerated + into military despotism, the Prætorian Præfect, who in his origin + had been a simple captain of the guards, * was placed not only at + the head of the army, but of the finances, and even of the law. + In every department of administration, he represented the person, + and exercised the authority, of the emperor. The first præfect + who enjoyed and abused this immense power was Plautianus, the + favorite minister of Severus. His reign lasted above ten years, + till the marriage of his daughter with the eldest son of the + emperor, which seemed to assure his fortune, proved the occasion + of his ruin. The animosities of the palace, by irritating the + ambition and alarming the fears of Plautianus, threatened to + produce a revolution, and obliged the emperor, who still loved + him, to consent with reluctance to his death. After the fall of + Plautianus, an eminent lawyer, the celebrated Papinian, was + appointed to execute the motley office of Prætorian Præfect. + + Till the reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good sense of + the emperors had been distinguished by their zeal or affected + reverence for the senate, and by a tender regard to the nice + frame of civil policy instituted by Augustus. But the youth of + Severus had been trained in the implicit obedience of camps, and + his riper years spent in the despotism of military command. His + haughty and inflexible spirit could not discover, or would not + acknowledge, the advantage of preserving an intermediate power, + however imaginary, between the emperor and the army. He disdained + to profess himself the servant of an assembly that detested his + person and trembled at his frown; he issued his commands, where + his requests would have proved as effectual; assumed the conduct + and style of a sovereign and a conqueror, and exercised, without + disguise, the whole legislative, as well as the executive power. + + The victory over the senate was easy and inglorious. Every eye + and every passion were directed to the supreme magistrate, who + possessed the arms and treasure of the state; whilst the senate, + neither elected by the people, nor guarded by military force, nor + animated by public spirit, rested its declining authority on the + frail and crumbling basis of ancient opinion. The fine theory of + a republic insensibly vanished, and made way for the more natural + and substantial feelings of monarchy. As the freedom and honors + of Rome were successively communicated to the provinces, in which + the old government had been either unknown, or was remembered + with abhorrence, the tradition of republican maxims was gradually + obliterated. The Greek historians of the age of the Antonines + observe, with a malicious pleasure, that although the sovereign + of Rome, in compliance with an obsolete prejudice, abstained from + the name of king, he possessed the full measure of regal power. + In the reign of Severus, the senate was filled with polished and + eloquent slaves from the eastern provinces, who justified + personal flattery by speculative principles of servitude. These + new advocates of prerogative were heard with pleasure by the + court, and with patience by the people, when they inculcated the + duty of passive obedience, and descanted on the inevitable + mischiefs of freedom. The lawyers and historians concurred in + teaching, that the Imperial authority was held, not by the + delegated commission, but by the irrevocable resignation of the + senate; that the emperor was freed from the restraint of civil + laws, could command by his arbitrary will the lives and fortunes + of his subjects, and might dispose of the empire as of his + private patrimony. The most eminent of the civil lawyers, and + particularly Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, flourished under the + house of Severus; and the Roman jurisprudence, having closely + united itself with the system of monarchy, was supposed to have + attained its full majority and perfection. + + The contemporaries of Severus in the enjoyment of the peace and + glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been + introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his + maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author + of the decline of the Roman empire. + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part I. + +The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation Of +Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander +Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The Roman +Finances. + + The ascent to greatness, however steep and dangerous, may + entertain an active spirit with the consciousness and exercise of + its own powers: but the possession of a throne could never yet + afford a lasting satisfaction to an ambitious mind. This + melancholy truth was felt and acknowledged by Severus. Fortune + and merit had, from an humble station, elevated him to the first + place among mankind. “He had been all things,” as he said + himself, “and all was of little value.” Distracted with the care, + not of acquiring, but of preserving an empire, oppressed with age + and infirmities, careless of fame, and satiated with power, all + his prospects of life were closed. The desire of perpetuating the + greatness of his family was the only remaining wish of his + ambition and paternal tenderness. + + Like most of the Africans, Severus was passionately addicted to + the vain studies of magic and divination, deeply versed in the + interpretation of dreams and omens, and perfectly acquainted with + the science of judicial astrology; which, in almost every age + except the present, has maintained its dominion over the mind of + man. He had lost his first wife, while he was governor of the + Lionnese Gaul. In the choice of a second, he sought only to + connect himself with some favorite of fortune; and as soon as he + had discovered that the young lady of Emesa in Syria had a royal + nativity, he solicited and obtained her hand. Julia Domna (for + that was her name) deserved all that the stars could promise her. + She possessed, even in advanced age, the attractions of beauty, + and united to a lively imagination a firmness of mind, and + strength of judgment, seldom bestowed on her sex. Her amiable + qualities never made any deep impression on the dark and jealous + temper of her husband; but in her son’s reign, she administered + the principal affairs of the empire, with a prudence that + supported his authority, and with a moderation that sometimes + corrected his wild extravagancies. Julia applied herself to + letters and philosophy, with some success, and with the most + splendid reputation. She was the patroness of every art, and the + friend of every man of genius. The grateful flattery of the + learned has celebrated her virtues; but, if we may credit the + scandal of ancient history, chastity was very far from being the + most conspicuous virtue of the empress Julia. + + Two sons, Caracalla and Geta, were the fruit of this marriage, + and the destined heirs of the empire. The fond hopes of the + father, and of the Roman world, were soon disappointed by these + vain youths, who displayed the indolent security of hereditary + princes; and a presumption that fortune would supply the place of + merit and application. Without any emulation of virtue or + talents, they discovered, almost from their infancy, a fixed and + implacable antipathy for each other. + + Their aversion, confirmed by years, and fomented by the arts of + their interested favorites, broke out in childish, and gradually + in more serious competitions; and, at length, divided the + theatre, the circus, and the court, into two factions, actuated + by the hopes and fears of their respective leaders. The prudent + emperor endeavored, by every expedient of advice and authority, + to allay this growing animosity. The unhappy discord of his sons + clouded all his prospects, and threatened to overturn a throne + raised with so much labor, cemented with so much blood, and + guarded with every defence of arms and treasure. With an + impartial hand he maintained between them an exact balance of + favor, conferred on both the rank of Augustus, with the revered + name of Antoninus; and for the first time the Roman world beheld + three emperors. Yet even this equal conduct served only to + inflame the contest, whilst the fierce Caracalla asserted the + right of primogeniture, and the milder Geta courted the + affections of the people and the soldiers. In the anguish of a + disappointed father, Severus foretold that the weaker of his sons + would fall a sacrifice to the stronger; who, in his turn, would + be ruined by his own vices. + + In these circumstances the intelligence of a war in Britain, and + of an invasion of the province by the barbarians of the North, + was received with pleasure by Severus. Though the vigilance of + his lieutenants might have been sufficient to repel the distant + enemy, he resolved to embrace the honorable pretext of + withdrawing his sons from the luxury of Rome, which enervated + their minds and irritated their passions; and of inuring their + youth to the toils of war and government. Notwithstanding his + advanced age, (for he was above threescore,) and his gout, which + obliged him to be carried in a litter, he transported himself in + person into that remote island, attended by his two sons, his + whole court, and a formidable army. He immediately passed the + walls of Hadrian and Antoninus, and entered the enemy’s country, + with a design of completing the long attempted conquest of + Britain. He penetrated to the northern extremity of the island, + without meeting an enemy. But the concealed ambuscades of the + Caledonians, who hung unseen on the rear and flanks of his army, + the coldness of the climate and the severity of a winter march + across the hills and morasses of Scotland, are reported to have + cost the Romans above fifty thousand men. The Caledonians at + length yielded to the powerful and obstinate attack, sued for + peace, and surrendered a part of their arms, and a large tract of + territory. But their apparent submission lasted no longer than + the present terror. As soon as the Roman legions had retired, + they resumed their hostile independence. Their restless spirit + provoked Severus to send a new army into Caledonia, with the most + bloody orders, not to subdue, but to extirpate the natives. They + were saved by the death of their haughty enemy. + + This Caledonian war, neither marked by decisive events, nor + attended with any important consequences, would ill deserve our + attention; but it is supposed, not without a considerable degree + of probability, that the invasion of Severus is connected with + the most shining period of the British history or fable. Fingal, + whose fame, with that of his heroes and bards, has been revived + in our language by a recent publication, is said to have + commanded the Caledonians in that memorable juncture, to have + eluded the power of Severus, and to have obtained a signal + victory on the banks of the Carun, in which the son of _the King + of the World_, Caracul, fled from his arms along the fields of + his pride. Something of a doubtful mist still hangs over these + Highland traditions; nor can it be entirely dispelled by the most + ingenious researches of modern criticism; but if we could, with + safety, indulge the pleasing supposition, that Fingal lived, and + that Ossian sung, the striking contrast of the situation and + manners of the contending nations might amuse a philosophic mind. + The parallel would be little to the advantage of the more + civilized people, if we compared the unrelenting revenge of + Severus with the generous clemency of Fingal; the timid and + brutal cruelty of Caracalla with the bravery, the tenderness, the + elegant genius of Ossian; the mercenary chiefs, who, from motives + of fear or interest, served under the imperial standard, with the + free-born warriors who started to arms at the voice of the king + of Morven; if, in a word, we contemplated the untutored + Caledonians, glowing with the warm virtues of nature, and the + degenerate Romans, polluted with the mean vices of wealth and + slavery. + + The declining health and last illness of Severus inflamed the + wild ambition and black passions of Caracalla’s soul. Impatient + of any delay or division of empire, he attempted, more than once, + to shorten the small remainder of his father’s days, and + endeavored, but without success, to excite a mutiny among the + troops. The old emperor had often censured the misguided lenity + of Marcus, who, by a single act of justice, might have saved the + Romans from the tyranny of his worthless son. Placed in the same + situation, he experienced how easily the rigor of a judge + dissolves away in the tenderness of a parent. He deliberated, he + threatened, but he could not punish; and this last and only + instance of mercy was more fatal to the empire than a long series + of cruelty. The disorder of his mind irritated the pains of his + body; he wished impatiently for death, and hastened the instant + of it by his impatience. He expired at York in the sixty-fifth + year of his life, and in the eighteenth of a glorious and + successful reign. In his last moments he recommended concord to + his sons, and his sons to the army. The salutary advice never + reached the heart, or even the understanding, of the impetuous + youths; but the more obedient troops, mindful of their oath of + allegiance, and of the authority of their deceased master, + resisted the solicitations of Caracalla, and proclaimed both + brothers emperors of Rome. The new princes soon left the + Caledonians in peace, returned to the capital, celebrated their + father’s funeral with divine honors, and were cheerfully + acknowledged as lawful sovereigns, by the senate, the people, and + the provinces. Some preeminence of rank seems to have been + allowed to the elder brother; but they both administered the + empire with equal and independent power. + + Such a divided form of government would have proved a source of + discord between the most affectionate brothers. It was impossible + that it could long subsist between two implacable enemies, who + neither desired nor could trust a reconciliation. It was visible + that one only could reign, and that the other must fall; and each + of them, judging of his rival’s designs by his own, guarded his + life with the most jealous vigilance from the repeated attacks of + poison or the sword. Their rapid journey through Gaul and Italy, + during which they never ate at the same table, or slept in the + same house, displayed to the provinces the odious spectacle of + fraternal discord. On their arrival at Rome, they immediately + divided the vast extent of the imperial palace. No communication + was allowed between their apartments; the doors and passages were + diligently fortified, and guards posted and relieved with the + same strictness as in a besieged place. The emperors met only in + public, in the presence of their afflicted mother; and each + surrounded by a numerous train of armed followers. Even on these + occasions of ceremony, the dissimulation of courts could ill + disguise the rancor of their hearts. + + This latent civil war already distracted the whole government, + when a scheme was suggested that seemed of mutual benefit to the + hostile brothers. It was proposed, that since it was impossible + to reconcile their minds, they should separate their interest, + and divide the empire between them. The conditions of the treaty + were already drawn with some accuracy. It was agreed that + Caracalla, as the elder brother should remain in possession of + Europe and the western Africa; and that he should relinquish the + sovereignty of Asia and Egypt to Geta, who might fix his + residence at Alexandria or Antioch, cities little inferior to + Rome itself in wealth and greatness; that numerous armies should + be constantly encamped on either side of the Thracian Bosphorus, + to guard the frontiers of the rival monarchies; and that the + senators of European extraction should acknowledge the sovereign + of Rome, whilst the natives of Asia followed the emperor of the + East. The tears of the empress Julia interrupted the negotiation, + the first idea of which had filled every Roman breast with + surprise and indignation. The mighty mass of conquest was so + intimately united by the hand of time and policy, that it + required the most forcible violence to rend it asunder. The + Romans had reason to dread, that the disjointed members would + soon be reduced by a civil war under the dominion of one master; + but if the separation was permanent, the division of the + provinces must terminate in the dissolution of an empire whose + unity had hitherto remained inviolate. + + Had the treaty been carried into execution, the sovereign of + Europe might soon have been the conqueror of Asia; but Caracalla + obtained an easier, though a more guilty, victory. He artfully + listened to his mother’s entreaties, and consented to meet his + brother in her apartment, on terms of peace and reconciliation. + In the midst of their conversation, some centurions, who had + contrived to conceal themselves, rushed with drawn swords upon + the unfortunate Geta. His distracted mother strove to protect him + in her arms; but, in the unavailing struggle, she was wounded in + the hand, and covered with the blood of her younger son, while + she saw the elder animating and assisting the fury of the + assassins. As soon as the deed was perpetrated, Caracalla, with + hasty steps, and horror in his countenance, ran towards the + Prætorian camp, as his only refuge, and threw himself on the + ground before the statues of the tutelar deities. The soldiers + attempted to raise and comfort him. In broken and disordered + words he informed them of his imminent danger, and fortunate + escape; insinuating that he had prevented the designs of his + enemy, and declared his resolution to live and die with his + faithful troops. Geta had been the favorite of the soldiers; but + complaint was useless, revenge was dangerous, and they still + reverenced the son of Severus. Their discontent died away in idle + murmurs, and Caracalla soon convinced them of the justice of his + cause, by distributing in one lavish donative the accumulated + treasures of his father’s reign. The real _sentiments_ of the + soldiers alone were of importance to his power or safety. Their + declaration in his favor commanded the dutiful _professions_ of + the senate. The obsequious assembly was always prepared to ratify + the decision of fortune; * but as Caracalla wished to assuage the + first emotions of public indignation, the name of Geta was + mentioned with decency, and he received the funeral honors of a + Roman emperor. Posterity, in pity to his misfortune, has cast a + veil over his vices. We consider that young prince as the + innocent victim of his brother’s ambition, without recollecting + that he himself wanted power, rather than inclination, to + consummate the same attempts of revenge and murder. + + The crime went not unpunished. Neither business, nor pleasure, + nor flattery, could defend Caracalla from the stings of a guilty + conscience; and he confessed, in the anguish of a tortured mind, + that his disordered fancy often beheld the angry forms of his + father and his brother rising into life, to threaten and upbraid + him. The consciousness of his crime should have induced him to + convince mankind, by the virtues of his reign, that the bloody + deed had been the involuntary effect of fatal necessity. But the + repentance of Caracalla only prompted him to remove from the + world whatever could remind him of his guilt, or recall the + memory of his murdered brother. On his return from the senate to + the palace, he found his mother in the company of several noble + matrons, weeping over the untimely fate of her younger son. The + jealous emperor threatened them with instant death; the sentence + was executed against Fadilla, the last remaining daughter of the + emperor Marcus; * and even the afflicted Julia was obliged to + silence her lamentations, to suppress her sighs, and to receive + the assassin with smiles of joy and approbation. It was computed + that, under the vague appellation of the friends of Geta, above + twenty thousand persons of both sexes suffered death. His guards + and freedmen, the ministers of his serious business, and the + companions of his looser hours, those who by his interest had + been promoted to any commands in the army or provinces, with the + long connected chain of their dependants, were included in the + proscription; which endeavored to reach every one who had + maintained the smallest correspondence with Geta, who lamented + his death, or who even mentioned his name. Helvius Pertinax, son + to the prince of that name, lost his life by an unseasonable + witticism. It was a sufficient crime of Thrasea Priscus to be + descended from a family in which the love of liberty seemed an + hereditary quality. The particular causes of calumny and + suspicion were at length exhausted; and when a senator was + accused of being a secret enemy to the government, the emperor + was satisfied with the general proof that he was a man of + property and virtue. From this well-grounded principle he + frequently drew the most bloody inferences. + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part II. + + The execution of so many innocent citizens was bewailed by the + secret tears of their friends and families. The death of + Papinian, the Prætorian Præfect, was lamented as a public + calamity. During the last seven years of Severus, he had + exercised the most important offices of the state, and, by his + salutary influence, guided the emperor’s steps in the paths of + justice and moderation. In full assurance of his virtue and + abilities, Severus, on his death-bed, had conjured him to watch + over the prosperity and union of the Imperial family. The honest + labors of Papinian served only to inflame the hatred which + Caracalla had already conceived against his father’s minister. + After the murder of Geta, the Præfect was commanded to exert the + powers of his skill and eloquence in a studied apology for that + atrocious deed. The philosophic Seneca had condescended to + compose a similar epistle to the senate, in the name of the son + and assassin of Agrippina. “That it was easier to commit than to + justify a parricide,” was the glorious reply of Papinian; who did + not hesitate between the loss of life and that of honor. Such + intrepid virtue, which had escaped pure and unsullied from the + intrigues of courts, the habits of business, and the arts of his + profession, reflects more lustre on the memory of Papinian, than + all his great employments, his numerous writings, and the + superior reputation as a lawyer, which he has preserved through + every age of the Roman jurisprudence. + + It had hitherto been the peculiar felicity of the Romans, and in + the worst of times the consolation, that the virtue of the + emperors was active, and their vice indolent. Augustus, Trajan, + Hadrian, and Marcus visited their extensive dominions in person, + and their progress was marked by acts of wisdom and beneficence. + The tyranny of Tiberius, Nero, and Domitian, who resided almost + constantly at Rome, or in the adjacent was confined to the + senatorial and equestrian orders. But Caracalla was the common + enemy of mankind. He left capital (and he never returned to it) + about a year after the murder of Geta. The rest of his reign was + spent in the several provinces of the empire, particularly those + of the East, and every province was by turns the scene of his + rapine and cruelty. The senators, compelled by fear to attend his + capricious motions, were obliged to provide daily entertainments + at an immense expense, which he abandoned with contempt to his + guards; and to erect, in every city, magnificent palaces and + theatres, which he either disdained to visit, or ordered + immediately thrown down. The most wealthy families were ruined by + partial fines and confiscations, and the great body of his + subjects oppressed by ingenious and aggravated taxes. In the + midst of peace, and upon the slightest provocation, he issued his + commands, at Alexandria, in Egypt for a general massacre. From a + secure post in the temple of Serapis, he viewed and directed the + slaughter of many thousand citizens, as well as strangers, + without distinguishing the number or the crime of the sufferers; + since as he coolly informed the senate, _all_the Alexandrians, + those who had perished, and those who had escaped, were alike + guilty. + + The wise instructions of Severus never made any lasting + impression on the mind of his son, who, although not destitute of + imagination and eloquence, was equally devoid of judgment and + humanity. One dangerous maxim, worthy of a tyrant, was remembered + and abused by Caracalla. “To secure the affections of the army, + and to esteem the rest of his subjects as of little moment.” But + the liberality of the father had been restrained by prudence, and + his indulgence to the troops was tempered by firmness and + authority. The careless profusion of the son was the policy of + one reign, and the inevitable ruin both of the army and of the + empire. The vigor of the soldiers, instead of being confirmed by + the severe discipline of camps, melted away in the luxury of + cities. The excessive increase of their pay and donatives + exhausted the state to enrich the military order, whose modesty + in peace, and service in war, is best secured by an honorable + poverty. The demeanor of Caracalla was haughty and full of pride; + but with the troops he forgot even the proper dignity of his + rank, encouraged their insolent familiarity, and, neglecting the + essential duties of a general, affected to imitate the dress and + manners of a common soldier. + + It was impossible that such a character, and such conduct as that + of Caracalla, could inspire either love or esteem; but as long as + his vices were beneficial to the armies, he was secure from the + danger of rebellion. A secret conspiracy, provoked by his own + jealousy, was fatal to the tyrant. The Prætorian præfecture was + divided between two ministers. The military department was + intrusted to Adventus, an experienced rather than able soldier; + and the civil affairs were transacted by Opilius Macrinus, who, + by his dexterity in business, had raised himself, with a fair + character, to that high office. But his favor varied with the + caprice of the emperor, and his life might depend on the + slightest suspicion, or the most casual circumstance. Malice or + fanaticism had suggested to an African, deeply skilled in the + knowledge of futurity, a very dangerous prediction, that Macrinus + and his son were destined to reign over the empire. The report + was soon diffused through the province; and when the man was sent + in chains to Rome, he still asserted, in the presence of the + præfect of the city, the faith of his prophecy. That magistrate, + who had received the most pressing instructions to inform himself + of the _successors_ of Caracalla, immediately communicated the + examination of the African to the Imperial court, which at that + time resided in Syria. But, notwithstanding the diligence of the + public messengers, a friend of Macrinus found means to apprise + him of the approaching danger. The emperor received the letters + from Rome; and as he was then engaged in the conduct of a chariot + race, he delivered them unopened to the Prætorian Præfect, + directing him to despatch the ordinary affairs, and to report the + more important business that might be contained in them. Macrinus + read his fate, and resolved to prevent it. He inflamed the + discontents of some inferior officers, and employed the hand of + Martialis, a desperate soldier, who had been refused the rank of + centurion. The devotion of Caracalla prompted him to make a + pilgrimage from Edessa to the celebrated temple of the Moon at + Carrhæ. * He was attended by a body of cavalry: but having + stopped on the road for some necessary occasion, his guards + preserved a respectful distance, and Martialis, approaching his + person under a presence of duty, stabbed him with a dagger. The + bold assassin was instantly killed by a Scythian archer of the + Imperial guard. Such was the end of a monster whose life + disgraced human nature, and whose reign accused the patience of + the Romans. The grateful soldiers forgot his vices, remembered + only his partial liberality, and obliged the senate to prostitute + their own dignity and that of religion, by granting him a place + among the gods. Whilst he was upon earth, Alexander the Great was + the only hero whom this god deemed worthy his admiration. He + assumed the name and ensigns of Alexander, formed a Macedonian + phalanx of guards, persecuted the disciples of Aristotle, and + displayed, with a puerile enthusiasm, the only sentiment by which + he discovered any regard for virtue or glory. We can easily + conceive, that after the battle of Narva, and the conquest of + Poland, Charles XII. (though he still wanted the more elegant + accomplishments of the son of Philip) might boast of having + rivalled his valor and magnanimity; but in no one action of his + life did Caracalla express the faintest resemblance of the + Macedonian hero, except in the murder of a great number of his + own and of his father’s friends. + + After the extinction of the house of Severus, the Roman world + remained three days without a master. The choice of the army (for + the authority of a distant and feeble senate was little regarded) + hung in anxious suspense, as no candidate presented himself whose + distinguished birth and merit could engage their attachment and + unite their suffrages. The decisive weight of the Prætorian + guards elevated the hopes of their præfects, and these powerful + ministers began to assert their _legal_ claim to fill the vacancy + of the Imperial throne. Adventus, however, the senior præfect, + conscious of his age and infirmities, of his small reputation, + and his smaller abilities, resigned the dangerous honor to the + crafty ambition of his colleague Macrinus, whose well-dissembled + grief removed all suspicion of his being accessary to his + master’s death. The troops neither loved nor esteemed his + character. They cast their eyes around in search of a competitor, + and at last yielded with reluctance to his promises of unbounded + liberality and indulgence. A short time after his accession, he + conferred on his son Diadumenianus, at the age of only ten years, + the Imperial title, and the popular name of Antoninus. The + beautiful figure of the youth, assisted by an additional + donative, for which the ceremony furnished a pretext, might + attract, it was hoped, the favor of the army, and secure the + doubtful throne of Macrinus. + + The authority of the new sovereign had been ratified by the + cheerful submission of the senate and provinces. They exulted in + their unexpected deliverance from a hated tyrant, and it seemed + of little consequence to examine into the virtues of the + successor of Caracalla. But as soon as the first transports of + joy and surprise had subsided, they began to scrutinize the + merits of Macrinus with a critical severity, and to arraign the + hasty choice of the army. It had hitherto been considered as a + fundamental maxim of the constitution, that the emperor must be + always chosen in the senate, and the sovereign power, no longer + exercised by the whole body, was always delegated to one of its + members. But Macrinus was not a senator. The sudden elevation of + the Prætorian præfects betrayed the meanness of their origin; and + the equestrian order was still in possession of that great + office, which commanded with arbitrary sway the lives and + fortunes of the senate. A murmur of indignation was heard, that a + man, whose obscure extraction had never been illustrated by any + signal service, should dare to invest himself with the purple, + instead of bestowing it on some distinguished senator, equal in + birth and dignity to the splendor of the Imperial station. As + soon as the character of Macrinus was surveyed by the sharp eye + of discontent, some vices, and many defects, were easily + discovered. The choice of his ministers was in many instances + justly censured, and the dissatisfied people, with their usual + candor, accused at once his indolent tameness and his excessive + severity. + + His rash ambition had climbed a height where it was difficult to + stand with firmness, and impossible to fall without instant + destruction. Trained in the arts of courts and the forms of civil + business, he trembled in the presence of the fierce and + undisciplined multitude, over whom he had assumed the command; + his military talents were despised, and his personal courage + suspected; a whisper that circulated in the camp, disclosed the + fatal secret of the conspiracy against the late emperor, + aggravated the guilt of murder by the baseness of hypocrisy, and + heightened contempt by detestation. To alienate the soldiers, and + to provoke inevitable ruin, the character of a reformer was only + wanting; and such was the peculiar hardship of his fate, that + Macrinus was compelled to exercise that invidious office. The + prodigality of Caracalla had left behind it a long train of ruin + and disorder; and if that worthless tyrant had been capable of + reflecting on the sure consequences of his own conduct, he would + perhaps have enjoyed the dark prospect of the distress and + calamities which he bequeathed to his successors. + + In the management of this necessary reformation, Macrinus + proceeded with a cautious prudence, which would have restored + health and vigor to the Roman army in an easy and almost + imperceptible manner. To the soldiers already engaged in the + service, he was constrained to leave the dangerous privileges and + extravagant pay given by Caracalla; but the new recruits were + received on the more moderate though liberal establishment of + Severus, and gradually formed to modesty and obedience. One fatal + error destroyed the salutary effects of this judicious plan. The + numerous army, assembled in the East by the late emperor, instead + of being immediately dispersed by Macrinus through the several + provinces, was suffered to remain united in Syria, during the + winter that followed his elevation. In the luxurious idleness of + their quarters, the troops viewed their strength and numbers, + communicated their complaints, and revolved in their minds the + advantages of another revolution. The veterans, instead of being + flattered by the advantageous distinction, were alarmed by the + first steps of the emperor, which they considered as the presage + of his future intentions. The recruits, with sullen reluctance, + entered on a service, whose labors were increased while its + rewards were diminished by a covetous and unwarlike sovereign. + The murmurs of the army swelled with impunity into seditious + clamors; and the partial mutinies betrayed a spirit of discontent + and disaffection that waited only for the slightest occasion to + break out on every side into a general rebellion. To minds thus + disposed, the occasion soon presented itself. + + The empress Julia had experienced all the vicissitudes of + fortune. From an humble station she had been raised to greatness, + only to taste the superior bitterness of an exalted rank. She was + doomed to weep over the death of one of her sons, and over the + life of the other. The cruel fate of Caracalla, though her good + sense must have long taught her to expect it, awakened the + feelings of a mother and of an empress. Notwithstanding the + respectful civility expressed by the usurper towards the widow of + Severus, she descended with a painful struggle into the condition + of a subject, and soon withdrew herself, by a voluntary death, + from the anxious and humiliating dependence. * Julia Mæsa, her + sister, was ordered to leave the court and Antioch. She retired + to Emesa with an immense fortune, the fruit of twenty years’ + favor accompanied by her two daughters, Soæmias and Mamæ, each of + whom was a widow, and each had an only son. Bassianus, for that + was the name of the son of Soæmias, was consecrated to the + honorable ministry of high priest of the Sun; and this holy + vocation, embraced either from prudence or superstition, + contributed to raise the Syrian youth to the empire of Rome. A + numerous body of troops was stationed at Emesa; and as the severe + discipline of Macrinus had constrained them to pass the winter + encamped, they were eager to revenge the cruelty of such + unaccustomed hardships. The soldiers, who resorted in crowds to + the temple of the Sun, beheld with veneration and delight the + elegant dress and figure of the young pontiff; they recognized, + or they thought that they recognized, the features of Caracalla, + whose memory they now adored. The artful Mæsa saw and cherished + their rising partiality, and readily sacrificing her daughter’s + reputation to the fortune of her grandson, she insinuated that + Bassianus was the natural son of their murdered sovereign. The + sums distributed by her emissaries with a lavish hand silenced + every objection, and the profusion sufficiently proved the + affinity, or at least the resemblance, of Bassianus with the + great original. The young Antoninus (for he had assumed and + polluted that respectable name) was declared emperor by the + troops of Emesa, asserted his hereditary right, and called aloud + on the armies to follow the standard of a young and liberal + prince, who had taken up arms to revenge his father’s death and + the oppression of the military order. + + Whilst a conspiracy of women and eunuchs was concerted with + prudence, and conducted with rapid vigor, Macrinus, who, by a + decisive motion, might have crushed his infant enemy, floated + between the opposite extremes of terror and security, which alike + fixed him inactive at Antioch. A spirit of rebellion diffused + itself through all the camps and garrisons of Syria, successive + detachments murdered their officers, and joined the party of the + rebels; and the tardy restitution of military pay and privileges + was imputed to the acknowledged weakness of Macrinus. At length + he marched out of Antioch, to meet the increasing and zealous + army of the young pretender. His own troops seemed to take the + field with faintness and reluctance; but, in the heat of the + battle, the Prætorian guards, almost by an involuntary impulse, + asserted the superiority of their valor and discipline. The rebel + ranks were broken; when the mother and grandmother of the Syrian + prince, who, according to their eastern custom, had attended the + army, threw themselves from their covered chariots, and, by + exciting the compassion of the soldiers, endeavored to animate + their drooping courage. Antoninus himself, who, in the rest of + his life, never acted like a man, in this important crisis of his + fate, approved himself a hero, mounted his horse, and, at the + head of his rallied troops, charged sword in hand among the + thickest of the enemy; whilst the eunuch Gannys, * whose + occupations had been confined to female cares and the soft luxury + of Asia, displayed the talents of an able and experienced + general. The battle still raged with doubtful violence, and + Macrinus might have obtained the victory, had he not betrayed his + own cause by a shameful and precipitate flight. His cowardice + served only to protract his life a few days, and to stamp + deserved ignominy on his misfortunes. It is scarcely necessary to + add, that his son Diadumenianus was involved in the same fate. As + soon as the stubborn Prætorians could be convinced that they + fought for a prince who had basely deserted them, they + surrendered to the conqueror: the contending parties of the Roman + army, mingling tears of joy and tenderness, united under the + banners of the imagined son of Caracalla, and the East + acknowledged with pleasure the first emperor of Asiatic + extraction. + + The letters of Macrinus had condescended to inform the senate of + the slight disturbance occasioned by an impostor in Syria, and a + decree immediately passed, declaring the rebel and his family + public enemies; with a promise of pardon, however, to such of his + deluded adherents as should merit it by an immediate return to + their duty. During the twenty days that elapsed from the + declaration of the victory of Antoninus (for in so short an + interval was the fate of the Roman world decided,) the capital + and the provinces, more especially those of the East, were + distracted with hopes and fears, agitated with tumult, and + stained with a useless effusion of civil blood, since whosoever + of the rivals prevailed in Syria must reign over the empire. The + specious letters in which the young conqueror announced his + victory to the obedient senate were filled with professions of + virtue and moderation; the shining examples of Marcus and + Augustus, he should ever consider as the great rule of his + administration; and he affected to dwell with pride on the + striking resemblance of his own age and fortunes with those of + Augustus, who in the earliest youth had revenged, by a successful + war, the murder of his father. By adopting the style of Marcus + Aurelius Antoninus, son of Antoninus and grandson of Severus, he + tacitly asserted his hereditary claim to the empire; but, by + assuming the tribunitian and proconsular powers before they had + been conferred on him by a decree of the senate, he offended the + delicacy of Roman prejudice. This new and injudicious violation + of the constitution was probably dictated either by the ignorance + of his Syrian courtiers, or the fierce disdain of his military + followers. + + As the attention of the new emperor was diverted by the most + trifling amusements, he wasted many months in his luxurious + progress from Syria to Italy, passed at Nicomedia his first + winter after his victory, and deferred till the ensuing summer + his triumphal entry into the capital. A faithful picture, + however, which preceded his arrival, and was placed by his + immediate order over the altar of Victory in the senate house, + conveyed to the Romans the just but unworthy resemblance of his + person and manners. He was drawn in his sacerdotal robes of silk + and gold, after the loose flowing fashion of the Medes and + Phœnicians; his head was covered with a lofty tiara, his numerous + collars and bracelets were adorned with gems of an inestimable + value. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his cheeks + painted with an artificial red and white. The grave senators + confessed with a sigh, that, after having long experienced the + stern tyranny of their own countrymen, Rome was at length humbled + beneath the effeminate luxury of Oriental despotism. + + The Sun was worshipped at Emesa, under the name of Elagabalus, + and under the form of a black conical stone, which, as it was + universally believed, had fallen from heaven on that sacred + place. To this protecting deity, Antoninus, not without some + reason, ascribed his elevation to the throne. The display of + superstitious gratitude was the only serious business of his + reign. The triumph of the god of Emesa over all the religions of + the earth, was the great object of his zeal and vanity; and the + appellation of Elagabalus (for he presumed as pontiff and + favorite to adopt that sacred name) was dearer to him than all + the titles of Imperial greatness. In a solemn procession through + the streets of Rome, the way was strewed with gold dust; the + black stone, set in precious gems, was placed on a chariot drawn + by six milk-white horses richly caparisoned. The pious emperor + held the reins, and, supported by his ministers, moved slowly + backwards, that he might perpetually enjoy the felicity of the + divine presence. In a magnificent temple raised on the Palatine + Mount, the sacrifices of the god Elagabalus were celebrated with + every circumstance of cost and solemnity. The richest wines, the + most extraordinary victims, and the rarest aromatics, were + profusely consumed on his altar. Around the altar, a chorus of + Syrian damsels performed their lascivious dances to the sound of + barbarian music, whilst the gravest personages of the state and + army, clothed in long Phœnician tunics, officiated in the meanest + functions, with affected zeal and secret indignation. + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part III. + + To this temple, as to the common centre of religious worship, the + Imperial fanatic attempted to remove the Ancilia, the Palladium, + and all the sacred pledges of the faith of Numa. A crowd of + inferior deities attended in various stations the majesty of the + god of Emesa; but his court was still imperfect, till a female of + distinguished rank was admitted to his bed. Pallas had been first + chosen for his consort; but as it was dreaded lest her warlike + terrors might affright the soft delicacy of a Syrian deity, the + Moon, adored by the Africans under the name of Astarte, was + deemed a more suitable companion for the Sun. Her image, with the + rich offerings of her temple as a marriage portion, was + transported with solemn pomp from Carthage to Rome, and the day + of these mystic nuptials was a general festival in the capital + and throughout the empire. + + A rational voluptuary adheres with invariable respect to the + temperate dictates of nature, and improves the gratifications of + sense by social intercourse, endearing connections, and the soft + coloring of taste and the imagination. But Elagabalus, (I speak + of the emperor of that name,) corrupted by his youth, his + country, and his fortune, abandoned himself to the grossest + pleasures with ungoverned fury, and soon found disgust and + satiety in the midst of his enjoyments. The inflammatory powers + of art were summoned to his aid: the confused multitude of women, + of wines, and of dishes, and the studied variety of attitude and + sauces, served to revive his languid appetites. New terms and new + inventions in these sciences, the only ones cultivated and + patronized by the monarch, signalized his reign, and transmitted + his infamy to succeeding times. A capricious prodigality supplied + the want of taste and elegance; and whilst Elagabalus lavished + away the treasures of his people in the wildest extravagance, his + own voice and that of his flatterers applauded a spirit of + magnificence unknown to the tameness of his predecessors. To + confound the order of seasons and climates, to sport with the + passions and prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law + of nature and decency, were in the number of his most delicious + amusements. A long train of concubines, and a rapid succession of + wives, among whom was a vestal virgin, ravished by force from her + sacred asylum, were insufficient to satisfy the impotence of his + passions. The master of the Roman world affected to copy the + dress and manners of the female sex, preferred the distaff to the + sceptre, and dishonored the principal dignities of the empire by + distributing them among his numerous lovers; one of whom was + publicly invested with the title and authority of the emperor’s, + or, as he more properly styled himself, of the empress’s husband. + + It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have + been adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. Yet, confining + ourselves to the public scenes displayed before the Roman people, + and attested by grave and contemporary historians, their + inexpressible infamy surpasses that of any other age or country. + The license of an eastern monarch is secluded from the eye of + curiosity by the inaccessible walls of his seraglio. The + sentiments of honor and gallantry have introduced a refinement of + pleasure, a regard for decency, and a respect for the public + opinion, into the modern courts of Europe; * but the corrupt and + opulent nobles of Rome gratified every vice that could be + collected from the mighty conflux of nations and manners. Secure + of impunity, careless of censure, they lived without restraint in + the patient and humble society of their slaves and parasites. The + emperor, in his turn, viewing every rank of his subjects with the + same contemptuous indifference, asserted without control his + sovereign privilege of lust and luxury. + + The most worthless of mankind are not afraid to condemn in others + the same disorders which they allow in themselves; and can + readily discover some nice difference of age, character, or + station, to justify the partial distinction. The licentious + soldiers, who had raised to the throne the dissolute son of + Caracalla, blushed at their ignominious choice, and turned with + disgust from that monster, to contemplate with pleasure the + opening virtues of his cousin Alexander, the son of Mamæa. The + crafty Mæsa, sensible that her grandson Elagabalus must + inevitably destroy himself by his own vices, had provided another + and surer support of her family. Embracing a favorable moment of + fondness and devotion, she had persuaded the young emperor to + adopt Alexander, and to invest him with the title of Cæsar, that + his own divine occupations might be no longer interrupted by the + care of the earth. In the second rank that amiable prince soon + acquired the affections of the public, and excited the tyrant’s + jealousy, who resolved to terminate the dangerous competition, + either by corrupting the manners, or by taking away the life, of + his rival. His arts proved unsuccessful; his vain designs were + constantly discovered by his own loquacious folly, and + disappointed by those virtuous and faithful servants whom the + prudence of Mamæa had placed about the person of her son. In a + hasty sally of passion, Elagabalus resolved to execute by force + what he had been unable to compass by fraud, and by a despotic + sentence degraded his cousin from the rank and honors of Cæsar. + The message was received in the senate with silence, and in the + camp with fury. The Prætorian guards swore to protect Alexander, + and to revenge the dishonored majesty of the throne. The tears + and promises of the trembling Elagabalus, who only begged them to + spare his life, and to leave him in the possession of his beloved + Hierocles, diverted their just indignation; and they contented + themselves with empowering their præfects to watch over the + safety of Alexander, and the conduct of the emperor. + + It was impossible that such a reconciliation should last, or that + even the mean soul of Elagabalus could hold an empire on such + humiliating terms of dependence. He soon attempted, by a + dangerous experiment, to try the temper of the soldiers. The + report of the death of Alexander, and the natural suspicion that + he had been murdered, inflamed their passions into fury, and the + tempest of the camp could only be appeased by the presence and + authority of the popular youth. Provoked at this new instance of + their affection for his cousin, and their contempt for his + person, the emperor ventured to punish some of the leaders of the + mutiny. His unseasonable severity proved instantly fatal to his + minions, his mother, and himself. Elagabalus was massacred by the + indignant Prætorians, his mutilated corpse dragged through the + streets of the city, and thrown into the Tiber. His memory was + branded with eternal infamy by the senate; the justice of whose + decree has been ratified by posterity. + + In the room of Elagabalus, his cousin Alexander was raised to the + throne by the Prætorian guards. His relation to the family of + Severus, whose name he assumed, was the same as that of his + predecessor; his virtue and his danger had already endeared him + to the Romans, and the eager liberality of the senate conferred + upon him, in one day, the various titles and powers of the + Imperial dignity. But as Alexander was a modest and dutiful + youth, of only seventeen years of age, the reins of government + were in the hands of two women, of his mother, Mamæa, and of + Mæsa, his grandmother. After the death of the latter, who + survived but a short time the elevation of Alexander, Mamæa + remained the sole regent of her son and of the empire. + + In every age and country, the wiser, or at least the stronger, of + the two sexes, has usurped the powers of the state, and confined + the other to the cares and pleasures of domestic life. In + hereditary monarchies, however, and especially in those of modern + Europe, the gallant spirit of chivalry, and the law of + succession, have accustomed us to allow a singular exception; and + a woman is often acknowledged the absolute sovereign of a great + kingdom, in which she would be deemed incapable of exercising the + smallest employment, civil or military. But as the Roman emperors + were still considered as the generals and magistrates of the + republic, their wives and mothers, although distinguished by the + name of Augusta, were never associated to their personal honors; + and a female reign would have appeared an inexpiable prodigy in + the eyes of those primitive Romans, who married without love, or + loved without delicacy and respect. The haughty Agrippina + aspired, indeed, to share the honors of the empire which she had + conferred on her son; but her mad ambition, detested by every + citizen who felt for the dignity of Rome, was disappointed by the + artful firmness of Seneca and Burrhus. The good sense, or the + indifference, of succeeding princes, restrained them from + offending the prejudices of their subjects; and it was reserved + for the profligate Elagabalus to discharge the acts of the senate + with the name of his mother Soæmias, who was placed by the side + of the consuls, and subscribed, as a regular member, the decrees + of the legislative assembly. Her more prudent sister, Mamæa, + declined the useless and odious prerogative, and a solemn law was + enacted, excluding women forever from the senate, and devoting to + the infernal gods the head of the wretch by whom this sanction + should be violated. The substance, not the pageantry, of power, + was the object of Mamæa’s manly ambition. She maintained an + absolute and lasting empire over the mind of her son, and in his + affection the mother could not brook a rival. Alexander, with her + consent, married the daughter of a patrician; but his respect for + his father-in-law, and love for the empress, were inconsistent + with the tenderness of interest of Mamæa. The patrician was + executed on the ready accusation of treason, and the wife of + Alexander driven with ignominy from the palace, and banished into + Africa. + + Notwithstanding this act of jealous cruelty, as well as some + instances of avarice, with which Mamæa is charged, the general + tenor of her administration was equally for the benefit of her + son and of the empire. With the approbation of the senate, she + chose sixteen of the wisest and most virtuous senators as a + perpetual council of state, before whom every public business of + moment was debated and determined. The celebrated Ulpian, equally + distinguished by his knowledge of, and his respect for, the laws + of Rome, was at their head; and the prudent firmness of this + aristocracy restored order and authority to the government. As + soon as they had purged the city from foreign superstition and + luxury, the remains of the capricious tyranny of Elagabalus, they + applied themselves to remove his worthless creatures from every + department of the public administration, and to supply their + places with men of virtue and ability. Learning, and the love of + justice, became the only recommendations for civil offices; + valor, and the love of discipline, the only qualifications for + military employments. + + But the most important care of Mamæa and her wise counsellors, + was to form the character of the young emperor, on whose personal + qualities the happiness or misery of the Roman world must + ultimately depend. The fortunate soil assisted, and even + prevented, the hand of cultivation. An excellent understanding + soon convinced Alexander of the advantages of virtue, the + pleasure of knowledge, and the necessity of labor. A natural + mildness and moderation of temper preserved him from the assaults + of passion, and the allurements of vice. His unalterable regard + for his mother, and his esteem for the wise Ulpian, guarded his + unexperienced youth from the poison of flattery. * + + The simple journal of his ordinary occupations exhibits a + pleasing picture of an accomplished emperor, and, with some + allowance for the difference of manners, might well deserve the + imitation of modern princes. Alexander rose early: the first + moments of the day were consecrated to private devotion, and his + domestic chapel was filled with the images of those heroes, who, + by improving or reforming human life, had deserved the grateful + reverence of posterity. But as he deemed the service of mankind + the most acceptable worship of the gods, the greatest part of his + morning hours was employed in his council, where he discussed + public affairs, and determined private causes, with a patience + and discretion above his years. The dryness of business was + relieved by the charms of literature; and a portion of time was + always set apart for his favorite studies of poetry, history, and + philosophy. The works of Virgil and Horace, the republics of + Plato and Cicero, formed his taste, enlarged his understanding, + and gave him the noblest ideas of man and government. The + exercises of the body succeeded to those of the mind; and + Alexander, who was tall, active, and robust, surpassed most of + his equals in the gymnastic arts. Refreshed by the use of the + bath and a slight dinner, he resumed, with new vigor, the + business of the day; and, till the hour of supper, the principal + meal of the Romans, he was attended by his secretaries, with whom + he read and answered the multitude of letters, memorials, and + petitions, that must have been addressed to the master of the + greatest part of the world. His table was served with the most + frugal simplicity, and whenever he was at liberty to consult his + own inclination, the company consisted of a few select friends, + men of learning and virtue, amongst whom Ulpian was constantly + invited. Their conversation was familiar and instructive; and the + pauses were occasionally enlivened by the recital of some + pleasing composition, which supplied the place of the dancers, + comedians, and even gladiators, so frequently summoned to the + tables of the rich and luxurious Romans. The dress of Alexander + was plain and modest, his demeanor courteous and affable: at the + proper hours his palace was open to all his subjects, but the + voice of a crier was heard, as in the Eleusinian mysteries, + pronouncing the same salutary admonition: “Let none enter these + holy walls, unless he is conscious of a pure and innocent mind.” + + Such a uniform tenor of life, which left not a moment for vice or + folly, is a better proof of the wisdom and justice of Alexander’s + government, than all the trifling details preserved in the + compilation of Lampridius. Since the accession of Commodus, the + Roman world had experienced, during the term of forty years, the + successive and various vices of four tyrants. From the death of + Elagabalus, it enjoyed an auspicious calm of thirteen years. * + The provinces, relieved from the oppressive taxes invented by + Caracalla and his pretended son, flourished in peace and + prosperity, under the administration of magistrates who were + convinced by experience that to deserve the love of the subjects + was their best and only method of obtaining the favor of their + sovereign. While some gentle restraints were imposed on the + innocent luxury of the Roman people, the price of provisions and + the interest of money, were reduced by the paternal care of + Alexander, whose prudent liberality, without distressing the + industrious, supplied the wants and amusements of the populace. + The dignity, the freedom, the authority of the senate was + restored; and every virtuous senator might approach the person of + the emperor without a fear and without a blush. + + The name of Antoninus, ennobled by the virtues of Pius and + Marcus, had been communicated by adoption to the dissolute Verus, + and by descent to the cruel Commodus. It became the honorable + appellation of the sons of Severus, was bestowed on young + Diadumenianus, and at length prostituted to the infamy of the + high priest of Emesa. Alexander, though pressed by the studied, + and, perhaps, sincere importunity of the senate, nobly refused + the borrowed lustre of a name; whilst in his whole conduct he + labored to restore the glories and felicity of the age of the + genuine Antonines. + + In the civil administration of Alexander, wisdom was enforced by + power, and the people, sensible of the public felicity, repaid + their benefactor with their love and gratitude. There still + remained a greater, a more necessary, but a more difficult + enterprise; the reformation of the military order, whose interest + and temper, confirmed by long impunity, rendered them impatient + of the restraints of discipline, and careless of the blessings of + public tranquillity. In the execution of his design, the emperor + affected to display his love, and to conceal his fear of the + army. The most rigid economy in every other branch of the + administration supplied a fund of gold and silver for the + ordinary pay and the extraordinary rewards of the troops. In + their marches he relaxed the severe obligation of carrying + seventeen days’ provision on their shoulders. Ample magazines + were formed along the public roads, and as soon as they entered + the enemy’s country, a numerous train of mules and camels waited + on their haughty laziness. As Alexander despaired of correcting + the luxury of his soldiers, he attempted, at least, to direct it + to objects of martial pomp and ornament, fine horses, splendid + armor, and shields enriched with silver and gold. He shared + whatever fatigues he was obliged to impose, visited, in person, + the sick and wounded, preserved an exact register of their + services and his own gratitude, and expressed on every occasion, + the warmest regard for a body of men, whose welfare, as he + affected to declare, was so closely connected with that of the + state. By the most gentle arts he labored to inspire the fierce + multitude with a sense of duty, and to restore at least a faint + image of that discipline to which the Romans owed their empire + over so many other nations, as warlike and more powerful than + themselves. But his prudence was vain, his courage fatal, and the + attempt towards a reformation served only to inflame the ills it + was meant to cure. + + The Prætorian guards were attached to the youth of Alexander. + They loved him as a tender pupil, whom they had saved from a + tyrant’s fury, and placed on the Imperial throne. That amiable + prince was sensible of the obligation; but as his gratitude was + restrained within the limits of reason and justice, they soon + were more dissatisfied with the virtues of Alexander, than they + had ever been with the vices of Elagabalus. Their præfect, the + wise Ulpian, was the friend of the laws and of the people; he was + considered as the enemy of the soldiers, and to his pernicious + counsels every scheme of reformation was imputed. Some trifling + accident blew up their discontent into a furious mutiny; and the + civil war raged, during three days, in Rome, whilst the life of + that excellent minister was defended by the grateful people. + Terrified, at length, by the sight of some houses in flames, and + by the threats of a general conflagration, the people yielded + with a sigh, and left the virtuous but unfortunate Ulpian to his + fate. He was pursued into the Imperial palace, and massacred at + the feet of his master, who vainly strove to cover him with the + purple, and to obtain his pardon from the inexorable soldiers. * + Such was the deplorable weakness of government, that the emperor + was unable to revenge his murdered friend and his insulted + dignity, without stooping to the arts of patience and + dissimulation. Epagathus, the principal leader of the mutiny, was + removed from Rome, by the honorable employment of præfect of + Egypt: from that high rank he was gently degraded to the + government of Crete; and when at length, his popularity among the + guards was effaced by time and absence, Alexander ventured to + inflict the tardy but deserved punishment of his crimes. Under + the reign of a just and virtuous prince, the tyranny of the army + threatened with instant death his most faithful ministers, who + were suspected of an intention to correct their intolerable + disorders. The historian Dion Cassius had commanded the Pannonian + legions with the spirit of ancient discipline. Their brethren of + Rome, embracing the common cause of military license, demanded + the head of the reformer. Alexander, however, instead of yielding + to their seditious clamors, showed a just sense of his merit and + services, by appointing him his colleague in the consulship, and + defraying from his own treasury the expense of that vain dignity: + but as was justly apprehended, that if the soldiers beheld him + with the ensigns of his office, they would revenge the insult in + his blood, the nominal first magistrate of the state retired, by + the emperor’s advice, from the city, and spent the greatest part + of his consulship at his villas in Campania. + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part IV. + + The lenity of the emperor confirmed the insolence of the troops; + the legions imitated the example of the guards, and defended + their prerogative of licentiousness with the same furious + obstinacy. The administration of Alexander was an unavailing + struggle against the corruption of his age. In llyricum, in + Mauritania, in Armenia, in Mesopotamia, in Germany, fresh + mutinies perpetually broke out; his officers were murdered, his + authority was insulted, and his life at last sacrificed to the + fierce discontents of the army. One particular fact well deserves + to be recorded, as it illustrates the manners of the troops, and + exhibits a singular instance of their return to a sense of duty + and obedience. Whilst the emperor lay at Antioch, in his Persian + expedition, the particulars of which we shall hereafter relate, + the punishment of some soldiers, who had been discovered in the + baths of women, excited a sedition in the legion to which they + belonged. Alexander ascended his tribunal, and with a modest + firmness represented to the armed multitude the absolute + necessity, as well as his inflexible resolution, of correcting + the vices introduced by his impure predecessor, and of + maintaining the discipline, which could not be relaxed without + the ruin of the Roman name and empire. Their clamors interrupted + his mild expostulation. “Reserve your shout,” said the undaunted + emperor, “till you take the field against the Persians, the + Germans, and the Sarmatians. Be silent in the presence of your + sovereign and benefactor, who bestows upon you the corn, the + clothing, and the money of the provinces. Be silent, or I shall + no longer style you soldiers , but _citizens_, if those indeed + who disclaim the laws of Rome deserve to be ranked among the + meanest of the people.” His menaces inflamed the fury of the + legion, and their brandished arms already threatened his person. + “Your courage,” resumed the intrepid Alexander, “would be more + nobly displayed in the field of battle; _me_ you may destroy, you + cannot intimidate; and the severe justice of the republic would + punish your crime and revenge my death.” The legion still + persisted in clamorous sedition, when the emperor pronounced, + with a loud voice, the decisive sentence, “_Citizens!_ lay down + your arms, and depart in peace to your respective habitations.” + The tempest was instantly appeased: the soldiers, filled with + grief and shame, silently confessed the justice of their + punishment, and the power of discipline, yielded up their arms + and military ensigns, and retired in confusion, not to their + camp, but to the several inns of the city. Alexander enjoyed, + during thirty days, the edifying spectacle of their repentance; + nor did he restore them to their former rank in the army, till he + had punished with death those tribunes whose connivance had + occasioned the mutiny. The grateful legion served the emperor + whilst living, and revenged him when dead. + + The resolutions of the multitude generally depend on a moment; + and the caprice of passion might equally determine the seditious + legion to lay down their arms at the emperor’s feet, or to plunge + them into his breast. Perhaps, if this singular transaction had + been investigated by the penetration of a philosopher, we should + discover the secret causes which on that occasion authorized the + boldness of the prince, and commanded the obedience of the + troops; and perhaps, if it had been related by a judicious + historian, we should find this action, worthy of Cæsar himself, + reduced nearer to the level of probability and the common + standard of the character of Alexander Severus. The abilities of + that amiable prince seem to have been inadequate to the + difficulties of his situation, the firmness of his conduct + inferior to the purity of his intentions. His virtues, as well as + the vices of Elagabalus, contracted a tincture of weakness and + effeminacy from the soft climate of Syria, of which he was a + native; though he blushed at his foreign origin, and listened + with a vain complacency to the flattering genealogists, who + derived his race from the ancient stock of Roman nobility. The + pride and avarice of his mother cast a shade on the glories of + his reign; and by exacting from his riper years the same dutiful + obedience which she had justly claimed from his unexperienced + youth, Mamæa exposed to public ridicule both her son’s character + and her own. The fatigues of the Persian war irritated the + military discontent; the unsuccessful event * degraded the + reputation of the emperor as a general, and even as a soldier. + Every cause prepared, and every circumstance hastened, a + revolution, which distracted the Roman empire with a long series + of intestine calamities. + + The dissolute tyranny of Commodus, the civil wars occasioned by + his death, and the new maxims of policy introduced by the house + of Severus, had all contributed to increase the dangerous power + of the army, and to obliterate the faint image of laws and + liberty that was still impressed on the minds of the Romans. The + internal change, which undermined the foundations of the empire, + we have endeavored to explain with some degree of order and + perspicuity. The personal characters of the emperors, their + victories, laws, follies, and fortunes, can interest us no + farther than as they are connected with the general history of + the Decline and Fall of the monarchy. Our constant attention to + that great object will not suffer us to overlook a most important + edict of Antoninus Caracalla, which communicated to all the free + inhabitants of the empire the name and privileges of Roman + citizens. His unbounded liberality flowed not, however, from the + sentiments of a generous mind; it was the sordid result of + avarice, and will naturally be illustrated by some observations + on the finances of that state, from the victorious ages of the + commonwealth to the reign of Alexander Severus. + + The siege of Veii in Tuscany, the first considerable enterprise + of the Romans, was protracted to the tenth year, much less by the + strength of the place than by the unskilfulness of the besiegers. + The unaccustomed hardships of so many winter campaigns, at the + distance of near twenty miles from home, required more than + common encouragements; and the senate wisely prevented the + clamors of the people, by the institution of a regular pay for + the soldiers, which was levied by a general tribute, assessed + according to an equitable proportion on the property of the + citizens. During more than two hundred years after the conquest + of Veii, the victories of the republic added less to the wealth + than to the power of Rome. The states of Italy paid their tribute + in military service only, and the vast force, both by sea and + land, which was exerted in the Punic wars, was maintained at the + expense of the Romans themselves. That high-spirited people (such + is often the generous enthusiasm of freedom) cheerfully submitted + to the most excessive but voluntary burdens, in the just + confidence that they should speedily enjoy the rich harvest of + their labors. Their expectations were not disappointed. In the + course of a few years, the riches of Syracuse, of Carthage, of + Macedonia, and of Asia, were brought in triumph to Rome. The + treasures of Perseus alone amounted to near two millions + sterling, and the Roman people, the sovereign of so many nations, + was forever delivered from the weight of taxes. The increasing + revenue of the provinces was found sufficient to defray the + ordinary establishment of war and government, and the superfluous + mass of gold and silver was deposited in the temple of Saturn, + and reserved for any unforeseen emergency of the state. + + History has never, perhaps, suffered a greater or more + irreparable injury than in the loss of the curious register * + bequeathed by Augustus to the senate, in which that experienced + prince so accurately balanced the revenues and expenses of the + Roman empire. Deprived of this clear and comprehensive estimate, + we are reduced to collect a few imperfect hints from such of the + ancients as have accidentally turned aside from the splendid to + the more useful parts of history. We are informed that, by the + conquests of Pompey, the tributes of Asia were raised from fifty + to one hundred and thirty-five millions of drachms; or about four + millions and a half sterling. Under the last and most indolent of + the Ptolemies, the revenue of Egypt is said to have amounted to + twelve thousand five hundred talents; a sum equivalent to more + than two millions and a half of our money, but which was + afterwards considerably improved by the more exact economy of the + Romans, and the increase of the trade of Æthiopia and India. Gaul + was enriched by rapine, as Egypt was by commerce, and the + tributes of those two great provinces have been compared as + nearly equal to each other in value. The ten thousand Euboic or + Phœnician talents, about four millions sterling, which vanquished + Carthage was condemned to pay within the term of fifty years, + were a slight acknowledgment of the superiority of Rome, and + cannot bear the least proportion with the taxes afterwards raised + both on the lands and on the persons of the inhabitants, when the + fertile coast of Africa was reduced into a province. + + Spain, by a very singular fatality, was the Peru and Mexico of + the old world. The discovery of the rich western continent by the + Phœnicians, and the oppression of the simple natives, who were + compelled to labor in their own mines for the benefit of + strangers, form an exact type of the more recent history of + Spanish America. The Phœnicians were acquainted only with the + sea-coast of Spain; avarice, as well as ambition, carried the + arms of Rome and Carthage into the heart of the country, and + almost every part of the soil was found pregnant with copper, + silver, and gold. * Mention is made of a mine near Carthagena + which yielded every day twenty-five thousand drachmas of silver, + or about three hundred thousand pounds a year. Twenty thousand + pound weight of gold was annually received from the provinces of + Asturia, Gallicia, and Lusitania. + + We want both leisure and materials to pursue this curious inquiry + through the many potent states that were annihilated in the Roman + empire. Some notion, however, may be formed of the revenue of the + provinces where considerable wealth had been deposited by nature, + or collected by man, if we observe the severe attention that was + directed to the abodes of solitude and sterility. Augustus once + received a petition from the inhabitants of Gyarus, humbly + praying that they might be relieved from one third of their + excessive impositions. Their whole tax amounted indeed to no more + than one hundred and fifty drachms, or about five pounds: but + Gyarus was a little island, or rather a rock, of the Ægean Sea, + destitute of fresh water and every necessary of life, and + inhabited only by a few wretched fishermen. + + From the faint glimmerings of such doubtful and scattered lights, + we should be inclined to believe, 1st, That (with every fair + allowance for the differences of times and circumstances) the + general income of the Roman provinces could seldom amount to less + than fifteen or twenty millions of our money; and, 2dly, That so + ample a revenue must have been fully adequate to all the expenses + of the moderate government instituted by Augustus, whose court + was the modest family of a private senator, and whose military + establishment was calculated for the defence of the frontiers, + without any aspiring views of conquest, or any serious + apprehension of a foreign invasion. + + Notwithstanding the seeming probability of both these + conclusions, the latter of them at least is positively disowned + by the language and conduct of Augustus. It is not easy to + determine whether, on this occasion, he acted as the common + father of the Roman world, or as the oppressor of liberty; + whether he wished to relieve the provinces, or to impoverish the + senate and the equestrian order. But no sooner had he assumed the + reins of government, than he frequently intimated the + insufficiency of the tributes, and the necessity of throwing an + equitable proportion of the public burden upon Rome and Italy. In + the prosecution of this unpopular design, he advanced, however, + by cautious and well-weighed steps. The introduction of customs + was followed by the establishment of an excise, and the scheme of + taxation was completed by an artful assessment on the real and + personal property of the Roman citizens, who had been exempted + from any kind of contribution above a century and a half. + + I. In a great empire like that of Rome, a natural balance of + money must have gradually established itself. It has been already + observed, that as the wealth of the provinces was attracted to + the capital by the strong hand of conquest and power, so a + considerable part of it was restored to the industrious provinces + by the gentle influence of commerce and arts. In the reign of + Augustus and his successors, duties were imposed on every kind of + merchandise, which through a thousand channels flowed to the + great centre of opulence and luxury; and in whatsoever manner the + law was expressed, it was the Roman purchaser, and not the + provincial merchant, who paid the tax. The rate of the customs + varied from the eighth to the fortieth part of the value of the + commodity; and we have a right to suppose that the variation was + directed by the unalterable maxims of policy; that a higher duty + was fixed on the articles of luxury than on those of necessity, + and that the productions raised or manufactured by the labor of + the subjects of the empire were treated with more indulgence than + was shown to the pernicious, or at least the unpopular, commerce + of Arabia and India. There is still extant a long but imperfect + catalogue of eastern commodities, which about the time of + Alexander Severus were subject to the payment of duties; + cinnamon, myrrh, pepper, ginger, and the whole tribe of + aromatics; a great variety of precious stones, among which the + diamond was the most remarkable for its price, and the emerald + for its beauty; Parthian and Babylonian leather, cottons, silks, + both raw and manufactured, ebony ivory, and eunuchs. We may + observe that the use and value of those effeminate slaves + gradually rose with the decline of the empire. + + II. The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, was + extremely moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded one + per cent.; but it comprehended whatever was sold in the markets + or by public auction, from the most considerable purchases of + lands and houses, to those minute objects which can only derive a + value from their infinite multitude and daily consumption. Such a + tax, as it affects the body of the people, has ever been the + occasion of clamor and discontent. An emperor well acquainted + with the wants and resources of the state was obliged to declare, + by a public edict, that the support of the army depended in a + great measure on the produce of the excise.* + + III. When Augustus resolved to establish a permanent military + force for the defence of his government against foreign and + domestic enemies, he instituted a peculiar treasury for the pay + of the soldiers, the rewards of the veterans, and the + extra-ordinary expenses of war. The ample revenue of the excise, + though peculiarly appropriated to those uses, was found + inadequate. To supply the deficiency, the emperor suggested a new + tax of five per cent. on all legacies and inheritances. But the + nobles of Rome were more tenacious of property than of freedom. + Their indignant murmurs were received by Augustus with his usual + temper. He candidly referred the whole business to the senate, + and exhorted them to provide for the public service by some other + expedient of a less odious nature. They were divided and + perplexed. He insinuated to them, that their obstinacy would + oblige him to _propose_ a general land tax and capitation. They + acquiesced in silence. The new imposition on legacies and + inheritances was, however, mitigated by some restrictions. It did + not take place unless the object was of a certain value, most + probably of fifty or a hundred pieces of gold; nor could it be + exacted from the nearest of kin on the father’s side. When the + rights of nature and property were thus secured, it seemed + reasonable, that a stranger, or a distant relation, who acquired + an unexpected accession of fortune, should cheerfully resign a + twentieth part of it, for the benefit of the state. + + Such a tax, plentiful as it must prove in every wealthy + community, was most happily suited to the situation of the + Romans, who could frame their arbitrary wills, according to the + dictates of reason or caprice, without any restraint from the + modern fetters of entails and settlements. From various causes, + the partiality of paternal affection often lost its influence + over the stern patriots of the commonwealth, and the dissolute + nobles of the empire; and if the father bequeathed to his son the + fourth part of his estate, he removed all ground of legal + complaint. But a rich childish old man was a domestic tyrant, and + his power increased with his years and infirmities. A servile + crowd, in which he frequently reckoned prætors and consuls, + courted his smiles, pampered his avarice, applauded his follies, + served his passions, and waited with impatience for his death. + The arts of attendance and flattery were formed into a most + lucrative science; those who professed it acquired a peculiar + appellation; and the whole city, according to the lively + descriptions of satire, was divided between two parties, the + hunters and their game. Yet, while so many unjust and extravagant + wills were every day dictated by cunning and subscribed by folly, + a few were the result of rational esteem and virtuous gratitude. + Cicero, who had so often defended the lives and fortunes of his + fellow-citizens, was rewarded with legacies to the amount of a + hundred and seventy thousand pounds; nor do the friends of the + younger Pliny seem to have been less generous to that amiable + orator. Whatever was the motive of the testator, the treasury + claimed, without distinction, the twentieth part of his estate: + and in the course of two or three generations, the whole property + of the subject must have gradually passed through the coffers of + the state. + + In the first and golden years of the reign of Nero, that prince, + from a desire of popularity, and perhaps from a blind impulse of + benevolence, conceived a wish of abolishing the oppression of the + customs and excise. The wisest senators applauded his + magnanimity: but they diverted him from the execution of a design + which would have dissolved the strength and resources of the + republic. Had it indeed been possible to realize this dream of + fancy, such princes as Trajan and the Antonines would surely have + embraced with ardor the glorious opportunity of conferring so + signal an obligation on mankind. Satisfied, however, with + alleviating the public burden, they attempted not to remove it. + The mildness and precision of their laws ascertained the rule and + measure of taxation, and protected the subject of every rank + against arbitrary interpretations, antiquated claims, and the + insolent vexation of the farmers of the revenue. For it is + somewhat singular, that, in every age, the best and wisest of the + Roman governors persevered in this pernicious method of + collecting the principal branches at least of the excise and + customs. + + The sentiments, and, indeed, the situation, of Caracalla were + very different from those of the Antonines. Inattentive, or + rather averse, to the welfare of his people, he found himself + under the necessity of gratifying the insatiate avarice which he + had excited in the army. Of the several impositions introduced by + Augustus, the twentieth on inheritances and legacies was the most + fruitful, as well as the most comprehensive. As its influence was + not confined to Rome or Italy, the produce continually increased + with the gradual extension of the Roman City. The new citizens, + though charged, on equal terms, with the payment of new taxes, + which had not affected them as subjects, derived an ample + compensation from the rank they obtained, the privileges they + acquired, and the fair prospect of honors and fortune that was + thrown open to their ambition. But the favor which implied a + distinction was lost in the prodigality of Caracalla, and the + reluctant provincials were compelled to assume the vain title, + and the real obligations, of Roman citizens. * Nor was the + rapacious son of Severus contented with such a measure of + taxation as had appeared sufficient to his moderate predecessors. + Instead of a twentieth, he exacted a tenth of all legacies and + inheritances; and during his reign (for the ancient proportion + was restored after his death) he crushed alike every part of the + empire under the weight of his iron sceptre. + + When all the provincials became liable to the peculiar + impositions of Roman citizens, they seemed to acquire a legal + exemption from the tributes which they had paid in their former + condition of subjects. Such were not the maxims of government + adopted by Caracalla and his pretended son. The old as well as + the new taxes were, at the same time, levied in the provinces. It + was reserved for the virtue of Alexander to relieve them in a + great measure from this intolerable grievance, by reducing the + tributes to a thirteenth part of the sum exacted at the time of + his accession. It is impossible to conjecture the motive that + engaged him to spare so trifling a remnant of the public evil; + but the noxious weed, which had not been totally eradicated, + again sprang up with the most luxuriant growth, and in the + succeeding age darkened the Roman world with its deadly shade. In + the course of this history, we shall be too often summoned to + explain the land tax, the capitation, and the heavy contributions + of corn, wine, oil, and meat, which were exacted from the + provinces for the use of the court, the army, and the capital. + + As long as Rome and Italy were respected as the centre of + government, a national spirit was preserved by the ancient, and + insensibly imbibed by the adopted, citizens. The principal + commands of the army were filled by men who had received a + liberal education, were well instructed in the advantages of laws + and letters, and who had risen, by equal steps, through the + regular succession of civil and military honors. To their + influence and example we may partly ascribe the modest obedience + of the legions during the two first centuries of the Imperial + history. + + But when the last enclosure of the Roman constitution was + trampled down by Caracalla, the separation of professions + gradually succeeded to the distinction of ranks. The more + polished citizens of the internal provinces were alone qualified + to act as lawyers and magistrates. The rougher trade of arms was + abandoned to the peasants and barbarians of the frontiers, who + knew no country but their camp, no science but that of war, no + civil laws, and scarcely those of military discipline. With + bloody hands, savage manners, and desperate resolutions, they + sometimes guarded, but much oftener subverted, the throne of the + emperors. + + + + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of + Maximin.—Part I. + +The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa And Italy, +Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And Seditions.—Violent +Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus And Balbinus, And Of The +Three Gordians.—Usurpation And Secular Games Of Philip. + + Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the + world, an hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope + for ridicule. Is it possible to relate without an indignant + smile, that, on the father’s decease, the property of a nation, + like that of a drove of oxen, descends to his infant son, as yet + unknown to mankind and to himself; and that the bravest warriors + and the wisest statesmen, relinquishing their natural right to + empire, approach the royal cradle with bended knees and + protestations of inviolable fidelity? Satire and declamation may + paint these obvious topics in the most dazzling colors, but our + more serious thoughts will respect a useful prejudice, that + establishes a rule of succession, independent of the passions of + mankind; and we shall cheerfully acquiesce in any expedient which + deprives the multitude of the dangerous, and indeed the ideal, + power of giving themselves a master. + + In the cool shade of retirement, we may easily devise imaginary + forms of government, in which the sceptre shall be constantly + bestowed on the most worthy, by the free and incorrupt suffrage + of the whole community. Experience overturns these airy fabrics, + and teaches us, that in a large society, the election of a + monarch can never devolve to the wisest, or to the most numerous + part of the people. The army is the only order of men + sufficiently united to concur in the same sentiments, and + powerful enough to impose them on the rest of their + fellow-citizens; but the temper of soldiers, habituated at once + to violence and to slavery, renders them very unfit guardians of + a legal, or even a civil constitution. Justice, humanity, or + political wisdom, are qualities they are too little acquainted + with in themselves, to appreciate them in others. Valor will + acquire their esteem, and liberality will purchase their + suffrage; but the first of these merits is often lodged in the + most savage breasts; the latter can only exert itself at the + expense of the public; and both may be turned against the + possessor of the throne, by the ambition of a daring rival. + + The superior prerogative of birth, when it has obtained the + sanction of time and popular opinion, is the plainest and least + invidious of all distinctions among mankind. The acknowledged + right extinguishes the hopes of faction, and the conscious + security disarms the cruelty of the monarch. To the firm + establishment of this idea we owe the peaceful succession and + mild administration of European monarchies. To the defect of it + we must attribute the frequent civil wars, through which an + Asiatic despot is obliged to cut his way to the throne of his + fathers. Yet, even in the East, the sphere of contention is + usually limited to the princes of the reigning house, and as soon + as the more fortunate competitor has removed his brethren by the + sword and the bowstring, he no longer entertains any jealousy of + his meaner subjects. But the Roman empire, after the authority of + the senate had sunk into contempt, was a vast scene of confusion. + The royal, and even noble, families of the provinces had long + since been led in triumph before the car of the haughty + republicans. The ancient families of Rome had successively fallen + beneath the tyranny of the Cæsars; and whilst those princes were + shackled by the forms of a commonwealth, and disappointed by the + repeated failure of their posterity, it was impossible that any + idea of hereditary succession should have taken root in the minds + of their subjects. The right to the throne, which none could + claim from birth, every one assumed from merit. The daring hopes + of ambition were set loose from the salutary restraints of law + and prejudice; and the meanest of mankind might, without folly, + entertain a hope of being raised by valor and fortune to a rank + in the army, in which a single crime would enable him to wrest + the sceptre of the world from his feeble and unpopular master. + After the murder of Alexander Severus, and the elevation of + Maximin, no emperor could think himself safe upon the throne, and + every barbarian peasant of the frontier might aspire to that + august, but dangerous station. + + About thirty-two years before that event, the emperor Severus, + returning from an eastern expedition, halted in Thrace, to + celebrate, with military games, the birthday of his younger son, + Geta. The country flocked in crowds to behold their sovereign, + and a young barbarian of gigantic stature earnestly solicited, in + his rude dialect, that he might be allowed to contend for the + prize of wrestling. As the pride of discipline would have been + disgraced in the overthrow of a Roman soldier by a Thracian + peasant, he was matched with the stoutest followers of the camp, + sixteen of whom he successively laid on the ground. His victory + was rewarded by some trifling gifts, and a permission to enlist + in the troops. The next day, the happy barbarian was + distinguished above a crowd of recruits, dancing and exulting + after the fashion of his country. As soon as he perceived that he + had attracted the emperor’s notice, he instantly ran up to his + horse, and followed him on foot, without the least appearance of + fatigue, in a long and rapid career. “Thracian,” said Severus + with astonishment, “art thou disposed to wrestle after thy race?” + “Most willingly, sir,” replied the unwearied youth; and, almost + in a breath, overthrew seven of the strongest soldiers in the + army. A gold collar was the prize of his matchless vigor and + activity, and he was immediately appointed to serve in the + horseguards who always attended on the person of the sovereign. + + Maximin, for that was his name, though born on the territories of + the empire, descended from a mixed race of barbarians. His father + was a Goth, and his mother of the nation of the Alani. He + displayed on every occasion a valor equal to his strength; and + his native fierceness was soon tempered or disguised by the + knowledge of the world. Under the reign of Severus and his son, + he obtained the rank of centurion, with the favor and esteem of + both those princes, the former of whom was an excellent judge of + merit. Gratitude forbade Maximin to serve under the assassin of + Caracalla. Honor taught him to decline the effeminate insults of + Elagabalus. On the accession of Alexander he returned to court, + and was placed by that prince in a station useful to the service, + and honorable to himself. The fourth legion, to which he was + appointed tribune, soon became, under his care, the best + disciplined of the whole army. With the general applause of the + soldiers, who bestowed on their favorite hero the names of Ajax + and Hercules, he was successively promoted to the first military + command; and had not he still retained too much of his savage + origin, the emperor might perhaps have given his own sister in + marriage to the son of Maximin. + + Instead of securing his fidelity, these favors served only to + inflame the ambition of the Thracian peasant, who deemed his + fortune inadequate to his merit, as long as he was constrained to + acknowledge a superior. Though a stranger to real wisdom, he was + not devoid of a selfish cunning, which showed him that the + emperor had lost the affection of the army, and taught him to + improve their discontent to his own advantage. It is easy for + faction and calumny to shed their poison on the administration of + the best of princes, and to accuse even their virtues by artfully + confounding them with those vices to which they bear the nearest + affinity. The troops listened with pleasure to the emissaries of + Maximin. They blushed at their own ignominious patience, which, + during thirteen years, had supported the vexatious discipline + imposed by an effeminate Syrian, the timid slave of his mother + and of the senate. It was time, they cried, to cast away that + useless phantom of the civil power, and to elect for their prince + and general a real soldier, educated in camps, exercised in war, + who would assert the glory, and distribute among his companions + the treasures, of the empire. A great army was at that time + assembled on the banks of the Rhine, under the command of the + emperor himself, who, almost immediately after his return from + the Persian war, had been obliged to march against the barbarians + of Germany. The important care of training and reviewing the new + levies was intrusted to Maximin. One day, as he entered the field + of exercise, the troops, either from a sudden impulse, or a + formed conspiracy, saluted him emperor, silenced by their loud + acclamations his obstinate refusal, and hastened to consummate + their rebellion by the murder of Alexander Severus. + + The circumstances of his death are variously related. The + writers, who suppose that he died in ignorance of the ingratitude + and ambition of Maximin affirm that, after taking a frugal repast + in the sight of the army, he retired to sleep, and that, about + the seventh hour of the day, a part of his own guards broke into + the imperial tent, and, with many wounds, assassinated their + virtuous and unsuspecting prince. If we credit another, and + indeed a more probable account, Maximin was invested with the + purple by a numerous detachment, at the distance of several miles + from the head-quarters; and he trusted for success rather to the + secret wishes than to the public declarations of the great army. + Alexander had sufficient time to awaken a faint sense of loyalty + among the troops; but their reluctant professions of fidelity + quickly vanished on the appearance of Maximin, who declared + himself the friend and advocate of the military order, and was + unanimously acknowledged emperor of the Romans by the applauding + legions. The son of Mamæa, betrayed and deserted, withdrew into + his tent, desirous at least to conceal his approaching fate from + the insults of the multitude. He was soon followed by a tribune + and some centurions, the ministers of death; but instead of + receiving with manly resolution the inevitable stroke, his + unavailing cries and entreaties disgraced the last moments of his + life, and converted into contempt some portion of the just pity + which his innocence and misfortunes must inspire. His mother, + Mamæa, whose pride and avarice he loudly accused as the cause of + his ruin, perished with her son. The most faithful of his friends + were sacrificed to the first fury of the soldiers. Others were + reserved for the more deliberate cruelty of the usurper; and + those who experienced the mildest treatment, were stripped of + their employments, and ignominiously driven from the court and + army. + + The former tyrants, Caligula and Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla, + were all dissolute and unexperienced youths, educated in the + purple, and corrupted by the pride of empire, the luxury of Rome, + and the perfidious voice of flattery. The cruelty of Maximin was + derived from a different source, the fear of contempt. Though he + depended on the attachment of the soldiers, who loved him for + virtues like their own, he was conscious that his mean and + barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his total ignorance + of the arts and institutions of civil life, formed a very + unfavorable contrast with the amiable manners of the unhappy + Alexander. He remembered, that, in his humbler fortune, he had + often waited before the door of the haughty nobles of Rome, and + had been denied admittance by the insolence of their slaves. He + recollected too the friendship of a few who had relieved his + poverty, and assisted his rising hopes. But those who had + spurned, and those who had protected, the Thracian, were guilty + of the same crime, the knowledge of his original obscurity. For + this crime many were put to death; and by the execution of + several of his benefactors, Maximin published, in characters of + blood, the indelible history of his baseness and ingratitude. + + The dark and sanguinary soul of the tyrant was open to every + suspicion against those among his subjects who were the most + distinguished by their birth or merit. Whenever he was alarmed + with the sound of treason, his cruelty was unbounded and + unrelenting. A conspiracy against his life was either discovered + or imagined, and Magnus, a consular senator, was named as the + principal author of it. Without a witness, without a trial, and + without an opportunity of defence, Magnus, with four thousand of + his supposed accomplices, was put to death. Italy and the whole + empire were infested with innumerable spies and informers. On the + slightest accusation, the first of the Roman nobles, who had + governed provinces, commanded armies, and been adorned with the + consular and triumphal ornaments, were chained on the public + carriages, and hurried away to the emperor’s presence. + Confiscation, exile, or simple death, were esteemed uncommon + instances of his lenity. Some of the unfortunate sufferers he + ordered to be sewed up in the hides of slaughtered animals, + others to be exposed to wild beasts, others again to be beaten to + death with clubs. During the three years of his reign, he + disdained to visit either Rome or Italy. His camp, occasionally + removed from the banks of the Rhine to those of the Danube, was + the seat of his stern despotism, which trampled on every + principle of law and justice, and was supported by the avowed + power of the sword. No man of noble birth, elegant + accomplishments, or knowledge of civil business, was suffered + near his person; and the court of a Roman emperor revived the + idea of those ancient chiefs of slaves and gladiators, whose + savage power had left a deep impression of terror and + detestation. + + As long as the cruelty of Maximin was confined to the illustrious + senators, or even to the bold adventurers, who in the court or + army expose themselves to the caprice of fortune, the body of the + people viewed their sufferings with indifference, or perhaps with + pleasure. But the tyrant’s avarice, stimulated by the insatiate + desires of the soldiers, at length attacked the public property. + Every city of the empire was possessed of an independent revenue, + destined to purchase corn for the multitude, and to supply the + expenses of the games and entertainments. By a single act of + authority, the whole mass of wealth was at once confiscated for + the use of the Imperial treasury. The temples were stripped of + their most valuable offerings of gold and silver, and the statues + of gods, heroes, and emperors, were melted down and coined into + money. These impious orders could not be executed without tumults + and massacres, as in many places the people chose rather to die + in the defence of their altars, than to behold in the midst of + peace their cities exposed to the rapine and cruelty of war. The + soldiers themselves, among whom this sacrilegious plunder was + distributed, received it with a blush; and hardened as they were + in acts of violence, they dreaded the just reproaches of their + friends and relations. Throughout the Roman world a general cry + of indignation was heard, imploring vengeance on the common enemy + of human kind; and at length, by an act of private oppression, a + peaceful and unarmed province was driven into rebellion against + him. + + The procurator of Africa was a servant worthy of such a master, + who considered the fines and confiscations of the rich as one of + the most fruitful branches of the Imperial revenue. An iniquitous + sentence had been pronounced against some opulent youths of that + country, the execution of which would have stripped them of far + the greater part of their patrimony. In this extremity, a + resolution that must either complete or prevent their ruin, was + dictated by despair. A respite of three days, obtained with + difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was employed in + collecting from their estates a great number of slaves and + peasants blindly devoted to the commands of their lords, and + armed with the rustic weapons of clubs and axes. The leaders of + the conspiracy, as they were admitted to the audience of the + procurator, stabbed him with the daggers concealed under their + garments, and, by the assistance of their tumultuary train, + seized on the little town of Thysdrus, and erected the standard + of rebellion against the sovereign of the Roman empire. They + rested their hopes on the hatred of mankind against Maximin, and + they judiciously resolved to oppose to that detested tyrant an + emperor whose mild virtues had already acquired the love and + esteem of the Romans, and whose authority over the province would + give weight and stability to the enterprise. Gordianus, their + proconsul, and the object of their choice, refused, with + unfeigned reluctance, the dangerous honor, and begged with tears, + that they would suffer him to terminate in peace a long and + innocent life, without staining his feeble age with civil blood. + Their menaces compelled him to accept the Imperial purple, his + only refuge, indeed, against the jealous cruelty of Maximin; + since, according to the reasoning of tyrants, those who have been + esteemed worthy of the throne deserve death, and those who + deliberate have already rebelled. + + The family of Gordianus was one of the most illustrious of the + Roman senate. On the father’s side he was descended from the + Gracchi; on his mother’s, from the emperor Trajan. A great estate + enabled him to support the dignity of his birth, and in the + enjoyment of it, he displayed an elegant taste and beneficent + disposition. The palace in Rome, formerly inhabited by the great + Pompey, had been, during several generations, in the possession + of Gordian’s family. It was distinguished by ancient trophies of + naval victories, and decorated with the works of modern painting. + His villa on the road to Præneste was celebrated for baths of + singular beauty and extent, for three stately rooms of a hundred + feet in length, and for a magnificent portico, supported by two + hundred columns of the four most curious and costly sorts of + marble. The public shows exhibited at his expense, and in which + the people were entertained with many hundreds of wild beasts and + gladiators, seem to surpass the fortune of a subject; and whilst + the liberality of other magistrates was confined to a few solemn + festivals at Rome, the magnificence of Gordian was repeated, when + he was ædile, every month in the year, and extended, during his + consulship, to the principal cities of Italy. He was twice + elevated to the last-mentioned dignity, by Caracalla and by + Alexander; for he possessed the uncommon talent of acquiring the + esteem of virtuous princes, without alarming the jealousy of + tyrants. His long life was innocently spent in the study of + letters and the peaceful honors of Rome; and, till he was named + proconsul of Africa by the voice of the senate and the + approbation of Alexander, he appears prudently to have declined + the command of armies and the government of provinces. * As long + as that emperor lived, Africa was happy under the administration + of his worthy representative: after the barbarous Maximin had + usurped the throne, Gordianus alleviated the miseries which he + was unable to prevent. When he reluctantly accepted the purple, + he was above fourscore years old; a last and valuable remains of + the happy age of the Antonines, whose virtues he revived in his + own conduct, and celebrated in an elegant poem of thirty books. + With the venerable proconsul, his son, who had accompanied him + into Africa as his lieutenant, was likewise declared emperor. His + manners were less pure, but his character was equally amiable + with that of his father. Twenty-two acknowledged concubines, and + a library of sixty-two thousand volumes, attested the variety of + his inclinations; and from the productions which he left behind + him, it appears that the former as well as the latter were + designed for use rather than for ostentation. The Roman people + acknowledged in the features of the younger Gordian the + resemblance of Scipio Africanus, recollected with pleasure that + his mother was the granddaughter of Antoninus Pius, and rested + the public hope on those latent virtues which had hitherto, as + they fondly imagined, lain concealed in the luxurious indolence + of private life. + + As soon as the Gordians had appeased the first tumult of a + popular election, they removed their court to Carthage. They were + received with the acclamations of the Africans, who honored their + virtues, and who, since the visit of Hadrian, had never beheld + the majesty of a Roman emperor. But these vain acclamations + neither strengthened nor confirmed the title of the Gordians. + They were induced by principle, as well as interest, to solicit + the approbation of the senate; and a deputation of the noblest + provincials was sent, without delay, to Rome, to relate and + justify the conduct of their countrymen, who, having long + suffered with patience, were at length resolved to act with + vigor. The letters of the new princes were modest and respectful, + excusing the necessity which had obliged them to accept the + Imperial title; but submitting their election and their fate to + the supreme judgment of the senate. + + The inclinations of the senate were neither doubtful nor divided. + The birth and noble alliances of the Gordians had intimately + connected them with the most illustrious houses of Rome. Their + fortune had created many dependants in that assembly, their merit + had acquired many friends. Their mild administration opened the + flattering prospect of the restoration, not only of the civil but + even of the republican government. The terror of military + violence, which had first obliged the senate to forget the murder + of Alexander, and to ratify the election of a barbarian peasant, + now produced a contrary effect, and provoked them to assert the + injured rights of freedom and humanity. The hatred of Maximin + towards the senate was declared and implacable; the tamest + submission had not appeased his fury, the most cautious innocence + would not remove his suspicions; and even the care of their own + safety urged them to share the fortune of an enterprise, of which + (if unsuccessful) they were sure to be the first victims. These + considerations, and perhaps others of a more private nature, were + debated in a previous conference of the consuls and the + magistrates. As soon as their resolution was decided, they + convoked in the temple of Castor the whole body of the senate, + according to an ancient form of secrecy, calculated to awaken + their attention, and to conceal their decrees. “Conscript + fathers,” said the consul Syllanus, “the two Gordians, both of + consular dignity, the one your proconsul, the other your + lieutenant, have been declared emperors by the general consent of + Africa. Let us return thanks,” he boldly continued, “to the youth + of Thysdrus; let us return thanks to the faithful people of + Carthage, our generous deliverers from a horrid monster—Why do + you hear me thus coolly, thus timidly? Why do you cast those + anxious looks on each other? Why hesitate? Maximin is a public + enemy! may his enmity soon expire with him, and may we long enjoy + the prudence and felicity of Gordian the father, the valor and + constancy of Gordian the son!” The noble ardor of the consul + revived the languid spirit of the senate. By a unanimous decree, + the election of the Gordians was ratified, Maximin, his son, and + his adherents, were pronounced enemies of their country, and + liberal rewards were offered to whomsoever had the courage and + good fortune to destroy them. + + During the emperor’s absence, a detachment of the Prætorian + guards remained at Rome, to protect, or rather to command, the + capital. The præfect Vitalianus had signalized his fidelity to + Maximin, by the alacrity with which he had obeyed, and even + prevented the cruel mandates of the tyrant. His death alone could + rescue the authority of the senate, and the lives of the senators + from a state of danger and suspense. Before their resolves had + transpired, a quæstor and some tribunes were commissioned to take + his devoted life. They executed the order with equal boldness and + success; and, with their bloody daggers in their hands, ran + through the streets, proclaiming to the people and the soldiers + the news of the happy revolution. The enthusiasm of liberty was + seconded by the promise of a large donative, in lands and money; + the statues of Maximin were thrown down; the capital of the + empire acknowledged, with transport, the authority of the two + Gordians and the senate; and the example of Rome was followed by + the rest of Italy. + + A new spirit had arisen in that assembly, whose long patience had + been insulted by wanton despotism and military license. The + senate assumed the reins of government, and, with a calm + intrepidity, prepared to vindicate by arms the cause of freedom. + Among the consular senators recommended by their merit and + services to the favor of the emperor Alexander, it was easy to + select twenty, not unequal to the command of an army, and the + conduct of a war. To these was the defence of Italy intrusted. + Each was appointed to act in his respective department, + authorized to enroll and discipline the Italian youth; and + instructed to fortify the ports and highways, against the + impending invasion of Maximin. A number of deputies, chosen from + the most illustrious of the senatorian and equestrian orders, + were despatched at the same time to the governors of the several + provinces, earnestly conjuring them to fly to the assistance of + their country, and to remind the nations of their ancient ties of + friendship with the Roman senate and people. The general respect + with which these deputies were received, and the zeal of Italy + and the provinces in favor of the senate, sufficiently prove that + the subjects of Maximin were reduced to that uncommon distress, + in which the body of the people has more to fear from oppression + than from resistance. The consciousness of that melancholy truth, + inspires a degree of persevering fury, seldom to be found in + those civil wars which are artificially supported for the benefit + of a few factious and designing leaders. + + For while the cause of the Gordians was embraced with such + diffusive ardor, the Gordians themselves were no more. The feeble + court of Carthage was alarmed by the rapid approach of + Capelianus, governor of Mauritania, who, with a small band of + veterans, and a fierce host of barbarians, attacked a faithful, + but unwarlike province. The younger Gordian sallied out to meet + the enemy at the head of a few guards, and a numerous + undisciplined multitude, educated in the peaceful luxury of + Carthage. His useless valor served only to procure him an + honorable death on the field of battle. His aged father, whose + reign had not exceeded thirty-six days, put an end to his life on + the first news of the defeat. Carthage, destitute of defence, + opened her gates to the conqueror, and Africa was exposed to the + rapacious cruelty of a slave, obliged to satisfy his unrelenting + master with a large account of blood and treasure. + + The fate of the Gordians filled Rome with just but unexpected + terror. The senate, convoked in the temple of Concord, affected + to transact the common business of the day; and seemed to + decline, with trembling anxiety, the consideration of their own + and the public danger. A silent consternation prevailed in the + assembly, till a senator, of the name and family of Trajan, + awakened his brethren from their fatal lethargy. He represented + to them that the choice of cautious, dilatory measures had been + long since out of their power; that Maximin, implacable by + nature, and exasperated by injuries, was advancing towards Italy, + at the head of the military force of the empire; and that their + only remaining alternative was either to meet him bravely in the + field, or tamely to expect the tortures and ignominious death + reserved for unsuccessful rebellion. “We have lost,” continued + he, “two excellent princes; but unless we desert ourselves, the + hopes of the republic have not perished with the Gordians. Many + are the senators whose virtues have deserved, and whose abilities + would sustain, the Imperial dignity. Let us elect two emperors, + one of whom may conduct the war against the public enemy, whilst + his colleague remains at Rome to direct the civil administration. + I cheerfully expose myself to the danger and envy of the + nomination, and give my vote in favor of Maximus and Balbinus. + Ratify my choice, conscript fathers, or appoint in their place, + others more worthy of the empire.” The general apprehension + silenced the whispers of jealousy; the merit of the candidates + was universally acknowledged; and the house resounded with the + sincere acclamations of “Long life and victory to the emperors + Maximus and Balbinus. You are happy in the judgment of the + senate; may the republic be happy under your administration!” + + + + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of + Maximin.—Part II. + + The virtues and the reputation of the new emperors justified the + most sanguine hopes of the Romans. The various nature of their + talents seemed to appropriate to each his peculiar department of + peace and war, without leaving room for jealous emulation. + Balbinus was an admired orator, a poet of distinguished fame, and + a wise magistrate, who had exercised with innocence and applause + the civil jurisdiction in almost all the interior provinces of + the empire. His birth was noble, his fortune affluent, his + manners liberal and affable. In him the love of pleasure was + corrected by a sense of dignity, nor had the habits of ease + deprived him of a capacity for business. The mind of Maximus was + formed in a rougher mould. By his valor and abilities he had + raised himself from the meanest origin to the first employments + of the state and army. His victories over the Sarmatians and the + Germans, the austerity of his life, and the rigid impartiality of + his justice, while he was a Præfect of the city, commanded the + esteem of a people whose affections were engaged in favor of the + more amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had both been consuls, + (Balbinus had twice enjoyed that honorable office,) both had been + named among the twenty lieutenants of the senate; and since the + one was sixty and the other seventy-four years old, they had both + attained the full maturity of age and experience. + + After the senate had conferred on Maximus and Balbinus an equal + portion of the consular and tribunitian powers, the title of + Fathers of their country, and the joint office of Supreme + Pontiff, they ascended to the Capitol to return thanks to the + gods, protectors of Rome. The solemn rites of sacrifice were + disturbed by a sedition of the people. The licentious multitude + neither loved the rigid Maximus, nor did they sufficiently fear + the mild and humane Balbinus. Their increasing numbers surrounded + the temple of Jupiter; with obstinate clamors they asserted their + inherent right of consenting to the election of their sovereign; + and demanded, with an apparent moderation, that, besides the two + emperors, chosen by the senate, a third should be added of the + family of the Gordians, as a just return of gratitude to those + princes who had sacrificed their lives for the republic. At the + head of the city-guards, and the youth of the equestrian order, + Maximus and Balbinus attempted to cut their way through the + seditious multitude. The multitude, armed with sticks and stones, + drove them back into the Capitol. It is prudent to yield when the + contest, whatever may be the issue of it, must be fatal to both + parties. A boy, only thirteen years of age, the grandson of the + elder, and nephew * of the younger Gordian, was produced to the + people, invested with the ornaments and title of Cæsar. The + tumult was appeased by this easy condescension; and the two + emperors, as soon as they had been peaceably acknowledged in + Rome, prepared to defend Italy against the common enemy. + + Whilst in Rome and Africa, revolutions succeeded each other with + such amazing rapidity, that the mind of Maximin was agitated by + the most furious passions. He is said to have received the news + of the rebellion of the Gordians, and of the decree of the senate + against him, not with the temper of a man, but the rage of a wild + beast; which, as it could not discharge itself on the distant + senate, threatened the life of his son, of his friends, and of + all who ventured to approach his person. The grateful + intelligence of the death of the Gordians was quickly followed by + the assurance that the senate, laying aside all hopes of pardon + or accommodation, had substituted in their room two emperors, + with whose merit he could not be unacquainted. Revenge was the + only consolation left to Maximin, and revenge could only be + obtained by arms. The strength of the legions had been assembled + by Alexander from all parts of the empire. Three successful + campaigns against the Germans and the Sarmatians, had raised + their fame, confirmed their discipline, and even increased their + numbers, by filling the ranks with the flower of the barbarian + youth. The life of Maximin had been spent in war, and the candid + severity of history cannot refuse him the valor of a soldier, or + even the abilities of an experienced general. It might naturally + be expected, that a prince of such a character, instead of + suffering the rebellion to gain stability by delay, should + immediately have marched from the banks of the Danube to those of + the Tyber, and that his victorious army, instigated by contempt + for the senate, and eager to gather the spoils of Italy, should + have burned with impatience to finish the easy and lucrative + conquest. Yet as far as we can trust to the obscure chronology of + that period, it appears that the operations of some foreign war + deferred the Italian expedition till the ensuing spring. From the + prudent conduct of Maximin, we may learn that the savage features + of his character have been exaggerated by the pencil of party, + that his passions, however impetuous, submitted to the force of + reason, and that the barbarian possessed something of the + generous spirit of Sylla, who subdued the enemies of Rome before + he suffered himself to revenge his private injuries. + + When the troops of Maximin, advancing in excellent order, arrived + at the foot of the Julian Alps, they were terrified by the + silence and desolation that reigned on the frontiers of Italy. + The villages and open towns had been abandoned on their approach + by the inhabitants, the cattle was driven away, the provisions + removed or destroyed, the bridges broken down, nor was any thing + left which could afford either shelter or subsistence to an + invader. Such had been the wise orders of the generals of the + senate: whose design was to protract the war, to ruin the army of + Maximin by the slow operation of famine, and to consume his + strength in the sieges of the principal cities of Italy, which + they had plentifully stored with men and provisions from the + deserted country. Aquileia received and withstood the first shock + of the invasion. The streams that issue from the head of the + Hadriatic Gulf, swelled by the melting of the winter snows, + opposed an unexpected obstacle to the arms of Maximin. At length, + on a singular bridge, constructed with art and difficulty, of + large hogsheads, he transported his army to the opposite bank, + rooted up the beautiful vineyards in the neighborhood of + Aquileia, demolished the suburbs, and employed the timber of the + buildings in the engines and towers, with which on every side he + attacked the city. The walls, fallen to decay during the security + of a long peace, had been hastily repaired on this sudden + emergency: but the firmest defence of Aquileia consisted in the + constancy of the citizens; all ranks of whom, instead of being + dismayed, were animated by the extreme danger, and their + knowledge of the tyrant’s unrelenting temper. Their courage was + supported and directed by Crispinus and Menophilus, two of the + twenty lieutenants of the senate, who, with a small body of + regular troops, had thrown themselves into the besieged place. + The army of Maximin was repulsed in repeated attacks, his + machines destroyed by showers of artificial fire; and the + generous enthusiasm of the Aquileians was exalted into a + confidence of success, by the opinion that Belenus, their tutelar + deity, combated in person in the defence of his distressed + worshippers. + + The emperor Maximus, who had advanced as far as Ravenna, to + secure that important place, and to hasten the military + preparations, beheld the event of the war in the more faithful + mirror of reason and policy. He was too sensible, that a single + town could not resist the persevering efforts of a great army; + and he dreaded, lest the enemy, tired with the obstinate + resistance of Aquileia, should on a sudden relinquish the + fruitless siege, and march directly towards Rome. The fate of the + empire and the cause of freedom must then be committed to the + chance of a battle; and what arms could he oppose to the veteran + legions of the Rhine and Danube? Some troops newly levied among + the generous but enervated youth of Italy; and a body of German + auxiliaries, on whose firmness, in the hour of trial, it was + dangerous to depend. In the midst of these just alarms, the + stroke of domestic conspiracy punished the crimes of Maximin, and + delivered Rome and the senate from the calamities that would + surely have attended the victory of an enraged barbarian. + + The people of Aquileia had scarcely experienced any of the common + miseries of a siege; their magazines were plentifully supplied, + and several fountains within the walls assured them of an + inexhaustible resource of fresh water. The soldiers of Maximin + were, on the contrary, exposed to the inclemency of the season, + the contagion of disease, and the horrors of famine. The open + country was ruined, the rivers filled with the slain, and + polluted with blood. A spirit of despair and disaffection began + to diffuse itself among the troops; and as they were cut off from + all intelligence, they easily believed that the whole empire had + embraced the cause of the senate, and that they were left as + devoted victims to perish under the impregnable walls of + Aquileia. The fierce temper of the tyrant was exasperated by + disappointments, which he imputed to the cowardice of his army; + and his wanton and ill-timed cruelty, instead of striking terror, + inspired hatred, and a just desire of revenge. A party of + Prætorian guards, who trembled for their wives and children in + the camp of Alba, near Rome, executed the sentence of the senate. + Maximin, abandoned by his guards, was slain in his tent, with his + son (whom he had associated to the honors of the purple), + Anulinus the præfect, and the principal ministers of his tyranny. + The sight of their heads, borne on the point of spears, convinced + the citizens of Aquileia that the siege was at an end; the gates + of the city were thrown open, a liberal market was provided for + the hungry troops of Maximin, and the whole army joined in solemn + protestations of fidelity to the senate and the people of Rome, + and to their lawful emperors Maximus and Balbinus. Such was the + deserved fate of a brutal savage, destitute, as he has generally + been represented, of every sentiment that distinguishes a + civilized, or even a human being. The body was suited to the + soul. The stature of Maximin exceeded the measure of eight feet, + and circumstances almost incredible are related of his matchless + strength and appetite. Had he lived in a less enlightened age, + tradition and poetry might well have described him as one of + those monstrous giants, whose supernatural power was constantly + exerted for the destruction of mankind. + + It is easier to conceive than to describe the universal joy of + the Roman world on the fall of the tyrant, the news of which is + said to have been carried in four days from Aquileia to Rome. The + return of Maximus was a triumphal procession; his colleague and + young Gordian went out to meet him, and the three princes made + their entry into the capital, attended by the ambassadors of + almost all the cities of Italy, saluted with the splendid + offerings of gratitude and superstition, and received with the + unfeigned acclamations of the senate and people, who persuaded + themselves that a golden age would succeed to an age of iron. The + conduct of the two emperors corresponded with these expectations. + They administered justice in person; and the rigor of the one was + tempered by the other’s clemency. The oppressive taxes with which + Maximin had loaded the rights of inheritance and succession, were + repealed, or at least moderated. Discipline was revived, and with + the advice of the senate many wise laws were enacted by their + imperial ministers, who endeavored to restore a civil + constitution on the ruins of military tyranny. “What reward may + we expect for delivering Rome from a monster?” was the question + asked by Maximus, in a moment of freedom and confidence. Balbinus + answered it without hesitation—“The love of the senate, of the + people, and of all mankind.” “Alas!” replied his more penetrating + colleague—“alas! I dread the hatred of the soldiers, and the + fatal effects of their resentment.” His apprehensions were but + too well justified by the event. + + Whilst Maximus was preparing to defend Italy against the common + foe, Balbinus, who remained at Rome, had been engaged in scenes + of blood and intestine discord. Distrust and jealousy reigned in + the senate; and even in the temples where they assembled, every + senator carried either open or concealed arms. In the midst of + their deliberations, two veterans of the guards, actuated either + by curiosity or a sinister motive, audaciously thrust themselves + into the house, and advanced by degrees beyond the altar of + Victory. Gallicanus, a consular, and Mæcenas, a Prætorian + senator, viewed with indignation their insolent intrusion: + drawing their daggers, they laid the spies (for such they deemed + them) dead at the foot of the altar, and then, advancing to the + door of the senate, imprudently exhorted the multitude to + massacre the Prætorians, as the secret adherents of the tyrant. + Those who escaped the first fury of the tumult took refuge in the + camp, which they defended with superior advantage against the + reiterated attacks of the people, assisted by the numerous bands + of gladiators, the property of opulent nobles. The civil war + lasted many days, with infinite loss and confusion on both sides. + When the pipes were broken that supplied the camp with water, the + Prætorians were reduced to intolerable distress; but in their + turn they made desperate sallies into the city, set fire to a + great number of houses, and filled the streets with the blood of + the inhabitants. The emperor Balbinus attempted, by ineffectual + edicts and precarious truces, to reconcile the factions at Rome. + But their animosity, though smothered for a while, burnt with + redoubled violence. The soldiers, detesting the senate and the + people, despised the weakness of a prince, who wanted either the + spirit or the power to command the obedience of his subjects. + + After the tyrant’s death, his formidable army had acknowledged, + from necessity rather than from choice, the authority of Maximus, + who transported himself without delay to the camp before + Aquileia. As soon as he had received their oath of fidelity, he + addressed them in terms full of mildness and moderation; + lamented, rather than arraigned the wild disorders of the times, + and assured the soldiers, that of all their past conduct the + senate would remember only their generous desertion of the + tyrant, and their voluntary return to their duty. Maximus + enforced his exhortations by a liberal donative, purified the + camp by a solemn sacrifice of expiation, and then dismissed the + legions to their several provinces, impressed, as he hoped, with + a lively sense of gratitude and obedience. But nothing could + reconcile the haughty spirit of the Prætorians. They attended the + emperors on the memorable day of their public entry into Rome; + but amidst the general acclamations, the sullen, dejected + countenance of the guards sufficiently declared that they + considered themselves as the object, rather than the partners, of + the triumph. When the whole body was united in their camp, those + who had served under Maximin, and those who had remained at Rome, + insensibly communicated to each other their complaints and + apprehensions. The emperors chosen by the army had perished with + ignominy; those elected by the senate were seated on the throne. + The long discord between the civil and military powers was + decided by a war, in which the former had obtained a complete + victory. The soldiers must now learn a new doctrine of submission + to the senate; and whatever clemency was affected by that politic + assembly, they dreaded a slow revenge, colored by the name of + discipline, and justified by fair pretences of the public good. + But their fate was still in their own hands; and if they had + courage to despise the vain terrors of an impotent republic, it + was easy to convince the world, that those who were masters of + the arms, were masters of the authority, of the state. + + When the senate elected two princes, it is probable that, besides + the declared reason of providing for the various emergencies of + peace and war, they were actuated by the secret desire of + weakening by division the despotism of the supreme magistrate. + Their policy was effectual, but it proved fatal both to their + emperors and to themselves. The jealousy of power was soon + exasperated by the difference of character. Maximus despised + Balbinus as a luxurious noble, and was in his turn disdained by + his colleague as an obscure soldier. Their silent discord was + understood rather than seen; but the mutual consciousness + prevented them from uniting in any vigorous measures of defence + against their common enemies of the Prætorian camp. The whole + city was employed in the Capitoline games, and the emperors were + left almost alone in the palace. On a sudden, they were alarmed + by the approach of a troop of desperate assassins. Ignorant of + each other’s situation or designs (for they already occupied very + distant apartments), afraid to give or to receive assistance, + they wasted the important moments in idle debates and fruitless + recriminations. The arrival of the guards put an end to the vain + strife. They seized on these emperors of the senate, for such + they called them with malicious contempt, stripped them of their + garments, and dragged them in insolent triumph through the + streets of Rome, with the design of inflicting a slow and cruel + death on these unfortunate princes. The fear of a rescue from the + faithful Germans of the Imperial guards shortened their tortures; + and their bodies, mangled with a thousand wounds, were left + exposed to the insults or to the pity of the populace. + + In the space of a few months, six princes had been cut off by the + sword. Gordian, who had already received the title of Cæsar, was + the only person that occurred to the soldiers as proper to fill + the vacant throne. They carried him to the camp, and unanimously + saluted him Augustus and Emperor. His name was dear to the senate + and people; his tender age promised a long impunity of military + license; and the submission of Rome and the provinces to the + choice of the Prætorian guards saved the republic, at the expense + indeed of its freedom and dignity, from the horrors of a new + civil war in the heart of the capital. + + As the third Gordian was only nineteen years of age at the time + of his death, the history of his life, were it known to us with + greater accuracy than it really is, would contain little more + than the account of his education, and the conduct of the + ministers, who by turns abused or guided the simplicity of his + unexperienced youth. Immediately after his accession, he fell + into the hands of his mother’s eunuchs, that pernicious vermin of + the East, who, since the days of Elagabalus, had infested the + Roman palace. By the artful conspiracy of these wretches, an + impenetrable veil was drawn between an innocent prince and his + oppressed subjects, the virtuous disposition of Gordian was + deceived, and the honors of the empire sold without his + knowledge, though in a very public manner, to the most worthless + of mankind. We are ignorant by what fortunate accident the + emperor escaped from this ignominious slavery, and devolved his + confidence on a minister, whose wise counsels had no object + except the glory of his sovereign and the happiness of the + people. It should seem that love and learning introduced + Misitheus to the favor of Gordian. The young prince married the + daughter of his master of rhetoric, and promoted his + father-in-law to the first offices of the empire. Two admirable + letters that passed between them are still extant. The minister, + with the conscious dignity of virtue, congratulates Gordian that + he is delivered from the tyranny of the eunuchs, and still more + that he is sensible of his deliverance. The emperor acknowledges, + with an amiable confusion, the errors of his past conduct; and + laments, with singular propriety, the misfortune of a monarch + from whom a venal tribe of courtiers perpetually labor to conceal + the truth. + + The life of Misitheus had been spent in the profession of + letters, not of arms; yet such was the versatile genius of that + great man, that, when he was appointed Prætorian Præfect, he + discharged the military duties of his place with vigor and + ability. The Persians had invaded Mesopotamia, and threatened + Antioch. By the persuasion of his father-in-law, the young + emperor quitted the luxury of Rome, opened, for the last time + recorded in history, the temple of Janus, and marched in person + into the East. On his approach, with a great army, the Persians + withdrew their garrisons from the cities which they had already + taken, and retired from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Gordian + enjoyed the pleasure of announcing to the senate the first + success of his arms, which he ascribed, with a becoming modesty + and gratitude, to the wisdom of his father and Præfect. During + the whole expedition, Misitheus watched over the safety and + discipline of the army; whilst he prevented their dangerous + murmurs by maintaining a regular plenty in the camp, and by + establishing ample magazines of vinegar, bacon, straw, barley, + and wheat in all the cities of the frontier. But the prosperity + of Gordian expired with Misitheus, who died of a flux, not + without very strong suspicions of poison. Philip, his successor + in the præfecture, was an Arab by birth, and consequently, in the + earlier part of his life, a robber by profession. His rise from + so obscure a station to the first dignities of the empire, seems + to prove that he was a bold and able leader. But his boldness + prompted him to aspire to the throne, and his abilities were + employed to supplant, not to serve, his indulgent master. The + minds of the soldiers were irritated by an artificial scarcity, + created by his contrivance in the camp; and the distress of the + army was attributed to the youth and incapacity of the prince. It + is not in our power to trace the successive steps of the secret + conspiracy and open sedition, which were at length fatal to + Gordian. A sepulchral monument was erected to his memory on the + spot where he was killed, near the conflux of the Euphrates with + the little river Aboras. The fortunate Philip, raised to the + empire by the votes of the soldiers, found a ready obedience from + the senate and the provinces. + + We cannot forbear transcribing the ingenious, though somewhat + fanciful description, which a celebrated writer of our own times + has traced of the military government of the Roman empire. “What + in that age was called the Roman empire, was only an irregular + republic, not unlike the aristocracy of Algiers, where the + militia, possessed of the sovereignty, creates and deposes a + magistrate, who is styled a Dey. Perhaps, indeed, it may be laid + down as a general rule, that a military government is, in some + respects, more republican than monarchical. Nor can it be said + that the soldiers only partook of the government by their + disobedience and rebellions. The speeches made to them by the + emperors, were they not at length of the same nature as those + formerly pronounced to the people by the consuls and the + tribunes? And although the armies had no regular place or forms + of assembly; though their debates were short, their action + sudden, and their resolves seldom the result of cool reflection, + did they not dispose, with absolute sway, of the public fortune? + What was the emperor, except the minister of a violent + government, elected for the private benefit of the soldiers? + + “When the army had elected Philip, who was Prætorian præfect to + the third Gordian, the latter demanded that he might remain sole + emperor; he was unable to obtain it. He requested that the power + might be equally divided between them; the army would not listen + to his speech. He consented to be degraded to the rank of Cæsar; + the favor was refused him. He desired, at least, he might be + appointed Prætorian præfect; his prayer was rejected. Finally, he + pleaded for his life. The army, in these several judgments, + exercised the supreme magistracy.” According to the historian, + whose doubtful narrative the President De Montesquieu has + adopted, Philip, who, during the whole transaction, had preserved + a sullen silence, was inclined to spare the innocent life of his + benefactor; till, recollecting that his innocence might excite a + dangerous compassion in the Roman world, he commanded, without + regard to his suppliant cries, that he should be seized, + stripped, and led away to instant death. After a moment’s pause, + the inhuman sentence was executed. + + + + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of + Maximin.—Part III. + + On his return from the East to Rome, Philip, desirous of + obliterating the memory of his crimes, and of captivating the + affections of the people, solemnized the secular games with + infinite pomp and magnificence. Since their institution or + revival by Augustus, they had been celebrated by Claudius, by + Domitian, and by Severus, and were now renewed the fifth time, on + the accomplishment of the full period of a thousand years from + the foundation of Rome. Every circumstance of the secular games + was skillfully adapted to inspire the superstitious mind with + deep and solemn reverence. The long interval between them + exceeded the term of human life; and as none of the spectators + had already seen them, none could flatter themselves with the + expectation of beholding them a second time. The mystic + sacrifices were performed, during three nights, on the banks of + the Tyber; and the Campus Martius resounded with music and + dances, and was illuminated with innumerable lamps and torches. + Slaves and strangers were excluded from any participation in + these national ceremonies. A chorus of twenty-seven youths, and + as many virgins, of noble families, and whose parents were both + alive, implored the propitious gods in favor of the present, and + for the hope of the rising generation; requesting, in religious + hymns, that according to the faith of their ancient oracles, they + would still maintain the virtue, the felicity, and the empire of + the Roman people. The magnificence of Philip’s shows and + entertainments dazzled the eyes of the multitude. The devout were + employed in the rites of superstition, whilst the reflecting few + revolved in their anxious minds the past history and the future + fate of the empire. + + Since Romulus, with a small band of shepherds and outlaws, + fortified himself on the hills near the Tyber, ten centuries had + already elapsed. During the four first ages, the Romans, in the + laborious school of poverty, had acquired the virtues of war and + government: by the vigorous exertion of those virtues, and by the + assistance of fortune, they had obtained, in the course of the + three succeeding centuries, an absolute empire over many + countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The last three hundred + years had been consumed in apparent prosperity and internal + decline. The nation of soldiers, magistrates, and legislators, + who composed the thirty-five tribes of the Roman people, were + dissolved into the common mass of mankind, and confounded with + the millions of servile provincials, who had received the name, + without adopting the spirit, of Romans. A mercenary army, levied + among the subjects and barbarians of the frontier, was the only + order of men who preserved and abused their independence. By + their tumultuary election, a Syrian, a Goth, or an Arab, was + exalted to the throne of Rome, and invested with despotic power + over the conquests and over the country of the Scipios. + + The limits of the Roman empire still extended from the Western + Ocean to the Tigris, and from Mount Atlas to the Rhine and the + Danube. To the undiscerning eye of the vulgar, Philip appeared a + monarch no less powerful than Hadrian or Augustus had formerly + been. The form was still the same, but the animating health and + vigor were fled. The industry of the people was discouraged and + exhausted by a long series of oppression. The discipline of the + legions, which alone, after the extinction of every other virtue, + had propped the greatness of the state, was corrupted by the + ambition, or relaxed by the weakness, of the emperors. The + strength of the frontiers, which had always consisted in arms + rather than in fortifications, was insensibly undermined; and the + fairest provinces were left exposed to the rapaciousness or + ambition of the barbarians, who soon discovered the decline of + the Roman empire. + + + + + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The + Monarchy.—Part I. + +Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy By +Artaxerxes. + + Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those beautiful episodes, in + which he relates some domestic transaction of the Germans or of + the Parthians, his principal object is to relieve the attention + of the reader from a uniform scene of vice and misery. From the + reign of Augustus to the time of Alexander Severus, the enemies + of Rome were in her bosom—the tyrants and the soldiers; and her + prosperity had a very distant and feeble interest in the + revolutions that might happen beyond the Rhine and the Euphrates. + But when the military order had levelled, in wild anarchy, the + power of the prince, the laws of the senate, and even the + discipline of the camp, the barbarians of the North and of the + East, who had long hovered on the frontier, boldly attacked the + provinces of a declining monarchy. Their vexatious inroads were + changed into formidable irruptions, and, after a long vicissitude + of mutual calamities, many tribes of the victorious invaders + established themselves in the provinces of the Roman Empire. To + obtain a clearer knowledge of these great events, we shall + endeavor to form a previous idea of the character, forces, and + designs of those nations who avenged the cause of Hannibal and + Mithridates. + + In the more early ages of the world, whilst the forest that + covered Europe afforded a retreat to a few wandering savages, the + inhabitants of Asia were already collected into populous cities, + and reduced under extensive empires the seat of the arts, of + luxury, and of despotism. The Assyrians reigned over the East, + till the sceptre of Ninus and Semiramis dropped from the hands of + their enervated successors. The Medes and the Babylonians divided + their power, and were themselves swallowed up in the monarchy of + the Persians, whose arms could not be confined within the narrow + limits of Asia. Followed, as it is said, by two millions of men, + Xerxes, the descendant of Cyrus, invaded Greece. Thirty thousand + soldiers, under the command of Alexander, the son of Philip, who + was intrusted by the Greeks with their glory and revenge, were + sufficient to subdue Persia. The princes of the house of Seleucus + usurped and lost the Macedonian command over the East. About the + same time, that, by an ignominious treaty, they resigned to the + Romans the country on this side Mount Tarus, they were driven by + the Parthians, * an obscure horde of Scythian origin, from all + the provinces of Upper Asia. The formidable power of the + Parthians, which spread from India to the frontiers of Syria, was + in its turn subverted by Ardshir, or Artaxerxes; the founder of a + new dynasty, which, under the name of Sassanides, governed Persia + till the invasion of the Arabs. This great revolution, whose + fatal influence was soon experienced by the Romans, happened in + the fourth year of Alexander Severus, two hundred and twenty-six + years after the Christian era. + + Artaxerxes had served with great reputation in the armies of + Artaban, the last king of the Parthians, and it appears that he + was driven into exile and rebellion by royal ingratitude, the + customary reward for superior merit. His birth was obscure, and + the obscurity equally gave room to the aspersions of his enemies, + and the flattery of his adherents. If we credit the scandal of + the former, Artaxerxes sprang from the illegitimate commerce of a + tanner’s wife with a common soldier. The latter represent him as + descended from a branch of the ancient kings of Persia, though + time and misfortune had gradually reduced his ancestors to the + humble station of private citizens. As the lineal heir of the + monarchy, he asserted his right to the throne, and challenged the + noble task of delivering the Persians from the oppression under + which they groaned above five centuries since the death of + Darius. The Parthians were defeated in three great battles. * In + the last of these their king Artaban was slain, and the spirit of + the nation was forever broken. The authority of Artaxerxes was + solemnly acknowledged in a great assembly held at Balch in + Khorasan. Two younger branches of the royal house of Arsaces were + confounded among the prostrate satraps. A third, more mindful of + ancient grandeur than of present necessity, attempted to retire, + with a numerous train of vessels, towards their kinsman, the king + of Armenia; but this little army of deserters was intercepted, + and cut off, by the vigilance of the conqueror, who boldly + assumed the double diadem, and the title of King of Kings, which + had been enjoyed by his predecessor. But these pompous titles, + instead of gratifying the vanity of the Persian, served only to + admonish him of his duty, and to inflame in his soul the ambition + of restoring in their full splendor, the religion and empire of + Cyrus. + + I. During the long servitude of Persia under the Macedonian and + the Parthian yoke, the nations of Europe and Asia had mutually + adopted and corrupted each other’s superstitions. The Arsacides, + indeed, practised the worship of the Magi; but they disgraced and + polluted it with a various mixture of foreign idolatry. * The + memory of Zoroaster, the ancient prophet and philosopher of the + Persians, was still revered in the East; but the obsolete and + mysterious language, in which the Zendavesta was composed, opened + a field of dispute to seventy sects, who variously explained the + fundamental doctrines of their religion, and were all + indifferently derided by a crowd of infidels, who rejected the + divine mission and miracles of the prophet. To suppress the + idolaters, reunite the schismatics, and confute the unbelievers, + by the infallible decision of a general council, the pious + Artaxerxes summoned the Magi from all parts of his dominions. + These priests, who had so long sighed in contempt and obscurity + obeyed the welcome summons; and, on the appointed day, appeared, + to the number of about eighty thousand. But as the debates of so + tumultuous an assembly could not have been directed by the + authority of reason, or influenced by the art of policy, the + Persian synod was reduced, by successive operations, to forty + thousand, to four thousand, to four hundred, to forty, and at + last to seven Magi, the most respected for their learning and + piety. One of these, Erdaviraph, a young but holy prelate, + received from the hands of his brethren three cups of + soporiferous wine. He drank them off, and instantly fell into a + long and profound sleep. As soon as he waked, he related to the + king and to the believing multitude, his journey to heaven, and + his intimate conferences with the Deity. Every doubt was silenced + by this supernatural evidence; and the articles of the faith of + Zoroaster were fixed with equal authority and precision. A short + delineation of that celebrated system will be found useful, not + only to display the character of the Persian nation, but to + illustrate many of their most important transactions, both in + peace and war, with the Roman empire. + + The great and fundamental article of the system was the + celebrated doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious + attempt of Eastern philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral + and physical evil with the attributes of a beneficent Creator and + Governor of the world. The first and original Being, in whom, or + by whom, the universe exists, is denominated in the writings of + Zoroaster, _Time without bounds_; but it must be confessed, that + this infinite substance seems rather a metaphysical abstraction + of the mind than a real object endowed with self-consciousness, + or possessed of moral perfections. From either the blind or the + intelligent operation of this infinite Time, which bears but too + near an affinity with the chaos of the Greeks, the two secondary + but active principles of the universe were from all eternity + produced, Ormusd and Ahriman, each of them possessed of the + powers of creation, but each disposed, by his invariable nature, + to exercise them with different designs. * The principle of good + is eternally absorbed in light; the principle of evil eternally + buried in darkness. The wise benevolence of Ormusd formed man + capable of virtue, and abundantly provided his fair habitation + with the materials of happiness. By his vigilant providence, the + motion of the planets, the order of the seasons, and the + temperate mixture of the elements, are preserved. But the malice + of Ahriman has long since pierced _Ormusd’s egg_; or, in other + words, has violated the harmony of his works. Since that fatal + eruption, the most minute articles of good and evil are + intimately intermingled and agitated together; the rankest + poisons spring up amidst the most salutary plants; deluges, + earthquakes, and conflagrations attest the conflict of Nature, + and the little world of man is perpetually shaken by vice and + misfortune. Whilst the rest of human kind are led away captives + in the chains of their infernal enemy, the faithful Persian alone + reserves his religious adoration for his friend and protector + Ormusd, and fights under his banner of light, in the full + confidence that he shall, in the last day, share the glory of his + triumph. At that decisive period, the enlightened wisdom of + goodness will render the power of Ormusd superior to the furious + malice of his rival. Ahriman and his followers, disarmed and + subdued, will sink into their native darkness; and virtue will + maintain the eternal peace and harmony of the universe. + + + + + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The + Monarchy.—Part II. + + The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by foreigners, + and even by the far greater number of his disciples; but the most + careless observers were struck with the philosophic simplicity of + the Persian worship. “That people,” said Herodotus, “rejects the + use of temples, of altars, and of statues, and smiles at the + folly of those nations who imagine that the gods are sprung from, + or bear any affinity with, the human nature. The tops of the + highest mountains are the places chosen for sacrifices. Hymns and + prayers are the principal worship; the Supreme God, who fills the + wide circle of heaven, is the object to whom they are addressed.” + Yet, at the same time, in the true spirit of a polytheist, he + accuseth them of adoring Earth, Water, Fire, the Winds, and the + Sun and Moon. But the Persians of every age have denied the + charge, and explained the equivocal conduct, which might appear + to give a color to it. The elements, and more particularly Fire, + Light, and the Sun, whom they called Mithra, were the objects of + their religious reverence because they considered them as the + purest symbols, the noblest productions, and the most powerful + agents of the Divine Power and Nature. + + Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on + the human mind, must exercise our obedience, by enjoining + practices of devotion, for which we can assign no reason; and + must acquire our esteem, by inculcating moral duties analogous to + the dictates of our own hearts. The religion of Zoroaster was + abundantly provided with the former and possessed a sufficient + portion of the latter. At the age of puberty, the faithful + Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the badge of the + divine protection; and from that moment all the actions of his + life, even the most indifferent, or the most necessary, were + sanctified by their peculiar prayers, ejaculations, or + genuflections; the omission of which, under any circumstances, + was a grievous sin, not inferior in guilt to the violation of the + moral duties. The moral duties, however, of justice, mercy, + liberality, &c., were in their turn required of the disciple of + Zoroaster, who wished to escape the persecution of Ahriman, and + to live with Ormusd in a blissful eternity, where the degree of + felicity will be exactly proportioned to the degree of virtue and + piety. + + But there are some remarkable instances in which Zoroaster lays + aside the prophet, assumes the legislator, and discovers a + liberal concern for private and public happiness, seldom to be + found among the grovelling or visionary schemes of superstition. + Fasting and celibacy, the common means of purchasing the divine + favor, he condemns with abhorrence as a criminal rejection of the + best gifts of Providence. The saint, in the Magian religion, is + obliged to beget children, to plant useful trees, to destroy + noxious animals, to convey water to the dry lands of Persia, and + to work out his salvation by pursuing all the labors of + agriculture. * We may quote from the Zendavesta a wise and + benevolent maxim, which compensates for many an absurdity. “He + who sows the ground with care and diligence acquires a greater + stock of religious merit than he could gain by the repetition of + ten thousand prayers.” In the spring of every year a festival was + celebrated, destined to represent the primitive equality, and the + present connection, of mankind. The stately kings of Persia, + exchanging their vain pomp for more genuine greatness, freely + mingled with the humblest but most useful of their subjects. On + that day the husbandmen were admitted, without distinction, to + the table of the king and his satraps. The monarch accepted their + petitions, inquired into their grievances, and conversed with + them on the most equal terms. “From your labors,” was he + accustomed to say, (and to say with truth, if not with + sincerity,) “from your labors we receive our subsistence; you + derive your tranquillity from our vigilance: since, therefore, we + are mutually necessary to each other, let us live together like + brothers in concord and love.” Such a festival must indeed have + degenerated, in a wealthy and despotic empire, into a theatrical + representation; but it was at least a comedy well worthy of a + royal audience, and which might sometimes imprint a salutary + lesson on the mind of a young prince. + + Had Zoroaster, in all his institutions, invariably supported this + exalted character, his name would deserve a place with those of + Numa and Confucius, and his system would be justly entitled to + all the applause, which it has pleased some of our divines, and + even some of our philosophers, to bestow on it. But in that + motley composition, dictated by reason and passion, by enthusiasm + and by selfish motives, some useful and sublime truths were + disgraced by a mixture of the most abject and dangerous + superstition. The Magi, or sacerdotal order, were extremely + numerous, since, as we have already seen, fourscore thousand of + them were convened in a general council. Their forces were + multiplied by discipline. A regular hierarchy was diffused + through all the provinces of Persia; and the Archimagus, who + resided at Balch, was respected as the visible head of the + church, and the lawful successor of Zoroaster. The property of + the Magi was very considerable. Besides the less invidious + possession of a large tract of the most fertile lands of Media, + they levied a general tax on the fortunes and the industry of the + Persians. “Though your good works,” says the interested prophet, + “exceed in number the leaves of the trees, the drops of rain, the + stars in the heaven, or the sands on the sea-shore, they will all + be unprofitable to you, unless they are accepted by the + _destour_, or priest. To obtain the acceptation of this guide to + salvation, you must faithfully pay him _tithes_ of all you + possess, of your goods, of your lands, and of your money. If the + destour be satisfied, your soul will escape hell tortures; you + will secure praise in this world and happiness in the next. For + the destours are the teachers of religion; they know all things, + and they deliver all men.” * + + These convenient maxims of reverence and implicit faith were + doubtless imprinted with care on the tender minds of youth; since + the Magi were the masters of education in Persia, and to their + hands the children even of the royal family were intrusted. The + Persian priests, who were of a speculative genius, preserved and + investigated the secrets of Oriental philosophy; and acquired, + either by superior knowledge, or superior art, the reputation of + being well versed in some occult sciences, which have derived + their appellation from the Magi. Those of more active + dispositions mixed with the world in courts and cities; and it is + observed, that the administration of Artaxerxes was in a great + measure directed by the counsels of the sacerdotal order, whose + dignity, either from policy or devotion, that prince restored to + its ancient splendor. + + The first counsel of the Magi was agreeable to the unsociable + genius of their faith, to the practice of ancient kings, and even + to the example of their legislator, who had fallen a victim to a + religious war, excited by his own intolerant zeal. By an edict of + Artaxerxes, the exercise of every worship, except that of + Zoroaster, was severely prohibited. The temples of the Parthians, + and the statues of their deified monarchs, were thrown down with + ignominy. The sword of Aristotle (such was the name given by the + Orientals to the polytheism and philosophy of the Greeks) was + easily broken; the flames of persecution soon reached the more + stubborn Jews and Christians; nor did they spare the heretics of + their own nation and religion. The majesty of Ormusd, who was + jealous of a rival, was seconded by the despotism of Artaxerxes, + who could not suffer a rebel; and the schismatics within his vast + empire were soon reduced to the inconsiderable number of eighty + thousand. * This spirit of persecution reflects dishonor on the + religion of Zoroaster; but as it was not productive of any civil + commotion, it served to strengthen the new monarchy, by uniting + all the various inhabitants of Persia in the bands of religious + zeal. + + II. Artaxerxes, by his valor and conduct, had wrested the sceptre + of the East from the ancient royal family of Parthia. There still + remained the more difficult task of establishing, throughout the + vast extent of Persia, a uniform and vigorous administration. The + weak indulgence of the Arsacides had resigned to their sons and + brothers the principal provinces, and the greatest offices of the + kingdom in the nature of hereditary possessions. The _vitaxæ_, or + eighteen most powerful satraps, were permitted to assume the + regal title; and the vain pride of the monarch was delighted with + a nominal dominion over so many vassal kings. Even tribes of + barbarians in their mountains, and the Greek cities of Upper + Asia, within their walls, scarcely acknowledged, or seldom + obeyed, any superior; and the Parthian empire exhibited, under + other names, a lively image of the feudal system which has since + prevailed in Europe. But the active victor, at the head of a + numerous and disciplined army, visited in person every province + of Persia. The defeat of the boldest rebels, and the reduction of + the strongest fortifications, diffused the terror of his arms, + and prepared the way for the peaceful reception of his authority. + An obstinate resistance was fatal to the chiefs; but their + followers were treated with lenity. A cheerful submission was + rewarded with honors and riches, but the prudent Artaxerxes, + suffering no person except himself to assume the title of king, + abolished every intermediate power between the throne and the + people. His kingdom, nearly equal in extent to modern Persia, + was, on every side, bounded by the sea, or by great rivers; by + the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Araxes, the Oxus, and the Indus, + by the Caspian Sea, and the Gulf of Persia. That country was + computed to contain, in the last century, five hundred and + fifty-four cities, sixty thousand villages, and about forty + millions of souls. If we compare the administration of the house + of Sassan with that of the house of Sefi, the political influence + of the Magian with that of the Mahometan religion, we shall + probably infer, that the kingdom of Artaxerxes contained at least + as great a number of cities, villages, and inhabitants. But it + must likewise be confessed, that in every age the want of harbors + on the sea-coast, and the scarcity of fresh water in the inland + provinces, have been very unfavorable to the commerce and + agriculture of the Persians; who, in the calculation of their + numbers, seem to have indulged one of the meanest, though most + common, artifices of national vanity. + + As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxerxes had triumphed ever + the resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the + neighboring states, who, during the long slumber of his + predecessors, had insulted Persia with impunity. He obtained some + easy victories over the wild Scythians and the effeminate + Indians; but the Romans were an enemy, who, by their past + injuries and present power, deserved the utmost efforts of his + arms. A forty years’ tranquillity, the fruit of valor and + moderation, had succeeded the victories of Trajan. During the + period that elapsed from the accession of Marcus to the reign of + Alexander, the Roman and the Parthian empires were twice engaged + in war; and although the whole strength of the Arsacides + contended with a part only of the forces of Rome, the event was + most commonly in favor of the latter. Macrinus, indeed, prompted + by his precarious situation and pusillanimous temper, purchased a + peace at the expense of near two millions of our money; but the + generals of Marcus, the emperor Severus, and his son, erected + many trophies in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Among their + exploits, the imperfect relation of which would have unseasonably + interrupted the more important series of domestic revolutions, we + shall only mention the repeated calamities of the two great + cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. + + Seleucia, on the western bank of the Tigris, about forty-five + miles to the north of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the + Macedonian conquests in Upper Asia. Many ages after the fall of + their empire, Seleucia retained the genuine characters of a + Grecian colony, arts, military virtue, and the love of freedom. + The independent republic was governed by a senate of three + hundred nobles; the people consisted of six hundred thousand + citizens; the walls were strong, and as long as concord prevailed + among the several orders of the state, they viewed with contempt + the power of the Parthian: but the madness of faction was + sometimes provoked to implore the dangerous aid of the common + enemy, who was posted almost at the gates of the colony. The + Parthian monarchs, like the Mogul sovereigns of Hindostan, + delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian ancestors; and + the Imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain of + Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, at the distance of + only three miles from Seleucia. The innumerable attendants on + luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and the little + village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city. Under + the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as + Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the + Greek colony; they attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian + kings; yet both cities experienced the same treatment. The sack + and conflagration of Seleucia, with the massacre of three hundred + thousand of the inhabitants, tarnished the glory of the Roman + triumph. Seleucia, already exhausted by the neighborhood of a too + powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in + about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered its strength + to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The + city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in + person, escaped with precipitation; a hundred thousand captives, + and a rich booty, rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. + Notwithstanding these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon + and to Seleucia, as one of the great capitals of the East. In + summer, the monarch of Persia enjoyed at Ecbatana the cool + breezes of the mountains of Media; but the mildness of the + climate engaged him to prefer Ctesiphon for his winter residence. + + From these successful inroads the Romans derived no real or + lasting benefit; nor did they attempt to preserve such distant + conquests, separated from the provinces of the empire by a large + tract of intermediate desert. The reduction of the kingdom of + Osrhoene was an acquisition of less splendor indeed, but of a far + more solid advantage. That little state occupied the northern and + most fertile part of Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the + Tigris. Edessa, its capital, was situated about twenty miles + beyond the former of those rivers; and the inhabitants, since the + time of Alexander, were a mixed race of Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, + and Armenians. The feeble sovereigns of Osrhoene, placed on the + dangerous verge of two contending empires, were attached from + inclination to the Parthian cause; but the superior power of Rome + exacted from them a reluctant homage, which is still attested by + their medals. After the conclusion of the Parthian war under + Marcus, it was judged prudent to secure some substantial pledges + of their doubtful fidelity. Forts were constructed in several + parts of the country, and a Roman garrison was fixed in the + strong town of Nisibis. During the troubles that followed the + death of Commodus, the princes of Osrhoene attempted to shake off + the yoke; but the stern policy of Severus confirmed their + dependence, and the perfidy of Caracalla completed the easy + conquest. Abgarus, the last king of Edessa, was sent in chains to + Rome, his dominions reduced into a province, and his capital + dignified with the rank of colony; and thus the Romans, about ten + years before the fall of the Parthian monarchy, obtained a firm + and permanent establishment beyond the Euphrates. + + Prudence as well as glory might have justified a war on the side + of Artaxerxes, had his views been confined to the defence or + acquisition of a useful frontier. but the ambitious Persian + openly avowed a far more extensive design of conquest; and he + thought himself able to support his lofty pretensions by the arms + of reason as well as by those of power. Cyrus, he alleged, had + first subdued, and his successors had for a long time possessed, + the whole extent of Asia, as far as the Propontis and the Ægean + Sea; the provinces of Caria and Ionia, under their empire, had + been governed by Persian satraps, and all Egypt, to the confines + of Æthiopia, had acknowledged their sovereignty. Their rights had + been suspended, but not destroyed, by a long usurpation; and as + soon as he received the Persian diadem, which birth and + successful valor had placed upon his head, the first great duty + of his station called upon him to restore the ancient limits and + splendor of the monarchy. The Great King, therefore, (such was + the haughty style of his embassies to the emperor Alexander,) + commanded the Romans instantly to depart from all the provinces + of his ancestors, and, yielding to the Persians the empire of + Asia, to content themselves with the undisturbed possession of + Europe. This haughty mandate was delivered by four hundred of the + tallest and most beautiful of the Persians; who, by their fine + horses, splendid arms, and rich apparel, displayed the pride and + greatness of their master. Such an embassy was much less an offer + of negotiation than a declaration of war. Both Alexander Severus + and Artaxerxes, collecting the military force of the Roman and + Persian monarchies, resolved in this important contest to lead + their armies in person. + + If we credit what should seem the most authentic of all records, + an oration, still extant, and delivered by the emperor himself to + the senate, we must allow that the victory of Alexander Severus + was not inferior to any of those formerly obtained over the + Persians by the son of Philip. The army of the Great King + consisted of one hundred and twenty thousand horse, clothed in + complete armor of steel; of seven hundred elephants, with towers + filled with archers on their backs, and of eighteen hundred + chariots armed with scythes. This formidable host, the like of + which is not to be found in eastern history, and has scarcely + been imagined in eastern romance, was discomfited in a great + battle, in which the Roman Alexander proved himself an intrepid + soldier and a skilful general. The Great King fled before his + valor; an immense booty, and the conquest of Mesopotamia, were + the immediate fruits of this signal victory. Such are the + circumstances of this ostentatious and improbable relation, + dictated, as it too plainly appears, by the vanity of the + monarch, adorned by the unblushing servility of his flatterers, + and received without contradiction by a distant and obsequious + senate. Far from being inclined to believe that the arms of + Alexander obtained any memorable advantage over the Persians, we + are induced to suspect that all this blaze of imaginary glory was + designed to conceal some real disgrace. + + Our suspicions are confirmed by the authority of a contemporary + historian, who mentions the virtues of Alexander with respect, + and his faults with candor. He describes the judicious plan which + had been formed for the conduct of the war. Three Roman armies + were destined to invade Persia at the same time, and by different + roads. But the operations of the campaign, though wisely + concerted, were not executed either with ability or success. The + first of these armies, as soon as it had entered the marshy + plains of Babylon, towards the artificial conflux of the + Euphrates and the Tigris, was encompassed by the superior + numbers, and destroyed by the arrows of the enemy. The alliance + of Chosroes, king of Armenia, and the long tract of mountainous + country, in which the Persian cavalry was of little service, + opened a secure entrance into the heart of Media, to the second + of the Roman armies. These brave troops laid waste the adjacent + provinces, and by several successful actions against Artaxerxes, + gave a faint color to the emperor’s vanity. But the retreat of + this victorious army was imprudent, or at least unfortunate. In + repassing the mountains, great numbers of soldiers perished by + the badness of the roads, and the severity of the winter season. + It had been resolved, that whilst these two great detachments + penetrated into the opposite extremes of the Persian dominions, + the main body, under the command of Alexander himself, should + support their attack, by invading the centre of the kingdom. But + the unexperienced youth, influenced by his mother’s counsels, and + perhaps by his own fears, deserted the bravest troops, and the + fairest prospect of victory; and after consuming in Mesopotamia + an inactive and inglorious summer, he led back to Antioch an army + diminished by sickness, and provoked by disappointment. The + behavior of Artaxerxes had been very different. Flying with + rapidity from the hills of Media to the marshes of the Euphrates, + he had everywhere opposed the invaders in person; and in either + fortune had united with the ablest conduct the most undaunted + resolution. But in several obstinate engagements against the + veteran legions of Rome, the Persian monarch had lost the flower + of his troops. Even his victories had weakened his power. The + favorable opportunities of the absence of Alexander, and of the + confusions that followed that emperor’s death, presented + themselves in vain to his ambition. Instead of expelling the + Romans, as he pretended, from the continent of Asia, he found + himself unable to wrest from their hands the little province of + Mesopotamia. + + The reign of Artaxerxes, which, from the last defeat of the + Parthians, lasted only fourteen years, forms a memorable æra in + the history of the East, and even in that of Rome. His character + seems to have been marked by those bold and commanding features, + that generally distinguish the princes who conquer, from those + who inherit, an empire. Till the last period of the Persian + monarchy, his code of laws was respected as the groundwork of + their civil and religious policy. Several of his sayings are + preserved. One of them in particular discovers a deep insight + into the constitution of government. “The authority of the + prince,” said Artaxerxes, “must be defended by a military force; + that force can only be maintained by taxes; all taxes must, at + last, fall upon agriculture; and agriculture can never flourish + except under the protection of justice and moderation.” + Artaxerxes bequeathed his new empire, and his ambitious designs + against the Romans, to Sapor, a son not unworthy of his great + father; but those designs were too extensive for the power of + Persia, and served only to involve both nations in a long series + of destructive wars and reciprocal calamities. + + The Persians, long since civilized and corrupted, were very far + from possessing the martial independence, and the intrepid + hardiness, both of mind and body, which have rendered the + northern barbarians masters of the world. The science of war, + that constituted the more rational force of Greece and Rome, as + it now does of Europe, never made any considerable progress in + the East. Those disciplined evolutions which harmonize and + animate a confused multitude, were unknown to the Persians. They + were equally unskilled in the arts of constructing, besieging, or + defending regular fortifications. They trusted more to their + numbers than to their courage; more to their courage than to + their discipline. The infantry was a half-armed, spiritless crowd + of peasants, levied in haste by the allurements of plunder, and + as easily dispersed by a victory as by a defeat. The monarch and + his nobles transported into the camp the pride and luxury of the + seraglio. Their military operations were impeded by a useless + train of women, eunuchs, horses, and camels; and in the midst of + a successful campaign, the Persian host was often separated or + destroyed by an unexpected famine. + + But the nobles of Persia, in the bosom of luxury and despotism, + preserved a strong sense of personal gallantry and national + honor. From the age of seven years they were taught to speak + truth, to shoot with the bow, and to ride; and it was universally + confessed that in the two last of these arts they had made a more + than common proficiency. The most distinguished youth were + educated under the monarch’s eye, practised their exercises in + the gate of his palace, and were severely trained up to the + habits of temperance and obedience, in their long and laborious + parties of hunting. In every province, the satrap maintained a + like school of military virtue. The Persian nobles (so natural is + the idea of feudal tenures) received from the king’s bounty lands + and houses, on the condition of their service in war. They were + ready on the first summons to mount on horseback, with a martial + and splendid train of followers, and to join the numerous bodies + of guards, who were carefully selected from among the most robust + slaves, and the bravest adventurers of Asia. These armies, both + of light and of heavy cavalry, equally formidable by the + impetuosity of their charge and the rapidity of their motions, + threatened, as an impending cloud, the eastern provinces of the + declining empire of Rome. + + + + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. + +The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In The Time Of +The Emperor Decius. + + The government and religion of Persia have deserved some notice, + from their connection with the decline and fall of the Roman + empire. We shall occasionally mention the Scythian or Sarmatian + tribes, * which, with their arms and horses, their flocks and + herds, their wives and families, wandered over the immense plains + which spread themselves from the Caspian Sea to the Vistula, from + the confines of Persia to those of Germany. But the warlike + Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and at length + overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a much more + important place in this history, and possess a stronger, and, if + we may use the expression, a more domestic, claim to our + attention and regard. The most civilized nations of modern Europe + issued from the woods of Germany; and in the rude institutions of + those barbarians we may still distinguish the original principles + of our present laws and manners. In their primitive state of + simplicity and independence, the Germans were surveyed by the + discerning eye, and delineated by the masterly pencil, of + Tacitus, the first of historians who applied the science of + philosophy to the study of facts. The expressive conciseness of + his descriptions has served to exercise the diligence of + innumerable antiquarians, and to excite the genius and + penetration of the philosophic historians of our own times. The + subject, however various and important, has already been so + frequently, so ably, and so successfully discussed, that it is + now grown familiar to the reader, and difficult to the writer. We + shall therefore content ourselves with observing, and indeed with + repeating, some of the most important circumstances of climate, + of manners, and of institutions, which rendered the wild + barbarians of Germany such formidable enemies to the Roman power. + + Ancient Germany, excluding from its independent limits the + province westward of the Rhine, which had submitted to the Roman + yoke, extended itself over a third part of Europe. Almost the + whole of modern Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, + Livonia, Prussia, and the greater part of Poland, were peopled by + the various tribes of one great nation, whose complexion, + manners, and language denoted a common origin, and preserved a + striking resemblance. On the west, ancient Germany was divided by + the Rhine from the Gallic, and on the south, by the Danube, from + the Illyrian, provinces of the empire. A ridge of hills, rising + from the Danube, and called the Carpathian Mountains, covered + Germany on the side of Dacia or Hungary. The eastern frontier was + faintly marked by the mutual fears of the Germans and the + Sarmatians, and was often confounded by the mixture of warring + and confederating tribes of the two nations. In the remote + darkness of the north, the ancients imperfectly descried a frozen + ocean that lay beyond the Baltic Sea, and beyond the Peninsula, + or islands of Scandinavia. + + Some ingenious writers have suspected that Europe was much colder + formerly than it is at present; and the most ancient descriptions + of the climate of Germany tend exceedingly to confirm their + theory. The general complaints of intense frost and eternal + winter are perhaps little to be regarded, since we have no method + of reducing to the accurate standard of the thermometer, the + feelings, or the expressions, of an orator born in the happier + regions of Greece or Asia. But I shall select two remarkable + circumstances of a less equivocal nature. 1. The great rivers + which covered the Roman provinces, the Rhine and the Danube, were + frequently frozen over, and capable of supporting the most + enormous weights. The barbarians, who often chose that severe + season for their inroads, transported, without apprehension or + danger, their numerous armies, their cavalry, and their heavy + wagons, over a vast and solid bridge of ice. Modern ages have not + presented an instance of a like phenomenon. 2. The reindeer, that + useful animal, from whom the savage of the North derives the best + comforts of his dreary life, is of a constitution that supports, + and even requires, the most intense cold. He is found on the rock + of Spitzberg, within ten degrees of the Pole; he seems to delight + in the snows of Lapland and Siberia: but at present he cannot + subsist, much less multiply, in any country to the south of the + Baltic. In the time of Cæsar the reindeer, as well as the elk and + the wild bull, was a native of the Hercynian forest, which then + overshadowed a great part of Germany and Poland. The modern + improvements sufficiently explain the causes of the diminution of + the cold. These immense woods have been gradually cleared, which + intercepted from the earth the rays of the sun. The morasses have + been drained, and, in proportion as the soil has been cultivated, + the air has become more temperate. Canada, at this day, is an + exact picture of ancient Germany. Although situated in the same + parallel with the finest provinces of France and England, that + country experiences the most rigorous cold. The reindeer are very + numerous, the ground is covered with deep and lasting snow, and + the great river of St. Lawrence is regularly frozen, in a season + when the waters of the Seine and the Thames are usually free from + ice. + + It is difficult to ascertain, and easy to exaggerate, the + influence of the climate of ancient Germany over the minds and + bodies of the natives. Many writers have supposed, and most have + allowed, though, as it should seem, without any adequate proof, + that the rigorous cold of the North was favorable to long life + and generative vigor, that the women were more fruitful, and the + human species more prolific, than in warmer or more temperate + climates. We may assert, with greater confidence, that the keen + air of Germany formed the large and masculine limbs of the + natives, who were, in general, of a more lofty stature than the + people of the South, gave them a kind of strength better adapted + to violent exertions than to patient labor, and inspired them + with constitutional bravery, which is the result of nerves and + spirits. The severity of a winter campaign, that chilled the + courage of the Roman troops, was scarcely felt by these hardy + children of the North, who, in their turn, were unable to resist + the summer heats, and dissolved away in languor and sickness + under the beams of an Italian sun. + + + + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part II. + + There is not anywhere upon the globe a large tract of country, + which we have discovered destitute of inhabitants, or whose first + population can be fixed with any degree of historical certainty. + And yet, as the most philosophic minds can seldom refrain from + investigating the infancy of great nations, our curiosity + consumes itself in toilsome and disappointed efforts. When + Tacitus considered the purity of the German blood, and the + forbidding aspect of the country, he was disposed to pronounce + those barbarians _Indigenæ_, or natives of the soil. We may allow + with safety, and perhaps with truth, that ancient Germany was not + originally peopled by any foreign colonies already formed into a + political society; but that the name and nation received their + existence from the gradual union of some wandering savages of the + Hercynian woods. To assert those savages to have been the + spontaneous production of the earth which they inhabited would be + a rash inference, condemned by religion, and unwarranted by + reason. + + Such rational doubt is but ill suited with the genius of popular + vanity. Among the nations who have adopted the Mosaic history of + the world, the ark of Noah has been of the same use, as was + formerly to the Greeks and Romans the siege of Troy. On a narrow + basis of acknowledged truth, an immense but rude superstructure + of fable has been erected; and the wild Irishman, as well as the + wild Tartar, could point out the individual son of Japhet, from + whose loins his ancestors were lineally descended. The last + century abounded with antiquarians of profound learning and easy + faith, who, by the dim light of legends and traditions, of + conjectures and etymologies, conducted the great grandchildren of + Noah from the Tower of Babel to the extremities of the globe. Of + these judicious critics, one of the most entertaining was Olaus + Rudbeck, professor in the university of Upsal. Whatever is + celebrated either in history or fable this zealous patriot + ascribes to his country. From Sweden (which formed so + considerable a part of ancient Germany) the Greeks themselves + derived their alphabetical characters, their astronomy, and their + religion. Of that delightful region (for such it appeared to the + eyes of a native) the Atlantis of Plato, the country of the + Hyperboreans, the gardens of the Hesperides, the Fortunate + Islands, and even the Elysian Fields, were all but faint and + imperfect transcripts. A clime so profusely favored by Nature + could not long remain desert after the flood. The learned Rudbeck + allows the family of Noah a few years to multiply from eight to + about twenty thousand persons. He then disperses them into small + colonies to replenish the earth, and to propagate the human + species. The German or Swedish detachment (which marched, if I am + not mistaken, under the command of Askenaz, the son of Gomer, the + son of Japhet) distinguished itself by a more than common + diligence in the prosecution of this great work. The northern + hive cast its swarms over the greatest part of Europe, Africa, + and Asia; and (to use the author’s metaphor) the blood circulated + from the extremities to the heart. + + But all this well-labored system of German antiquities is + annihilated by a single fact, too well attested to admit of any + doubt, and of too decisive a nature to leave room for any reply. + The Germans, in the age of Tacitus, were unacquainted with the + use of letters; and the use of letters is the principal + circumstance that distinguishes a civilized people from a herd of + savages incapable of knowledge or reflection. Without that + artificial help, the human memory soon dissipates or corrupts the + ideas intrusted to her charge; and the nobler faculties of the + mind, no longer supplied with models or with materials, gradually + forget their powers; the judgment becomes feeble and lethargic, + the imagination languid or irregular. Fully to apprehend this + important truth, let us attempt, in an improved society, to + calculate the immense distance between the man of learning and + the _illiterate_ peasant. The former, by reading and reflection, + multiplies his own experience, and lives in distant ages and + remote countries; whilst the latter, rooted to a single spot, and + confined to a few years of existence, surpasses but very little + his fellow-laborer, the ox, in the exercise of his mental + faculties. The same, and even a greater, difference will be found + between nations than between individuals; and we may safely + pronounce, that without some species of writing, no people has + ever preserved the faithful annals of their history, ever made + any considerable progress in the abstract sciences, or ever + possessed, in any tolerable degree of perfection, the useful and + agreeable arts of life. + + Of these arts, the ancient Germans were wretchedly destitute. + They passed their lives in a state of ignorance and poverty, + which it has pleased some declaimers to dignify with the + appellation of virtuous simplicity. * Modern Germany is said to + contain about two thousand three hundred walled towns. In a much + wider extent of country, the geographer Ptolemy could discover no + more than ninety places which he decorates with the name of + cities; though, according to our ideas, they would but ill + deserve that splendid title. We can only suppose them to have + been rude fortifications, constructed in the centre of the woods, + and designed to secure the women, children, and cattle, whilst + the warriors of the tribe marched out to repel a sudden invasion. + But Tacitus asserts, as a well-known fact, that the Germans, in + his time, had _no_ cities; and that they affected to despise the + works of Roman industry, as places of confinement rather than of + security. Their edifices were not even contiguous, or formed into + regular villas; each barbarian fixed his independent dwelling on + the spot to which a plain, a wood, or a stream of fresh water, + had induced him to give the preference. Neither stone, nor brick, + nor tiles, were employed in these slight habitations. They were + indeed no more than low huts, of a circular figure, built of + rough timber, thatched with straw, and pierced at the top to + leave a free passage for the smoke. In the most inclement winter, + the hardy German was satisfied with a scanty garment made of the + skin of some animal. The nations who dwelt towards the North + clothed themselves in furs; and the women manufactured for their + own use a coarse kind of linen. The game of various sorts, with + which the forests of Germany were plentifully stocked, supplied + its inhabitants with food and exercise. Their monstrous herds of + cattle, less remarkable indeed for their beauty than for their + utility, formed the principal object of their wealth. A small + quantity of corn was the only produce exacted from the earth; the + use of orchards or artificial meadows was unknown to the Germans; + nor can we expect any improvements in agriculture from a people, + whose prosperity every year experienced a general change by a new + division of the arable lands, and who, in that strange operation, + avoided disputes, by suffering a great part of their territory to + lie waste and without tillage. + + Gold, silver, and iron, were extremely scarce in Germany. Its + barbarous inhabitants wanted both skill and patience to + investigate those rich veins of silver, which have so liberally + rewarded the attention of the princes of Brunswick and Saxony. + Sweden, which now supplies Europe with iron, was equally ignorant + of its own riches; and the appearance of the arms of the Germans + furnished a sufficient proof how little iron they were able to + bestow on what they must have deemed the noblest use of that + metal. The various transactions of peace and war had introduced + some Roman coins (chiefly silver) among the borderers of the + Rhine and Danube; but the more distant tribes were absolutely + unacquainted with the use of money, carried on their confined + traffic by the exchange of commodities, and prized their rude + earthen vessels as of equal value with the silver vases, the + presents of Rome to their princes and ambassadors. To a mind + capable of reflection, such leading facts convey more + instruction, than a tedious detail of subordinate circumstances. + The value of money has been settled by general consent to express + our wants and our property, as letters were invented to express + our ideas; and both these institutions, by giving a more active + energy to the powers and passions of human nature, have + contributed to multiply the objects they were designed to + represent. The use of gold and silver is in a great measure + factitious; but it would be impossible to enumerate the important + and various services which agriculture, and all the arts, have + received from iron, when tempered and fashioned by the operation + of fire and the dexterous hand of man. Money, in a word, is the + most universal incitement, iron the most powerful instrument, of + human industry; and it is very difficult to conceive by what + means a people, neither actuated by the one, nor seconded by the + other, could emerge from the grossest barbarism. + + If we contemplate a savage nation in any part of the globe, a + supine indolence and a carelessness of futurity will be found to + constitute their general character. In a civilized state every + faculty of man is expanded and exercised; and the great chain of + mutual dependence connects and embraces the several members of + society. The most numerous portion of it is employed in constant + and useful labor. The select few, placed by fortune above that + necessity, can, however, fill up their time by the pursuits of + interest or glory, by the improvement of their estate or of their + understanding, by the duties, the pleasures, and even the follies + of social life. The Germans were not possessed of these varied + resources. The care of the house and family, the management of + the land and cattle, were delegated to the old and the infirm, to + women and slaves. The lazy warrior, destitute of every art that + might employ his leisure hours, consumed his days and nights in + the animal gratifications of sleep and food. And yet, by a + wonderful diversity of nature, (according to the remark of a + writer who had pierced into its darkest recesses,) the same + barbarians are by turns the most indolent and the most restless + of mankind. They delight in sloth, they detest tranquility. The + languid soul, oppressed with its own weight, anxiously required + some new and powerful sensation; and war and danger were the only + amusements adequate to its fierce temper. The sound that summoned + the German to arms was grateful to his ear. It roused him from + his uncomfortable lethargy, gave him an active pursuit, and, by + strong exercise of the body, and violent emotions of the mind, + restored him to a more lively sense of his existence. In the dull + intervals of peace, these barbarians were immoderately addicted + to deep gaming and excessive drinking; both of which, by + different means, the one by inflaming their passions, the other + by extinguishing their reason, alike relieved them from the pain + of thinking. They gloried in passing whole days and nights at + table; and the blood of friends and relations often stained their + numerous and drunken assemblies. Their debts of honor (for in + that light they have transmitted to us those of play) they + discharged with the most romantic fidelity. The desperate + gamester, who had staked his person and liberty on a last throw + of the dice, patiently submitted to the decision of fortune, and + suffered himself to be bound, chastised, and sold into remote + slavery, by his weaker but more lucky antagonist. + + Strong beer, a liquor extracted with very little art from wheat + or barley, and _corrupted_ (as it is strongly expressed by + Tacitus) into a certain semblance of wine, was sufficient for the + gross purposes of German debauchery. But those who had tasted the + rich wines of Italy, and afterwards of Gaul, sighed for that more + delicious species of intoxication. They attempted not, however, + (as has since been executed with so much success,) to naturalize + the vine on the banks of the Rhine and Danube; nor did they + endeavor to procure by industry the materials of an advantageous + commerce. To solicit by labor what might be ravished by arms, was + esteemed unworthy of the German spirit. The intemperate thirst of + strong liquors often urged the barbarians to invade the provinces + on which art or nature had bestowed those much envied presents. + The Tuscan who betrayed his country to the Celtic nations, + attracted them into Italy by the prospect of the rich fruits and + delicious wines, the productions of a happier climate. And in the + same manner the German auxiliaries, invited into France during + the civil wars of the sixteenth century, were allured by the + promise of plenteous quarters in the provinces of Champaigne and + Burgundy. Drunkenness, the most illiberal, but not the most + dangerous of our _vices_, was sometimes capable, in a less + civilized state of mankind, of occasioning a battle, a war, or a + revolution. + + The climate of ancient Germany has been modified, and the soil + fertilized, by the labor of ten centuries from the time of + Charlemagne. The same extent of ground which at present + maintains, in ease and plenty, a million of husbandmen and + artificers, was unable to supply a hundred thousand lazy warriors + with the simple necessaries of life. The Germans abandoned their + immense forests to the exercise of hunting, employed in pasturage + the most considerable part of their lands, bestowed on the small + remainder a rude and careless cultivation, and then accused the + scantiness and sterility of a country that refused to maintain + the multitude of its inhabitants. When the return of famine + severely admonished them of the importance of the arts, the + national distress was sometimes alleviated by the emigration of a + third, perhaps, or a fourth part of their youth. The possession + and the enjoyment of property are the pledges which bind a + civilized people to an improved country. But the Germans, who + carried with them what they most valued, their arms, their + cattle, and their women, cheerfully abandoned the vast silence of + their woods for the unbounded hopes of plunder and conquest. The + innumerable swarms that issued, or seemed to issue, from the + great storehouse of nations, were multiplied by the fears of the + vanquished, and by the credulity of succeeding ages. And from + facts thus exaggerated, an opinion was gradually established, and + has been supported by writers of distinguished reputation, that, + in the age of Cæsar and Tacitus, the inhabitants of the North + were far more numerous than they are in our days. A more serious + inquiry into the causes of population seems to have convinced + modern philosophers of the falsehood, and indeed the + impossibility, of the supposition. To the names of Mariana and of + Machiavel, we can oppose the equal names of Robertson and Hume. + + A warlike nation like the Germans, without either cities, + letters, arts, or money, found some compensation for this savage + state in the enjoyment of liberty. Their poverty secured their + freedom, since our desires and our possessions are the strongest + fetters of despotism. “Among the Suiones (says Tacitus) riches + are held in honor. They are _therefore_ subject to an absolute + monarch, who, instead of intrusting his people with the free use + of arms, as is practised in the rest of Germany, commits them to + the safe custody, not of a citizen, or even of a freedman, but of + a slave. The neighbors of the Suiones, the Sitones, are sunk even + below servitude; they obey a woman.” In the mention of these + exceptions, the great historian sufficiently acknowledges the + general theory of government. We are only at a loss to conceive + by what means riches and despotism could penetrate into a remote + corner of the North, and extinguish the generous flame that + blazed with such fierceness on the frontier of the Roman + provinces, or how the ancestors of those Danes and Norwegians, so + distinguished in latter ages by their unconquered spirit, could + thus tamely resign the great character of German liberty. Some + tribes, however, on the coast of the Baltic, acknowledged the + authority of kings, though without relinquishing the rights of + men, but in the far greater part of Germany, the form of + government was a democracy, tempered, indeed, and controlled, not + so much by general and positive laws, as by the occasional + ascendant of birth or valor, of eloquence or superstition. + + Civil governments, in their first institution, are voluntary + associations for mutual defence. To obtain the desired end, it is + absolutely necessary that each individual should conceive himself + obliged to submit his private opinions and actions to the + judgment of the greater number of his associates. The German + tribes were contented with this rude but liberal outline of + political society. As soon as a youth, born of free parents, had + attained the age of manhood, he was introduced into the general + council of his countrymen, solemnly invested with a shield and + spear, and adopted as an equal and worthy member of the military + commonwealth. The assembly of the warriors of the tribe was + convened at stated seasons, or on sudden emergencies. The trial + of public offences, the election of magistrates, and the great + business of peace and war, were determined by its independent + voice. Sometimes indeed, these important questions were + previously considered and prepared in a more select council of + the principal chieftains. The magistrates might deliberate and + persuade, the people only could resolve and execute; and the + resolutions of the Germans were for the most part hasty and + violent. Barbarians accustomed to place their freedom in + gratifying the present passion, and their courage in overlooking + all future consequences, turned away with indignant contempt from + the remonstrances of justice and policy, and it was the practice + to signify by a hollow murmur their dislike of such timid + counsels. But whenever a more popular orator proposed to + vindicate the meanest citizen from either foreign or domestic + injury, whenever he called upon his fellow-countrymen to assert + the national honor, or to pursue some enterprise full of danger + and glory, a loud clashing of shields and spears expressed the + eager applause of the assembly. For the Germans always met in + arms, and it was constantly to be dreaded, lest an irregular + multitude, inflamed with faction and strong liquors, should use + those arms to enforce, as well as to declare, their furious + resolves. We may recollect how often the diets of Poland have + been polluted with blood, and the more numerous party has been + compelled to yield to the more violent and seditious. + + A general of the tribe was elected on occasions of danger; and, + if the danger was pressing and extensive, several tribes + concurred in the choice of the same general. The bravest warrior + was named to lead his countrymen into the field, by his example + rather than by his commands. But this power, however limited, was + still invidious. It expired with the war, and in time of peace + the German tribes acknowledged not any supreme chief. Princes + were, however, appointed, in the general assembly, to administer + justice, or rather to compose differences, in their respective + districts. In the choice of these magistrates, as much regard was + shown to birth as to merit. To each was assigned, by the public, + a guard, and a council of a hundred persons, and the first of the + princes appears to have enjoyed a preeminence of rank and honor + which sometimes tempted the Romans to compliment him with the + regal title. + + The comparative view of the powers of the magistrates, in two + remarkable instances, is alone sufficient to represent the whole + system of German manners. The disposal of the landed property + within their district was absolutely vested in their hands, and + they distributed it every year according to a new division. At + the same time they were not authorized to punish with death, to + imprison, or even to strike a private citizen. A people thus + jealous of their persons, and careless of their possessions, must + have been totally destitute of industry and the arts, but + animated with a high sense of honor and independence. + + + + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part III. + + The Germans respected only those duties which they imposed on + themselves. The most obscure soldier resisted with disdain the + authority of the magistrates. ”The noblest youths blushed not to + be numbered among the faithful companions of some renowned chief, + to whom they devoted their arms and service. A noble emulation + prevailed among the companions to obtain the first place in the + esteem of their chief; amongst the chiefs, to acquire the + greatest number of valiant companions. To be ever surrounded by a + band of select youths was the pride and strength of the chiefs, + their ornament in peace, their defence in war. The glory of such + distinguished heroes diffused itself beyond the narrow limits of + their own tribe. Presents and embassies solicited their + friendship, and the fame of their arms often insured victory to + the party which they espoused. In the hour of danger it was + shameful for the chief to be surpassed in valor by his + companions; shameful for the companions not to equal the valor of + their chief. To survive his fall in battle was indelible infamy. + To protect his person, and to adorn his glory with the trophies + of their own exploits, were the most sacred of their duties. The + chiefs combated for victory, the companions for the chief. The + noblest warriors, whenever their native country was sunk into the + laziness of peace, maintained their numerous bands in some + distant scene of action, to exercise their restless spirit, and + to acquire renown by voluntary dangers. Gifts worthy of + soldiers—the warlike steed, the bloody and ever victorious + lance—were the rewards which the companions claimed from the + liberality of their chief. The rude plenty of his hospitable + board was the only pay that _he_could bestow, or _they_ would + accept. War, rapine, and the free-will offerings of his friends, + supplied the materials of this munificence.” This institution, + however it might accidentally weaken the several republics, + invigorated the general character of the Germans, and even + ripened amongst them all the virtues of which barbarians are + susceptible; the faith and valor, the hospitality and the + courtesy, so conspicuous long afterwards in the ages of chivalry. + The honorable gifts, bestowed by the chief on his brave + companions, have been supposed, by an ingenious writer, to + contain the first rudiments of the fiefs, distributed after the + conquest of the Roman provinces, by the barbarian lords among + their vassals, with a similar duty of homage and military + service. These conditions are, however, very repugnant to the + maxims of the ancient Germans, who delighted in mutual presents, + but without either imposing, or accepting, the weight of + obligations. + + “In the days of chivalry, or more properly of romance, all the + men were brave and all the women were chaste;” and + notwithstanding the latter of these virtues is acquired and + preserved with much more difficulty than the former, it is + ascribed, almost without exception, to the wives of the ancient + Germans. Polygamy was not in use, except among the princes, and + among them only for the sake of multiplying their alliances. + Divorces were prohibited by manners rather than by laws. + Adulteries were punished as rare and inexpiable crimes; nor was + seduction justified by example and fashion. We may easily + discover that Tacitus indulges an honest pleasure in the contrast + of barbarian virtue with the dissolute conduct of the Roman + ladies; yet there are some striking circumstances that give an + air of truth, or at least probability, to the conjugal faith and + chastity of the Germans. + + Although the progress of civilization has undoubtedly contributed + to assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have + been less favorable to the virtue of chastity, whose most + dangerous enemy is the softness of the mind. The refinements of + life corrupt while they polish the intercourse of the sexes. The + gross appetite of love becomes most dangerous when it is + elevated, or rather, indeed, disguised by sentimental passion. + The elegance of dress, of motion, and of manners, gives a lustre + to beauty, and inflames the senses through the imagination. + Luxurious entertainments, midnight dances, and licentious + spectacles, present at once temptation and opportunity to female + frailty. From such dangers the unpolished wives of the barbarians + were secured by poverty, solitude, and the painful cares of a + domestic life. The German huts, open, on every side, to the eye + of indiscretion or jealousy, were a better safeguard of conjugal + fidelity than the walls, the bolts, and the eunuchs of a Persian + harem. To this reason another may be added of a more honorable + nature. The Germans treated their women with esteem and + confidence, consulted them on every occasion of importance, and + fondly believed, that in their breasts resided a sanctity and + wisdom more than human. Some of the interpreters of fate, such as + Velleda, in the Batavian war, governed, in the name of the deity, + the fiercest nations of Germany. The rest of the sex, without + being adored as goddesses, were respected as the free and equal + companions of soldiers; associated even by the marriage ceremony + to a life of toil, of danger, and of glory. In their great + invasions, the camps of the barbarians were filled with a + multitude of women, who remained firm and undaunted amidst the + sound of arms, the various forms of destruction, and the + honorable wounds of their sons and husbands. Fainting armies of + Germans have, more than once, been driven back upon the enemy by + the generous despair of the women, who dreaded death much less + than servitude. If the day was irrecoverably lost, they well knew + how to deliver themselves and their children, with their own + hands, from an insulting victor. Heroines of such a cast may + claim our admiration; but they were most assuredly neither lovely + nor very susceptible of love. Whilst they affected to emulate the + stern virtues of _man_, they must have resigned that attractive + softness in which principally consist the charm and weakness of + _woman_. Conscious pride taught the German females to suppress + every tender emotion that stood in competition with honor, and + the first honor of the sex has ever been that of chastity. The + sentiments and conduct of these high-spirited matrons may, at + once, be considered as a cause, as an effect, and as a proof of + the general character of the nation. Female courage, however it + may be raised by fanaticism, or confirmed by habit, can be only a + faint and imperfect imitation of the manly valor that + distinguishes the age or country in which it may be found. + + The religious system of the Germans (if the wild opinions of + savages can deserve that name) was dictated by their wants, their + fears, and their ignorance. They adored the great visible objects + and agents of nature, the Sun and the Moon, the Fire and the + Earth; together with those imaginary deities, who were supposed + to preside over the most important occupations of human life. + They were persuaded, that, by some ridiculous arts of divination, + they could discover the will of the superior beings, and that + human sacrifices were the most precious and acceptable offering + to their altars. Some applause has been hastily bestowed on the + sublime notion, entertained by that people, of the Deity, whom + they neither confined within the walls of the temple, nor + represented by any human figure; but when we recollect, that the + Germans were unskilled in architecture, and totally unacquainted + with the art of sculpture, we shall readily assign the true + reason of a scruple, which arose not so much from a superiority + of reason, as from a want of ingenuity. The only temples in + Germany were dark and ancient groves, consecrated by the + reverence of succeeding generations. Their secret gloom, the + imagined residence of an invisible power, by presenting no + distinct object of fear or worship, impressed the mind with a + still deeper sense of religious horror; and the priests, rude and + illiterate as they were, had been taught by experience the use of + every artifice that could preserve and fortify impressions so + well suited to their own interest. + + The same ignorance, which renders barbarians incapable of + conceiving or embracing the useful restraints of laws, exposes + them naked and unarmed to the blind terrors of superstition. The + German priests, improving this favorable temper of their + countrymen, had assumed a jurisdiction even in temporal concerns, + which the magistrate could not venture to exercise; and the + haughty warrior patiently submitted to the lash of correction, + when it was inflicted, not by any human power, but by the + immediate order of the god of war. The defects of civil policy + were sometimes supplied by the interposition of ecclesiastical + authority. The latter was constantly exerted to maintain silence + and decency in the popular assemblies; and was sometimes extended + to a more enlarged concern for the national welfare. A solemn + procession was occasionally celebrated in the present countries + of Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The unknown symbol of the _Earth_, + covered with a thick veil, was placed on a carriage drawn by + cows; and in this manner the goddess, whose common residence was + in the Isles of Rugen, visited several adjacent tribes of her + worshippers. During her progress the sound of war was hushed, + quarrels were suspended, arms laid aside, and the restless + Germans had an opportunity of tasting the blessings of peace and + harmony. The _truce of God_, so often and so ineffectually + proclaimed by the clergy of the eleventh century, was an obvious + imitation of this ancient custom. + + But the influence of religion was far more powerful to inflame, + than to moderate, the fierce passions of the Germans. Interest + and fanaticism often prompted its ministers to sanctify the most + daring and the most unjust enterprises, by the approbation of + Heaven, and full assurances of success. The consecrated + standards, long revered in the groves of superstition, were + placed in the front of the battle; and the hostile army was + devoted with dire execrations to the gods of war and of thunder. + In the faith of soldiers (and such were the Germans) cowardice is + the most unpardonable of sins. A brave man was the worthy + favorite of their martial deities; the wretch who had lost his + shield was alike banished from the religious and civil assemblies + of his countrymen. Some tribes of the north seem to have embraced + the doctrine of transmigration, others imagined a gross paradise + of immortal drunkenness. All agreed that a life spent in arms, + and a glorious death in battle, were the best preparations for a + happy futurity, either in this or in another world. + + The immortality so vainly promised by the priests, was, in some + degree, conferred by the bards. That singular order of men has + most deservedly attracted the notice of all who have attempted to + investigate the antiquities of the Celts, the Scandinavians, and + the Germans. Their genius and character, as well as the reverence + paid to that important office, have been sufficiently + illustrated. But we cannot so easily express, or even conceive, + the enthusiasm of arms and glory which they kindled in the breast + of their audience. Among a polished people a taste for poetry is + rather an amusement of the fancy than a passion of the soul. And + yet, when in calm retirement we peruse the combats described by + Homer or Tasso, we are insensibly seduced by the fiction, and + feel a momentary glow of martial ardor. But how faint, how cold + is the sensation which a peaceful mind can receive from solitary + study! It was in the hour of battle, or in the feast of victory, + that the bards celebrated the glory of the heroes of ancient + days, the ancestors of those warlike chieftains, who listened + with transport to their artless but animated strains. The view of + arms and of danger heightened the effect of the military song; + and the passions which it tended to excite, the desire of fame, + and the contempt of death, were the habitual sentiments of a + German mind. * + + Such was the situation, and such were the manners of the ancient + Germans. Their climate, their want of learning, of arts, and of + laws, their notions of honor, of gallantry, and of religion, + their sense of freedom, impatience of peace, and thirst of + enterprise, all contributed to form a people of military heroes. + And yet we find, that during more than two hundred and fifty + years that elapsed from the defeat of Varus to the reign of + Decius, these formidable barbarians made few considerable + attempts, and not any material impression on the luxurious, and + enslaved provinces of the empire. Their progress was checked by + their want of arms and discipline, and their fury was diverted by + the intestine divisions of ancient Germany. + + I. It has been observed, with ingenuity, and not without truth, + that the command of iron soon gives a nation the command of gold. + But the rude tribes of Germany, alike destitute of both those + valuable metals, were reduced slowly to acquire, by their + unassisted strength, the possession of the one as well as the + other. The face of a German army displayed their poverty of iron. + Swords, and the longer kind of lances, they could seldom use. + Their frame (as they called them in their own language) were long + spears headed with a sharp but narrow iron point, and which, as + occasion required, they either darted from a distance, or pushed + in close onset. With this spear, and with a shield, their cavalry + was contented. A multitude of darts, scattered with incredible + force, were an additional resource of the infantry. Their + military dress, when they wore any, was nothing more than a loose + mantle. A variety of colors was the only ornament of their wooden + or osier shields. Few of the chiefs were distinguished by + cuirasses, scarcely any by helmets. Though the horses of Germany + were neither beautiful, swift, nor practised in the skilful + evolutions of the Roman manege, several of the nations obtained + renown by their cavalry; but, in general, the principal strength + of the Germans consisted in their infantry, which was drawn up in + several deep columns, according to the distinction of tribes and + families. Impatient of fatigue and delay, these half-armed + warriors rushed to battle with dissonant shouts and disordered + ranks; and sometimes, by the effort of native valor, prevailed + over the constrained and more artificial bravery of the Roman + mercenaries. But as the barbarians poured forth their whole souls + on the first onset, they knew not how to rally or to retire. A + repulse was a sure defeat; and a defeat was most commonly total + destruction. When we recollect the complete armor of the Roman + soldiers, their discipline, exercises, evolutions, fortified + camps, and military engines, it appears a just matter of + surprise, how the naked and unassisted valor of the barbarians + could dare to encounter, in the field, the strength of the + legions, and the various troops of the auxiliaries, which + seconded their operations. The contest was too unequal, till the + introduction of luxury had enervated the vigor, and a spirit of + disobedience and sedition had relaxed the discipline, of the + Roman armies. The introduction of barbarian auxiliaries into + those armies, was a measure attended with very obvious dangers, + as it might gradually instruct the Germans in the arts of war and + of policy. Although they were admitted in small numbers and with + the strictest precaution, the example of Civilis was proper to + convince the Romans, that the danger was not imaginary, and that + their precautions were not always sufficient. During the civil + wars that followed the death of Nero, that artful and intrepid + Batavian, whom his enemies condescended to compare with Hannibal + and Sertorius, formed a great design of freedom and ambition. + Eight Batavian cohorts renowned in the wars of Britain and Italy, + repaired to his standard. He introduced an army of Germans into + Gaul, prevailed on the powerful cities of Treves and Langres to + embrace his cause, defeated the legions, destroyed their + fortified camps, and employed against the Romans the military + knowledge which he had acquired in their service. When at length, + after an obstinate struggle, he yielded to the power of the + empire, Civilis secured himself and his country by an honorable + treaty. The Batavians still continued to occupy the islands of + the Rhine, the allies, not the servants, of the Roman monarchy. + + II. The strength of ancient Germany appears formidable, when we + consider the effects that might have been produced by its united + effort. The wide extent of country might very possibly contain a + million of warriors, as all who were of age to bear arms were of + a temper to use them. But this fierce multitude, incapable of + concerting or executing any plan of national greatness, was + agitated by various and often hostile intentions. Germany was + divided into more than forty independent states; and, even in + each state, the union of the several tribes was extremely loose + and precarious. The barbarians were easily provoked; they knew + not how to forgive an injury, much less an insult; their + resentments were bloody and implacable. The casual disputes that + so frequently happened in their tumultuous parties of hunting or + drinking were sufficient to inflame the minds of whole nations; + the private feuds of any considerable chieftains diffused itself + among their followers and allies. To chastise the insolent, or to + plunder the defenceless, were alike causes of war. The most + formidable states of Germany affected to encompass their + territories with a wide frontier of solitude and devastation. The + awful distance preserved by their neighbors attested the terror + of their arms, and in some measure defended them from the danger + of unexpected incursions. + + “The Bructeri * (it is Tacitus who now speaks) were totally + exterminated by the neighboring tribes, provoked by their + insolence, allured by the hopes of spoil, and perhaps inspired by + the tutelar deities of the empire. Above sixty thousand + barbarians were destroyed; not by the Roman arms, but in our + sight, and for our entertainment. May the nations, enemies of + Rome, ever preserve this enmity to each other! We have now + attained the utmost verge of prosperity, and have nothing left to + demand of fortune, except the discord of the barbarians.”—These + sentiments, less worthy of the humanity than of the patriotism of + Tacitus, express the invariable maxims of the policy of his + countrymen. They deemed it a much safer expedient to divide than + to combat the barbarians, from whose defeat they could derive + neither honor nor advantage. The money and negotiations of Rome + insinuated themselves into the heart of Germany; and every art of + seduction was used with dignity, to conciliate those nations whom + their proximity to the Rhine or Danube might render the most + useful friends as well as the most troublesome enemies. Chiefs of + renown and power were flattered by the most trifling presents, + which they received either as marks of distinction, or as the + instruments of luxury. In civil dissensions the weaker faction + endeavored to strengthen its interest by entering into secret + connections with the governors of the frontier provinces. Every + quarrel among the Germans was fomented by the intrigues of Rome; + and every plan of union and public good was defeated by the + stronger bias of private jealousy and interest. + + The general conspiracy which terrified the Romans under the reign + of Marcus Antoninus, comprehended almost all the nations of + Germany, and even Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that + of the Danube. It is impossible for us to determine whether this + hasty confederation was formed by necessity, by reason, or by + passion; but we may rest assured, that the barbarians were + neither allured by the indolence, nor provoked by the ambition, + of the Roman monarch. This dangerous invasion required all the + firmness and vigilance of Marcus. He fixed generals of ability in + the several stations of attack, and assumed in person the conduct + of the most important province on the Upper Danube. After a long + and doubtful conflict, the spirit of the barbarians was subdued. + The Quadi and the Marcomanni, who had taken the lead in the war, + were the most severely punished in its catastrophe. They were + commanded to retire five miles from their own banks of the + Danube, and to deliver up the flower of the youth, who were + immediately sent into Britain, a remote island, where they might + be secure as hostages, and useful as soldiers. On the frequent + rebellions of the Quadi and Marcomanni, the irritated emperor + resolved to reduce their country into the form of a province. His + designs were disappointed by death. This formidable league, + however, the only one that appears in the two first centuries of + the Imperial history, was entirely dissipated, without leaving + any traces behind in Germany. + + In the course of this introductory chapter, we have confined + ourselves to the general outlines of the manners of Germany, + without attempting to describe or to distinguish the various + tribes which filled that great country in the time of Cæsar, of + Tacitus, or of Ptolemy. As the ancient, or as new tribes + successively present themselves in the series of this history, we + shall concisely mention their origin, their situation, and their + particular character. Modern nations are fixed and permanent + societies, connected among themselves by laws and government, + bound to their native soil by art and agriculture. The German + tribes were voluntary and fluctuating associations of soldiers, + almost of savages. The same territory often changed its + inhabitants in the tide of conquest and emigration. The same + communities, uniting in a plan of defence or invasion, bestowed a + new title on their new confederacy. The dissolution of an ancient + confederacy restored to the independent tribes their peculiar but + long-forgotten appellation. A victorious state often communicated + its own name to a vanquished people. Sometimes crowds of + volunteers flocked from all parts to the standard of a favorite + leader; his camp became their country, and some circumstance of + the enterprise soon gave a common denomination to the mixed + multitude. The distinctions of the ferocious invaders were + perpetually varied by themselves, and confounded by the + astonished subjects of the Roman empire. + + Wars, and the administration of public affairs, are the principal + subjects of history; but the number of persons interested in + these busy scenes is very different, according to the different + condition of mankind. In great monarchies, millions of obedient + subjects pursue their useful occupations in peace and obscurity. + The attention of the writer, as well as of the reader, is solely + confined to a court, a capital, a regular army, and the districts + which happen to be the occasional scene of military operations. + But a state of freedom and barbarism, the season of civil + commotions, or the situation of petty republics, raises almost + every member of the community into action, and consequently into + notice. The irregular divisions, and the restless motions, of the + people of Germany, dazzle our imagination, and seem to multiply + their numbers. The profuse enumeration of kings, of warriors, of + armies and nations, inclines us to forget that the same objects + are continually repeated under a variety of appellations, and + that the most splendid appellations have been frequently lavished + on the most inconsiderable objects. + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part I. + +The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And Gallienus.—The +General Irruption Of The Barbarians.—The Thirty Tyrants. + + From the great secular games celebrated by Philip, to the death + of the emperor Gallienus, there elapsed twenty years of shame and + misfortune. During that calamitous period, every instant of time + was marked, every province of the Roman world was afflicted, by + barbarous invaders, and military tyrants, and the ruined empire + seemed to approach the last and fatal moment of its dissolution. + The confusion of the times, and the scarcity of authentic + memorials, oppose equal difficulties to the historian, who + attempts to preserve a clear and unbroken thread of narration. + Surrounded with imperfect fragments, always concise, often + obscure, and sometimes contradictory, he is reduced to collect, + to compare, and to conjecture: and though he ought never to place + his conjectures in the rank of facts, yet the knowledge of human + nature, and of the sure operation of its fierce and unrestrained + passions, might, on some occasions, supply the want of historical + materials. + + There is not, for instance, any difficulty in conceiving, that + the successive murders of so many emperors had loosened all the + ties of allegiance between the prince and people; that all the + generals of Philip were disposed to imitate the example of their + master; and that the caprice of armies, long since habituated to + frequent and violent revolutions, might every day raise to the + throne the most obscure of their fellow-soldiers. History can + only add, that the rebellion against the emperor Philip broke out + in the summer of the year two hundred and forty-nine, among the + legions of Mæsia; and that a subaltern officer, named Marinus, + was the object of their seditious choice. Philip was alarmed. He + dreaded lest the treason of the Mæsian army should prove the + first spark of a general conflagration. Distracted with the + consciousness of his guilt and of his danger, he communicated the + intelligence to the senate. A gloomy silence prevailed, the + effect of fear, and perhaps of disaffection; till at length + Decius, one of the assembly, assuming a spirit worthy of his + noble extraction, ventured to discover more intrepidity than the + emperor seemed to possess. He treated the whole business with + contempt, as a hasty and inconsiderate tumult, and Philip’s rival + as a phantom of royalty, who in a very few days would be + destroyed by the same inconstancy that had created him. The + speedy completion of the prophecy inspired Philip with a just + esteem for so able a counsellor; and Decius appeared to him the + only person capable of restoring peace and discipline to an army + whose tumultuous spirit did not immediately subside after the + murder of Marinus. Decius, who long resisted his own nomination, + seems to have insinuated the danger of presenting a leader of + merit to the angry and apprehensive minds of the soldiers; and + his prediction was again confirmed by the event. The legions of + Mæsia forced their judge to become their accomplice. They left + him only the alternative of death or the purple. His subsequent + conduct, after that decisive measure, was unavoidable. He + conducted, or followed, his army to the confines of Italy, + whither Philip, collecting all his force to repel the formidable + competitor whom he had raised up, advanced to meet him. The + Imperial troops were superior in number; but the rebels formed an + army of veterans, commanded by an able and experienced leader. + Philip was either killed in the battle, or put to death a few + days afterwards at Verona. His son and associate in the empire + was massacred at Rome by the Prætorian guards; and the victorious + Decius, with more favorable circumstances than the ambition of + that age can usually plead, was universally acknowledged by the + senate and provinces. It is reported, that, immediately after his + reluctant acceptance of the title of Augustus, he had assured + Philip, by a private message, of his innocence and loyalty, + solemnly protesting, that, on his arrival on Italy, he would + resign the Imperial ornaments, and return to the condition of an + obedient subject. His professions might be sincere; but in the + situation where fortune had placed him, it was scarcely possible + that he could either forgive or be forgiven. + + The emperor Decius had employed a few months in the works of + peace and the administration of justice, when he was summoned to + the banks of the Danube by the invasion of the Goths. This is the + first considerable occasion in which history mentions that great + people, who afterwards broke the Roman power, sacked the Capitol, + and reigned in Gaul, Spain, and Italy. So memorable was the part + which they acted in the subversion of the Western empire, that + the name of Goths is frequently but improperly used as a general + appellation of rude and warlike barbarism. + + In the beginning of the sixth century, and after the conquest of + Italy, the Goths, in possession of present greatness, very + naturally indulged themselves in the prospect of past and of + future glory. They wished to preserve the memory of their + ancestors, and to transmit to posterity their own achievements. + + The principal minister of the court of Ravenna, the learned + Cassiodorus, gratified the inclination of the conquerors in a + Gothic history, which consisted of twelve books, now reduced to + the imperfect abridgment of Jornandes. These writers passed with + the most artful conciseness over the misfortunes of the nation, + celebrated its successful valor, and adorned the triumph with + many Asiatic trophies, that more properly belonged to the people + of Scythia. On the faith of ancient songs, the uncertain, but the + only memorials of barbarians, they deduced the first origin of + the Goths from the vast island, or peninsula, of Scandinavia. * + That extreme country of the North was not unknown to the + conquerors of Italy: the ties of ancient consanguinity had been + strengthened by recent offices of friendship; and a Scandinavian + king had cheerfully abdicated his savage greatness, that he might + pass the remainder of his days in the peaceful and polished court + of Ravenna. Many vestiges, which cannot be ascribed to the arts + of popular vanity, attest the ancient residence of the Goths in + the countries beyond the Rhine. From the time of the geographer + Ptolemy, the southern part of Sweden seems to have continued in + the possession of the less enterprising remnant of the nation, + and a large territory is even at present divided into east and + west Gothland. During the middle ages, (from the ninth to the + twelfth century,) whilst Christianity was advancing with a slow + progress into the North, the Goths and the Swedes composed two + distinct and sometimes hostile members of the same monarchy. The + latter of these two names has prevailed without extinguishing the + former. The Swedes, who might well be satisfied with their own + fame in arms, have, in every age, claimed the kindred glory of + the Goths. In a moment of discontent against the court of Rome, + Charles the Twelfth insinuated, that his victorious troops were + not degenerated from their brave ancestors, who had already + subdued the mistress of the world. + + Till the end of the eleventh century, a celebrated temple + subsisted at Upsal, the most considerable town of the Swedes and + Goths. It was enriched with the gold which the Scandinavians had + acquired in their piratical adventures, and sanctified by the + uncouth representations of the three principal deities, the god + of war, the goddess of generation, and the god of thunder. In the + general festival, that was solemnized every ninth year, nine + animals of every species (without excepting the human) were + sacrificed, and their bleeding bodies suspended in the sacred + grove adjacent to the temple. The only traces that now subsist of + this barbaric superstition are contained in the Edda, * a system + of mythology, compiled in Iceland about the thirteenth century, + and studied by the learned of Denmark and Sweden, as the most + valuable remains of their ancient traditions. + + Notwithstanding the mysterious obscurity of the Edda, we can + easily distinguish two persons confounded under the name of Odin; + the god of war, and the great legislator of Scandinavia. The + latter, the Mahomet of the North, instituted a religion adapted + to the climate and to the people. Numerous tribes on either side + of the Baltic were subdued by the invincible valor of Odin, by + his persuasive eloquence, and by the fame which he acquired of a + most skilful magician. The faith that he had propagated, during a + long and prosperous life, he confirmed by a voluntary death. + Apprehensive of the ignominious approach of disease and + infirmity, he resolved to expire as became a warrior. In a solemn + assembly of the Swedes and Goths, he wounded himself in nine + mortal places, hastening away (as he asserted with his dying + voice) to prepare the feast of heroes in the palace of the God of + war. + + The native and proper habitation of Odin is distinguished by the + appellation of As-gard. The happy resemblance of that name with + As-burg, or As-of, words of a similar signification, has given + rise to an historical system of so pleasing a contexture, that we + could almost wish to persuade ourselves of its truth. It is + supposed that Odin was the chief of a tribe of barbarians which + dwelt on the banks of the Lake Mæotis, till the fall of + Mithridates and the arms of Pompey menaced the North with + servitude. That Odin, yielding with indignant fury to a power he + was unable to resist, conducted his tribe from the frontiers of + the Asiatic Sarmatia into Sweden, with the great design of + forming, in that inaccessible retreat of freedom, a religion and + a people which, in some remote age, might be subservient to his + immortal revenge; when his invincible Goths, armed with martial + fanaticism, should issue in numerous swarms from the neighborhood + of the Polar circle, to chastise the oppressors of mankind. + + If so many successive generations of Goths were capable of + preserving a faint tradition of their Scandinavian origin, we + must not expect, from such unlettered barbarians, any distinct + account of the time and circumstances of their emigration. To + cross the Baltic was an easy and natural attempt. The inhabitants + of Sweden were masters of a sufficient number of large vessels, + with oars, and the distance is little more than one hundred miles + from Carlscroon to the nearest ports of Pomerania and Prussia. + Here, at length, we land on firm and historic ground. At least as + early as the Christian æra, and as late as the age of the + Antonines, the Goths were established towards the mouth of the + Vistula, and in that fertile province where the commercial cities + of Thorn, Elbing, Köningsberg, and Dantzick, were long afterwards + founded. Westward of the Goths, the numerous tribes of the + Vandals were spread along the banks of the Oder, and the + sea-coast of Pomerania and Mecklenburgh. A striking resemblance + of manners, complexion, religion, and language, seemed to + indicate that the Vandals and the Goths were originally one great + people. The latter appear to have been subdivided into + Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidæ. The distinction among the + Vandals was more strongly marked by the independent names of + Heruli, Burgundians, Lombards, and a variety of other petty + states, many of which, in a future age, expanded themselves into + powerful monarchies. + + In the age of the Antonines, the Goths were still seated in + Prussia. About the reign of Alexander Severus, the Roman province + of Dacia had already experienced their proximity by frequent and + destructive inroads. In this interval, therefore, of about + seventy years we must place the second migration of the Goths + from the Baltic to the Euxine; but the cause that produced it + lies concealed among the various motives which actuate the + conduct of unsettled barbarians. Either a pestilence or a famine, + a victory or a defeat, an oracle of the gods or the eloquence of + a daring leader, were sufficient to impel the Gothic arms on the + milder climates of the south. Besides the influence of a martial + religion, the numbers and spirit of the Goths were equal to the + most dangerous adventures. The use of round bucklers and short + swords rendered them formidable in a close engagement; the manly + obedience which they yielded to hereditary kings, gave uncommon + union and stability to their councils; and the renowned Amala, + the hero of that age, and the tenth ancestor of Theodoric, king + of Italy, enforced, by the ascendant of personal merit, the + prerogative of his birth, which he derived from the _Anses_, or + demigods of the Gothic nation. + + The fame of a great enterprise excited the bravest warriors from + all the Vandalic states of Germany, many of whom are seen a few + years afterwards combating under the common standard of the + Goths. The first motions of the emigrants carried them to the + banks of the Prypec, a river universally conceived by the + ancients to be the southern branch of the Borysthenes. The + windings of that great stream through the plains of Poland and + Russia gave a direction to their line of march, and a constant + supply of fresh water and pasturage to their numerous herds of + cattle. They followed the unknown course of the river, confident + in their valor, and careless of whatever power might oppose their + progress. The Bastarnæ and the Venedi were the first who + presented themselves; and the flower of their youth, either from + choice or compulsion, increased the Gothic army. The Bastarnæ + dwelt on the northern side of the Carpathian Mountains: the + immense tract of land that separated the Bastarnæ from the + savages of Finland was possessed, or rather wasted, by the + Venedi; we have some reason to believe that the first of these + nations, which distinguished itself in the Macedonian war, and + was afterwards divided into the formidable tribes of the Peucini, + the Borani, the Carpi, &c., derived its origin from the Germans. + * With better authority, a Sarmatian extraction may be assigned + to the Venedi, who rendered themselves so famous in the middle + ages. But the confusion of blood and manners on that doubtful + frontier often perplexed the most accurate observers. As the + Goths advanced near the Euxine Sea, they encountered a purer race + of Sarmatians, the Jazyges, the Alani, and the Roxolani; and they + were probably the first Germans who saw the mouths of the + Borysthenes, and of the Tanais. If we inquire into the + characteristic marks of the people of Germany and of Sarmatia, we + shall discover that those two great portions of human kind were + principally distinguished by fixed huts or movable tents, by a + close dress or flowing garments, by the marriage of one or of + several wives, by a military force, consisting, for the most + part, either of infantry or cavalry; and above all, by the use of + the Teutonic, or of the Sclavonian language; the last of which + has been diffused by conquest, from the confines of Italy to the + neighborhood of Japan. + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part II. + + The Goths were now in possession of the Ukraine, a country of + considerable extent and uncommon fertility, intersected with + navigable rivers, which, from either side, discharge themselves + into the Borysthenes; and interspersed with large and lofty + forests of oaks. The plenty of game and fish, the innumerable + bee-hives deposited in the hollow of old trees, and in the + cavities of rocks, and forming, even in that rude age, a valuable + branch of commerce, the size of the cattle, the temperature of + the air, the aptness of the soil for every species of grain, and + the luxuriancy of the vegetation, all displayed the liberality of + Nature, and tempted the industry of man. But the Goths withstood + all these temptations, and still adhered to a life of idleness, + of poverty, and of rapine. + + The Scythian hordes, which, towards the east, bordered on the new + settlements of the Goths, presented nothing to their arms, except + the doubtful chance of an unprofitable victory. But the prospect + of the Roman territories was far more alluring; and the fields of + Dacia were covered with rich harvests, sown by the hands of an + industrious, and exposed to be gathered by those of a warlike, + people. It is probable that the conquests of Trajan, maintained + by his successors, less for any real advantage than for ideal + dignity, had contributed to weaken the empire on that side. The + new and unsettled province of Dacia was neither strong enough to + resist, nor rich enough to satiate, the rapaciousness of the + barbarians. As long as the remote banks of the Niester were + considered as the boundary of the Roman power, the fortifications + of the Lower Danube were more carelessly guarded, and the + inhabitants of Mæsia lived in supine security, fondly conceiving + themselves at an inaccessible distance from any barbarian + invaders. The irruptions of the Goths, under the reign of Philip, + fatally convinced them of their mistake. The king, or leader, of + that fierce nation, traversed with contempt the province of + Dacia, and passed both the Niester and the Danube without + encountering any opposition capable of retarding his progress. + The relaxed discipline of the Roman troops betrayed the most + important posts, where they were stationed, and the fear of + deserved punishment induced great numbers of them to enlist under + the Gothic standard. The various multitude of barbarians + appeared, at length, under the walls of Marcianopolis, a city + built by Trajan in honor of his sister, and at that time the + capital of the second Mæsia. The inhabitants consented to ransom + their lives and property by the payment of a large sum of money, + and the invaders retreated back into their deserts, animated, + rather than satisfied, with the first success of their arms + against an opulent but feeble country. Intelligence was soon + transmitted to the emperor Decius, that Cniva, king of the Goths, + had passed the Danube a second time, with more considerable + forces; that his numerous detachments scattered devastation over + the province of Mæsia, whilst the main body of the army, + consisting of seventy thousand Germans and Sarmatians, a force + equal to the most daring achievements, required the presence of + the Roman monarch, and the exertion of his military power. + + Decius found the Goths engaged before Nicopolis, one of the many + monuments of Trajan’s victories. On his approach they raised the + siege, but with a design only of marching away to a conquest of + greater importance, the siege of Philippopolis, a city of Thrace, + founded by the father of Alexander, near the foot of Mount Hæmus. + Decius followed them through a difficult country, and by forced + marches; but when he imagined himself at a considerable distance + from the rear of the Goths, Cniva turned with rapid fury on his + pursuers. The camp of the Romans was surprised and pillaged, and, + for the first time, their emperor fled in disorder before a troop + of half-armed barbarians. After a long resistance, Philippopolis, + destitute of succor, was taken by storm. A hundred thousand + persons are reported to have been massacred in the sack of that + great city. Many prisoners of consequence became a valuable + accession to the spoil; and Priscus, a brother of the late + emperor Philip, blushed not to assume the purple, under the + protection of the barbarous enemies of Rome. The time, however, + consumed in that tedious siege, enabled Decius to revive the + courage, restore the discipline, and recruit the numbers of his + troops. He intercepted several parties of Carpi, and other + Germans, who were hastening to share the victory of their + countrymen, intrusted the passes of the mountains to officers of + approved valor and fidelity, repaired and strengthened the + fortifications of the Danube, and exerted his utmost vigilance to + oppose either the progress or the retreat of the Goths. + Encouraged by the return of fortune, he anxiously waited for an + opportunity to retrieve, by a great and decisive blow, his own + glory, and that of the Roman arms. + + At the same time when Decius was struggling with the violence of + the tempest, his mind, calm and deliberate amidst the tumult of + war, investigated the more general causes that, since the age of + the Antonines, had so impetuously urged the decline of the Roman + greatness. He soon discovered that it was impossible to replace + that greatness on a permanent basis without restoring public + virtue, ancient principles and manners, and the oppressed majesty + of the laws. To execute this noble but arduous design, he first + resolved to revive the obsolete office of censor; an office + which, as long as it had subsisted in its pristine integrity, had + so much contributed to the perpetuity of the state, till it was + usurped and gradually neglected by the Cæsars. Conscious that the + favor of the sovereign may confer power, but that the esteem of + the people can alone bestow authority, he submitted the choice of + the censor to the unbiased voice of the senate. By their + unanimous votes, or rather acclamations, Valerian, who was + afterwards emperor, and who then served with distinction in the + army of Decius, was declared the most worthy of that exalted + honor. As soon as the decree of the senate was transmitted to the + emperor, he assembled a great council in his camp, and before the + investiture of the censor elect, he apprised him of the + difficulty and importance of his great office. “Happy Valerian,” + said the prince to his distinguished subject, “happy in the + general approbation of the senate and of the Roman republic! + Accept the censorship of mankind; and judge of our manners. You + will select those who deserve to continue members of the senate; + you will restore the equestrian order to its ancient splendor; + you will improve the revenue, yet moderate the public burdens. + You will distinguish into regular classes the various and + infinite multitude of citizens, and accurately view the military + strength, the wealth, the virtue, and the resources of Rome. Your + decisions shall obtain the force of laws. The army, the palace, + the ministers of justice, and the great officers of the empire, + are all subject to your tribunal. None are exempted, excepting + only the ordinary consuls, the præfect of the city, the king of + the sacrifices, and (as long as she preserves her chastity + inviolate) the eldest of the vestal virgins. Even these few, who + may not dread the severity, will anxiously solicit the esteem, of + the Roman censor.” + + A magistrate, invested with such extensive powers, would have + appeared not so much the minister, as the colleague of his + sovereign. Valerian justly dreaded an elevation so full of envy + and of suspicion. He modestly argued the alarming greatness of + the trust, his own insufficiency, and the incurable corruption of + the times. He artfully insinuated, that the office of censor was + inseparable from the Imperial dignity, and that the feeble hands + of a subject were unequal to the support of such an immense + weight of cares and of power. The approaching event of war soon + put an end to the prosecution of a project so specious, but so + impracticable; and whilst it preserved Valerian from the danger, + saved the emperor Decius from the disappointment, which would + most probably have attended it. A censor may maintain, he can + never restore, the morals of a state. It is impossible for such a + magistrate to exert his authority with benefit, or even with + effect, unless he is supported by a quick sense of honor and + virtue in the minds of the people, by a decent reverence for the + public opinion, and by a train of useful prejudices combating on + the side of national manners. In a period when these principles + are annihilated, the censorial jurisdiction must either sink into + empty pageantry, or be converted into a partial instrument of + vexatious oppression. It was easier to vanquish the Goths than to + eradicate the public vices; yet even in the first of these + enterprises, Decius lost his army and his life. + + The Goths were now, on every side, surrounded and pursued by the + Roman arms. The flower of their troops had perished in the long + siege of Philippopolis, and the exhausted country could no longer + afford subsistence for the remaining multitude of licentious + barbarians. Reduced to this extremity, the Goths would gladly + have purchased, by the surrender of all their booty and + prisoners, the permission of an undisturbed retreat. But the + emperor, confident of victory, and resolving, by the chastisement + of these invaders, to strike a salutary terror into the nations + of the North, refused to listen to any terms of accommodation. + The high-spirited barbarians preferred death to slavery. An + obscure town of Mæsia, called Forum Terebronii, was the scene of + the battle. The Gothic army was drawn up in three lines, and + either from choice or accident, the front of the third line was + covered by a morass. In the beginning of the action, the son of + Decius, a youth of the fairest hopes, and already associated to + the honors of the purple, was slain by an arrow, in the sight of + his afflicted father; who, summoning all his fortitude, + admonished the dismayed troops, that the loss of a single soldier + was of little importance to the republic. The conflict was + terrible; it was the combat of despair against grief and rage. + The first line of the Goths at length gave way in disorder; the + second, advancing to sustain it, shared its fate; and the third + only remained entire, prepared to dispute the passage of the + morass, which was imprudently attempted by the presumption of the + enemy. “Here the fortune of the day turned, and all things became + adverse to the Romans; the place deep with ooze, sinking under + those who stood, slippery to such as advanced; their armor heavy, + the waters deep; nor could they wield, in that uneasy situation, + their weighty javelins. The barbarians, on the contrary, were + inured to encounter in the bogs, their persons tall, their spears + long, such as could wound at a distance.” In this morass the + Roman army, after an ineffectual struggle, was irrecoverably + lost; nor could the body of the emperor ever be found. Such was + the fate of Decius, in the fiftieth year of his age; an + accomplished prince, active in war and affable in peace; who, + together with his son, has deserved to be compared, both in life + and death, with the brightest examples of ancient virtue. + + This fatal blow humbled, for a very little time, the insolence of + the legions. They appeared to have patiently expected, and + submissively obeyed, the decree of the senate which regulated the + succession to the throne. From a just regard for the memory of + Decius, the Imperial title was conferred on Hostilianus, his only + surviving son; but an equal rank, with more effectual power, was + granted to Gallus, whose experience and ability seemed equal to + the great trust of guardian to the young prince and the + distressed empire. The first care of the new emperor was to + deliver the Illyrian provinces from the intolerable weight of the + victorious Goths. He consented to leave in their hands the rich + fruits of their invasion, an immense booty, and what was still + more disgraceful, a great number of prisoners of the highest + merit and quality. He plentifully supplied their camp with every + conveniency that could assuage their angry spirits or facilitate + their so much wished-for departure; and he even promised to pay + them annually a large sum of gold, on condition they should never + afterwards infest the Roman territories by their incursions. + + In the age of the Scipios, the most opulent kings of the earth, + who courted the protection of the victorious commonwealth, were + gratified with such trifling presents as could only derive a + value from the hand that bestowed them; an ivory chair, a coarse + garment of purple, an inconsiderable piece of plate, or a + quantity of copper coin. After the wealth of nations had centred + in Rome, the emperors displayed their greatness, and even their + policy, by the regular exercise of a steady and moderate + liberality towards the allies of the state. They relieved the + poverty of the barbarians, honored their merit, and recompensed + their fidelity. These voluntary marks of bounty were understood + to flow, not from the fears, but merely from the generosity or + the gratitude of the Romans; and whilst presents and subsidies + were liberally distributed among friends and suppliants, they + were sternly refused to such as claimed them as a debt. But this + stipulation, of an annual payment to a victorious enemy, appeared + without disguise in the light of an ignominious tribute; the + minds of the Romans were not yet accustomed to accept such + unequal laws from a tribe of barbarians; and the prince, who by a + necessary concession had probably saved his country, became the + object of the general contempt and aversion. The death of + Hostilianus, though it happened in the midst of a raging + pestilence, was interpreted as the personal crime of Gallus; and + even the defeat of the later emperor was ascribed by the voice of + suspicion to the perfidious counsels of his hated successor. The + tranquillity which the empire enjoyed during the first year of + his administration, served rather to inflame than to appease the + public discontent; and as soon as the apprehensions of war were + removed, the infamy of the peace was more deeply and more + sensibly felt. + + But the Romans were irritated to a still higher degree, when they + discovered that they had not even secured their repose, though at + the expense of their honor. The dangerous secret of the wealth + and weakness of the empire had been revealed to the world. New + swarms of barbarians, encouraged by the success, and not + conceiving themselves bound by the obligation of their brethren, + spread devastation through the Illyrian provinces, and terror as + far as the gates of Rome. The defence of the monarchy, which + seemed abandoned by the pusillanimous emperor, was assumed by + Æmilianus, governor of Pannonia and Mæsia; who rallied the + scattered forces, and revived the fainting spirits of the troops. + The barbarians were unexpectedly attacked, routed, chased, and + pursued beyond the Danube. The victorious leader distributed as a + donative the money collected for the tribute, and the + acclamations of the soldiers proclaimed him emperor on the field + of battle. Gallus, who, careless of the general welfare, indulged + himself in the pleasures of Italy, was almost in the same instant + informed of the success, of the revolt, and of the rapid approach + of his aspiring lieutenant. He advanced to meet him as far as the + plains of Spoleto. When the armies came in sight of each other, + the soldiers of Gallus compared the ignominious conduct of their + sovereign with the glory of his rival. They admired the valor of + Æmilianus; they were attracted by his liberality, for he offered + a considerable increase of pay to all deserters. The murder of + Gallus, and of his son Volusianus, put an end to the civil war; + and the senate gave a legal sanction to the rights of conquest. + The letters of Æmilianus to that assembly displayed a mixture of + moderation and vanity. He assured them, that he should resign to + their wisdom the civil administration; and, contenting himself + with the quality of their general, would in a short time assert + the glory of Rome, and deliver the empire from all the barbarians + both of the North and of the East. His pride was flattered by the + applause of the senate; and medals are still extant, representing + him with the name and attributes of Hercules the Victor, and Mars + the Avenger. + + If the new monarch possessed the abilities, he wanted the time, + necessary to fulfil these splendid promises. Less than four + months intervened between his victory and his fall. He had + vanquished Gallus: he sunk under the weight of a competitor more + formidable than Gallus. That unfortunate prince had sent + Valerian, already distinguished by the honorable title of censor, + to bring the legions of Gaul and Germany to his aid. Valerian + executed that commission with zeal and fidelity; and as he + arrived too late to save his sovereign, he resolved to revenge + him. The troops of Æmilianus, who still lay encamped in the + plains of Spoleto, were awed by the sanctity of his character, + but much more by the superior strength of his army; and as they + were now become as incapable of personal attachment as they had + always been of constitutional principle, they readily imbrued + their hands in the blood of a prince who so lately had been the + object of their partial choice. The guilt was theirs, * but the + advantage of it was Valerian’s; who obtained the possession of + the throne by the means indeed of a civil war, but with a degree + of innocence singular in that age of revolutions; since he owed + neither gratitude nor allegiance to his predecessor, whom he + dethroned. + + Valerian was about sixty years of age when he was invested with + the purple, not by the caprice of the populace, or the clamors of + the army, but by the unanimous voice of the Roman world. In his + gradual ascent through the honors of the state, he had deserved + the favor of virtuous princes, and had declared himself the enemy + of tyrants. His noble birth, his mild but unblemished manners, + his learning, prudence, and experience, were revered by the + senate and people; and if mankind (according to the observation + of an ancient writer) had been left at liberty to choose a + master, their choice would most assuredly have fallen on + Valerian. Perhaps the merit of this emperor was inadequate to his + reputation; perhaps his abilities, or at least his spirit, were + affected by the languor and coldness of old age. The + consciousness of his decline engaged him to share the throne with + a younger and more active associate; the emergency of the times + demanded a general no less than a prince; and the experience of + the Roman censor might have directed him where to bestow the + Imperial purple, as the reward of military merit. But instead of + making a judicious choice, which would have confirmed his reign + and endeared his memory, Valerian, consulting only the dictates + of affection or vanity, immediately invested with the supreme + honors his son Gallienus, a youth whose effeminate vices had been + hitherto concealed by the obscurity of a private station. The + joint government of the father and the son subsisted about seven, + and the sole administration of Gallienus continued about eight, + years. But the whole period was one uninterrupted series of + confusion and calamity. As the Roman empire was at the same time, + and on every side, attacked by the blind fury of foreign + invaders, and the wild ambition of domestic usurpers, we shall + consult order and perspicuity, by pursuing, not so much the + doubtful arrangement of dates, as the more natural distribution + of subjects. The most dangerous enemies of Rome, during the + reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, were, 1. The Franks; 2. The + Alemanni; 3. The Goths; and, 4. The Persians. Under these general + appellations, we may comprehend the adventures of less + considerable tribes, whose obscure and uncouth names would only + serve to oppress the memory and perplex the attention of the + reader. + + I. As the posterity of the Franks compose one of the greatest and + most enlightened nations of Europe, the powers of learning and + ingenuity have been exhausted in the discovery of their + unlettered ancestors. To the tales of credulity have succeeded + the systems of fancy. Every passage has been sifted, every spot + has been surveyed, that might possibly reveal some faint traces + of their origin. It has been supposed that Pannonia, that Gaul, + that the northern parts of Germany, gave birth to that celebrated + colony of warriors. At length the most rational critics, + rejecting the fictitious emigrations of ideal conquerors, have + acquiesced in a sentiment whose simplicity persuades us of its + truth. They suppose, that about the year two hundred and forty, a + new confederacy was formed under the name of Franks, by the old + inhabitants of the Lower Rhine and the Weser. * The present + circle of Westphalia, the Landgraviate of Hesse, and the duchies + of Brunswick and Luneburg, were the ancient seat of the Chauci, + who, in their inaccessible morasses, defied the Roman arms; of + the Cherusci, proud of the fame of Arminius; of the Catti, + formidable by their firm and intrepid infantry; and of several + other tribes of inferior power and renown. The love of liberty + was the ruling passion of these Germans; the enjoyment of it + their best treasure; the word that expressed that enjoyment the + most pleasing to their ear. They deserved, they assumed, they + maintained the honorable epithet of Franks, or Freemen; which + concealed, though it did not extinguish, the peculiar names of + the several states of the confederacy. Tacit consent, and mutual + advantage, dictated the first laws of the union; it was gradually + cemented by habit and experience. The league of the Franks may + admit of some comparison with the Helvetic body; in which every + canton, retaining its independent sovereignty, consults with its + brethren in the common cause, without acknowledging the authority + of any supreme head or representative assembly. But the principle + of the two confederacies was extremely different. A peace of two + hundred years has rewarded the wise and honest policy of the + Swiss. An inconstant spirit, the thirst of rapine, and a + disregard to the most solemn treaties, disgraced the character of + the Franks. + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part III. + + The Romans had long experienced the daring valor of the people of + Lower Germany. The union of their strength threatened Gaul with a + more formidable invasion, and required the presence of Gallienus, + the heir and colleague of Imperial power. Whilst that prince, and + his infant son Salonius, displayed, in the court of Treves, the + majesty of the empire, its armies were ably conducted by their + general, Posthumus, who, though he afterwards betrayed the family + of Valerian, was ever faithful to the great interests of the + monarchy. The treacherous language of panegyrics and medals + darkly announces a long series of victories. Trophies and titles + attest (if such evidence can attest) the fame of Posthumus, who + is repeatedly styled the Conqueror of the Germans, and the Savior + of Gaul. + + But a single fact, the only one indeed of which we have any + distinct knowledge, erases, in a great measure, these monuments + of vanity and adulation. The Rhine, though dignified with the + title of Safeguard of the provinces, was an imperfect barrier + against the daring spirit of enterprise with which the Franks + were actuated. Their rapid devastations stretched from the river + to the foot of the Pyrenees; nor were they stopped by those + mountains. Spain, which had never dreaded, was unable to resist, + the inroads of the Germans. During twelve years, the greatest + part of the reign of Gallienus, that opulent country was the + theatre of unequal and destructive hostilities. Tarragona, the + flourishing capital of a peaceful province, was sacked and almost + destroyed; and so late as the days of Orosius, who wrote in the + fifth century, wretched cottages, scattered amidst the ruins of + magnificent cities, still recorded the rage of the barbarians. + When the exhausted country no longer supplied a variety of + plunder, the Franks seized on some vessels in the ports of Spain, + and transported themselves into Mauritania. The distant province + was astonished with the fury of these barbarians, who seemed to + fall from a new world, as their name, manners, and complexion, + were equally unknown on the coast of Africa. + + II. In that part of Upper Saxony, beyond the Elbe, which is at + present called the Marquisate of Lusace, there existed, in + ancient times, a sacred wood, the awful seat of the superstition + of the Suevi. None were permitted to enter the holy precincts, + without confessing, by their servile bonds and suppliant posture, + the immediate presence of the sovereign Deity. Patriotism + contributed, as well as devotion, to consecrate the Sonnenwald, + or wood of the Semnones. It was universally believed, that the + nation had received its first existence on that sacred spot. At + stated periods, the numerous tribes who gloried in the Suevic + blood, resorted thither by their ambassadors; and the memory of + their common extraction was perpetrated by barbaric rites and + human sacrifices. The wide-extended name of Suevi filled the + interior countries of Germany, from the banks of the Oder to + those of the Danube. They were distinguished from the other + Germans by their peculiar mode of dressing their long hair, which + they gathered into a rude knot on the crown of the head; and they + delighted in an ornament that showed their ranks more lofty and + terrible in the eyes of the enemy. Jealous as the Germans were of + military renown, they all confessed the superior valor of the + Suevi; and the tribes of the Usipetes and Tencteri, who, with a + vast army, encountered the dictator Cæsar, declared that they + esteemed it not a disgrace to have fled before a people to whose + arms the immortal gods themselves were unequal. + + In the reign of the emperor Caracalla, an innumerable swarm of + Suevi appeared on the banks of the Main, and in the neighborhood + of the Roman provinces, in quest either of food, of plunder, or + of glory. The hasty army of volunteers gradually coalesced into a + great and permanent nation, and, as it was composed from so many + different tribes, assumed the name of Alemanni, * or _Allmen_, to + denote at once their various lineage and their common bravery. + The latter was soon felt by the Romans in many a hostile inroad. + The Alemanni fought chiefly on horseback; but their cavalry was + rendered still more formidable by a mixture of light infantry, + selected from the bravest and most active of the youth, whom + frequent exercise had inured to accompany the horsemen in the + longest march, the most rapid charge, or the most precipitate + retreat. + + This warlike people of Germans had been astonished by the immense + preparations of Alexander Severus; they were dismayed by the arms + of his successor, a barbarian equal in valor and fierceness to + themselves. But still hovering on the frontiers of the empire, + they increased the general disorder that ensued after the death + of Decius. They inflicted severe wounds on the rich provinces of + Gaul; they were the first who removed the veil that covered the + feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the Alemanni + penetrated across the Danube and through the Rhætian Alps into + the plains of Lombardy, advanced as far as Ravenna, and displayed + the victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight of Rome. + + The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks of + their ancient virtue. Both the emperors were engaged in far + distant wars, Valerian in the East, and Gallienus on the Rhine. + All the hopes and resources of the Romans were in themselves. In + this emergency, the senators resumed the defence of the republic, + drew out the Prætorian guards, who had been left to garrison the + capital, and filled up their numbers, by enlisting into the + public service the stoutest and most willing of the Plebeians. + The Alemanni, astonished with the sudden appearance of an army + more numerous than their own, retired into Germany, laden with + spoil; and their retreat was esteemed as a victory by the + unwarlike Romans. + + When Gallienus received the intelligence that his capital was + delivered from the barbarians, he was much less delighted than + alarmed with the courage of the senate, since it might one day + prompt them to rescue the public from domestic tyranny as well as + from foreign invasion. His timid ingratitude was published to his + subjects, in an edict which prohibited the senators from + exercising any military employment, and even from approaching the + camps of the legions. But his fears were groundless. The rich and + luxurious nobles, sinking into their natural character, accepted, + as a favor, this disgraceful exemption from military service; and + as long as they were indulged in the enjoyment of their baths, + their theatres, and their villas, they cheerfully resigned the + more dangerous cares of empire to the rough hands of peasants and + soldiers. + + Another invasion of the Alemanni, of a more formidable aspect, + but more glorious event, is mentioned by a writer of the lower + empire. Three hundred thousand are said to have been vanquished, + in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus in person, at the head of + only ten thousand Romans. We may, however, with great + probability, ascribe this incredible victory either to the + credulity of the historian, or to some exaggerated exploits of + one of the emperor’s lieutenants. It was by arms of a very + different nature, that Gallienus endeavored to protect Italy from + the fury of the Germans. He espoused Pipa, the daughter of a king + of the Marcomanni, a Suevic tribe, which was often confounded + with the Alemanni in their wars and conquests. To the father, as + the price of his alliance, he granted an ample settlement in + Pannonia. The native charms of unpolished beauty seem to have + fixed the daughter in the affections of the inconstant emperor, + and the bands of policy were more firmly connected by those of + love. But the haughty prejudice of Rome still refused the name of + marriage to the profane mixture of a citizen and a barbarian; and + has stigmatized the German princess with the opprobrious title of + concubine of Gallienus. + + III. We have already traced the emigration of the Goths from + Scandinavia, or at least from Prussia, to the mouth of the + Borysthenes, and have followed their victorious arms from the + Borysthenes to the Danube. Under the reigns of Valerian and + Gallienus, the frontier of the last-mentioned river was + perpetually infested by the inroads of Germans and Sarmatians; + but it was defended by the Romans with more than usual firmness + and success. The provinces that were the seat of war, recruited + the armies of Rome with an inexhaustible supply of hardy + soldiers; and more than one of these Illyrian peasants attained + the station, and displayed the abilities, of a general. Though + flying parties of the barbarians, who incessantly hovered on the + banks of the Danube, penetrated sometimes to the confines of + Italy and Macedonia, their progress was commonly checked, or + their return intercepted, by the Imperial lieutenants. But the + great stream of the Gothic hostilities was diverted into a very + different channel. The Goths, in their new settlement of the + Ukraine, soon became masters of the northern coast of the Euxine: + to the south of that inland sea were situated the soft and + wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, which possessed all that could + attract, and nothing that could resist, a barbarian conqueror. + + The banks of the Borysthenes are only sixty miles distant from + the narrow entrance of the peninsula of Crim Tartary, known to + the ancients under the name of Chersonesus Taurica. On that + inhospitable shore, Euripides, embellishing with exquisite art + the tales of antiquity, has placed the scene of one of his most + affecting tragedies. The bloody sacrifices of Diana, the arrival + of Orestes and Pylades, and the triumph of virtue and religion + over savage fierceness, serve to represent an historical truth, + that the Tauri, the original inhabitants of the peninsula, were, + in some degree, reclaimed from their brutal manners by a gradual + intercourse with the Grecian colonies, which settled along the + maritime coast. The little kingdom of Bosphorus, whose capital + was situated on the Straits, through which the Mæotis + communicates itself to the Euxine, was composed of degenerate + Greeks and half-civilized barbarians. It subsisted, as an + independent state, from the time of the Peloponnesian war, was at + last swallowed up by the ambition of Mithridates, and, with the + rest of his dominions, sunk under the weight of the Roman arms. + From the reign of Augustus, the kings of Bosphorus were the + humble, but not useless, allies of the empire. By presents, by + arms, and by a slight fortification drawn across the Isthmus, + they effectually guarded, against the roving plunderers of + Sarmatia, the access of a country which, from its peculiar + situation and convenient harbors, commanded the Euxine Sea and + Asia Minor. As long as the sceptre was possessed by a lineal + succession of kings, they acquitted themselves of their important + charge with vigilance and success. Domestic factions, and the + fears, or private interest, of obscure usurpers, who seized on + the vacant throne, admitted the Goths into the heart of + Bosphorus. With the acquisition of a superfluous waste of fertile + soil, the conquerors obtained the command of a naval force, + sufficient to transport their armies to the coast of Asia. This + ships used in the navigation of the Euxine were of a very + singular construction. They were slight flat-bottomed barks + framed of timber only, without the least mixture of iron, and + occasionally covered with a shelving roof, on the appearance of a + tempest. In these floating houses, the Goths carelessly trusted + themselves to the mercy of an unknown sea, under the conduct of + sailors pressed into the service, and whose skill and fidelity + were equally suspicious. But the hopes of plunder had banished + every idea of danger, and a natural fearlessness of temper + supplied in their minds the more rational confidence, which is + the just result of knowledge and experience. Warriors of such a + daring spirit must have often murmured against the cowardice of + their guides, who required the strongest assurances of a settled + calm before they would venture to embark; and would scarcely ever + be tempted to lose sight of the land. Such, at least, is the + practice of the modern Turks; and they are probably not inferior, + in the art of navigation, to the ancient inhabitants of + Bosphorus. + + The fleet of the Goths, leaving the coast of Circassia on the + left hand, first appeared before Pityus, the utmost limits of the + Roman provinces; a city provided with a convenient port, and + fortified with a strong wall. Here they met with a resistance + more obstinate than they had reason to expect from the feeble + garrison of a distant fortress. They were repulsed; and their + disappointment seemed to diminish the terror of the Gothic name. + As long as Successianus, an officer of superior rank and merit, + defended that frontier, all their efforts were ineffectual; but + as soon as he was removed by Valerian to a more honorable but + less important station, they resumed the attack of Pityus; and by + the destruction of that city, obliterated the memory of their + former disgrace. + + Circling round the eastern extremity of the Euxine Sea, the + navigation from Pityus to Trebizond is about three hundred miles. + The course of the Goths carried them in sight of the country of + Colchis, so famous by the expedition of the Argonauts; and they + even attempted, though without success, to pillage a rich temple + at the mouth of the River Phasis. Trebizond, celebrated in the + retreat of the ten thousand as an ancient colony of Greeks, + derived its wealth and splendor from the magnificence of the + emperor Hadrian, who had constructed an artificial port on a + coast left destitute by nature of secure harbors. The city was + large and populous; a double enclosure of walls seemed to defy + the fury of the Goths, and the usual garrison had been + strengthened by a reënforcement of ten thousand men. But there + are not any advantages capable of supplying the absence of + discipline and vigilance. The numerous garrison of Trebizond, + dissolved in riot and luxury, disdained to guard their + impregnable fortifications. The Goths soon discovered the supine + negligence of the besieged, erected a lofty pile of fascines, + ascended the walls in the silence of the night, and entered the + defenceless city sword in hand. A general massacre of the people + ensued, whilst the affrighted soldiers escaped through the + opposite gates of the town. The most holy temples, and the most + splendid edifices, were involved in a common destruction. The + booty that fell into the hands of the Goths was immense: the + wealth of the adjacent countries had been deposited in Trebizond, + as in a secure place of refuge. The number of captives was + incredible, as the victorious barbarians ranged without + opposition through the extensive province of Pontus. The rich + spoils of Trebizond filled a great fleet of ships that had been + found in the port. The robust youth of the sea-coast were chained + to the oar; and the Goths, satisfied with the success of their + first naval expedition, returned in triumph to their new + establishment in the kingdom of Bosphorus. + + The second expedition of the Goths was undertaken with greater + powers of men and ships; but they steered a different course, + and, disdaining the exhausted provinces of Pontus, followed the + western coast of the Euxine, passed before the wide mouths of the + Borysthenes, the Niester, and the Danube, and increasing their + fleet by the capture of a great number of fishing barks, they + approached the narrow outlet through which the Euxine Sea pours + its waters into the Mediterranean, and divides the continents of + Europe and Asia. The garrison of Chalcedon was encamped near the + temple of Jupiter Urius, on a promontory that commanded the + entrance of the Strait; and so inconsiderable were the dreaded + invasions of the barbarians that this body of troops surpassed in + number the Gothic army. But it was in numbers alone that they + surpassed it. They deserted with precipitation their advantageous + post, and abandoned the town of Chalcedon, most plentifully + stored with arms and money, to the discretion of the conquerors. + Whilst they hesitated whether they should prefer the sea or land, + Europe or Asia, for the scene of their hostilities, a perfidious + fugitive pointed out Nicomedia, * once the capital of the kings + of Bithynia, as a rich and easy conquest. He guided the march + which was only sixty miles from the camp of Chalcedon, directed + the resistless attack, and partook of the booty; for the Goths + had learned sufficient policy to reward the traitor whom they + detested. Nice, Prusa, Apamæa, Cius, cities that had sometimes + rivalled, or imitated, the splendor of Nicomedia, were involved + in the same calamity, which, in a few weeks, raged without + control through the whole province of Bithynia. Three hundred + years of peace, enjoyed by the soft inhabitants of Asia, had + abolished the exercise of arms, and removed the apprehension of + danger. The ancient walls were suffered to moulder away, and all + the revenue of the most opulent cities was reserved for the + construction of baths, temples, and theatres. + + When the city of Cyzicus withstood the utmost effort of + Mithridates, it was distinguished by wise laws, a naval power of + two hundred galleys, and three arsenals, of arms, of military + engines, and of corn. It was still the seat of wealth and luxury; + but of its ancient strength, nothing remained except the + situation, in a little island of the Propontis, connected with + the continent of Asia only by two bridges. From the recent sack + of Prusa, the Goths advanced within eighteen miles of the city, + which they had devoted to destruction; but the ruin of Cyzicus + was delayed by a fortunate accident. The season was rainy, and + the Lake Apolloniates, the reservoir of all the springs of Mount + Olympus, rose to an uncommon height. The little river of + Rhyndacus, which issues from the lake, swelled into a broad and + rapid stream, and stopped the progress of the Goths. Their + retreat to the maritime city of Heraclea, where the fleet had + probably been stationed, was attended by a long train of wagons, + laden with the spoils of Bithynia, and was marked by the flames + of Nice and Nicomedia, which they wantonly burnt. Some obscure + hints are mentioned of a doubtful combat that secured their + retreat. But even a complete victory would have been of little + moment, as the approach of the autumnal equinox summoned them to + hasten their return. To navigate the Euxine before the month of + May, or after that of September, is esteemed by the modern Turks + the most unquestionable instance of rashness and folly. + + When we are informed that the third fleet, equipped by the Goths + in the ports of Bosphorus, consisted of five hundred sails of + ships, our ready imagination instantly computes and multiplies + the formidable armament; but, as we are assured by the judicious + Strabo, that the piratical vessels used by the barbarians of + Pontus and the Lesser Scythia, were not capable of containing + more than twenty-five or thirty men we may safely affirm, that + fifteen thousand warriors, at the most, embarked in this great + expedition. Impatient of the limits of the Euxine, they steered + their destructive course from the Cimmerian to the Thracian + Bosphorus. When they had almost gained the middle of the Straits, + they were suddenly driven back to the entrance of them; till a + favorable wind, springing up the next day, carried them in a few + hours into the placid sea, or rather lake, of the Propontis. + Their landing on the little island of Cyzicus was attended with + the ruin of that ancient and noble city. From thence issuing + again through the narrow passage of the Hellespont, they pursued + their winding navigation amidst the numerous islands scattered + over the Archipelago, or the Ægean Sea. The assistance of + captives and deserters must have been very necessary to pilot + their vessels, and to direct their various incursions, as well on + the coast of Greece as on that of Asia. At length the Gothic + fleet anchored in the port of Piræus, five miles distant from + Athens, which had attempted to make some preparations for a + vigorous defence. Cleodamus, one of the engineers employed by the + emperor’s orders to fortify the maritime cities against the + Goths, had already begun to repair the ancient walls, fallen to + decay since the time of Scylla. The efforts of his skill were + ineffectual, and the barbarians became masters of the native seat + of the muses and the arts. But while the conquerors abandoned + themselves to the license of plunder and intemperance, their + fleet, that lay with a slender guard in the harbor of Piræus, was + unexpectedly attacked by the brave Daxippus, who, flying with the + engineer Cleodamus from the sack of Athens, collected a hasty + band of volunteers, peasants as well as soldiers, and in some + measure avenged the calamities of his country. + + But this exploit, whatever lustre it might shed on the declining + age of Athens, served rather to irritate than to subdue the + undaunted spirit of the northern invaders. A general + conflagration blazed out at the same time in every district of + Greece. Thebes and Argos, Corinth and Sparta, which had formerly + waged such memorable wars against each other, were now unable to + bring an army into the field, or even to defend their ruined + fortifications. The rage of war, both by land and by sea, spread + from the eastern point of Sunium to the western coast of Epirus. + The Goths had already advanced within sight of Italy, when the + approach of such imminent danger awakened the indolent Gallienus + from his dream of pleasure. The emperor appeared in arms; and his + presence seems to have checked the ardor, and to have divided the + strength, of the enemy. Naulobatus, a chief of the Heruli, + accepted an honorable capitulation, entered with a large body of + his countrymen into the service of Rome, and was invested with + the ornaments of the consular dignity, which had never before + been profaned by the hands of a barbarian. Great numbers of the + Goths, disgusted with the perils and hardships of a tedious + voyage, broke into Mæsia, with a design of forcing their way over + the Danube to their settlements in the Ukraine. The wild attempt + would have proved inevitable destruction, if the discord of the + Roman generals had not opened to the barbarians the means of an + escape. The small remainder of this destroying host returned on + board their vessels; and measuring back their way through the + Hellespont and the Bosphorus, ravaged in their passage the shores + of Troy, whose fame, immortalized by Homer, will probably survive + the memory of the Gothic conquests. As soon as they found + themselves in safety within the basin of the Euxine, they landed + at Anchialus in Thrace, near the foot of Mount Hæmus; and, after + all their toils, indulged themselves in the use of those pleasant + and salutary hot baths. What remained of the voyage was a short + and easy navigation. Such was the various fate of this third and + greatest of their naval enterprises. It may seem difficult to + conceive how the original body of fifteen thousand warriors could + sustain the losses and divisions of so bold an adventure. But as + their numbers were gradually wasted by the sword, by shipwrecks, + and by the influence of a warm climate, they were perpetually + renewed by troops of banditti and deserters, who flocked to the + standard of plunder, and by a crowd of fugitive slaves, often of + German or Sarmatian extraction, who eagerly seized the glorious + opportunity of freedom and revenge. In these expeditions, the + Gothic nation claimed a superior share of honor and danger; but + the tribes that fought under the Gothic banners are sometimes + distinguished and sometimes confounded in the imperfect histories + of that age; and as the barbarian fleets seemed to issue from the + mouth of the Tanais, the vague but familiar appellation of + Scythians was frequently bestowed on the mixed multitude. + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part IV. + + In the general calamities of mankind, the death of an individual, + however exalted, the ruin of an edifice, however famous, are + passed over with careless inattention. Yet we cannot forget that + the temple of Diana at Ephesus, after having risen with + increasing splendor from seven repeated misfortunes, was finally + burnt by the Goths in their third naval invasion. The arts of + Greece, and the wealth of Asia, had conspired to erect that + sacred and magnificent structure. It was supported by a hundred + and twenty-seven marble columns of the Ionic order. They were the + gifts of devout monarchs, and each was sixty feet high. The altar + was adorned with the masterly sculptures of Praxiteles, who had, + perhaps, selected from the favorite legends of the place the + birth of the divine children of Latona, the concealment of Apollo + after the slaughter of the Cyclops, and the clemency of Bacchus + to the vanquished Amazons. Yet the length of the temple of + Ephesus was only four hundred and twenty-five feet, about two + thirds of the measure of the church of St. Peter’s at Rome. In + the other dimensions, it was still more inferior to that sublime + production of modern architecture. The spreading arms of a + Christian cross require a much greater breadth than the oblong + temples of the Pagans; and the boldest artists of antiquity would + have been startled at the proposal of raising in the air a dome + of the size and proportions of the Pantheon. The temple of Diana + was, however, admired as one of the wonders of the world. + Successive empires, the Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman, + had revered its sanctity and enriched its splendor. But the rude + savages of the Baltic were destitute of a taste for the elegant + arts, and they despised the ideal terrors of a foreign + superstition. + + Another circumstance is related of these invasions, which might + deserve our notice, were it not justly to be suspected as the + fanciful conceit of a recent sophist. We are told that in the + sack of Athens the Goths had collected all the libraries, and + were on the point of setting fire to this funeral pile of Grecian + learning, had not one of their chiefs, of more refined policy + than his brethren, dissuaded them from the design; by the + profound observation, that as long as the Greeks were addicted to + the study of books, they would never apply themselves to the + exercise of arms. The sagacious counsellor (should the truth of + the fact be admitted) reasoned like an ignorant barbarian. In the + most polite and powerful nations, genius of every kind has + displayed itself about the same period; and the age of science + has generally been the age of military virtue and success. + + IV. The new sovereign of Persia, Artaxerxes and his son Sapor, + had triumphed (as we have already seen) over the house of + Arsaces. Of the many princes of that ancient race, Chosroes, king + of Armenia, had alone preserved both his life and his + independence. He defended himself by the natural strength of his + country; by the perpetual resort of fugitives and malecontents; + by the alliance of the Romans, and above all, by his own courage. + Invincible in arms, during a thirty years’ war, he was at length + assassinated by the emissaries of Sapor, king of Persia. The + patriotic satraps of Armenia, who asserted the freedom and + dignity of the crown, implored the protection of Rome in favor of + Tiridates, the lawful heir. But the son of Chosroes was an + infant, the allies were at a distance, and the Persian monarch + advanced towards the frontier at the head of an irresistible + force. Young Tiridates, the future hope of his country, was saved + by the fidelity of a servant, and Armenia continued above + twenty-seven years a reluctant province of the great monarchy of + Persia. Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the + distresses or the degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor obliged the + strong garrisons of Carrhæ and Nisibis * to surrender, and spread + devastation and terror on either side of the Euphrates. + + The loss of an important frontier, the ruin of a faithful and + natural ally, and the rapid success of Sapor’s ambition, affected + Rome with a deep sense of the insult as well as of the danger. + Valerian flattered himself, that the vigilance of his lieutenants + would sufficiently provide for the safety of the Rhine and of the + Danube; but he resolved, notwithstanding his advanced age, to + march in person to the defence of the Euphrates. During his + progress through Asia Minor, the naval enterprises of the Goths + were suspended, and the afflicted province enjoyed a transient + and fallacious calm. He passed the Euphrates, encountered the + Persian monarch near the walls of Edessa, was vanquished, and + taken prisoner by Sapor. The particulars of this great event are + darkly and imperfectly represented; yet, by the glimmering light + which is afforded us, we may discover a long series of + imprudence, of error, and of deserved misfortunes on the side of + the Roman emperor. He reposed an implicit confidence in + Macrianus, his Prætorian præfect. That worthless minister + rendered his master formidable only to the oppressed subjects, + and contemptible to the enemies of Rome. By his weak or wicked + counsels, the Imperial army was betrayed into a situation where + valor and military skill were equally unavailing. The vigorous + attempt of the Romans to cut their way through the Persian host + was repulsed with great slaughter; and Sapor, who encompassed the + camp with superior numbers, patiently waited till the increasing + rage of famine and pestilence had insured his victory. The + licentious murmurs of the legions soon accused Valerian as the + cause of their calamities; their seditious clamors demanded an + instant capitulation. An immense sum of gold was offered to + purchase the permission of a disgraceful retreat. But the + Persian, conscious of his superiority, refused the money with + disdain; and detaining the deputies, advanced in order of battle + to the foot of the Roman rampart, and insisted on a personal + conference with the emperor. Valerian was reduced to the + necessity of intrusting his life and dignity to the faith of an + enemy. The interview ended as it was natural to expect. The + emperor was made a prisoner, and his astonished troops laid down + their arms. In such a moment of triumph, the pride and policy of + Sapor prompted him to fill the vacant throne with a successor + entirely dependent on his pleasure. Cyriades, an obscure fugitive + of Antioch, stained with every vice, was chosen to dishonor the + Roman purple; and the will of the Persian victor could not fail + of being ratified by the acclamations, however reluctant, of the + captive army. + + The Imperial slave was eager to secure the favor of his master by + an act of treason to his native country. He conducted Sapor over + the Euphrates, and, by the way of Chalcis, to the metropolis of + the East. So rapid were the motions of the Persian cavalry, that, + if we may credit a very judicious historian, the city of Antioch + was surprised when the idle multitude was fondly gazing on the + amusements of the theatre. The splendid buildings of Antioch, + private as well as public, were either pillaged or destroyed; and + the numerous inhabitants were put to the sword, or led away into + captivity. The tide of devastation was stopped for a moment by + the resolution of the high priest of Emesa. Arrayed in his + sacerdotal robes, he appeared at the head of a great body of + fanatic peasants, armed only with slings, and defended his god + and his property from the sacrilegious hands of the followers of + Zoroaster. But the ruin of Tarsus, and of many other cities, + furnishes a melancholy proof that, except in this singular + instance, the conquest of Syria and Cilicia scarcely interrupted + the progress of the Persian arms. The advantages of the narrow + passes of Mount Taurus were abandoned, in which an invader, whose + principal force consisted in his cavalry, would have been engaged + in a very unequal combat: and Sapor was permitted to form the + siege of Cæsarea, the capital of Cappadocia; a city, though of + the second rank, which was supposed to contain four hundred + thousand inhabitants. Demosthenes commanded in the place, not so + much by the commission of the emperor, as in the voluntary + defence of his country. For a long time he deferred its fate; and + when at last Cæsarea was betrayed by the perfidy of a physician, + he cut his way through the Persians, who had been ordered to + exert their utmost diligence to take him alive. This heroic chief + escaped the power of a foe who might either have honored or + punished his obstinate valor; but many thousands of his + fellow-citizens were involved in a general massacre, and Sapor is + accused of treating his prisoners with wanton and unrelenting + cruelty. Much should undoubtedly be allowed for national + animosity, much for humbled pride and impotent revenge; yet, upon + the whole, it is certain, that the same prince, who, in Armenia, + had displayed the mild aspect of a legislator, showed himself to + the Romans under the stern features of a conqueror. He despaired + of making any permanent establishment in the empire, and sought + only to leave behind him a wasted desert, whilst he transported + into Persia the people and the treasures of the provinces. + + At the time when the East trembled at the name of Sapor, he + received a present not unworthy of the greatest kings; a long + train of camels, laden with the most rare and valuable + merchandises. The rich offering was accompanied with an epistle, + respectful, but not servile, from Odenathus, one of the noblest + and most opulent senators of Palmyra. “Who is this Odenathus,” + (said the haughty victor, and he commanded that the present + should be cast into the Euphrates,) “that he thus insolently + presumes to write to his lord? If he entertains a hope of + mitigating his punishment, let him fall prostrate before the foot + of our throne, with his hands bound behind his back. Should he + hesitate, swift destruction shall be poured on his head, on his + whole race, and on his country.” The desperate extremity to which + the Palmyrenian was reduced, called into action all the latent + powers of his soul. He met Sapor; but he met him in arms. + Infusing his own spirit into a little army collected from the + villages of Syria and the tents of the desert, he hovered round + the Persian host, harassed their retreat, carried off part of the + treasure, and, what was dearer than any treasure, several of the + women of the great king; who was at last obliged to repass the + Euphrates with some marks of haste and confusion. By this + exploit, Odenathus laid the foundations of his future fame and + fortunes. The majesty of Rome, oppressed by a Persian, was + protected by a Syrian or Arab of Palmyra. + + The voice of history, which is often little more than the organ + of hatred or flattery, reproaches Sapor with a proud abuse of the + rights of conquest. We are told that Valerian, in chains, but + invested with the Imperial purple, was exposed to the multitude, + a constant spectacle of fallen greatness; and that whenever the + Persian monarch mounted on horseback, he placed his foot on the + neck of a Roman emperor. Notwithstanding all the remonstrances of + his allies, who repeatedly advised him to remember the + vicissitudes of fortune, to dread the returning power of Rome, + and to make his illustrious captive the pledge of peace, not the + object of insult, Sapor still remained inflexible. When Valerian + sunk under the weight of shame and grief, his skin, stuffed with + straw, and formed into the likeness of a human figure, was + preserved for ages in the most celebrated temple of Persia; a + more real monument of triumph, than the fancied trophies of brass + and marble so often erected by Roman vanity. The tale is moral + and pathetic, but the truth of it may very fairly be called in + question. The letters still extant from the princes of the East + to Sapor are manifest forgeries; nor is it natural to suppose + that a jealous monarch should, even in the person of a rival, + thus publicly degrade the majesty of kings. Whatever treatment + the unfortunate Valerian might experience in Persia, it is at + least certain that the only emperor of Rome who had ever fallen + into the hands of the enemy, languished away his life in hopeless + captivity. + + The emperor Gallienus, who had long supported with impatience the + censorial severity of his father and colleague, received the + intelligence of his misfortunes with secret pleasure and avowed + indifference. “I knew that my father was a mortal,” said he; “and + since he has acted as it becomes a brave man, I am satisfied.” + Whilst Rome lamented the fate of her sovereign, the savage + coldness of his son was extolled by the servile courtiers as the + perfect firmness of a hero and a stoic. It is difficult to paint + the light, the various, the inconstant character of Gallienus, + which he displayed without constraint, as soon as he became sole + possessor of the empire. In every art that he attempted, his + lively genius enabled him to succeed; and as his genius was + destitute of judgment, he attempted every art, except the + important ones of war and government. He was a master of several + curious, but useless sciences, a ready orator, an elegant poet, a + skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible + prince. When the great emergencies of the state required his + presence and attention, he was engaged in conversation with the + philosopher Plotinus, wasting his time in trifling or licentious + pleasures, preparing his initiation to the Grecian mysteries, or + soliciting a place in the Areopagus of Athens. His profuse + magnificence insulted the general poverty; the solemn ridicule of + his triumphs impressed a deeper sense of the public disgrace. The + repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and rebellions, he + received with a careless smile; and singling out, with affected + contempt, some particular production of the lost province, he + carelessly asked, whether Rome must be ruined, unless it was + supplied with linen from Egypt, and arras cloth from Gaul. There + were, however, a few short moments in the life of Gallienus, + when, exasperated by some recent injury, he suddenly appeared the + intrepid soldier and the cruel tyrant; till, satiated with blood, + or fatigued by resistance, he insensibly sunk into the natural + mildness and indolence of his character. + + At the time when the reins of government were held with so loose + a hand, it is not surprising that a crowd of usurpers should + start up in every province of the empire against the son of + Valerian. It was probably some ingenious fancy, of comparing the + thirty tyrants of Rome with the thirty tyrants of Athens, that + induced the writers of the Augustan History to select that + celebrated number, which has been gradually received into a + popular appellation. But in every light the parallel is idle and + defective. What resemblance can we discover between a council of + thirty persons, the united oppressors of a single city, and an + uncertain list of independent rivals, who rose and fell in + irregular succession through the extent of a vast empire? Nor can + the number of thirty be completed, unless we include in the + account the women and children who were honored with the Imperial + title. The reign of Gallienus, distracted as it was, produced + only nineteen pretenders to the throne: Cyriades, Macrianus, + Balista, Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; in Gaul, and the + western provinces, Posthumus, Lollianus, Victorinus, and his + mother Victoria, Marius, and Tetricus; in Illyricum and the + confines of the Danube, Ingenuus, Regillianus, and Aureolus; in + Pontus, Saturninus; in Isauria, Trebellianus; Piso in Thessaly; + Valens in Achaia; Æmilianus in Egypt; and Celsus in Africa. * To + illustrate the obscure monuments of the life and death of each + individual, would prove a laborious task, alike barren of + instruction and of amusement. We may content ourselves with + investigating some general characters, that most strongly mark + the condition of the times, and the manners of the men, their + pretensions, their motives, their fate, and the destructive + consequences of their usurpation. + + It is sufficiently known, that the odious appellation of _Tyrant_ + was often employed by the ancients to express the illegal seizure + of supreme power, without any reference to the abuse of it. + Several of the pretenders, who raised the standard of rebellion + against the emperor Gallienus, were shining models of virtue, and + almost all possessed a considerable share of vigor and ability. + Their merit had recommended them to the favor of Valerian, and + gradually promoted them to the most important commands of the + empire. The generals, who assumed the title of Augustus, were + either respected by their troops for their able conduct and + severe discipline, or admired for valor and success in war, or + beloved for frankness and generosity. The field of victory was + often the scene of their election; and even the armorer Marius, + the most contemptible of all the candidates for the purple, was + distinguished, however, by intrepid courage, matchless strength, + and blunt honesty. His mean and recent trade cast, indeed, an air + of ridicule on his elevation; * but his birth could not be more + obscure than was that of the greater part of his rivals, who were + born of peasants, and enlisted in the army as private soldiers. + In times of confusion every active genius finds the place + assigned him by nature: in a general state of war military merit + is the road to glory and to greatness. Of the nineteen tyrants + Tetricus only was a senator; Piso alone was a noble. The blood of + Numa, through twenty-eight successive generations, ran in the + veins of Calphurnius Piso, who, by female alliances, claimed a + right of exhibiting, in his house, the images of Crassus and of + the great Pompey. His ancestors had been repeatedly dignified + with all the honors which the commonwealth could bestow; and of + all the ancient families of Rome, the Calphurnian alone had + survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. The personal qualities of + Piso added new lustre to his race. The usurper Valens, by whose + order he was killed, confessed, with deep remorse, that even an + enemy ought to have respected the sanctity of Piso; and although + he died in arms against Gallienus, the senate, with the emperor’s + generous permission, decreed the triumphal ornaments to the + memory of so virtuous a rebel. + + The lieutenants of Valerian were grateful to the father, whom + they esteemed. They disdained to serve the luxurious indolence of + his unworthy son. The throne of the Roman world was unsupported + by any principle of loyalty; and treason against such a prince + might easily be considered as patriotism to the state. Yet if we + examine with candor the conduct of these usurpers, it will + appear, that they were much oftener driven into rebellion by + their fears, than urged to it by their ambition. They dreaded the + cruel suspicions of Gallienus; they equally dreaded the + capricious violence of their troops. If the dangerous favor of + the army had imprudently declared them deserving of the purple, + they were marked for sure destruction; and even prudence would + counsel them to secure a short enjoyment of empire, and rather to + try the fortune of war than to expect the hand of an executioner. + When the clamor of the soldiers invested the reluctant victims + with the ensigns of sovereign authority, they sometimes mourned + in secret their approaching fate. “You have lost,” said + Saturninus, on the day of his elevation, “you have lost a useful + commander, and you have made a very wretched emperor.” + + The apprehensions of Saturninus were justified by the repeated + experience of revolutions. Of the nineteen tyrants who started up + under the reign of Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a + life of peace, or a natural death. As soon as they were invested + with the bloody purple, they inspired their adherents with the + same fears and ambition which had occasioned their own revolt. + Encompassed with domestic conspiracy, military sedition, and + civil war, they trembled on the edge of precipices, in which, + after a longer or shorter term of anxiety, they were inevitably + lost. These precarious monarchs received, however, such honors as + the flattery of their respective armies and provinces could + bestow; but their claim, founded on rebellion, could never obtain + the sanction of law or history. Italy, Rome, and the senate, + constantly adhered to the cause of Gallienus, and he alone was + considered as the sovereign of the empire. That prince + condescended, indeed, to acknowledge the victorious arms of + Odenathus, who deserved the honorable distinction, by the + respectful conduct which he always maintained towards the son of + Valerian. With the general applause of the Romans, and the + consent of Gallienus, the senate conferred the title of Augustus + on the brave Palmyrenian; and seemed to intrust him with the + government of the East, which he already possessed, in so + independent a manner, that, like a private succession, he + bequeathed it to his illustrious widow, Zenobia. + + The rapid and perpetual transitions from the cottage to the + throne, and from the throne to the grave, might have amused an + indifferent philosopher; were it possible for a philosopher to + remain indifferent amidst the general calamities of human kind. + The election of these precarious emperors, their power and their + death, were equally destructive to their subjects and adherents. + The price of their fatal elevation was instantly discharged to + the troops by an immense donative, drawn from the bowels of the + exhausted people. However virtuous was their character, however + pure their intentions, they found themselves reduced to the hard + necessity of supporting their usurpation by frequent acts of + rapine and cruelty. When they fell, they involved armies and + provinces in their fall. There is still extant a most savage + mandate from Gallienus to one of his ministers, after the + suppression of Ingenuus, who had assumed the purple in Illyricum. + “It is not enough,” says that soft but inhuman prince, “that you + exterminate such as have appeared in arms; the chance of battle + might have served me as effectually. The male sex of every age + must be extirpated; provided that, in the execution of the + children and old men, you can contrive means to save our + reputation. Let every one die who has dropped an expression, who + has entertained a thought against me, against me, the son of + Valerian, the father and brother of so many princes. Remember + that Ingenuus was made emperor: tear, kill, hew in pieces. I + write to you with my own hand, and would inspire you with my own + feelings.” Whilst the public forces of the state were dissipated + in private quarrels, the defenceless provinces lay exposed to + every invader. The bravest usurpers were compelled, by the + perplexity of their situation, to conclude ignominious treaties + with the common enemy, to purchase with oppressive tributes the + neutrality or services of the Barbarians, and to introduce + hostile and independent nations into the heart of the Roman + monarchy. + + Such were the barbarians, and such the tyrants, who, under the + reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, dismembered the provinces, and + reduced the empire to the lowest pitch of disgrace and ruin, from + whence it seemed impossible that it should ever emerge. As far as + the barrenness of materials would permit, we have attempted to + trace, with order and perspicuity, the general events of that + calamitous period. There still remain some particular facts; I. + The disorders of Sicily; II. The tumults of Alexandria; and, III. + The rebellion of the Isaurians, which may serve to reflect a + strong light on the horrid picture. + + I. Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by success + and impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding, the justice of + their country, we may safely infer that the excessive weakness of + the country is felt and abused by the lowest ranks of the + community. The situation of Sicily preserved it from the + Barbarians; nor could the disarmed province have supported a + usurper. The sufferings of that once flourishing and still + fertile island were inflicted by baser hands. A licentious crowd + of slaves and peasants reigned for a while over the plundered + country, and renewed the memory of the servile wars of more + ancient times. Devastations, of which the husbandman was either + the victim or the accomplice, must have ruined the agriculture of + Sicily; and as the principal estates were the property of the + opulent senators of Rome, who often enclosed within a farm the + territory of an old republic, it is not improbable, that this + private injury might affect the capital more deeply, than all the + conquests of the Goths or the Persians. + + II. The foundation of Alexandria was a noble design, at once + conceived and executed by the son of Philip. The beautiful and + regular form of that great city, second only to Rome itself, + comprehended a circumference of fifteen miles; it was peopled by + three hundred thousand free inhabitants, besides at least an + equal number of slaves. The lucrative trade of Arabia and India + flowed through the port of Alexandria, to the capital and + provinces of the empire. * Idleness was unknown. Some were + employed in blowing of glass, others in weaving of linen, others + again manufacturing the papyrus. Either sex, and every age, was + engaged in the pursuits of industry, nor did even the blind or + the lame want occupations suited to their condition. But the + people of Alexandria, a various mixture of nations, united the + vanity and inconstancy of the Greeks with the superstition and + obstinacy of the Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a + transient scarcity of flesh or lentils, the neglect of an + accustomed salutation, a mistake of precedency in the public + baths, or even a religious dispute, were at any time sufficient + to kindle a sedition among that vast multitude, whose resentments + were furious and implacable. After the captivity of Valerian and + the insolence of his son had relaxed the authority of the laws, + the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to the ungoverned rage of + their passions, and their unhappy country was the theatre of a + civil war, which continued (with a few short and suspicious + truces) above twelve years. All intercourse was cut off between + the several quarters of the afflicted city, every street was + polluted with blood, every building of strength converted into a + citadel; nor did the tumults subside till a considerable part of + Alexandria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious and magnificent + district of Bruchion, * with its palaces and musæum, the + residence of the kings and philosophers of Egypt, is described + above a century afterwards, as already reduced to its present + state of dreary solitude. + + III. The obscure rebellion of Trebellianus, who assumed the + purple in Isauria, a petty province of Asia Minor, was attended + with strange and memorable consequences. The pageant of royalty + was soon destroyed by an officer of Gallienus; but his followers, + despairing of mercy, resolved to shake off their allegiance, not + only to the emperor, but to the empire, and suddenly returned to + the savage manners from which they had never perfectly been + reclaimed. Their craggy rocks, a branch of the wide-extended + Taurus, protected their inaccessible retreat. The tillage of some + fertile valleys supplied them with necessaries, and a habit of + rapine with the luxuries of life. In the heart of the Roman + monarchy, the Isaurians long continued a nation of wild + barbarians. Succeeding princes, unable to reduce them to + obedience, either by arms or policy, were compelled to + acknowledge their weakness, by surrounding the hostile and + independent spot with a strong chain of fortifications, which + often proved insufficient to restrain the incursions of these + domestic foes. The Isaurians, gradually extending their territory + to the sea-coast, subdued the western and mountainous part of + Cilicia, formerly the nest of those daring pirates, against whom + the republic had once been obliged to exert its utmost force, + under the conduct of the great Pompey. + + Our habits of thinking so fondly connect the order of the + universe with the fate of man, that this gloomy period of history + has been decorated with inundations, earthquakes, uncommon + meteors, preternatural darkness, and a crowd of prodigies + fictitious or exaggerated. But a long and general famine was a + calamity of a more serious kind. It was the inevitable + consequence of rapine and oppression, which extirpated the + produce of the present and the hope of future harvests. Famine is + almost always followed by epidemical diseases, the effect of + scanty and unwholesome food. Other causes must, however, have + contributed to the furious plague, which, from the year two + hundred and fifty to the year two hundred and sixty-five, raged + without interruption in every province, every city, and almost + every family, of the Roman empire. During some time five thousand + persons died daily in Rome; and many towns, that had escaped the + hands of the Barbarians, were entirely depopulated. + + We have the knowledge of a very curious circumstance, of some use + perhaps in the melancholy calculation of human calamities. An + exact register was kept at Alexandria of all the citizens + entitled to receive the distribution of corn. It was found, that + the ancient number of those comprised between the ages of forty + and seventy, had been equal to the whole sum of claimants, from + fourteen to fourscore years of age, who remained alive after the + reign of Gallienus. Applying this authentic fact to the most + correct tables of mortality, it evidently proves, that above half + the people of Alexandria had perished; and could we venture to + extend the analogy to the other provinces, we might suspect, that + war, pestilence, and famine, had consumed, in a few years, the + moiety of the human species. + + + + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. + +Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, Triumph, And Death +Of Aurelian. + + Under the deplorable reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the empire + was oppressed and almost destroyed by the soldiers, the tyrants, + and the barbarians. It was saved by a series of great princes, + who derived their obscure origin from the martial provinces of + Illyricum. Within a period of about thirty years, Claudius, + Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and his colleagues, triumphed over + the foreign and domestic enemies of the state, reëstablished, + with the military discipline, the strength of the frontiers, and + deserved the glorious title of Restorers of the Roman world. + + The removal of an effeminate tyrant made way for a succession of + heroes. The indignation of the people imputed all their + calamities to Gallienus, and the far greater part were, indeed, + the consequence of his dissolute manners and careless + administration. He was even destitute of a sense of honor, which + so frequently supplies the absence of public virtue; and as long + as he was permitted to enjoy the possession of Italy, a victory + of the barbarians, the loss of a province, or the rebellion of a + general, seldom disturbed the tranquil course of his pleasures. + At length, a considerable army, stationed on the Upper Danube, + invested with the Imperial purple their leader Aureolus; who, + disdaining a confined and barren reign over the mountains of + Rhætia, passed the Alps, occupied Milan, threatened Rome, and + challenged Gallienus to dispute in the field the sovereignty of + Italy. The emperor, provoked by the insult, and alarmed by the + instant danger, suddenly exerted that latent vigor which + sometimes broke through the indolence of his temper. Forcing + himself from the luxury of the palace, he appeared in arms at the + head of his legions, and advanced beyond the Po to encounter his + competitor. The corrupted name of Pontirolo still preserves the + memory of a bridge over the Adda, which, during the action, must + have proved an object of the utmost importance to both armies. + The Rhætian usurper, after receiving a total defeat and a + dangerous wound, retired into Milan. The siege of that great city + was immediately formed; the walls were battered with every engine + in use among the ancients; and Aureolus, doubtful of his internal + strength, and hopeless of foreign succors already anticipated the + fatal consequences of unsuccessful rebellion. + + His last resource was an attempt to seduce the loyalty of the + besiegers. He scattered libels through the camp, inviting the + troops to desert an unworthy master, who sacrificed the public + happiness to his luxury, and the lives of his most valuable + subjects to the slightest suspicions. The arts of Aureolus + diffused fears and discontent among the principal officers of his + rival. A conspiracy was formed by Heraclianus, the Prætorian + præfect, by Marcian, a general of rank and reputation, and by + Cecrops, who commanded a numerous body of Dalmatian guards. The + death of Gallienus was resolved; and notwithstanding their desire + of first terminating the siege of Milan, the extreme danger which + accompanied every moment’s delay obliged them to hasten the + execution of their daring purpose. At a late hour of the night, + but while the emperor still protracted the pleasures of the + table, an alarm was suddenly given, that Aureolus, at the head of + all his forces, had made a desperate sally from the town; + Gallienus, who was never deficient in personal bravery, started + from his silken couch, and without allowing himself time either + to put on his armor, or to assemble his guards, he mounted on + horseback, and rode full speed towards the supposed place of the + attack. Encompassed by his declared or concealed enemies, he + soon, amidst the nocturnal tumult, received a mortal dart from an + uncertain hand. Before he expired, a patriotic sentiment rising + in the mind of Gallienus, induced him to name a deserving + successor; and it was his last request, that the Imperial + ornaments should be delivered to Claudius, who then commanded a + detached army in the neighborhood of Pavia. The report at least + was diligently propagated, and the order cheerfully obeyed by the + conspirators, who had already agreed to place Claudius on the + throne. On the first news of the emperor’s death, the troops + expressed some suspicion and resentment, till the one was + removed, and the other assuaged, by a donative of twenty pieces + of gold to each soldier. They then ratified the election, and + acknowledged the merit of their new sovereign. + + The obscurity which covered the origin of Claudius, though it was + afterwards embellished by some flattering fictions, sufficiently + betrays the meanness of his birth. We can only discover that he + was a native of one of the provinces bordering on the Danube; + that his youth was spent in arms, and that his modest valor + attracted the favor and confidence of Decius. The senate and + people already considered him as an excellent officer, equal to + the most important trusts; and censured the inattention of + Valerian, who suffered him to remain in the subordinate station + of a tribune. But it was not long before that emperor + distinguished the merit of Claudius, by declaring him general and + chief of the Illyrian frontier, with the command of all the + troops in Thrace, Mæsia, Dacia, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, the + appointments of the præfect of Egypt, the establishment of the + proconsul of Africa, and the sure prospect of the consulship. By + his victories over the Goths, he deserved from the senate the + honor of a statue, and excited the jealous apprehensions of + Gallienus. It was impossible that a soldier could esteem so + dissolute a sovereign, nor is it easy to conceal a just contempt. + Some unguarded expressions which dropped from Claudius were + officiously transmitted to the royal ear. The emperor’s answer to + an officer of confidence describes in very lively colors his own + character, and that of the times. “There is not any thing capable + of giving me more serious concern, than the intelligence + contained in your last despatch; that some malicious suggestions + have indisposed towards us the mind of our friend and parent + Claudius. As you regard your allegiance, use every means to + appease his resentment, but conduct your negotiation with + secrecy; let it not reach the knowledge of the Dacian troops; + they are already provoked, and it might inflame their fury. I + myself have sent him some presents: be it your care that he + accept them with pleasure. Above all, let him not suspect that I + am made acquainted with his imprudence. The fear of my anger + might urge him to desperate counsels.” The presents which + accompanied this humble epistle, in which the monarch solicited a + reconciliation with his discontented subject, consisted of a + considerable sum of money, a splendid wardrobe, and a valuable + service of silver and gold plate. By such arts Gallienus softened + the indignation and dispelled the fears of his Illyrian general; + and during the remainder of that reign, the formidable sword of + Claudius was always drawn in the cause of a master whom he + despised. At last, indeed, he received from the conspirators the + bloody purple of Gallienus: but he had been absent from their + camp and counsels; and however he might applaud the deed, we may + candidly presume that he was innocent of the knowledge of it. + When Claudius ascended the throne, he was about fifty-four years + of age. + + The siege of Milan was still continued, and Aureolus soon + discovered that the success of his artifices had only raised up a + more determined adversary. He attempted to negotiate with + Claudius a treaty of alliance and partition. “Tell him,” replied + the intrepid emperor, “that such proposals should have been made + to Gallienus; _he_, perhaps, might have listened to them with + patience, and accepted a colleague as despicable as himself.” + This stern refusal, and a last unsuccessful effort, obliged + Aureolus to yield the city and himself to the discretion of the + conqueror. The judgment of the army pronounced him worthy of + death; and Claudius, after a feeble resistance, consented to the + execution of the sentence. Nor was the zeal of the senate less + ardent in the cause of their new sovereign. They ratified, + perhaps with a sincere transport of zeal, the election of + Claudius; and, as his predecessor had shown himself the personal + enemy of their order, they exercised, under the name of justice, + a severe revenge against his friends and family. The senate was + permitted to discharge the ungrateful office of punishment, and + the emperor reserved for himself the pleasure and merit of + obtaining by his intercession a general act of indemnity. + + Such ostentatious clemency discovers less of the real character + of Claudius, than a trifling circumstance in which he seems to + have consulted only the dictates of his heart. The frequent + rebellions of the provinces had involved almost every person in + the guilt of treason, almost every estate in the case of + confiscation; and Gallienus often displayed his liberality by + distributing among his officers the property of his subjects. On + the accession of Claudius, an old woman threw herself at his + feet, and complained that a general of the late emperor had + obtained an arbitrary grant of her patrimony. This general was + Claudius himself, who had not entirely escaped the contagion of + the times. The emperor blushed at the reproach, but deserved the + confidence which she had reposed in his equity. The confession of + his fault was accompanied with immediate and ample restitution. + + In the arduous task which Claudius had undertaken, of restoring + the empire to its ancient splendor, it was first necessary to + revive among his troops a sense of order and obedience. With the + authority of a veteran commander, he represented to them that the + relaxation of discipline had introduced a long train of + disorders, the effects of which were at length experienced by the + soldiers themselves; that a people ruined by oppression, and + indolent from despair, could no longer supply a numerous army + with the means of luxury, or even of subsistence; that the danger + of each individual had increased with the despotism of the + military order, since princes who tremble on the throne will + guard their safety by the instant sacrifice of every obnoxious + subject. The emperor expiated on the mischiefs of a lawless + caprice, which the soldiers could only gratify at the expense of + their own blood; as their seditious elections had so frequently + been followed by civil wars, which consumed the flower of the + legions either in the field of battle, or in the cruel abuse of + victory. He painted in the most lively colors the exhausted state + of the treasury, the desolation of the provinces, the disgrace of + the Roman name, and the insolent triumph of rapacious barbarians. + It was against those barbarians, he declared, that he intended to + point the first effort of their arms. Tetricus might reign for a + while over the West, and even Zenobia might preserve the dominion + of the East. These usurpers were his personal adversaries; nor + could he think of indulging any private resentment till he had + saved an empire, whose impending ruin would, unless it was timely + prevented, crush both the army and the people. + + The various nations of Germany and Sarmatia, who fought under the + Gothic standard, had already collected an armament more + formidable than any which had yet issued from the Euxine. On the + banks of the Niester, one of the great rivers that discharge + themselves into that sea, they constructed a fleet of two + thousand, or even of six thousand vessels; numbers which, however + incredible they may seem, would have been insufficient to + transport their pretended army of three hundred and twenty + thousand barbarians. Whatever might be the real strength of the + Goths, the vigor and success of the expedition were not adequate + to the greatness of the preparations. In their passage through + the Bosphorus, the unskilful pilots were overpowered by the + violence of the current; and while the multitude of their ships + were crowded in a narrow channel, many were dashed against each + other, or against the shore. The barbarians made several descents + on the coasts both of Europe and Asia; but the open country was + already plundered, and they were repulsed with shame and loss + from the fortified cities which they assaulted. A spirit of + discouragement and division arose in the fleet, and some of their + chiefs sailed away towards the islands of Crete and Cyprus; but + the main body, pursuing a more steady course, anchored at length + near the foot of Mount Athos, and assaulted the city of + Thessalonica, the wealthy capital of all the Macedonian + provinces. Their attacks, in which they displayed a fierce but + artless bravery, were soon interrupted by the rapid approach of + Claudius, hastening to a scene of action that deserved the + presence of a warlike prince at the head of the remaining powers + of the empire. Impatient for battle, the Goths immediately broke + up their camp, relinquished the siege of Thessalonica, left their + navy at the foot of Mount Athos, traversed the hills of + Macedonia, and pressed forwards to engage the last defence of + Italy. + + We still posses an original letter addressed by Claudius to the + senate and people on this memorable occasion. “Conscript + fathers,” says the emperor, “know that three hundred and twenty + thousand Goths have invaded the Roman territory. If I vanquish + them, your gratitude will reward my services. Should I fall, + remember that I am the successor of Gallienus. The whole republic + is fatigued and exhausted. We shall fight after Valerian, after + Ingenuus, Regillianus, Lollianus, Posthumus, Celsus, and a + thousand others, whom a just contempt for Gallienus provoked into + rebellion. We are in want of darts, of spears, and of shields. + The strength of the empire, Gaul, and Spain, are usurped by + Tetricus, and we blush to acknowledge that the archers of the + East serve under the banners of Zenobia. Whatever we shall + perform will be sufficiently great.” The melancholy firmness of + this epistle announces a hero careless of his fate, conscious of + his danger, but still deriving a well-grounded hope from the + resources of his own mind. + + The event surpassed his own expectations and those of the world. + By the most signal victories he delivered the empire from this + host of barbarians, and was distinguished by posterity under the + glorious appellation of the Gothic Claudius. The imperfect + historians of an irregular war do not enable us to describe the + order and circumstances of his exploits; but, if we could be + indulged in the allusion, we might distribute into three acts + this memorable tragedy. I. The decisive battle was fought near + Naissus, a city of Dardania. The legions at first gave way, + oppressed by numbers, and dismayed by misfortunes. Their ruin was + inevitable, had not the abilities of their emperor prepared a + seasonable relief. A large detachment, rising out of the secret + and difficult passes of the mountains, which, by his order, they + had occupied, suddenly assailed the rear of the victorious Goths. + The favorable instant was improved by the activity of Claudius. + He revived the courage of his troops, restored their ranks, and + pressed the barbarians on every side. Fifty thousand men are + reported to have been slain in the battle of Naissus. Several + large bodies of barbarians, covering their retreat with a movable + fortification of wagons, retired, or rather escaped, from the + field of slaughter. II. We may presume that some insurmountable + difficulty, the fatigue, perhaps, or the disobedience, of the + conquerors, prevented Claudius from completing in one day the + destruction of the Goths. The war was diffused over the province + of Mæsia, Thrace, and Macedonia, and its operations drawn out + into a variety of marches, surprises, and tumultuary engagements, + as well by sea as by land. When the Romans suffered any loss, it + was commonly occasioned by their own cowardice or rashness; but + the superior talents of the emperor, his perfect knowledge of the + country, and his judicious choice of measures as well as + officers, assured on most occasions the success of his arms. The + immense booty, the fruit of so many victories, consisted for the + greater part of cattle and slaves. A select body of the Gothic + youth was received among the Imperial troops; the remainder was + sold into servitude; and so considerable was the number of female + captives that every soldier obtained to his share two or three + women. A circumstance from which we may conclude, that the + invaders entertained some designs of settlement as well as of + plunder; since even in a naval expedition, they were accompanied + by their families. III. The loss of their fleet, which was either + taken or sunk, had intercepted the retreat of the Goths. A vast + circle of Roman posts, distributed with skill, supported with + firmness, and gradually closing towards a common centre, forced + the barbarians into the most inaccessible parts of Mount Hæmus, + where they found a safe refuge, but a very scanty subsistence. + During the course of a rigorous winter in which they were + besieged by the emperor’s troops, famine and pestilence, + desertion and the sword, continually diminished the imprisoned + multitude. On the return of spring, nothing appeared in arms + except a hardy and desperate band, the remnant of that mighty + host which had embarked at the mouth of the Niester. + + The pestilence which swept away such numbers of the barbarians, + at length proved fatal to their conqueror. After a short but + glorious reign of two years, Claudius expired at Sirmium, amidst + the tears and acclamations of his subjects. In his last illness, + he convened the principal officers of the state and army, and in + their presence recommended Aurelian, one of his generals, as the + most deserving of the throne, and the best qualified to execute + the great design which he himself had been permitted only to + undertake. The virtues of Claudius, his valor, affability, + justice, and temperance, his love of fame and of his country, + place him in that short list of emperors who added lustre to the + Roman purple. Those virtues, however, were celebrated with + peculiar zeal and complacency by the courtly writers of the age + of Constantine, who was the great-grandson of Crispus, the elder + brother of Claudius. The voice of flattery was soon taught to + repeat, that gods, who so hastily had snatched Claudius from the + earth, rewarded his merit and piety by the perpetual + establishment of the empire in his family. + + Notwithstanding these oracles, the greatness of the Flavian + family (a name which it had pleased them to assume) was deferred + above twenty years, and the elevation of Claudius occasioned the + immediate ruin of his brother Quintilius, who possessed not + sufficient moderation or courage to descend into the private + station to which the patriotism of the late emperor had condemned + him. Without delay or reflection, he assumed the purple at + Aquileia, where he commanded a considerable force; and though his + reign lasted only seventeen days, * he had time to obtain the + sanction of the senate, and to experience a mutiny of the troops. + As soon as he was informed that the great army of the Danube had + invested the well-known valor of Aurelian with Imperial power, he + sunk under the fame and merit of his rival; and ordering his + veins to be opened, prudently withdrew himself from the unequal + contest. + + The general design of this work will not permit us minutely to + relate the actions of every emperor after he ascended the throne, + much less to deduce the various fortunes of his private life. We + shall only observe, that the father of Aurelian was a peasant of + the territory of Sirmium, who occupied a small farm, the property + of Aurelius, a rich senator. His warlike son enlisted in the + troops as a common soldier, successively rose to the rank of a + centurion, a tribune, the præfect of a legion, the inspector of + the camp, the general, or, as it was then called, the duke, of a + frontier; and at length, during the Gothic war, exercised the + important office of commander-in-chief of the cavalry. In every + station he distinguished himself by matchless valor, rigid + discipline, and successful conduct. He was invested with the + consulship by the emperor Valerian, who styles him, in the + pompous language of that age, the deliverer of Illyricum, the + restorer of Gaul, and the rival of the Scipios. At the + recommendation of Valerian, a senator of the highest rank and + merit, Ulpius Crinitus, whose blood was derived from the same + source as that of Trajan, adopted the Pannonian peasant, gave him + his daughter in marriage, and relieved with his ample fortune the + honorable poverty which Aurelian had preserved inviolate. + + The reign of Aurelian lasted only four years and about nine + months; but every instant of that short period was filled by some + memorable achievement. He put an end to the Gothic war, chastised + the Germans who invaded Italy, recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain + out of the hands of Tetricus, and destroyed the proud monarchy + which Zenobia had erected in the East on the ruins of the + afflicted empire. + + It was the rigid attention of Aurelian, even to the minutest + articles of discipline, which bestowed such uninterrupted success + on his arms. His military regulations are contained in a very + concise epistle to one of his inferior officers, who is commanded + to enforce them, as he wishes to become a tribune, or as he is + desirous to live. Gaming, drinking, and the arts of divination, + were severely prohibited. Aurelian expected that his soldiers + should be modest, frugal, and laborious; that their armor should + be constantly kept bright, their weapons sharp, their clothing + and horses ready for immediate service; that they should live in + their quarters with chastity and sobriety, without damaging the + cornfields, without stealing even a sheep, a fowl, or a bunch of + grapes, without exacting from their landlords either salt, or + oil, or wood. “The public allowance,” continues the emperor, “is + sufficient for their support; their wealth should be collected + from the spoils of the enemy, not from the tears of the + provincials.” A single instance will serve to display the rigor, + and even cruelty, of Aurelian. One of the soldiers had seduced + the wife of his host. The guilty wretch was fastened to two trees + forcibly drawn towards each other, and his limbs were torn + asunder by their sudden separation. A few such examples impressed + a salutary consternation. The punishments of Aurelian were + terrible; but he had seldom occasion to punish more than once the + same offence. His own conduct gave a sanction to his laws, and + the seditious legions dreaded a chief who had learned to obey, + and who was worthy to command. + + + + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part II. + + The death of Claudius had revived the fainting spirit of the + Goths. The troops which guarded the passes of Mount Hæmus, and + the banks of the Danube, had been drawn away by the apprehension + of a civil war; and it seems probable that the remaining body of + the Gothic and Vandalic tribes embraced the favorable + opportunity, abandoned their settlements of the Ukraine, + traversed the rivers, and swelled with new multitudes the + destroying host of their countrymen. Their united numbers were at + length encountered by Aurelian, and the bloody and doubtful + conflict ended only with the approach of night. Exhausted by so + many calamities, which they had mutually endured and inflicted + during a twenty years’ war, the Goths and the Romans consented to + a lasting and beneficial treaty. It was earnestly solicited by + the barbarians, and cheerfully ratified by the legions, to whose + suffrage the prudence of Aurelian referred the decision of that + important question. The Gothic nation engaged to supply the + armies of Rome with a body of two thousand auxiliaries, + consisting entirely of cavalry, and stipulated in return an + undisturbed retreat, with a regular market as far as the Danube, + provided by the emperor’s care, but at their own expense. The + treaty was observed with such religious fidelity, that when a + party of five hundred men straggled from the camp in quest of + plunder, the king or general of the barbarians commanded that the + guilty leader should be apprehended and shot to death with darts, + as a victim devoted to the sanctity of their engagements. * It + is, however, not unlikely, that the precaution of Aurelian, who + had exacted as hostages the sons and daughters of the Gothic + chiefs, contributed something to this pacific temper. The youths + he trained in the exercise of arms, and near his own person: to + the damsels he gave a liberal and Roman education, and by + bestowing them in marriage on some of his principal officers, + gradually introduced between the two nations the closest and most + endearing connections. + + But the most important condition of peace was understood rather + than expressed in the treaty. Aurelian withdrew the Roman forces + from Dacia, and tacitly relinquished that great province to the + Goths and Vandals. His manly judgment convinced him of the solid + advantages, and taught him to despise the seeming disgrace, of + thus contracting the frontiers of the monarchy. The Dacian + subjects, removed from those distant possessions which they were + unable to cultivate or defend, added strength and populousness to + the southern side of the Danube. A fertile territory, which the + repetition of barbarous inroads had changed into a desert, was + yielded to their industry, and a new province of Dacia still + preserved the memory of Trajan’s conquests. The old country of + that name detained, however, a considerable number of its + inhabitants, who dreaded exile more than a Gothic master. These + degenerate Romans continued to serve the empire, whose allegiance + they had renounced, by introducing among their conquerors the + first notions of agriculture, the useful arts, and the + conveniences of civilized life. An intercourse of commerce and + language was gradually established between the opposite banks of + the Danube; and after Dacia became an independent state, it often + proved the firmest barrier of the empire against the invasions of + the savages of the North. A sense of interest attached these more + settled barbarians to the alliance of Rome, and a permanent + interest very frequently ripens into sincere and useful + friendship. This various colony, which filled the ancient + province, and was insensibly blended into one great people, still + acknowledged the superior renown and authority of the Gothic + tribe, and claimed the fancied honor of a Scandinavian origin. At + the same time, the lucky though accidental resemblance of the + name of Getæ, * infused among the credulous Goths a vain + persuasion, that in a remote age, their own ancestors, already + seated in the Dacian provinces, had received the instructions of + Zamolxis, and checked the victorious arms of Sesostris and + Darius. + + While the vigorous and moderate conduct of Aurelian restored the + Illyrian frontier, the nation of the Alemanni violated the + conditions of peace, which either Gallienus had purchased, or + Claudius had imposed, and, inflamed by their impatient youth, + suddenly flew to arms. Forty thousand horse appeared in the + field, and the numbers of the infantry doubled those of the + cavalry. The first objects of their avarice were a few cities of + the Rhætian frontier; but their hopes soon rising with success, + the rapid march of the Alemanni traced a line of devastation from + the Danube to the Po. + + The emperor was almost at the same time informed of the + irruption, and of the retreat, of the barbarians. Collecting an + active body of troops, he marched with silence and celerity along + the skirts of the Hercynian forest; and the Alemanni, laden with + the spoils of Italy, arrived at the Danube, without suspecting, + that on the opposite bank, and in an advantageous post, a Roman + army lay concealed and prepared to intercept their return. + Aurelian indulged the fatal security of the barbarians, and + permitted about half their forces to pass the river without + disturbance and without precaution. Their situation and + astonishment gave him an easy victory; his skilful conduct + improved the advantage. Disposing the legions in a semicircular + form, he advanced the two horns of the crescent across the + Danube, and wheeling them on a sudden towards the centre, + enclosed the rear of the German host. The dismayed barbarians, on + whatsoever side they cast their eyes, beheld, with despair, a + wasted country, a deep and rapid stream, a victorious and + implacable enemy. + + Reduced to this distressed condition, the Alemanni no longer + disdained to sue for peace. Aurelian received their ambassadors + at the head of his camp, and with every circumstance of martial + pomp that could display the greatness and discipline of Rome. The + legions stood to their arms in well-ordered ranks and awful + silence. The principal commanders, distinguished by the ensigns + of their rank, appeared on horseback on either side of the + Imperial throne. Behind the throne the consecrated images of the + emperor, and his predecessors, the golden eagles, and the various + titles of the legions, engraved in letters of gold, were exalted + in the air on lofty pikes covered with silver. When Aurelian + assumed his seat, his manly grace and majestic figure taught the + barbarians to revere the person as well as the purple of their + conqueror. The ambassadors fell prostrate on the ground in + silence. They were commanded to rise, and permitted to speak. By + the assistance of interpreters they extenuated their perfidy, + magnified their exploits, expatiated on the vicissitudes of + fortune and the advantages of peace, and, with an ill-timed + confidence, demanded a large subsidy, as the price of the + alliance which they offered to the Romans. The answer of the + emperor was stern and imperious. He treated their offer with + contempt, and their demand with indignation, reproached the + barbarians, that they were as ignorant of the arts of war as of + the laws of peace, and finally dismissed them with the choice + only of submitting to this unconditional mercy, or awaiting the + utmost severity of his resentment. Aurelian had resigned a + distant province to the Goths; but it was dangerous to trust or + to pardon these perfidious barbarians, whose formidable power + kept Italy itself in perpetual alarms. + + Immediately after this conference, it should seem that some + unexpected emergency required the emperor’s presence in Pannonia. + He devolved on his lieutenants the care of finishing the + destruction of the Alemanni, either by the sword, or by the surer + operation of famine. But an active despair has often triumphed + over the indolent assurance of success. The barbarians, finding + it impossible to traverse the Danube and the Roman camp, broke + through the posts in their rear, which were more feebly or less + carefully guarded; and with incredible diligence, but by a + different road, returned towards the mountains of Italy. + Aurelian, who considered the war as totally extinguished, + received the mortifying intelligence of the escape of the + Alemanni, and of the ravage which they already committed in the + territory of Milan. The legions were commanded to follow, with as + much expedition as those heavy bodies were capable of exerting, + the rapid flight of an enemy whose infantry and cavalry moved + with almost equal swiftness. A few days afterwards, the emperor + himself marched to the relief of Italy, at the head of a chosen + body of auxiliaries, (among whom were the hostages and cavalry of + the Vandals,) and of all the Prætorian guards who had served in + the wars on the Danube. + + As the light troops of the Alemanni had spread themselves from + the Alps to the Apennine, the incessant vigilance of Aurelian and + his officers was exercised in the discovery, the attack, and the + pursuit of the numerous detachments. Notwithstanding this + desultory war, three considerable battles are mentioned, in which + the principal force of both armies was obstinately engaged. The + success was various. In the first, fought near Placentia, the + Romans received so severe a blow, that, according to the + expression of a writer extremely partial to Aurelian, the + immediate dissolution of the empire was apprehended. The crafty + barbarians, who had lined the woods, suddenly attacked the + legions in the dusk of the evening, and, it is most probable, + after the fatigue and disorder of a long march. The fury of their + charge was irresistible; but, at length, after a dreadful + slaughter, the patient firmness of the emperor rallied his + troops, and restored, in some degree, the honor of his arms. The + second battle was fought near Fano in Umbria; on the spot which, + five hundred years before, had been fatal to the brother of + Hannibal. Thus far the successful Germans had advanced along the + Æmilian and Flaminian way, with a design of sacking the + defenceless mistress of the world. But Aurelian, who, watchful + for the safety of Rome, still hung on their rear, found in this + place the decisive moment of giving them a total and + irretrievable defeat. The flying remnant of their host was + exterminated in a third and last battle near Pavia; and Italy was + delivered from the inroads of the Alemanni. + + Fear has been the original parent of superstition, and every new + calamity urges trembling mortals to deprecate the wrath of their + invisible enemies. Though the best hope of the republic was in + the valor and conduct of Aurelian, yet such was the public + consternation, when the barbarians were hourly expected at the + gates of Rome, that, by a decree of the senate the Sibylline + books were consulted. Even the emperor himself, from a motive + either of religion or of policy, recommended this salutary + measure, chided the tardiness of the senate, and offered to + supply whatever expense, whatever animals, whatever captives of + any nation, the gods should require. Notwithstanding this liberal + offer, it does not appear, that any human victims expiated with + their blood the sins of the Roman people. The Sibylline books + enjoined ceremonies of a more harmless nature, processions of + priests in white robes, attended by a chorus of youths and + virgins; lustrations of the city and adjacent country; and + sacrifices, whose powerful influence disabled the barbarians from + passing the mystic ground on which they had been celebrated. + However puerile in themselves, these superstitious arts were + subservient to the success of the war; and if, in the decisive + battle of Fano, the Alemanni fancied they saw an army of spectres + combating on the side of Aurelian, he received a real and + effectual aid from this imaginary reënforcement. + + But whatever confidence might be placed in ideal ramparts, the + experience of the past, and the dread of the future, induced the + Romans to construct fortifications of a grosser and more + substantial kind. The seven hills of Rome had been surrounded by + the successors of Romulus with an ancient wall of more than + thirteen miles. The vast enclosure may seem disproportioned to + the strength and numbers of the infant-state. But it was + necessary to secure an ample extent of pasture and arable land + against the frequent and sudden incursions of the tribes of + Latium, the perpetual enemies of the republic. With the progress + of Roman greatness, the city and its inhabitants gradually + increased, filled up the vacant space, pierced through the + useless walls, covered the field of Mars, and, on every side, + followed the public highways in long and beautiful suburbs. The + extent of the new walls, erected by Aurelian, and finished in the + reign of Probus, was magnified by popular estimation to near + fifty, but is reduced by accurate measurement to about twenty-one + miles. It was a great but a melancholy labor, since the defence + of the capital betrayed the decline of monarchy. The Romans of a + more prosperous age, who trusted to the arms of the legions the + safety of the frontier camps, were very far from entertaining a + suspicion that it would ever become necessary to fortify the seat + of empire against the inroads of the barbarians. + + The victory of Claudius over the Goths, and the success of + Aurelian against the Alemanni, had already restored to the arms + of Rome their ancient superiority over the barbarous nations of + the North. To chastise domestic tyrants, and to reunite the + dismembered parts of the empire, was a task reserved for the + second of those warlike emperors. Though he was acknowledged by + the senate and people, the frontiers of Italy, Africa, Illyricum, + and Thrace, confined the limits of his reign. Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, were still possessed by + two rebels, who alone, out of so numerous a list, had hitherto + escaped the dangers of their situation; and to complete the + ignominy of Rome, these rival thrones had been usurped by women. + + A rapid succession of monarchs had arisen and fallen in the + provinces of Gaul. The rigid virtues of Posthumus served only to + hasten his destruction. After suppressing a competitor, who had + assumed the purple at Mentz, he refused to gratify his troops + with the plunder of the rebellious city; and in the seventh year + of his reign, became the victim of their disappointed avarice. + The death of Victorinus, his friend and associate, was occasioned + by a less worthy cause. The shining accomplishments of that + prince were stained by a licentious passion, which he indulged in + acts of violence, with too little regard to the laws of society, + or even to those of love. He was slain at Cologne, by a + conspiracy of jealous husbands, whose revenge would have appeared + more justifiable, had they spared the innocence of his son. After + the murder of so many valiant princes, it is somewhat remarkable, + that a female for a long time controlled the fierce legions of + Gaul, and still more singular, that she was the mother of the + unfortunate Victorinus. The arts and treasures of Victoria + enabled her successively to place Marius and Tetricus on the + throne, and to reign with a manly vigor under the name of those + dependent emperors. Money of copper, of silver, and of gold, was + coined in her name; she assumed the titles of Augusta and Mother + of the Camps: her power ended only with her life; but her life + was perhaps shortened by the ingratitude of Tetricus. + + When, at the instigation of his ambitious patroness, Tetricus + assumed the ensigns of royalty, he was governor of the peaceful + province of Aquitaine, an employment suited to his character and + education. He reigned four or five years over Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, the slave and sovereign of a licentious army, whom he + dreaded, and by whom he was despised. The valor and fortune of + Aurelian at length opened the prospect of a deliverance. He + ventured to disclose his melancholy situation, and conjured the + emperor to hasten to the relief of his unhappy rival. Had this + secret correspondence reached the ears of the soldiers, it would + most probably have cost Tetricus his life; nor could he resign + the sceptre of the West without committing an act of treason + against himself. He affected the appearances of a civil war, led + his forces into the field, against Aurelian, posted them in the + most disadvantageous manner, betrayed his own counsels to his + enemy, and with a few chosen friends deserted in the beginning of + the action. The rebel legions, though disordered and dismayed by + the unexpected treachery of their chief, defended themselves with + desperate valor, till they were cut in pieces almost to a man, in + this bloody and memorable battle, which was fought near Chalons + in Champagne. The retreat of the irregular auxiliaries, Franks + and Batavians, whom the conqueror soon compelled or persuaded to + repass the Rhine, restored the general tranquillity, and the + power of Aurelian was acknowledged from the wall of Antoninus to + the columns of Hercules. + + As early as the reign of Claudius, the city of Autun, alone and + unassisted, had ventured to declare against the legions of Gaul. + After a siege of seven months, they stormed and plundered that + unfortunate city, already wasted by famine. Lyons, on the + contrary, had resisted with obstinate disaffection the arms of + Aurelian. We read of the punishment of Lyons, but there is not + any mention of the rewards of Autun. Such, indeed, is the policy + of civil war: severely to remember injuries, and to forget the + most important services. Revenge is profitable, gratitude is + expensive. + + Aurelian had no sooner secured the person and provinces of + Tetricus, than he turned his arms against Zenobia, the celebrated + queen of Palmyra and the East. Modern Europe has produced several + illustrious women who have sustained with glory the weight of + empire; nor is our own age destitute of such distinguished + characters. But if we except the doubtful achievements of + Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female whose superior + genius broke through the servile indolence imposed on her sex by + the climate and manners of Asia. She claimed her descent from the + Macedonian kings of Egypt, * equalled in beauty her ancestor + Cleopatra, and far surpassed that princess in chastity and valor. + Zenobia was esteemed the most lovely as well as the most heroic + of her sex. She was of a dark complexion (for in speaking of a + lady these trifles become important). Her teeth were of a pearly + whiteness, and her large black eyes sparkled with uncommon fire, + tempered by the most attractive sweetness. Her voice was strong + and harmonious. Her manly understanding was strengthened and + adorned by study. She was not ignorant of the Latin tongue, but + possessed in equal perfection the Greek, the Syriac, and the + Egyptian languages. She had drawn up for her own use an epitome + of oriental history, and familiarly compared the beauties of + Homer and Plato under the tuition of the sublime Longinus. + + This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, who, from a + private station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. She + soon became the friend and companion of a hero. In the intervals + of war, Odenathus passionately delighted in the exercise of + hunting; he pursued with ardor the wild beasts of the desert, + lions, panthers, and bears; and the ardor of Zenobia in that + dangerous amusement was not inferior to his own. She had inured + her constitution to fatigue, disdained the use of a covered + carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a military habit, + and sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head of the + troops. The success of Odenathus was in a great measure ascribed + to her incomparable prudence and fortitude. Their splendid + victories over the Great King, whom they twice pursued as far as + the gates of Ctesiphon, laid the foundations of their united fame + and power. The armies which they commanded, and the provinces + which they had saved, acknowledged not any other sovereigns than + their invincible chiefs. The senate and people of Rome revered a + stranger who had avenged their captive emperor, and even the + insensible son of Valerian accepted Odenathus for his legitimate + colleague. + + + + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part III. + + After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of + Asia, the Palmyrenian prince returned to the city of Emesa in + Syria. Invincible in war, he was there cut off by domestic + treason, and his favorite amusement of hunting was the cause, or + at least the occasion, of his death. His nephew Mæonius presumed + to dart his javelin before that of his uncle; and though + admonished of his error, repeated the same insolence. As a + monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked, took away + his horse, a mark of ignominy among the barbarians, and chastised + the rash youth by a short confinement. The offence was soon + forgot, but the punishment was remembered; and Mæonius, with a + few daring associates, assassinated his uncle in the midst of a + great entertainment. Herod, the son of Odenathus, though not of + Zenobia, a young man of a soft and effeminate temper, was killed + with his father. But Mæonius obtained only the pleasure of + revenge by this bloody deed. He had scarcely time to assume the + title of Augustus, before he was sacrificed by Zenobia to the + memory of her husband. + + With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she immediately + filled the vacant throne, and governed with manly counsels + Palmyra, Syria, and the East, above five years. By the death of + Odenathus, that authority was at an end which the senate had + granted him only as a personal distinction; but his martial + widow, disdaining both the senate and Gallienus, obliged one of + the Roman generals, who was sent against her, to retreat into + Europe, with the loss of his army and his reputation. Instead of + the little passions which so frequently perplex a female reign, + the steady administration of Zenobia was guided by the most + judicious maxims of policy. If it was expedient to pardon, she + could calm her resentment; if it was necessary to punish, she + could impose silence on the voice of pity. Her strict economy was + accused of avarice; yet on every proper occasion she appeared + magnificent and liberal. The neighboring states of Arabia, + Armenia, and Persia, dreaded her enmity, and solicited her + alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which extended from the + Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia, his widow added the + inheritance of her ancestors, the populous and fertile kingdom of + Egypt. * The emperor Claudius acknowledged her merit, and was + content, that, while _he_ pursued the Gothic war, _she_should + assert the dignity of the empire in the East. The conduct, + however, of Zenobia was attended with some ambiguity; not is it + unlikely that she had conceived the design of erecting an + independent and hostile monarchy. She blended with the popular + manners of Roman princes the stately pomp of the courts of Asia, + and exacted from her subjects the same adoration that was paid to + the successor of Cyrus. She bestowed on her three sons a Latin + education, and often showed them to the troops adorned with the + Imperial purple. For herself she reserved the diadem, with the + splendid but doubtful title of Queen of the East. + + When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary whose + sex alone could render her an object of contempt, his presence + restored obedience to the province of Bithynia, already shaken by + the arms and intrigues of Zenobia. Advancing at the head of his + legions, he accepted the submission of Ancyra, and was admitted + into Tyana, after an obstinate siege, by the help of a perfidious + citizen. The generous though fierce temper of Aurelian abandoned + the traitor to the rage of the soldiers; a superstitious + reverence induced him to treat with lenity the countrymen of + Apollonius the philosopher. Antioch was deserted on his approach, + till the emperor, by his salutary edicts, recalled the fugitives, + and granted a general pardon to all who, from necessity rather + than choice, had been engaged in the service of the Palmyrenian + Queen. The unexpected mildness of such a conduct reconciled the + minds of the Syrians, and as far as the gates of Emesa, the + wishes of the people seconded the terror of his arms. + + Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she + indolently permitted the emperor of the West to approach within a + hundred miles of her capital. The fate of the East was decided in + two great battles; so similar in almost every circumstance, that + we can scarcely distinguish them from each other, except by + observing that the first was fought near Antioch, and the second + near Emesa. In both the queen of Palmyra animated the armies by + her presence, and devolved the execution of her orders on Zabdas, + who had already signalized his military talents by the conquest + of Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted for the most + part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in complete + steel. The Moorish and Illyrian horse of Aurelian were unable to + sustain the ponderous charge of their antagonists. They fled in + real or affected disorder, engaged the Palmyrenians in a + laborious pursuit, harassed them by a desultory combat, and at + length discomfited this impenetrable but unwieldy body of + cavalry. The light infantry, in the mean time, when they had + exhausted their quivers, remaining without protection against a + closer onset, exposed their naked sides to the swords of the + legions. Aurelian had chosen these veteran troops, who were + usually stationed on the Upper Danube, and whose valor had been + severely tried in the Alemannic war. After the defeat of Emesa, + Zenobia found it impossible to collect a third army. As far as + the frontier of Egypt, the nations subject to her empire had + joined the standard of the conqueror, who detached Probus, the + bravest of his generals, to possess himself of the Egyptian + provinces. Palmyra was the last resource of the widow of + Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capital, made + every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and declared, with + the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her reign + and of her life should be the same. + + Amid the barren deserts of Arabia, a few cultivated spots rise + like islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or + Palmyra, by its signification in the Syriac as well as in the + Latin language, denoted the multitude of palm-trees which + afforded shade and verdure to that temperate region. The air was + pure, and the soil, watered by some invaluable springs, was + capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A place possessed of + such singular advantages, and situated at a convenient distance + between the Gulf of Persia and the Mediterranean, was soon + frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the nations of + Europe a considerable part of the rich commodities of India. + Palmyra insensibly increased into an opulent and independent + city, and connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by the + mutual benefits of commerce, was suffered to observe an humble + neutrality, till at length, after the victories of Trajan, the + little republic sunk into the bosom of Rome, and flourished more + than one hundred and fifty years in the subordinate though + honorable rank of a colony. It was during that peaceful period, + if we may judge from a few remaining inscriptions, that the + wealthy Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and + porticos of Grecian architecture, whose ruins, scattered over an + extent of several miles, have deserved the curiosity of our + travellers. The elevation of Odenathus and Zenobia appeared to + reflect new splendor on their country, and Palmyra, for a while, + stood forth the rival of Rome: but the competition was fatal, and + ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a moment of glory. + + In his march over the sandy desert between Emesa and Palmyra, the + emperor Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor could + he always defend his army, and especially his baggage, from those + flying troops of active and daring robbers, who watched the + moment of surprise, and eluded the slow pursuit of the legions. + The siege of Palmyra was an object far more difficult and + important, and the emperor, who, with incessant vigor, pressed + the attacks in person, was himself wounded with a dart. “The + Roman people,” says Aurelian, in an original letter, “speak with + contempt of the war which I am waging against a woman. They are + ignorant both of the character and of the power of Zenobia. It is + impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations, of stones, of + arrows, and of every species of missile weapons. Every part of + the walls is provided with two or three _balistæ_ and artificial + fires are thrown from her military engines. The fear of + punishment has armed her with a desperate courage. Yet still I + trust in the protecting deities of Rome, who have hitherto been + favorable to all my undertakings.” Doubtful, however, of the + protection of the gods, and of the event of the siege, Aurelian + judged it more prudent to offer terms of an advantageous + capitulation; to the queen, a splendid retreat; to the citizens, + their ancient privileges. His proposals were obstinately + rejected, and the refusal was accompanied with insult. + + The firmness of Zenobia was supported by the hope, that in a very + short time famine would compel the Roman army to repass the + desert; and by the reasonable expectation that the kings of the + East, and particularly the Persian monarch, would arm in the + defence of their most natural ally. But fortune, and the + perseverance of Aurelian, overcame every obstacle. The death of + Sapor, which happened about this time, distracted the councils of + Persia, and the inconsiderable succors that attempted to relieve + Palmyra were easily intercepted either by the arms or the + liberality of the emperor. From every part of Syria, a regular + succession of convoys safely arrived in the camp, which was + increased by the return of Probus with his victorious troops from + the conquest of Egypt. It was then that Zenobia resolved to fly. + She mounted the fleetest of her dromedaries, and had already + reached the banks of the Euphrates, about sixty miles from + Palmyra, when she was overtaken by the pursuit of Aurelian’s + light horse, seized, and brought back a captive to the feet of + the emperor. Her capital soon afterwards surrendered, and was + treated with unexpected lenity. The arms, horses, and camels, + with an immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and precious + stones, were all delivered to the conqueror, who, leaving only a + garrison of six hundred archers, returned to Emesa, and employed + some time in the distribution of rewards and punishments at the + end of so memorable a war, which restored to the obedience of + Rome those provinces that had renounced their allegiance since + the captivity of Valerian. + + When the Syrian queen was brought into the presence of Aurelian, + he sternly asked her, How she had presumed to rise in arms + against the emperors of Rome! The answer of Zenobia was a prudent + mixture of respect and firmness. “Because I disdained to consider + as Roman emperors an Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone I + acknowledge as my conqueror and my sovereign.” But as female + fortitude is commonly artificial, so it is seldom steady or + consistent. The courage of Zenobia deserted her in the hour of + trial; she trembled at the angry clamors of the soldiers, who + called aloud for her immediate execution, forgot the generous + despair of Cleopatra, which she had proposed as her model, and + ignominiously purchased life by the sacrifice of her fame and her + friends. It was to their counsels, which governed the weakness of + her sex, that she imputed the guilt of her obstinate resistance; + it was on their heads that she directed the vengeance of the + cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, who was included among the + numerous and perhaps innocent victims of her fear, will survive + that of the queen who betrayed, or the tyrant who condemned him. + Genius and learning were incapable of moving a fierce unlettered + soldier, but they had served to elevate and harmonize the soul of + Longinus. Without uttering a complaint, he calmly followed the + executioner, pitying his unhappy mistress, and bestowing comfort + on his afflicted friends. + + Returning from the conquest of the East, Aurelian had already + crossed the Straits which divided Europe from Asia, when he was + provoked by the intelligence that the Palmyrenians had massacred + the governor and garrison which he had left among them, and again + erected the standard of revolt. Without a moment’s deliberation, + he once more turned his face towards Syria. Antioch was alarmed + by his rapid approach, and the helpless city of Palmyra felt the + irresistible weight of his resentment. We have a letter of + Aurelian himself, in which he acknowledges, that old men, women, + children, and peasants, had been involved in that dreadful + execution, which should have been confined to armed rebellion; + and although his principal concern seems directed to the + reëstablishment of a temple of the Sun, he discovers some pity + for the remnant of the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the + permission of rebuilding and inhabiting their city. But it is + easier to destroy than to restore. The seat of commerce, of arts, + and of Zenobia, gradually sunk into an obscure town, a trifling + fortress, and at length a miserable village. The present citizens + of Palmyra, consisting of thirty or forty families, have erected + their mud cottages within the spacious court of a magnificent + temple. + + Another and a last labor still awaited the indefatigable + Aurelian; to suppress a dangerous though obscure rebel, who, + during the revolt of Palmyra, had arisen on the banks of the + Nile. Firmus, the friend and ally, as he proudly styled himself, + of Odenathus and Zenobia, was no more than a wealthy merchant of + Egypt. In the course of his trade to India, he had formed very + intimate connections with the Saracens and the Blemmyes, whose + situation on either coast of the Red Sea gave them an easy + introduction into the Upper Egypt. The Egyptians he inflamed with + the hope of freedom, and, at the head of their furious multitude, + broke into the city of Alexandria, where he assumed the Imperial + purple, coined money, published edicts, and raised an army, + which, as he vainly boasted, he was capable of maintaining from + the sole profits of his paper trade. Such troops were a feeble + defence against the approach of Aurelian; and it seems almost + unnecessary to relate, that Firmus was routed, taken, tortured, + and put to death. Aurelian might now congratulate the senate, the + people, and himself, that in little more than three years, he had + restored universal peace and order to the Roman world. + + Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly deserved + a triumph than Aurelian; nor was a triumph ever celebrated with + superior pride and magnificence. The pomp was opened by twenty + elephants, four royal tigers, and above two hundred of the most + curious animals from every climate of the North, the East, and + the South. They were followed by sixteen hundred gladiators, + devoted to the cruel amusement of the amphitheatre. The wealth of + Asia, the arms and ensigns of so many conquered nations, and the + magnificent plate and wardrobe of the Syrian queen, were disposed + in exact symmetry or artful disorder. The ambassadors of the most + remote parts of the earth, of Æthiopia, Arabia, Persia, + Bactriana, India, and China, all remarkable by their rich or + singular dresses, displayed the fame and power of the Roman + emperor, who exposed likewise to the public view the presents + that he had received, and particularly a great number of crowns + of gold, the offerings of grateful cities. The victories of + Aurelian were attested by the long train of captives who + reluctantly attended his triumph, Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, + Alemanni, Franks, Gauls, Syrians, and Egyptians. Each people was + distinguished by its peculiar inscription, and the title of + Amazons was bestowed on ten martial heroines of the Gothic nation + who had been taken in arms. But every eye, disregarding the crowd + of captives, was fixed on the emperor Tetricus and the queen of + the East. The former, as well as his son, whom he had created + Augustus, was dressed in Gallic trousers, a saffron tunic, and a + robe of purple. The beauteous figure of Zenobia was confined by + fetters of gold; a slave supported the gold chain which encircled + her neck, and she almost fainted under the intolerable weight of + jewels. She preceded on foot the magnificent chariot, in which + she once hoped to enter the gates of Rome. It was followed by two + other chariots, still more sumptuous, of Odenathus and of the + Persian monarch. The triumphal car of Aurelian (it had formerly + been used by a Gothic king) was drawn, on this memorable + occasion, either by four stags or by four elephants. The most + illustrious of the senate, the people, and the army, closed the + solemn procession. Unfeigned joy, wonder, and gratitude, swelled + the acclamations of the multitude; but the satisfaction of the + senate was clouded by the appearance of Tetricus; nor could they + suppress a rising murmur, that the haughty emperor should thus + expose to public ignominy the person of a Roman and a magistrate. + + But however, in the treatment of his unfortunate rivals, Aurelian + might indulge his pride, he behaved towards them with a generous + clemency, which was seldom exercised by the ancient conquerors. + Princes who, without success, had defended their throne or + freedom, were frequently strangled in prison, as soon as the + triumphal pomp ascended the Capitol. These usurpers, whom their + defeat had convicted of the crime of treason, were permitted to + spend their lives in affluence and honorable repose. The emperor + presented Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur, or Tivoli, + about twenty miles from the capital; the Syrian queen insensibly + sunk into a Roman matron, her daughters married into noble + families, and her race was not yet extinct in the fifth century. + Tetricus and his son were reinstated in their rank and fortunes. + They erected on the Cælian hill a magnificent palace, and as soon + as it was finished, invited Aurelian to supper. On his entrance, + he was agreeably surprised with a picture which represented their + singular history. They were delineated offering to the emperor a + civic crown and the sceptre of Gaul, and again receiving at his + hands the ornaments of the senatorial dignity. The father was + afterwards invested with the government of Lucania, and Aurelian, + who soon admitted the abdicated monarch to his friendship and + conversation, familiarly asked him, Whether it were not more + desirable to administer a province of Italy, than to reign beyond + the Alps. The son long continued a respectable member of the + senate; nor was there any one of the Roman nobility more esteemed + by Aurelian, as well as by his successors. + + So long and so various was the pomp of Aurelian’s triumph, that + although it opened with the dawn of day, the slow majesty of the + procession ascended not the Capitol before the ninth hour; and it + was already dark when the emperor returned to the palace. The + festival was protracted by theatrical representations, the games + of the circus, the hunting of wild beasts, combats of gladiators, + and naval engagements. Liberal donatives were distributed to the + army and people, and several institutions, agreeable or + beneficial to the city, contributed to perpetuate the glory of + Aurelian. A considerable portion of his oriental spoils was + consecrated to the gods of Rome; the Capitol, and every other + temple, glittered with the offerings of his ostentatious piety; + and the temple of the Sun alone received above fifteen thousand + pounds of gold. This last was a magnificent structure, erected by + the emperor on the side of the Quirinal hill, and dedicated, soon + after the triumph, to that deity whom Aurelian adored as the + parent of his life and fortunes. His mother had been an inferior + priestess in a chapel of the Sun; a peculiar devotion to the god + of Light was a sentiment which the fortunate peasant imbibed in + his infancy; and every step of his elevation, every victory of + his reign, fortified superstition by gratitude. + + The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic foes + of the republic. We are assured, that, by his salutary rigor, + crimes and factions, mischievous arts and pernicious connivance, + the luxurious growth of a feeble and oppressive government, were + eradicated throughout the Roman world. But if we attentively + reflect how much swifter is the progress of corruption than its + cure, and if we remember that the years abandoned to public + disorders exceeded the months allotted to the martial reign of + Aurelian, we must confess that a few short intervals of peace + were insufficient for the arduous work of reformation. Even his + attempt to restore the integrity of the coin was opposed by a + formidable insurrection. The emperor’s vexation breaks out in one + of his private letters. “Surely,” says he, “the gods have decreed + that my life should be a perpetual warfare. A sedition within the + walls has just now given birth to a very serious civil war. The + workmen of the mint, at the instigation of Felicissimus, a slave + to whom I had intrusted an employment in the finances, have risen + in rebellion. They are at length suppressed; but seven thousand + of my soldiers have been slain in the contest, of those troops + whose ordinary station is in Dacia, and the camps along the + Danube.” Other writers, who confirm the same fact, add likewise, + that it happened soon after Aurelian’s triumph; that the decisive + engagement was fought on the Cælian hill; that the workmen of the + mint had adulterated the coin; and that the emperor restored the + public credit, by delivering out good money in exchange for the + bad, which the people was commanded to bring into the treasury. + + We might content ourselves with relating this extraordinary + transaction, but we cannot dissemble how much in its present form + it appears to us inconsistent and incredible. The debasement of + the coin is indeed well suited to the administration of + Gallienus; nor is it unlikely that the instruments of the + corruption might dread the inflexible justice of Aurelian. But + the guilt, as well as the profit, must have been confined to a + very few; nor is it easy to conceive by what arts they could arm + a people whom they had injured, against a monarch whom they had + betrayed. We might naturally expect that such miscreants should + have shared the public detestation with the informers and the + other ministers of oppression; and that the reformation of the + coin should have been an action equally popular with the + destruction of those obsolete accounts, which by the emperor’s + order were burnt in the forum of Trajan. In an age when the + principles of commerce were so imperfectly understood, the most + desirable end might perhaps be effected by harsh and injudicious + means; but a temporary grievance of such a nature can scarcely + excite and support a serious civil war. The repetition of + intolerable taxes, imposed either on the land or on the + necessaries of life, may at last provoke those who will not, or + who cannot, relinquish their country. But the case is far + otherwise in every operation which, by whatsoever expedients, + restores the just value of money. The transient evil is soon + obliterated by the permanent benefit, the loss is divided among + multitudes; and if a few wealthy individuals experience a + sensible diminution of treasure, with their riches, they at the + same time lose the degree of weight and importance which they + derived from the possession of them. However Aurelian might + choose to disguise the real cause of the insurrection, his + reformation of the coin could furnish only a faint pretence to a + party already powerful and discontented. Rome, though deprived of + freedom, was distracted by faction. The people, towards whom the + emperor, himself a plebeian, always expressed a peculiar + fondness, lived in perpetual dissension with the senate, the + equestrian order, and the Prætorian guards. Nothing less than the + firm though secret conspiracy of those orders, of the authority + of the first, the wealth of the second, and the arms of the + third, could have displayed a strength capable of contending in + battle with the veteran legions of the Danube, which, under the + conduct of a martial sovereign, had achieved the conquest of the + West and of the East. + + Whatever was the cause or the object of this rebellion, imputed + with so little probability to the workmen of the mint, Aurelian + used his victory with unrelenting rigor. He was naturally of a + severe disposition. A peasant and a soldier, his nerves yielded + not easily to the impressions of sympathy, and he could sustain + without emotion the sight of tortures and death. Trained from his + earliest youth in the exercise of arms, he set too small a value + on the life of a citizen, chastised by military execution the + slightest offences, and transferred the stern discipline of the + camp into the civil administration of the laws. His love of + justice often became a blind and furious passion; and whenever he + deemed his own or the public safety endangered, he disregarded + the rules of evidence, and the proportion of punishments. The + unprovoked rebellion with which the Romans rewarded his services, + exasperated his haughty spirit. The noblest families of the + capital were involved in the guilt or suspicion of this dark + conspiracy. A nasty spirit of revenge urged the bloody + prosecution, and it proved fatal to one of the nephews of the + emperor. The executioners (if we may use the expression of a + contemporary poet) were fatigued, the prisons were crowded, and + the unhappy senate lamented the death or absence of its most + illustrious members. Nor was the pride of Aurelian less offensive + to that assembly than his cruelty. Ignorant or impatient of the + restraints of civil institutions, he disdained to hold his power + by any other title than that of the sword, and governed by right + of conquest an empire which he had saved and subdued. + + It was observed by one of the most sagacious of the Roman + princes, that the talents of his predecessor Aurelian were better + suited to the command of an army, than to the government of an + empire. Conscious of the character in which nature and experience + had enabled him to excel, he again took the field a few months + after his triumph. It was expedient to exercise the restless + temper of the legions in some foreign war, and the Persian + monarch, exulting in the shame of Valerian, still braved with + impunity the offended majesty of Rome. At the head of an army, + less formidable by its numbers than by its discipline and valor, + the emperor advanced as far as the Straits which divide Europe + from Asia. He there experienced that the most absolute power is a + weak defence against the effects of despair. He had threatened + one of his secretaries who was accused of extortion; and it was + known that he seldom threatened in vain. The last hope which + remained for the criminal was to involve some of the principal + officers of the army in his danger, or at least in his fears. + Artfully counterfeiting his master’s hand, he showed them, in a + long and bloody list, their own names devoted to death. Without + suspecting or examining the fraud, they resolved to secure their + lives by the murder of the emperor. On his march, between + Byzantium and Heraclea, Aurelian was suddenly attacked by the + conspirators, whose stations gave them a right to surround his + person, and after a short resistance, fell by the hand of + Mucapor, a general whom he had always loved and trusted. He died + regretted by the army, detested by the senate, but universally + acknowledged as a warlike and fortunate prince, the useful, + though severe reformer of a degenerate state. + + + + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + I. + +Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.—Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. + + Such was the unhappy condition of the Roman emperors, that, + whatever might be their conduct, their fate was commonly the + same. A life of pleasure or virtue, of severity or mildness, of + indolence or glory, alike led to an untimely grave; and almost + every reign is closed by the same disgusting repetition of + treason and murder. The death of Aurelian, however, is remarkable + by its extraordinary consequences. The legions admired, lamented, + and revenged their victorious chief. The artifice of his + perfidious secretary was discovered and punished. The deluded + conspirators attended the funeral of their injured sovereign, + with sincere or well-feigned contrition, and submitted to the + unanimous resolution of the military order, which was signified + by the following epistle: “The brave and fortunate armies to the + senate and people of Rome.—The crime of one man, and the error of + many, have deprived us of the late emperor Aurelian. May it + please you, venerable lords and fathers! to place him in the + number of the gods, and to appoint a successor whom your judgment + shall declare worthy of the Imperial purple! None of those whose + guilt or misfortune have contributed to our loss, shall ever + reign over us.” The Roman senators heard, without surprise, that + another emperor had been assassinated in his camp; they secretly + rejoiced in the fall of Aurelian; but the modest and dutiful + address of the legions, when it was communicated in full assembly + by the consul, diffused the most pleasing astonishment. Such + honors as fear and perhaps esteem could extort, they liberally + poured forth on the memory of their deceased sovereign. Such + acknowledgments as gratitude could inspire, they returned to the + faithful armies of the republic, who entertained so just a sense + of the legal authority of the senate in the choice of an emperor. + Yet, notwithstanding this flattering appeal, the most prudent of + the assembly declined exposing their safety and dignity to the + caprice of an armed multitude. The strength of the legions was, + indeed, a pledge of their sincerity, since those who may command + are seldom reduced to the necessity of dissembling; but could it + naturally be expected, that a hasty repentance would correct the + inveterate habits of fourscore years? Should the soldiers relapse + into their accustomed seditions, their insolence might disgrace + the majesty of the senate, and prove fatal to the object of its + choice. Motives like these dictated a decree, by which the + election of a new emperor was referred to the suffrage of the + military order. + + The contention that ensued is one of the best attested, but most + improbable events in the history of mankind. The troops, as if + satiated with the exercise of power, again conjured the senate to + invest one of its own body with the Imperial purple. The senate + still persisted in its refusal; the army in its request. The + reciprocal offer was pressed and rejected at least three times, + and, whilst the obstinate modesty of either party was resolved to + receive a master from the hands of the other, eight months + insensibly elapsed; an amazing period of tranquil anarchy, during + which the Roman world remained without a sovereign, without a + usurper, and without a sedition. * The generals and magistrates + appointed by Aurelian continued to execute their ordinary + functions; and it is observed, that a proconsul of Asia was the + only considerable person removed from his office in the whole + course of the interregnum. + + An event somewhat similar, but much less authentic, is supposed + to have happened after the death of Romulus, who, in his life and + character, bore some affinity with Aurelian. The throne was + vacant during twelve months, till the election of a Sabine + philosopher, and the public peace was guarded in the same manner, + by the union of the several orders of the state. But, in the time + of Numa and Romulus, the arms of the people were controlled by + the authority of the Patricians; and the balance of freedom was + easily preserved in a small and virtuous community. The decline + of the Roman state, far different from its infancy, was attended + with every circumstance that could banish from an interregnum the + prospect of obedience and harmony: an immense and tumultuous + capital, a wide extent of empire, the servile equality of + despotism, an army of four hundred thousand mercenaries, and the + experience of frequent revolutions. Yet, notwithstanding all + these temptations, the discipline and memory of Aurelian still + restrained the seditious temper of the troops, as well as the + fatal ambition of their leaders. The flower of the legions + maintained their stations on the banks of the Bosphorus, and the + Imperial standard awed the less powerful camps of Rome and of the + provinces. A generous though transient enthusiasm seemed to + animate the military order; and we may hope that a few real + patriots cultivated the returning friendship of the army and the + senate as the only expedient capable of restoring the republic to + its ancient beauty and vigor. + + On the twenty-fifth of September, near eight months after the + murder of Aurelian, the consul convoked an assembly of the + senate, and reported the doubtful and dangerous situation of the + empire. He slightly insinuated, that the precarious loyalty of + the soldiers depended on the chance of every hour, and of every + accident; but he represented, with the most convincing eloquence, + the various dangers that might attend any further delay in the + choice of an emperor. Intelligence, he said, was already + received, that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and occupied + some of the strongest and most opulent cities of Gaul. The + ambition of the Persian king kept the East in perpetual alarms; + Egypt, Africa, and Illyricum, were exposed to foreign and + domestic arms, and the levity of Syria would prefer even a female + sceptre to the sanctity of the Roman laws. The consul, then + addressing himself to Tacitus, the first of the senators, + required his opinion on the important subject of a proper + candidate for the vacant throne. + + If we can prefer personal merit to accidental greatness, we shall + esteem the birth of Tacitus more truly noble than that of kings. + He claimed his descent from the philosophic historian whose + writings will instruct the last generations of mankind. The + senator Tacitus was then seventy-five years of age. The long + period of his innocent life was adorned with wealth and honors. + He had twice been invested with the consular dignity, and enjoyed + with elegance and sobriety his ample patrimony of between two and + three millions sterling. The experience of so many princes, whom + he had esteemed or endured, from the vain follies of Elagabalus + to the useful rigor of Aurelian, taught him to form a just + estimate of the duties, the dangers, and the temptations of their + sublime station. From the assiduous study of his immortal + ancestor, he derived the knowledge of the Roman constitution, and + of human nature. The voice of the people had already named + Tacitus as the citizen the most worthy of empire. The ungrateful + rumor reached his ears, and induced him to seek the retirement of + one of his villas in Campania. He had passed two months in the + delightful privacy of Baiæ, when he reluctantly obeyed the + summons of the consul to resume his honorable place in the + senate, and to assist the republic with his counsels on this + important occasion. + + He arose to speak, when from every quarter of the house, he was + saluted with the names of Augustus and emperor. “Tacitus + Augustus, the gods preserve thee! we choose thee for our + sovereign; to thy care we intrust the republic and the world. + Accept the empire from the authority of the senate. It is due to + thy rank, to thy conduct, to thy manners.” As soon as the tumult + of acclamations subsided, Tacitus attempted to decline the + dangerous honor, and to express his wonder, that they should + elect his age and infirmities to succeed the martial vigor of + Aurelian. “Are these limbs, conscript fathers! fitted to sustain + the weight of armor, or to practise the exercises of the camp? + The variety of climates, and the hardships of a military life, + would soon oppress a feeble constitution, which subsists only by + the most tender management. My exhausted strength scarcely + enables me to discharge the duty of a senator; how insufficient + would it prove to the arduous labors of war and government! Can + you hope, that the legions will respect a weak old man, whose + days have been spent in the shade of peace and retirement? Can + you desire that I should ever find reason to regret the favorable + opinion of the senate?” + + The reluctance of Tacitus (and it might possibly be sincere) was + encountered by the affectionate obstinacy of the senate. Five + hundred voices repeated at once, in eloquent confusion, that the + greatest of the Roman princes, Numa, Trajan, Hadrian, and the + Antonines, had ascended the throne in a very advanced season of + life; that the mind, not the body, a sovereign, not a soldier, + was the object of their choice; and that they expected from him + no more than to guide by his wisdom the valor of the legions. + These pressing though tumultuary instances were seconded by a + more regular oration of Metius Falconius, the next on the + consular bench to Tacitus himself. He reminded the assembly of + the evils which Rome had endured from the vices of headstrong and + capricious youths, congratulated them on the election of a + virtuous and experienced senator, and, with a manly, though + perhaps a selfish, freedom, exhorted Tacitus to remember the + reasons of his elevation, and to seek a successor, not in his own + family, but in the republic. The speech of Falconius was enforced + by a general acclamation. The emperor elect submitted to the + authority of his country, and received the voluntary homage of + his equals. The judgment of the senate was confirmed by the + consent of the Roman people and of the Prætorian guards. + + The administration of Tacitus was not unworthy of his life and + principles. A grateful servant of the senate, he considered that + national council as the author, and himself as the subject, of + the laws. He studied to heal the wounds which Imperial pride, + civil discord, and military violence, had inflicted on the + constitution, and to restore, at least, the image of the ancient + republic, as it had been preserved by the policy of Augustus, and + the virtues of Trajan and the Antonines. It may not be useless to + recapitulate some of the most important prerogatives which the + senate appeared to have regained by the election of Tacitus. 1. + To invest one of their body, under the title of emperor, with the + general command of the armies, and the government of the frontier + provinces. 2. To determine the list, or, as it was then styled, + the College of Consuls. They were twelve in number, who, in + successive pairs, each, during the space of two months, filled + the year, and represented the dignity of that ancient office. The + authority of the senate, in the nomination of the consuls, was + exercised with such independent freedom, that no regard was paid + to an irregular request of the emperor in favor of his brother + Florianus. “The senate,” exclaimed Tacitus, with the honest + transport of a patriot, “understand the character of a prince + whom they have chosen.” 3. To appoint the proconsuls and + presidents of the provinces, and to confer on all the magistrates + their civil jurisdiction. 4. To receive appeals through the + intermediate office of the præfect of the city from all the + tribunals of the empire. 5. To give force and validity, by their + decrees, to such as they should approve of the emperor’s edicts. + 6. To these several branches of authority we may add some + inspection over the finances, since, even in the stern reign of + Aurelian, it was in their power to divert a part of the revenue + from the public service. + + Circular epistles were sent, without delay, to all the principal + cities of the empire, Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Thessalonica, + Corinth, Athens, Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage, to claim + their obedience, and to inform them of the happy revolution, + which had restored the Roman senate to its ancient dignity. Two + of these epistles are still extant. We likewise possess two very + singular fragments of the private correspondence of the senators + on this occasion. They discover the most excessive joy, and the + most unbounded hopes. “Cast away your indolence,” it is thus that + one of the senators addresses his friend, “emerge from your + retirements of Baiæ and Puteoli. Give yourself to the city, to + the senate. Rome flourishes, the whole republic flourishes. + Thanks to the Roman army, to an army truly Roman; at length we + have recovered our just authority, the end of all our desires. We + hear appeals, we appoint proconsuls, we create emperors; perhaps + too we may restrain them—to the wise a word is sufficient.” These + lofty expectations were, however, soon disappointed; nor, indeed, + was it possible that the armies and the provinces should long + obey the luxurious and unwarlike nobles of Rome. On the slightest + touch, the unsupported fabric of their pride and power fell to + the ground. The expiring senate displayed a sudden lustre, blazed + for a moment, and was extinguished forever. + + All that had yet passed at Rome was no more than a theatrical + representation, unless it was ratified by the more substantial + power of the legions. Leaving the senators to enjoy their dream + of freedom and ambition, Tacitus proceeded to the Thracian camp, + and was there, by the Prætorian præfect, presented to the + assembled troops, as the prince whom they themselves had + demanded, and whom the senate had bestowed. As soon as the + præfect was silent, the emperor addressed himself to the soldiers + with eloquence and propriety. He gratified their avarice by a + liberal distribution of treasure, under the names of pay and + donative. He engaged their esteem by a spirited declaration, that + although his age might disable him from the performance of + military exploits, his counsels should never be unworthy of a + Roman general, the successor of the brave Aurelian. + + Whilst the deceased emperor was making preparations for a second + expedition into the East, he had negotiated with the Alani, * a + Scythian people, who pitched their tents in the neighborhood of + the Lake Mæotis. Those barbarians, allured by presents and + subsidies, had promised to invade Persia with a numerous body of + light cavalry. They were faithful to their engagements; but when + they arrived on the Roman frontier, Aurelian was already dead, + the design of the Persian war was at least suspended, and the + generals, who, during the interregnum, exercised a doubtful + authority, were unprepared either to receive or to oppose them. + Provoked by such treatment, which they considered as trifling and + perfidious, the Alani had recourse to their own valor for their + payment and revenge; and as they moved with the usual swiftness + of Tartars, they had soon spread themselves over the provinces of + Pontus, Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Galatia. The legions, who from + the opposite shores of the Bosphorus could almost distinguish the + flames of the cities and villages, impatiently urged their + general to lead them against the invaders. The conduct of Tacitus + was suitable to his age and station. He convinced the barbarians + of the faith, as well as the power, of the empire. Great numbers + of the Alani, appeased by the punctual discharge of the + engagements which Aurelian had contracted with them, relinquished + their booty and captives, and quietly retreated to their own + deserts, beyond the Phasis. Against the remainder, who refused + peace, the Roman emperor waged, in person, a successful war. + Seconded by an army of brave and experienced veterans, in a few + weeks he delivered the provinces of Asia from the terror of the + Scythian invasion. + + But the glory and life of Tacitus were of short duration. + Transported, in the depth of winter, from the soft retirement of + Campania to the foot of Mount Caucasus, he sunk under the + unaccustomed hardships of a military life. The fatigues of the + body were aggravated by the cares of the mind. For a while, the + angry and selfish passions of the soldiers had been suspended by + the enthusiasm of public virtue. They soon broke out with + redoubled violence, and raged in the camp, and even in the tent + of the aged emperor. His mild and amiable character served only + to inspire contempt, and he was incessantly tormented with + factions which he could not assuage, and by demands which it was + impossible to satisfy. Whatever flattering expectations he had + conceived of reconciling the public disorders, Tacitus soon was + convinced that the licentiousness of the army disdained the + feeble restraint of laws, and his last hour was hastened by + anguish and disappointment. It may be doubtful whether the + soldiers imbrued their hands in the blood of this innocent + prince. It is certain that their insolence was the cause of his + death. He expired at Tyana in Cappadocia, after a reign of only + six months and about twenty days. + + The eyes of Tacitus were scarcely closed, before his brother + Florianus showed himself unworthy to reign, by the hasty + usurpation of the purple, without expecting the approbation of + the senate. The reverence for the Roman constitution, which yet + influenced the camp and the provinces, was sufficiently strong to + dispose them to censure, but not to provoke them to oppose, the + precipitate ambition of Florianus. The discontent would have + evaporated in idle murmurs, had not the general of the East, the + heroic Probus, boldly declared himself the avenger of the senate. + The contest, however, was still unequal; nor could the most able + leader, at the head of the effeminate troops of Egypt and Syria, + encounter, with any hopes of victory, the legions of Europe, + whose irresistible strength appeared to support the brother of + Tacitus. But the fortune and activity of Probus triumphed over + every obstacle. The hardy veterans of his rival, accustomed to + cold climates, sickened and consumed away in the sultry heats of + Cilicia, where the summer proved remarkably unwholesome. Their + numbers were diminished by frequent desertion; the passes of the + mountains were feebly defended; Tarsus opened its gates; and the + soldiers of Florianus, when they had permitted him to enjoy the + Imperial title about three months, delivered the empire from + civil war by the easy sacrifice of a prince whom they despised. + + The perpetual revolutions of the throne had so perfectly erased + every notion of hereditary title, that the family of an + unfortunate emperor was incapable of exciting the jealousy of his + successors. The children of Tacitus and Florianus were permitted + to descend into a private station, and to mingle with the general + mass of the people. Their poverty indeed became an additional + safeguard to their innocence. When Tacitus was elected by the + senate, he resigned his ample patrimony to the public service; an + act of generosity specious in appearance, but which evidently + disclosed his intention of transmitting the empire to his + descendants. The only consolation of their fallen state was the + remembrance of transient greatness, and a distant hope, the child + of a flattering prophecy, that at the end of a thousand years, a + monarch of the race of Tacitus should arise, the protector of the + senate, the restorer of Rome, and the conqueror of the whole + earth. + + The peasants of Illyricum, who had already given Claudius and + Aurelian to the sinking empire, had an equal right to glory in + the elevation of Probus. Above twenty years before, the emperor + Valerian, with his usual penetration, had discovered the rising + merit of the young soldier, on whom he conferred the rank of + tribune, long before the age prescribed by the military + regulations. The tribune soon justified his choice, by a victory + over a great body of Sarmatians, in which he saved the life of a + near relation of Valerian; and deserved to receive from the + emperor’s hand the collars, bracelets, spears, and banners, the + mural and the civic crown, and all the honorable rewards reserved + by ancient Rome for successful valor. The third, and afterwards + the tenth, legion were intrusted to the command of Probus, who, + in every step of his promotion, showed himself superior to the + station which he filled. Africa and Pontus, the Rhine, the + Danube, the Euphrates, and the Nile, by turns afforded him the + most splendid occasions of displaying his personal prowess and + his conduct in war. Aurelian was indebted for the honest courage + with which he often checked the cruelty of his master. Tacitus, + who desired by the abilities of his generals to supply his own + deficiency of military talents, named him commander-in-chief of + all the eastern provinces, with five times the usual salary, the + promise of the consulship, and the hope of a triumph. When Probus + ascended the Imperial throne, he was about forty-four years of + age; in the full possession of his fame, of the love of the army, + and of a mature vigor of mind and body. + + His acknowledged merit, and the success of his arms against + Florianus, left him without an enemy or a competitor. Yet, if we + may credit his own professions, very far from being desirous of + the empire, he had accepted it with the most sincere reluctance. + “But it is no longer in my power,” says Probus, in a private + letter, “to lay down a title so full of envy and of danger. I + must continue to personate the character which the soldiers have + imposed upon me.” His dutiful address to the senate displayed the + sentiments, or at least the language, of a Roman patriot: “When + you elected one of your order, conscript fathers! to succeed the + emperor Aurelian, you acted in a manner suitable to your justice + and wisdom. For you are the legal sovereigns of the world, and + the power which you derive from your ancestors will descend to + your posterity. Happy would it have been, if Florianus, instead + of usurping the purple of his brother, like a private + inheritance, had expected what your majesty might determine, + either in his favor, or in that of any other person. The prudent + soldiers have punished his rashness. To me they have offered the + title of Augustus. But I submit to your clemency my pretensions + and my merits.” When this respectful epistle was read by the + consul, the senators were unable to disguise their satisfaction, + that Probus should condescend thus humbly to solicit a sceptre + which he already possessed. They celebrated with the warmest + gratitude his virtues, his exploits, and above all his + moderation. A decree immediately passed, without a dissenting + voice, to ratify the election of the eastern armies, and to + confer on their chief all the several branches of the Imperial + dignity: the names of Cæsar and Augustus, the title of Father of + his country, the right of making in the same day three motions in + the senate, the office of Pontifex Maximus, the tribunitian + power, and the proconsular command; a mode of investiture, which, + though it seemed to multiply the authority of the emperor, + expressed the constitution of the ancient republic. The reign of + Probus corresponded with this fair beginning. The senate was + permitted to direct the civil administration of the empire. Their + faithful general asserted the honor of the Roman arms, and often + laid at their feet crowns of gold and barbaric trophies, the + fruits of his numerous victories. Yet, whilst he gratified their + vanity, he must secretly have despised their indolence and + weakness. Though it was every moment in their power to repeal the + disgraceful edict of Gallienus, the proud successors of the + Scipios patiently acquiesced in their exclusion from all military + employments. They soon experienced, that those who refuse the + sword must renounce the sceptre. + + + + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + II. + + The strength of Aurelian had crushed on every side the enemies of + Rome. After his death they seemed to revive with an increase of + fury and of numbers. They were again vanquished by the active + vigor of Probus, who, in a short reign of about six years, + equalled the fame of ancient heroes, and restored peace and order + to every province of the Roman world. The dangerous frontier of + Rhætia he so firmly secured, that he left it without the + suspicion of an enemy. He broke the wandering power of the + Sarmatian tribes, and by the terror of his arms compelled those + barbarians to relinquish their spoil. The Gothic nation courted + the alliance of so warlike an emperor. He attacked the Isaurians + in their mountains, besieged and took several of their strongest + castles, and flattered himself that he had forever suppressed a + domestic foe, whose independence so deeply wounded the majesty of + the empire. The troubles excited by the usurper Firmus in the + Upper Egypt had never been perfectly appeased, and the cities of + Ptolemais and Coptos, fortified by the alliance of the Blemmyes, + still maintained an obscure rebellion. The chastisement of those + cities, and of their auxiliaries the savages of the South, is + said to have alarmed the court of Persia, and the Great King sued + in vain for the friendship of Probus. Most of the exploits which + distinguished his reign were achieved by the personal valor and + conduct of the emperor, insomuch that the writer of his life + expresses some amazement how, in so short a time, a single man + could be present in so many distant wars. The remaining actions + he intrusted to the care of his lieutenants, the judicious choice + of whom forms no inconsiderable part of his glory. Carus, + Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, Galerius, Asclepiodatus, + Annibalianus, and a crowd of other chiefs, who afterwards + ascended or supported the throne, were trained to arms in the + severe school of Aurelian and Probus. + + But the most important service which Probus rendered to the + republic was the deliverance of Gaul, and the recovery of seventy + flourishing cities oppressed by the barbarians of Germany, who, + since the death of Aurelian, had ravaged that great province with + impunity. Among the various multitude of those fierce invaders we + may distinguish, with some degree of clearness, three great + armies, or rather nations, successively vanquished by the valor + of Probus. He drove back the Franks into their morasses; a + descriptive circumstance from whence we may infer, that the + confederacy known by the manly appellation of _Free_, already + occupied the flat maritime country, intersected and almost + overflown by the stagnating waters of the Rhine, and that several + tribes of the Frisians and Batavians had acceded to their + alliance. He vanquished the Burgundians, a considerable people of + the Vandalic race. * They had wandered in quest of booty from the + banks of the Oder to those of the Seine. They esteemed themselves + sufficiently fortunate to purchase, by the restitution of all + their booty, the permission of an undisturbed retreat. They + attempted to elude that article of the treaty. Their punishment + was immediate and terrible. But of all the invaders of Gaul, the + most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people, who reigned + over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. In the + Lygian nation, the Arii held the first rank by their numbers and + fierceness. “The Arii” (it is thus that they are described by the + energy of Tacitus) “study to improve by art and circumstances the + innate terrors of their barbarism. Their shields are black, their + bodies are painted black. They choose for the combat the darkest + hour of the night. Their host advances, covered as it were with a + funeral shade; nor do they often find an enemy capable of + sustaining so strange and infernal an aspect. Of all our senses, + the eyes are the first vanquished in battle.” Yet the arms and + discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these horrid + phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general engagement, and + Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, fell alive into the + hands of Probus. That prudent emperor, unwilling to reduce a + brave people to despair, granted them an honorable capitulation, + and permitted them to return in safety to their native country. + But the losses which they suffered in the march, the battle, and + the retreat, broke the power of the nation: nor is the Lygian + name ever repeated in the history either of Germany or of the + empire. The deliverance of Gaul is reported to have cost the + lives of four hundred thousand of the invaders; a work of labor + to the Romans, and of expense to the emperor, who gave a piece of + gold for the head of every barbarian. But as the fame of warriors + is built on the destruction of human kind, we may naturally + suspect that the sanguinary account was multiplied by the avarice + of the soldiers, and accepted without any very severe examination + by the liberal vanity of Probus. + + Since the expedition of Maximin, the Roman generals had confined + their ambition to a defensive war against the nations of Germany, + who perpetually pressed on the frontiers of the empire. The more + daring Probus pursued his Gallic victories, passed the Rhine, and + displayed his invincible eagles on the banks of the Elbe and the + Neckar. He was fully convinced that nothing could reconcile the + minds of the barbarians to peace, unless they experienced, in + their own country, the calamities of war. Germany, exhausted by + the ill success of the last emigration, was astonished by his + presence. Nine of the most considerable princes repaired to his + camp, and fell prostrate at his feet. Such a treaty was humbly + received by the Germans, as it pleased the conqueror to dictate. + He exacted a strict restitution of the effects and captives which + they had carried away from the provinces; and obliged their own + magistrates to punish the more obstinate robbers who presumed to + detain any part of the spoil. A considerable tribute of corn, + cattle, and horses, the only wealth of barbarians, was reserved + for the use of the garrisons which Probus established on the + limits of their territory. He even entertained some thoughts of + compelling the Germans to relinquish the exercise of arms, and to + trust their differences to the justice, their safety to the + power, of Rome. To accomplish these salutary ends, the constant + residence of an Imperial governor, supported by a numerous army, + was indispensably requisite. Probus therefore judged it more + expedient to defer the execution of so great a design; which was + indeed rather of specious than solid utility. Had Germany been + reduced into the state of a province, the Romans, with immense + labor and expense, would have acquired only a more extensive + boundary to defend against the fiercer and more active barbarians + of Scythia. + + Instead of reducing the warlike natives of Germany to the + condition of subjects, Probus contented himself with the humble + expedient of raising a bulwark against their inroads. The country + which now forms the circle of Swabia had been left desert in the + age of Augustus by the emigration of its ancient inhabitants. The + fertility of the soil soon attracted a new colony from the + adjacent provinces of Gaul. Crowds of adventurers, of a roving + temper and of desperate fortunes, occupied the doubtful + possession, and acknowledged, by the payment of tithes, the + majesty of the empire. To protect these new subjects, a line of + frontier garrisons was gradually extended from the Rhine to the + Danube. About the reign of Hadrian, when that mode of defence + began to be practised, these garrisons were connected and covered + by a strong intrenchment of trees and palisades. In the place of + so rude a bulwark, the emperor Probus constructed a stone wall of + a considerable height, and strengthened it by towers at + convenient distances. From the neighborhood of Neustadt and + Ratisbon on the Danube, it stretched across hills, valleys, + rivers, and morasses, as far as Wimpfen on the Neckar, and at + length terminated on the banks of the Rhine, after a winding + course of near two hundred miles. This important barrier, uniting + the two mighty streams that protected the provinces of Europe, + seemed to fill up the vacant space through which the barbarians, + and particularly the Alemanni, could penetrate with the greatest + facility into the heart of the empire. But the experience of the + world, from China to Britain, has exposed the vain attempt of + fortifying any extensive tract of country. An active enemy, who + can select and vary his points of attack, must, in the end, + discover some feeble spot, or some unguarded moment. The + strength, as well as the attention, of the defenders is divided; + and such are the blind effects of terror on the firmest troops, + that a line broken in a single place is almost instantly + deserted. The fate of the wall which Probus erected may confirm + the general observation. Within a few years after his death, it + was overthrown by the Alemanni. Its scattered ruins, universally + ascribed to the power of the Dæmon, now serve only to excite the + wonder of the Swabian peasant. + + Among the useful conditions of peace imposed by Probus on the + vanquished nations of Germany, was the obligation of supplying + the Roman army with sixteen thousand recruits, the bravest and + most robust of their youth. The emperor dispersed them through + all the provinces, and distributed this dangerous reënforcement, + in small bands of fifty or sixty each, among the national troops; + judiciously observing, that the aid which the republic derived + from the barbarians should be felt but not seen. Their aid was + now become necessary. The feeble elegance of Italy and the + internal provinces could no longer support the weight of arms. + The hardy frontiers of the Rhine and Danube still produced minds + and bodies equal to the labors of the camp; but a perpetual + series of wars had gradually diminished their numbers. The + infrequency of marriage, and the ruin of agriculture, affected + the principles of population, and not only destroyed the strength + of the present, but intercepted the hope of future, generations. + The wisdom of Probus embraced a great and beneficial plan of + replenishing the exhausted frontiers, by new colonies of captive + or fugitive barbarians, on whom he bestowed lands, cattle, + instruments of husbandry, and every encouragement that might + engage them to educate a race of soldiers for the service of the + republic. Into Britain, and most probably into Cambridgeshire, he + transported a considerable body of Vandals. The impossibility of + an escape reconciled them to their situation, and in the + subsequent troubles of that island, they approved themselves the + most faithful servants of the state. Great numbers of Franks and + Gepidæ were settled on the banks of the Danube and the Rhine. A + hundred thousand Bastarnæ, expelled from their own country, + cheerfully accepted an establishment in Thrace, and soon imbibed + the manners and sentiments of Roman subjects. But the + expectations of Probus were too often disappointed. The + impatience and idleness of the barbarians could ill brook the + slow labors of agriculture. Their unconquerable love of freedom, + rising against despotism, provoked them into hasty rebellions, + alike fatal to themselves and to the provinces; nor could these + artificial supplies, however repeated by succeeding emperors, + restore the important limit of Gaul and Illyricum to its ancient + and native vigor. + + Of all the barbarians who abandoned their new settlements, and + disturbed the public tranquillity, a very small number returned + to their own country. For a short season they might wander in + arms through the empire; but in the end they were surely + destroyed by the power of a warlike emperor. The successful + rashness of a party of Franks was attended, however, with such + memorable consequences, that it ought not to be passed unnoticed. + They had been established by Probus, on the sea-coast of Pontus, + with a view of strengthening the frontier against the inroads of + the Alani. A fleet stationed in one of the harbors of the Euxine + fell into the hands of the Franks; and they resolved, through + unknown seas, to explore their way from the mouth of the Phasis + to that of the Rhine. They easily escaped through the Bosphorus + and the Hellespont, and cruising along the Mediterranean, + indulged their appetite for revenge and plunder by frequent + descents on the unsuspecting shores of Asia, Greece, and Africa. + The opulent city of Syracuse, in whose port the natives of Athens + and Carthage had formerly been sunk, was sacked by a handful of + barbarians, who massacred the greatest part of the trembling + inhabitants. From the island of Sicily the Franks proceeded to + the columns of Hercules, trusted themselves to the ocean, coasted + round Spain and Gaul, and steering their triumphant course + through the British Channel, at length finished their surprising + voyage, by landing in safety on the Batavian or Frisian shores. + The example of their success, instructing their countrymen to + conceive the advantages and to despise the dangers of the sea, + pointed out to their enterprising spirit a new road to wealth and + glory. + + Notwithstanding the vigilance and activity of Probus, it was + almost impossible that he could at once contain in obedience + every part of his wide-extended dominions. The barbarians, who + broke their chains, had seized the favorable opportunity of a + domestic war. When the emperor marched to the relief of Gaul, he + devolved the command of the East on Saturninus. That general, a + man of merit and experience, was driven into rebellion by the + absence of his sovereign, the levity of the Alexandrian people, + the pressing instances of his friends, and his own fears; but + from the moment of his elevation, he never entertained a hope of + empire, or even of life. “Alas!” he said, “the republic has lost + a useful servant, and the rashness of an hour has destroyed the + services of many years. You know not,” continued he, “the misery + of sovereign power; a sword is perpetually suspended over our + head. We dread our very guards, we distrust our companions. The + choice of action or of repose is no longer in our disposition, + nor is there any age, or character, or conduct, that can protect + us from the censure of envy. In thus exalting me to the throne, + you have doomed me to a life of cares, and to an untimely fate. + The only consolation which remains is the assurance that I shall + not fall alone.” But as the former part of his prediction was + verified by the victory, so the latter was disappointed by the + clemency, of Probus. That amiable prince attempted even to save + the unhappy Saturninus from the fury of the soldiers. He had more + than once solicited the usurper himself to place some confidence + in the mercy of a sovereign who so highly esteemed his character, + that he had punished, as a malicious informer, the first who + related the improbable news of his disaffection. Saturninus + might, perhaps, have embraced the generous offer, had he not been + restrained by the obstinate distrust of his adherents. Their + guilt was deeper, and their hopes more sanguine, than those of + their experienced leader. + + The revolt of Saturninus was scarcely extinguished in the East, + before new troubles were excited in the West, by the rebellion of + Bonosus and Proculus, in Gaul. The most distinguished merit of + those two officers was their respective prowess, of the one in + the combats of Bacchus, of the other in those of Venus, yet + neither of them was destitute of courage and capacity, and both + sustained, with honor, the august character which the fear of + punishment had engaged them to assume, till they sunk at length + beneath the superior genius of Probus. He used the victory with + his accustomed moderation, and spared the fortune, as well as the + lives of their innocent families. + + The arms of Probus had now suppressed all the foreign and + domestic enemies of the state. His mild but steady administration + confirmed the re-ëstablishment of the public tranquillity; nor + was there left in the provinces a hostile barbarian, a tyrant, or + even a robber, to revive the memory of past disorders. It was + time that the emperor should revisit Rome, and celebrate his own + glory and the general happiness. The triumph due to the valor of + Probus was conducted with a magnificence suitable to his fortune, + and the people, who had so lately admired the trophies of + Aurelian, gazed with equal pleasure on those of his heroic + successor. We cannot, on this occasion, forget the desperate + courage of about fourscore gladiators, reserved, with near six + hundred others, for the inhuman sports of the amphitheatre. + Disdaining to shed their blood for the amusement of the populace, + they killed their keepers, broke from the place of their + confinement, and filled the streets of Rome with blood and + confusion. After an obstinate resistance, they were overpowered + and cut in pieces by the regular forces; but they obtained at + least an honorable death, and the satisfaction of a just revenge. + + The military discipline which reigned in the camps of Probus was + less cruel than that of Aurelian, but it was equally rigid and + exact. The latter had punished the irregularities of the soldiers + with unrelenting severity, the former prevented them by employing + the legions in constant and useful labors. When Probus commanded + in Egypt, he executed many considerable works for the splendor + and benefit of that rich country. The navigation of the Nile, so + important to Rome itself, was improved; and temples, buildings, + porticos, and palaces, were constructed by the hands of the + soldiers, who acted by turns as architects, as engineers, and as + husbandmen. It was reported of Hannibal, that, in order to + preserve his troops from the dangerous temptations of idleness, + he had obliged them to form large plantations of olive-trees + along the coast of Africa. From a similar principle, Probus + exercised his legions in covering with rich vineyards the hills + of Gaul and Pannonia, and two considerable spots are described, + which were entirely dug and planted by military labor. One of + these, known under the name of Mount Almo, was situated near + Sirmium, the country where Probus was born, for which he ever + retained a partial affection, and whose gratitude he endeavored + to secure, by converting into tillage a large and unhealthy tract + of marshy ground. An army thus employed constituted perhaps the + most useful, as well as the bravest, portion of Roman subjects. + + But in the prosecution of a favorite scheme, the best of men, + satisfied with the rectitude of their intentions, are subject to + forget the bounds of moderation; nor did Probus himself + sufficiently consult the patience and disposition of his fierce + legionaries. The dangers of the military profession seem only to + be compensated by a life of pleasure and idleness; but if the + duties of the soldier are incessantly aggravated by the labors of + the peasant, he will at last sink under the intolerable burden, + or shake it off with indignation. The imprudence of Probus is + said to have inflamed the discontent of his troops. More + attentive to the interests of mankind than to those of the army, + he expressed the vain hope, that, by the establishment of + universal peace, he should soon abolish the necessity of a + standing and mercenary force. The unguarded expression proved + fatal to him. In one of the hottest days of summer, as he + severely urged the unwholesome labor of draining the marshes of + Sirmium, the soldiers, impatient of fatigue, on a sudden threw + down their tools, grasped their arms, and broke out into a + furious mutiny. The emperor, conscious of his danger, took refuge + in a lofty tower, constructed for the purpose of surveying the + progress of the work. The tower was instantly forced, and a + thousand swords were plunged at once into the bosom of the + unfortunate Probus. The rage of the troops subsided as soon as it + had been gratified. They then lamented their fatal rashness, + forgot the severity of the emperor whom they had massacred, and + hastened to perpetuate, by an honorable monument, the memory of + his virtues and victories. + + When the legions had indulged their grief and repentance for the + death of Probus, their unanimous consent declared Carus, his + Prætorian præfect, the most deserving of the Imperial throne. + Every circumstance that relates to this prince appears of a mixed + and doubtful nature. He gloried in the title of Roman Citizen; + and affected to compare the purity of his blood with the foreign + and even barbarous origin of the preceding emperors; yet the most + inquisitive of his contemporaries, very far from admitting his + claim, have variously deduced his own birth, or that of his + parents, from Illyricum, from Gaul, or from Africa. Though a + soldier, he had received a learned education; though a senator, + he was invested with the first dignity of the army; and in an age + when the civil and military professions began to be irrecoverably + separated from each other, they were united in the person of + Carus. Notwithstanding the severe justice which he exercised + against the assassins of Probus, to whose favor and esteem he was + highly indebted, he could not escape the suspicion of being + accessory to a deed from whence he derived the principal + advantage. He enjoyed, at least before his elevation, an + acknowledged character of virtue and abilities; but his austere + temper insensibly degenerated into moroseness and cruelty; and + the imperfect writers of his life almost hesitate whether they + shall not rank him in the number of Roman tyrants. When Carus + assumed the purple, he was about sixty years of age, and his two + sons, Carinus and Numerian had already attained the season of + manhood. + + The authority of the senate expired with Probus; nor was the + repentance of the soldiers displayed by the same dutiful regard + for the civil power, which they had testified after the + unfortunate death of Aurelian. The election of Carus was decided + without expecting the approbation of the senate, and the new + emperor contented himself with announcing, in a cold and stately + epistle, that he had ascended the vacant throne. A behavior so + very opposite to that of his amiable predecessor afforded no + favorable presage of the new reign: and the Romans, deprived of + power and freedom, asserted their privilege of licentious + murmurs. The voice of congratulation and flattery was not, + however, silent; and we may still peruse, with pleasure and + contempt, an eclogue, which was composed on the accession of the + emperor Carus. Two shepherds, avoiding the noontide heat, retire + into the cave of Faunus. On a spreading beech they discover some + recent characters. The rural deity had described, in prophetic + verses, the felicity promised to the empire under the reign of so + great a prince. Faunus hails the approach of that hero, who, + receiving on his shoulders the sinking weight of the Roman world, + shall extinguish war and faction, and once again restore the + innocence and security of the golden age. + + It is more than probable, that these elegant trifles never + reached the ears of a veteran general, who, with the consent of + the legions, was preparing to execute the long-suspended design + of the Persian war. Before his departure for this distant + expedition, Carus conferred on his two sons, Carinus and + Numerian, the title of Cæsar, and investing the former with + almost an equal share of the Imperial power, directed the young + prince first to suppress some troubles which had arisen in Gaul, + and afterwards to fix the seat of his residence at Rome, and to + assume the government of the Western provinces. The safety of + Illyricum was confirmed by a memorable defeat of the Sarmatians; + sixteen thousand of those barbarians remained on the field of + battle, and the number of captives amounted to twenty thousand. + The old emperor, animated with the fame and prospect of victory, + pursued his march, in the midst of winter, through the countries + of Thrace and Asia Minor, and at length, with his younger son, + Numerian, arrived on the confines of the Persian monarchy. There, + encamping on the summit of a lofty mountain, he pointed out to + his troops the opulence and luxury of the enemy whom they were + about to invade. + + The successor of Artaxerxes, * Varanes, or Bahram, though he had + subdued the Segestans, one of the most warlike nations of Upper + Asia, was alarmed at the approach of the Romans, and endeavored + to retard their progress by a negotiation of peace. His + ambassadors entered the camp about sunset, at the time when the + troops were satisfying their hunger with a frugal repast. The + Persians expressed their desire of being introduced to the + presence of the Roman emperor. They were at length conducted to a + soldier, who was seated on the grass. A piece of stale bacon and + a few hard peas composed his supper. A coarse woollen garment of + purple was the only circumstance that announced his dignity. The + conference was conducted with the same disregard of courtly + elegance. Carus, taking off a cap which he wore to conceal his + baldness, assured the ambassadors, that, unless their master + acknowledged the superiority of Rome, he would speedily render + Persia as naked of trees as his own head was destitute of hair. + Notwithstanding some traces of art and preparation, we may + discover in this scene the manners of Carus, and the severe + simplicity which the martial princes, who succeeded Gallienus, + had already restored in the Roman camps. The ministers of the + Great King trembled and retired. + + The threats of Carus were not without effect. He ravaged + Mesopotamia, cut in pieces whatever opposed his passage, made + himself master of the great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, + (which seemed to have surrendered without resistance,) and + carried his victorious arms beyond the Tigris. He had seized the + favorable moment for an invasion. The Persian councils were + distracted by domestic factions, and the greater part of their + forces were detained on the frontiers of India. Rome and the East + received with transport the news of such important advantages. + Flattery and hope painted, in the most lively colors, the fall of + Persia, the conquest of Arabia, the submission of Egypt, and a + lasting deliverance from the inroads of the Scythian nations. But + the reign of Carus was destined to expose the vanity of + predictions. They were scarcely uttered before they were + contradicted by his death; an event attended with such ambiguous + circumstances, that it may be related in a letter from his own + secretary to the præfect of the city. “Carus,” says he, “our + dearest emperor, was confined by sickness to his bed, when a + furious tempest arose in the camp. The darkness which overspread + the sky was so thick, that we could no longer distinguish each + other; and the incessant flashes of lightning took from us the + knowledge of all that passed in the general confusion. + Immediately after the most violent clap of thunder, we heard a + sudden cry that the emperor was dead; and it soon appeared, that + his chamberlains, in a rage of grief, had set fire to the royal + pavilion; a circumstance which gave rise to the report that Carus + was killed by lightning. But, as far as we have been able to + investigate the truth, his death was the natural effect of his + disorder.” + + + + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + III. + + The vacancy of the throne was not productive of any disturbance. + The ambition of the aspiring generals was checked by their + natural fears, and young Numerian, with his absent brother + Carinus, were unanimously acknowledged as Roman emperors. The + public expected that the successor of Carus would pursue his + father’s footsteps, and, without allowing the Persians to recover + from their consternation, would advance sword in hand to the + palaces of Susa and Ecbatana. But the legions, however strong in + numbers and discipline, were dismayed by the most abject + superstition. Notwithstanding all the arts that were practised to + disguise the manner of the late emperor’s death, it was found + impossible to remove the opinion of the multitude, and the power + of opinion is irresistible. Places or persons struck with + lightning were considered by the ancients with pious horror, as + singularly devoted to the wrath of Heaven. An oracle was + remembered, which marked the River Tigris as the fatal boundary + of the Roman arms. The troops, terrified with the fate of Carus + and with their own danger, called aloud on young Numerian to obey + the will of the gods, and to lead them away from this + inauspicious scene of war. The feeble emperor was unable to + subdue their obstinate prejudice, and the Persians wondered at + the unexpected retreat of a victorious enemy. + + The intelligence of the mysterious fate of the late emperor was + soon carried from the frontiers of Persia to Rome; and the + senate, as well as the provinces, congratulated the accession of + the sons of Carus. These fortunate youths were strangers, + however, to that conscious superiority, either of birth or of + merit, which can alone render the possession of a throne easy, + and, as it were, natural. Born and educated in a private station, + the election of their father raised them at once to the rank of + princes; and his death, which happened about sixteen months + afterwards, left them the unexpected legacy of a vast empire. To + sustain with temper this rapid elevation, an uncommon share of + virtue and prudence was requisite; and Carinus, the elder of the + brothers, was more than commonly deficient in those qualities. In + the Gallic war he discovered some degree of personal courage; but + from the moment of his arrival at Rome, he abandoned himself to + the luxury of the capital, and to the abuse of his fortune. He + was soft, yet cruel; devoted to pleasure, but destitute of taste; + and though exquisitely susceptible of vanity, indifferent to the + public esteem. In the course of a few months, he successively + married and divorced nine wives, most of whom he left pregnant; + and notwithstanding this legal inconstancy, found time to indulge + such a variety of irregular appetites, as brought dishonor on + himself and on the noblest houses of Rome. He beheld with + inveterate hatred all those who might remember his former + obscurity, or censure his present conduct. He banished, or put to + death, the friends and counsellors whom his father had placed + about him, to guide his inexperienced youth; and he persecuted + with the meanest revenge his school-fellows and companions who + had not sufficiently respected the latent majesty of the emperor. + With the senators, Carinus affected a lofty and regal demeanor, + frequently declaring, that he designed to distribute their + estates among the populace of Rome. From the dregs of that + populace he selected his favorites, and even his ministers. The + palace, and even the Imperial table, were filled with singers, + dancers, prostitutes, and all the various retinue of vice and + folly. One of his doorkeepers he intrusted with the government of + the city. In the room of the Prætorian præfect, whom he put to + death, Carinus substituted one of the ministers of his looser + pleasures. Another, who possessed the same, or even a more + infamous, title to favor, was invested with the consulship. A + confidential secretary, who had acquired uncommon skill in the + art of forgery, delivered the indolent emperor, with his own + consent from the irksome duty of signing his name. + + When the emperor Carus undertook the Persian war, he was induced, + by motives of affection as well as policy, to secure the fortunes + of his family, by leaving in the hands of his eldest son the + armies and provinces of the West. The intelligence which he soon + received of the conduct of Carinus filled him with shame and + regret; nor had he concealed his resolution of satisfying the + republic by a severe act of justice, and of adopting, in the + place of an unworthy son, the brave and virtuous Constantius, who + at that time was governor of Dalmatia. But the elevation of + Constantius was for a while deferred; and as soon as the father’s + death had released Carinus from the control of fear or decency, + he displayed to the Romans the extravagancies of Elagabalus, + aggravated by the cruelty of Domitian. + + The only merit of the administration of Carinus that history + could record, or poetry celebrate, was the uncommon splendor with + which, in his own and his brother’s name, he exhibited the Roman + games of the theatre, the circus, and the amphitheatre. More than + twenty years afterwards, when the courtiers of Diocletian + represented to their frugal sovereign the fame and popularity of + his munificent predecessor, he acknowledged that the reign of + Carinus had indeed been a reign of pleasure. But this vain + prodigality, which the prudence of Diocletian might justly + despise, was enjoyed with surprise and transport by the Roman + people. The oldest of the citizens, recollecting the spectacles + of former days, the triumphal pomp of Probus or Aurelian, and the + secular games of the emperor Philip, acknowledged that they were + all surpassed by the superior magnificence of Carinus. + + The spectacles of Carinus may therefore be best illustrated by + the observation of some particulars, which history has + condescended to relate concerning those of his predecessors. If + we confine ourselves solely to the hunting of wild beasts, + however we may censure the vanity of the design or the cruelty of + the execution, we are obliged to confess that neither before nor + since the time of the Romans so much art and expense have ever + been lavished for the amusement of the people. By the order of + Probus, a great quantity of large trees, torn up by the roots, + were transplanted into the midst of the circus. The spacious and + shady forest was immediately filled with a thousand ostriches, a + thousand stags, a thousand fallow deer, and a thousand wild + boars; and all this variety of game was abandoned to the riotous + impetuosity of the multitude. The tragedy of the succeeding day + consisted in the massacre of a hundred lions, an equal number of + lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three hundred bears. The + collection prepared by the younger Gordian for his triumph, and + which his successor exhibited in the secular games, was less + remarkable by the number than by the singularity of the animals. + Twenty zebras displayed their elegant forms and variegated beauty + to the eyes of the Roman people. Ten elks, and as many + camelopards, the loftiest and most harmless creatures that wander + over the plains of Sarmatia and Æthiopia, were contrasted with + thirty African hyænas and ten Indian tigers, the most implacable + savages of the torrid zone. The unoffending strength with which + Nature has endowed the greater quadrupeds was admired in the + rhinoceros, the hippopotamus of the Nile, and a majestic troop of + thirty-two elephants. While the populace gazed with stupid wonder + on the splendid show, the naturalist might indeed observe the + figure and properties of so many different species, transported + from every part of the ancient world into the amphitheatre of + Rome. But this accidental benefit, which science might derive + from folly, is surely insufficient to justify such a wanton abuse + of the public riches. There occurs, however, a single instance in + the first Punic war, in which the senate wisely connected this + amusement of the multitude with the interest of the state. A + considerable number of elephants, taken in the defeat of the + Carthaginian army, were driven through the circus by a few + slaves, armed only with blunt javelins. The useful spectacle + served to impress the Roman soldier with a just contempt for + those unwieldy animals; and he no longer dreaded to encounter + them in the ranks of war. + + The hunting or exhibition of wild beasts was conducted with a + magnificence suitable to a people who styled themselves the + masters of the world; nor was the edifice appropriated to that + entertainment less expressive of Roman greatness. Posterity + admires, and will long admire, the awful remains of the + amphitheatre of Titus, which so well deserved the epithet of + Colossal. It was a building of an elliptic figure, five hundred + and sixty-four feet in length, and four hundred and sixty-seven + in breadth, founded on fourscore arches, and rising, with four + successive orders of architecture, to the height of one hundred + and forty feet. The outside of the edifice was encrusted with + marble, and decorated with statues. The slopes of the vast + concave, which formed the inside, were filled and surrounded with + sixty or eighty rows of seats of marble likewise, covered with + cushions, and capable of receiving with ease about fourscore + thousand spectators. Sixty-four vomitories (for by that name the + doors were very aptly distinguished) poured forth the immense + multitude; and the entrances, passages, and staircases were + contrived with such exquisite skill, that each person, whether of + the senatorial, the equestrian, or the plebeian order, arrived at + his destined place without trouble or confusion. Nothing was + omitted, which, in any respect, could be subservient to the + convenience and pleasure of the spectators. They were protected + from the sun and rain by an ample canopy, occasionally drawn over + their heads. The air was continally refreshed by the playing of + fountains, and profusely impregnated by the grateful scent of + aromatics. In the centre of the edifice, the arena, or stage, was + strewed with the finest sand, and successively assumed the most + different forms. At one moment it seemed to rise out of the + earth, like the garden of the Hesperides, and was afterwards + broken into the rocks and caverns of Thrace. The subterraneous + pipes conveyed an inexhaustible supply of water; and what had + just before appeared a level plain, might be suddenly converted + into a wide lake, covered with armed vessels, and replenished + with the monsters of the deep. In the decoration of these scenes, + the Roman emperors displayed their wealth and liberality; and we + read on various occasions that the whole furniture of the + amphitheatre consisted either of silver, or of gold, or of amber. + The poet who describes the games of Carinus, in the character of + a shepherd, attracted to the capital by the fame of their + magnificence, affirms that the nets designed as a defence against + the wild beasts were of gold wire; that the porticos were gilded; + and that the belt or circle which divided the several ranks of + spectators from each other was studded with a precious mosaic of + beautiful stones. + + In the midst of this glittering pageantry, the emperor Carinus, + secure of his fortune, enjoyed the acclamations of the people, + the flattery of his courtiers, and the songs of the poets, who, + for want of a more essential merit, were reduced to celebrate the + divine graces of his person. In the same hour, but at the + distance of nine hundred miles from Rome, his brother expired; + and a sudden revolution transferred into the hands of a stranger + the sceptre of the house of Carus. + + The sons of Carus never saw each other after their father’s + death. The arrangements which their new situation required were + probably deferred till the return of the younger brother to Rome, + where a triumph was decreed to the young emperors for the + glorious success of the Persian war. It is uncertain whether they + intended to divide between them the administration, or the + provinces, of the empire; but it is very unlikely that their + union would have proved of any long duration. The jealousy of + power must have been inflamed by the opposition of characters. In + the most corrupt of times, Carinus was unworthy to live: Numerian + deserved to reign in a happier period. His affable manners and + gentle virtues secured him, as soon as they became known, the + regard and affections of the public. He possessed the elegant + accomplishments of a poet and orator, which dignify as well as + adorn the humblest and the most exalted station. His eloquence, + however it was applauded by the senate, was formed not so much on + the model of Cicero, as on that of the modern declaimers; but in + an age very far from being destitute of poetical merit, he + contended for the prize with the most celebrated of his + contemporaries, and still remained the friend of his rivals; a + circumstance which evinces either the goodness of his heart, or + the superiority of his genius. But the talents of Numerian were + rather of the contemplative than of the active kind. When his + father’s elevation reluctantly forced him from the shade of + retirement, neither his temper nor his pursuits had qualified him + for the command of armies. His constitution was destroyed by the + hardships of the Persian war; and he had contracted, from the + heat of the climate, such a weakness in his eyes, as obliged him, + in the course of a long retreat, to confine himself to the + solitude and darkness of a tent or litter. The administration of + all affairs, civil as well as military, was devolved on Arrius + Aper, the Prætorian præfect, who to the power of his important + office added the honor of being father-in-law to Numerian. The + Imperial pavilion was strictly guarded by his most trusty + adherents; and during many days, Aper delivered to the army the + supposed mandates of their invisible sovereign. + + It was not till eight months after the death of Carus, that the + Roman army, returning by slow marches from the banks of the + Tigris, arrived on those of the Thracian Bosphorus. The legions + halted at Chalcedon in Asia, while the court passed over to + Heraclea, on the European side of the Propontis. But a report + soon circulated through the camp, at first in secret whispers, + and at length in loud clamors, of the emperor’s death, and of the + presumption of his ambitious minister, who still exercised the + sovereign power in the name of a prince who was no more. The + impatience of the soldiers could not long support a state of + suspense. With rude curiosity they broke into the Imperial tent, + and discovered only the corpse of Numerian. The gradual decline + of his health might have induced them to believe that his death + was natural; but the concealment was interpreted as an evidence + of guilt, and the measures which Aper had taken to secure his + election became the immediate occasion of his ruin. Yet, even in + the transport of their rage and grief, the troops observed a + regular proceeding, which proves how firmly discipline had been + reëstablished by the martial successors of Gallienus. A general + assembly of the army was appointed to be held at Chalcedon, + whither Aper was transported in chains, as a prisoner and a + criminal. A vacant tribunal was erected in the midst of the camp, + and the generals and tribunes formed a great military council. + They soon announced to the multitude that their choice had fallen + on Diocletian, commander of the domestics or body-guards, as the + person the most capable of revenging and succeeding their beloved + emperor. The future fortunes of the candidate depended on the + chance or conduct of the present hour. Conscious that the station + which he had filled exposed him to some suspicions, Diocletian + ascended the tribunal, and raising his eyes towards the Sun, made + a solemn profession of his own innocence, in the presence of that + all-seeing Deity. Then, assuming the tone of a sovereign and a + judge, he commanded that Aper should be brought in chains to the + foot of the tribunal. “This man,” said he, “is the murderer of + Numerian;” and without giving him time to enter on a dangerous + justification, drew his sword, and buried it in the breast of the + unfortunate præfect. A charge supported by such decisive proof + was admitted without contradiction, and the legions, with + repeated acclamations, acknowledged the justice and authority of + the emperor Diocletian. + + Before we enter upon the memorable reign of that prince, it will + be proper to punish and dismiss the unworthy brother of Numerian. + Carinus possessed arms and treasures sufficient to support his + legal title to the empire. But his personal vices overbalanced + every advantage of birth and situation. The most faithful + servants of the father despised the incapacity, and dreaded the + cruel arrogance, of the son. The hearts of the people were + engaged in favor of his rival, and even the senate was inclined + to prefer a usurper to a tyrant. The arts of Diocletian inflamed + the general discontent; and the winter was employed in secret + intrigues, and open preparations for a civil war. In the spring, + the forces of the East and of the West encountered each other in + the plains of Margus, a small city of Mæsia, in the neighborhood + of the Danube. The troops, so lately returned from the Persian + war, had acquired their glory at the expense of health and + numbers; nor were they in a condition to contend with the + unexhausted strength of the legions of Europe. Their ranks were + broken, and, for a moment, Diocletian despaired of the purple and + of life. But the advantage which Carinus had obtained by the + valor of his soldiers, he quickly lost by the infidelity of his + officers. A tribune, whose wife he had seduced, seized the + opportunity of revenge, and, by a single blow, extinguished civil + discord in the blood of the adulterer. + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + I. + +The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, Galerius, +And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order And Tranquillity.—The +Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.—The New Form Of +Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of Diocletian And Maximian. + + As the reign of Diocletian was more illustrious than that of any + of his predecessors, so was his birth more abject and obscure. + The strong claims of merit and of violence had frequently + superseded the ideal prerogatives of nobility; but a distinct + line of separation was hitherto preserved between the free and + the servile part of mankind. The parents of Diocletian had been + slaves in the house of Anulinus, a Roman senator; nor was he + himself distinguished by any other name than that which he + derived from a small town in Dalmatia, from whence his mother + deduced her origin. It is, however, probable that his father + obtained the freedom of the family, and that he soon acquired an + office of scribe, which was commonly exercised by persons of his + condition. Favorable oracles, or rather the consciousness of + superior merit, prompted his aspiring son to pursue the + profession of arms and the hopes of fortune; and it would be + extremely curious to observe the gradation of arts and accidents + which enabled him in the end to fulfil those oracles, and to + display that merit to the world. Diocletian was successively + promoted to the government of Mæsia, the honors of the + consulship, and the important command of the guards of the + palace. He distinguished his abilities in the Persian war; and + after the death of Numerian, the slave, by the confession and + judgment of his rivals, was declared the most worthy of the + Imperial throne. The malice of religious zeal, whilst it arraigns + the savage fierceness of his colleague Maximian, has affected to + cast suspicions on the personal courage of the emperor + Diocletian. It would not be easy to persuade us of the cowardice + of a soldier of fortune, who acquired and preserved the esteem of + the legions as well as the favor of so many warlike princes. Yet + even calumny is sagacious enough to discover and to attack the + most vulnerable part. The valor of Diocletian was never found + inadequate to his duty, or to the occasion; but he appears not to + have possessed the daring and generous spirit of a hero, who + courts danger and fame, disdains artifice, and boldly challenges + the allegiance of his equals. His abilities were useful rather + than splendid; a vigorous mind, improved by the experience and + study of mankind; dexterity and application in business; a + judicious mixture of liberality and economy, of mildness and + rigor; profound dissimulation, under the disguise of military + frankness; steadiness to pursue his ends; flexibility to vary his + means; and, above all, the great art of submitting his own + passions, as well as those of others, to the interest of his + ambition, and of coloring his ambition with the most specious + pretences of justice and public utility. Like Augustus, + Diocletian may be considered as the founder of a new empire. Like + the adopted son of Cæsar, he was distinguished as a statesman + rather than as a warrior; nor did either of those princes employ + force, whenever their purpose could be effected by policy. + + The victory of Diocletian was remarkable for its singular + mildness. A people accustomed to applaud the clemency of the + conqueror, if the usual punishments of death, exile, and + confiscation, were inflicted with any degree of temper and + equity, beheld, with the most pleasing astonishment, a civil war, + the flames of which were extinguished in the field of battle. + Diocletian received into his confidence Aristobulus, the + principal minister of the house of Carus, respected the lives, + the fortunes, and the dignity, of his adversaries, and even + continued in their respective stations the greater number of the + servants of Carinus. It is not improbable that motives of + prudence might assist the humanity of the artful Dalmatian; of + these servants, many had purchased his favor by secret treachery; + in others, he esteemed their grateful fidelity to an unfortunate + master. The discerning judgment of Aurelian, of Probus, and of + Carus, had filled the several departments of the state and army + with officers of approved merit, whose removal would have injured + the public service, without promoting the interest of his + successor. Such a conduct, however, displayed to the Roman world + the fairest prospect of the new reign, and the emperor affected + to confirm this favorable prepossession, by declaring, that, + among all the virtues of his predecessors, he was the most + ambitious of imitating the humane philosophy of Marcus Antoninus. + + The first considerable action of his reign seemed to evince his + sincerity as well as his moderation. After the example of Marcus, + he gave himself a colleague in the person of Maximian, on whom he + bestowed at first the title of Cæsar, and afterwards that of + Augustus. But the motives of his conduct, as well as the object + of his choice, were of a very different nature from those of his + admired predecessor. By investing a luxurious youth with the + honors of the purple, Marcus had discharged a debt of private + gratitude, at the expense, indeed, of the happiness of the state. + By associating a friend and a fellow-soldier to the labors of + government, Diocletian, in a time of public danger, provided for + the defence both of the East and of the West. Maximian was born a + peasant, and, like Aurelian, in the territory of Sirmium. + Ignorant of letters, careless of laws, the rusticity of his + appearance and manners still betrayed in the most elevated + fortune the meanness of his extraction. War was the only art + which he professed. In a long course of service he had + distinguished himself on every frontier of the empire; and though + his military talents were formed to obey rather than to command, + though, perhaps, he never attained the skill of a consummate + general, he was capable, by his valor, constancy, and experience, + of executing the most arduous undertakings. Nor were the vices of + Maximian less useful to his benefactor. Insensible to pity, and + fearless of consequences, he was the ready instrument of every + act of cruelty which the policy of that artful prince might at + once suggest and disclaim. As soon as a bloody sacrifice had been + offered to prudence or to revenge, Diocletian, by his seasonable + intercession, saved the remaining few whom he had never designed + to punish, gently censured the severity of his stern colleague, + and enjoyed the comparison of a golden and an iron age, which was + universally applied to their opposite maxims of government. + Notwithstanding the difference of their characters, the two + emperors maintained, on the throne, that friendship which they + had contracted in a private station. The haughty, turbulent + spirit of Maximian, so fatal, afterwards, to himself and to the + public peace, was accustomed to respect the genius of Diocletian, + and confessed the ascendant of reason over brutal violence. From + a motive either of pride or superstition, the two emperors + assumed the titles, the one of Jovius, the other of Herculius. + Whilst the motion of the world (such was the language of their + venal orators) was maintained by the all-seeing wisdom of + Jupiter, the invincible arm of Hercules purged the earth from + monsters and tyrants. + + But even the omnipotence of Jovius and Herculius was insufficient + to sustain the weight of the public administration. The prudence + of Diocletian discovered that the empire, assailed on every side + by the barbarians, required on every side the presence of a great + army, and of an emperor. With this view, he resolved once more to + divide his unwieldy power, and with the inferior title of Cæsars, + * to confer on two generals of approved merit an unequal share of + the sovereign authority. Galerius, surnamed Armentarius, from his + original profession of a herdsman, and Constantius, who from his + pale complexion had acquired the denomination of Chlorus, were + the two persons invested with the second honors of the Imperial + purple. In describing the country, extraction, and manners of + Herculius, we have already delineated those of Galerius, who was + often, and not improperly, styled the younger Maximian, though, + in many instances both of virtue and ability, he appears to have + possessed a manifest superiority over the elder. The birth of + Constantius was less obscure than that of his colleagues. + Eutropius, his father, was one of the most considerable nobles of + Dardania, and his mother was the niece of the emperor Claudius. + Although the youth of Constantius had been spent in arms, he was + endowed with a mild and amiable disposition, and the popular + voice had long since acknowledged him worthy of the rank which he + at last attained. To strengthen the bonds of political, by those + of domestic, union, each of the emperors assumed the character of + a father to one of the Cæsars, Diocletian to Galerius, and + Maximian to Constantius; and each, obliging them to repudiate + their former wives, bestowed his daughter in marriage or his + adopted son. These four princes distributed among themselves the + wide extent of the Roman empire. The defence of Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, was intrusted to Constantius: Galerius was stationed on + the banks of the Danube, as the safeguard of the Illyrian + provinces. Italy and Africa were considered as the department of + Maximian; and for his peculiar portion, Diocletian reserved + Thrace, Egypt, and the rich countries of Asia. Every one was + sovereign with his own jurisdiction; but their united authority + extended over the whole monarchy, and each of them was prepared + to assist his colleagues with his counsels or presence. The + Cæsars, in their exalted rank, revered the majesty of the + emperors, and the three younger princes invariably acknowledged, + by their gratitude and obedience, the common parent of their + fortunes. The suspicious jealousy of power found not any place + among them; and the singular happiness of their union has been + compared to a chorus of music, whose harmony was regulated and + maintained by the skilful hand of the first artist. + + This important measure was not carried into execution till about + six years after the association of Maximian, and that interval of + time had not been destitute of memorable incidents. But we have + preferred, for the sake of perspicuity, first to describe the + more perfect form of Diocletian’s government, and afterwards to + relate the actions of his reign, following rather the natural + order of the events, than the dates of a very doubtful + chronology. + + The first exploit of Maximian, though it is mentioned in a few + words by our imperfect writers, deserves, from its singularity, + to be recorded in a history of human manners. He suppressed the + peasants of Gaul, who, under the appellation of Bagaudæ, had + risen in a general insurrection; very similar to those which in + the fourteenth century successively afflicted both France and + England. It should seem that very many of those institutions, + referred by an easy solution to the feudal system, are derived + from the Celtic barbarians. When Cæsar subdued the Gauls, that + great nation was already divided into three orders of men; the + clergy, the nobility, and the common people. The first governed + by superstition, the second by arms, but the third and last was + not of any weight or account in their public councils. It was + very natural for the plebeians, oppressed by debt, or + apprehensive of injuries, to implore the protection of some + powerful chief, who acquired over their persons and property the + same absolute right as, among the Greeks and Romans, a master + exercised over his slaves. The greatest part of the nation was + gradually reduced into a state of servitude; compelled to + perpetual labor on the estates of the Gallic nobles, and confined + to the soil, either by the real weight of fetters, or by the no + less cruel and forcible restraints of the laws. During the long + series of troubles which agitated Gaul, from the reign of + Gallienus to that of Diocletian, the condition of these servile + peasants was peculiarly miserable; and they experienced at once + the complicated tyranny of their masters, of the barbarians, of + the soldiers, and of the officers of the revenue. + + Their patience was at last provoked into despair. On every side + they rose in multitudes, armed with rustic weapons, and with + irresistible fury. The ploughman became a foot soldier, the + shepherd mounted on horseback, the deserted villages and open + towns were abandoned to the flames, and the ravages of the + peasants equalled those of the fiercest barbarians. They asserted + the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with + the most savage cruelty. The Gallic nobles, justly dreading their + revenge, either took refuge in the fortified cities, or fled from + the wild scene of anarchy. The peasants reigned without control; + and two of their most daring leaders had the folly and rashness + to assume the Imperial ornaments. Their power soon expired at the + approach of the legions. The strength of union and discipline + obtained an easy victory over a licentious and divided multitude. + A severe retaliation was inflicted on the peasants who were found + in arms; the affrighted remnant returned to their respective + habitations, and their unsuccessful effort for freedom served + only to confirm their slavery. So strong and uniform is the + current of popular passions, that we might almost venture, from + very scanty materials, to relate the particulars of this war; but + we are not disposed to believe that the principal leaders, + Ælianus and Amandus, were Christians, or to insinuate, that the + rebellion, as it happened in the time of Luther, was occasioned + by the abuse of those benevolent principles of Christianity, + which inculcate the natural freedom of mankind. + + Maximian had no sooner recovered Gaul from the hands of the + peasants, than he lost Britain by the usurpation of Carausius. + Ever since the rash but successful enterprise of the Franks under + the reign of Probus, their daring countrymen had constructed + squadrons of light brigantines, in which they incessantly ravaged + the provinces adjacent to the ocean. To repel their desultory + incursions, it was found necessary to create a naval power; and + the judicious measure was prosecuted with prudence and vigor. + Gessoriacum, or Boulogne, in the straits of the British Channel, + was chosen by the emperor for the station of the Roman fleet; and + the command of it was intrusted to Carausius, a Menapian of the + meanest origin, but who had long signalized his skill as a pilot, + and his valor as a soldier. The integrity of the new admiral + corresponded not with his abilities. When the German pirates + sailed from their own harbors, he connived at their passage, but + he diligently intercepted their return, and appropriated to his + own use an ample share of the spoil which they had acquired. The + wealth of Carausius was, on this occasion, very justly considered + as an evidence of his guilt; and Maximian had already given + orders for his death. But the crafty Menapian foresaw and + prevented the severity of the emperor. By his liberality he had + attached to his fortunes the fleet which he commanded, and + secured the barbarians in his interest. From the port of Boulogne + he sailed over to Britain, persuaded the legion, and the + auxiliaries which guarded that island, to embrace his party, and + boldly assuming, with the Imperial purple, the title of Augustus, + defied the justice and the arms of his injured sovereign. + + When Britain was thus dismembered from the empire, its importance + was sensibly felt, and its loss sincerely lamented. The Romans + celebrated, and perhaps magnified, the extent of that noble + island, provided on every side with convenient harbors; the + temperature of the climate, and the fertility of the soil, alike + adapted for the production of corn or of vines; the valuable + minerals with which it abounded; its rich pastures covered with + innumerable flocks, and its woods free from wild beasts or + venomous serpents. Above all, they regretted the large amount of + the revenue of Britain, whilst they confessed, that such a + province well deserved to become the seat of an independent + monarchy. During the space of seven years it was possessed by + Carausius; and fortune continued propitious to a rebellion + supported with courage and ability. The British emperor defended + the frontiers of his dominions against the Caledonians of the + North, invited, from the continent, a great number of skilful + artists, and displayed, on a variety of coins that are still + extant, his taste and opulence. Born on the confines of the + Franks, he courted the friendship of that formidable people, by + the flattering imitation of their dress and manners. The bravest + of their youth he enlisted among his land or sea forces; and, in + return for their useful alliance, he communicated to the + barbarians the dangerous knowledge of military and naval arts. + Carausius still preserved the possession of Boulogne and the + adjacent country. His fleets rode triumphant in the channel, + commanded the mouths of the Seine and of the Rhine, ravaged the + coasts of the ocean, and diffused beyond the columns of Hercules + the terror of his name. Under his command, Britain, destined in a + future age to obtain the empire of the sea, already assumed its + natural and respectable station of a maritime power. + + By seizing the fleet of Boulogne, Carausius had deprived his + master of the means of pursuit and revenge. And when, after a + vast expense of time and labor, a new armament was launched into + the water, the Imperial troops, unaccustomed to that element, + were easily baffled and defeated by the veteran sailors of the + usurper. This disappointed effort was soon productive of a treaty + of peace. Diocletian and his colleague, who justly dreaded the + enterprising spirit of Carausius, resigned to him the sovereignty + of Britain, and reluctantly admitted their perfidious servant to + a participation of the Imperial honors. But the adoption of the + two Cæsars restored new vigor to the Romans arms; and while the + Rhine was guarded by the presence of Maximian, his brave + associate Constantius assumed the conduct of the British war. His + first enterprise was against the important place of Boulogne. A + stupendous mole, raised across the entrance of the harbor, + intercepted all hopes of relief. The town surrendered after an + obstinate defence; and a considerable part of the naval strength + of Carausius fell into the hands of the besiegers. During the + three years which Constantius employed in preparing a fleet + adequate to the conquest of Britain, he secured the coast of + Gaul, invaded the country of the Franks, and deprived the usurper + of the assistance of those powerful allies. + + Before the preparations were finished, Constantius received the + intelligence of the tyrant’s death, and it was considered as a + sure presage of the approaching victory. The servants of + Carausius imitated the example of treason which he had given. He + was murdered by his first minister, Allectus, and the assassin + succeeded to his power and to his danger. But he possessed not + equal abilities either to exercise the one or to repel the other. + He beheld, with anxious terror, the opposite shores of the + continent already filled with arms, with troops, and with + vessels; for Constantius had very prudently divided his forces, + that he might likewise divide the attention and resistance of the + enemy. The attack was at length made by the principal squadron, + which, under the command of the præfect Asclepiodatus, an officer + of distinguished merit, had been assembled in the north of the + Seine. So imperfect in those times was the art of navigation, + that orators have celebrated the daring courage of the Romans, + who ventured to set sail with a side-wind, and on a stormy day. + The weather proved favorable to their enterprise. Under the cover + of a thick fog, they escaped the fleet of Allectus, which had + been stationed off the Isle of Wight to receive them, landed in + safety on some part of the western coast, and convinced the + Britons, that a superiority of naval strength will not always + protect their country from a foreign invasion. Asclepiodatus had + no sooner disembarked the imperial troops, then he set fire to + his ships; and, as the expedition proved fortunate, his heroic + conduct was universally admired. The usurper had posted himself + near London, to expect the formidable attack of Constantius, who + commanded in person the fleet of Boulogne; but the descent of a + new enemy required his immediate presence in the West. He + performed this long march in so precipitate a manner, that he + encountered the whole force of the præfect with a small body of + harassed and disheartened troops. The engagement was soon + terminated by the total defeat and death of Allectus; a single + battle, as it has often happened, decided the fate of this great + island; and when Constantius landed on the shores of Kent, he + found them covered with obedient subjects. Their acclamations + were loud and unanimous; and the virtues of the conqueror may + induce us to believe, that they sincerely rejoiced in a + revolution, which, after a separation of ten years, restored + Britain to the body of the Roman empire. + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + II. + + Britain had none but domestic enemies to dread; and as long as + the governors preserved their fidelity, and the troops their + discipline, the incursions of the naked savages of Scotland or + Ireland could never materially affect the safety of the province. + The peace of the continent, and the defence of the principal + rivers which bounded the empire, were objects of far greater + difficulty and importance. The policy of Diocletian, which + inspired the councils of his associates, provided for the public + tranquility, by encouraging a spirit of dissension among the + barbarians, and by strengthening the fortifications of the Roman + limit. In the East he fixed a line of camps from Egypt to the + Persian dominions, and for every camp, he instituted an adequate + number of stationary troops, commanded by their respective + officers, and supplied with every kind of arms, from the new + arsenals which he had formed at Antioch, Emesa, and Damascus. Nor + was the precaution of the emperor less watchful against the + well-known valor of the barbarians of Europe. From the mouth of + the Rhine to that of the Danube, the ancient camps, towns, and + citidels, were diligently reëstablished, and, in the most exposed + places, new ones were skilfully constructed: the strictest + vigilance was introduced among the garrisons of the frontier, and + every expedient was practised that could render the long chain of + fortifications firm and impenetrable. A barrier so respectable + was seldom violated, and the barbarians often turned against each + other their disappointed rage. The Goths, the Vandals, the + Gepidæ, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, wasted each other’s + strength by destructive hostilities: and whosoever vanquished, + they vanquished the enemies of Rome. The subjects of Diocletian + enjoyed the bloody spectacle, and congratulated each other, that + the mischiefs of civil war were now experienced only by the + barbarians. + + Notwithstanding the policy of Diocletian, it was impossible to + maintain an equal and undisturbed tranquillity during a reign of + twenty years, and along a frontier of many hundred miles. + Sometimes the barbarians suspended their domestic animosities, + and the relaxed vigilance of the garrisons sometimes gave a + passage to their strength or dexterity. Whenever the provinces + were invaded, Diocletian conducted himself with that calm dignity + which he always affected or possessed; reserved his presence for + such occasions as were worthy of his interposition, never exposed + his person or reputation to any unnecessary danger, insured his + success by every means that prudence could suggest, and + displayed, with ostentation, the consequences of his victory. In + wars of a more difficult nature, and more doubtful event, he + employed the rough valor of Maximian; and that faithful soldier + was content to ascribe his own victories to the wise counsels and + auspicious influence of his benefactor. But after the adoption of + the two Cæsars, the emperors themselves, retiring to a less + laborious scene of action, devolved on their adopted sons the + defence of the Danube and of the Rhine. The vigilant Galerius was + never reduced to the necessity of vanquishing an army of + barbarians on the Roman territory. The brave and active + Constantius delivered Gaul from a very furious inroad of the + Alemanni; and his victories of Langres and Vindonissa appear to + have been actions of considerable danger and merit. As he + traversed the open country with a feeble guard, he was + encompassed on a sudden by the superior multitude of the enemy. + He retreated with difficulty towards Langres; but, in the general + consternation, the citizens refused to open their gates, and the + wounded prince was drawn up the wall by the means of a rope. But, + on the news of his distress, the Roman troops hastened from all + sides to his relief, and before the evening he had satisfied his + honor and revenge by the slaughter of six thousand Alemanni. From + the monuments of those times, the obscure traces of several other + victories over the barbarians of Sarmatia and Germany might + possibly be collected; but the tedious search would not be + rewarded either with amusement or with instruction. + + The conduct which the emperor Probus had adopted in the disposal + of the vanquished was imitated by Diocletian and his associates. + The captive barbarians, exchanging death for slavery, were + distributed among the provincials, and assigned to those + districts (in Gaul, the territories of Amiens, Beauvais, Cambray, + Treves, Langres, and Troyes, are particularly specified ) which + had been depopulated by the calamities of war. They were usefully + employed as shepherds and husbandmen, but were denied the + exercise of arms, except when it was found expedient to enroll + them in the military service. Nor did the emperors refuse the + property of lands, with a less servile tenure, to such of the + barbarians as solicited the protection of Rome. They granted a + settlement to several colonies of the Carpi, the Bastarnæ, and + the Sarmatians; and, by a dangerous indulgence, permitted them in + some measure to retain their national manners and independence. + Among the provincials, it was a subject of flattering exultation, + that the barbarian, so lately an object of terror, now cultivated + their lands, drove their cattle to the neighboring fair, and + contributed by his labor to the public plenty. They congratulated + their masters on the powerful accession of subjects and soldiers; + but they forgot to observe, that multitudes of secret enemies, + insolent from favor, or desperate from oppression, were + introduced into the heart of the empire. + + While the Cæsars exercised their valor on the banks of the Rhine + and Danube, the presence of the emperors was required on the + southern confines of the Roman world. From the Nile to Mount + Atlas, Africa was in arms. A confederacy of five Moorish nations + issued from their deserts to invade the peaceful provinces. + Julian had assumed the purple at Carthage. Achilleus at + Alexandria, and even the Blemmyes, renewed, or rather continued, + their incursions into the Upper Egypt. Scarcely any circumstances + have been preserved of the exploits of Maximian in the western + parts of Africa; but it appears, by the event, that the progress + of his arms was rapid and decisive, that he vanquished the + fiercest barbarians of Mauritania, and that he removed them from + the mountains, whose inaccessible strength had inspired their + inhabitants with a lawless confidence, and habituated them to a + life of rapine and violence. Diocletian, on his side, opened the + campaign in Egypt by the siege of Alexandria, cut off the + aqueducts which conveyed the waters of the Nile into every + quarter of that immense city, and rendering his camp impregnable + to the sallies of the besieged multitude, he pushed his + reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a siege of eight + months, Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by fire, implored the + clemency of the conqueror, but it experienced the full extent of + his severity. Many thousands of the citizens perished in a + promiscuous slaughter, and there were few obnoxious persons in + Egypt who escaped a sentence either of death or at least of + exile. The fate of Busiris and of Coptos was still more + melancholy than that of Alexandria: those proud cities, the + former distinguished by its antiquity, the latter enriched by the + passage of the Indian trade, were utterly destroyed by the arms + and by the severe order of Diocletian. The character of the + Egyptian nation, insensible to kindness, but extremely + susceptible of fear, could alone justify this excessive rigor. + The seditions of Alexandria had often affected the tranquillity + and subsistence of Rome itself. Since the usurpation of Firmus, + the province of Upper Egypt, incessantly relapsing into + rebellion, had embraced the alliance of the savages of Æthiopia. + The number of the Blemmyes, scattered between the Island of Meroe + and the Red Sea, was very inconsiderable, their disposition was + unwarlike, their weapons rude and inoffensive. Yet in the public + disorders, these barbarians, whom antiquity, shocked with the + deformity of their figure, had almost excluded from the human + species, presumed to rank themselves among the enemies of Rome. + Such had been the unworthy allies of the Egyptians; and while the + attention of the state was engaged in more serious wars, their + vexatious inroads might again harass the repose of the province. + With a view of opposing to the Blemmyes a suitable adversary, + Diocletian persuaded the Nobatæ, or people of Nubia, to remove + from their ancient habitations in the deserts of Libya, and + resigned to them an extensive but unprofitable territory above + Syene and the cataracts of the Nile, with the stipulation, that + they should ever respect and guard the frontier of the empire. + The treaty long subsisted; and till the establishment of + Christianity introduced stricter notions of religious worship, it + was annually ratified by a solemn sacrifice in the isle of + Elephantine, in which the Romans, as well as the barbarians, + adored the same visible or invisible powers of the universe. + + At the same time that Diocletian chastised the past crimes of the + Egyptians, he provided for their future safety and happiness by + many wise regulations, which were confirmed and enforced under + the succeeding reigns. One very remarkable edict which he + published, instead of being condemned as the effect of jealous + tyranny, deserves to be applauded as an act of prudence and + humanity. He caused a diligent inquiry to be made “for all the + ancient books which treated of the admirable art of making gold + and silver, and without pity, committed them to the flames; + apprehensive, as we are assumed, lest the opulence of the + Egyptians should inspire them with confidence to rebel against + the empire.” But if Diocletian had been convinced of the reality + of that valuable art, far from extinguishing the memory, he would + have converted the operation of it to the benefit of the public + revenue. It is much more likely, that his good sense discovered + to him the folly of such magnificent pretensions, and that he was + desirous of preserving the reason and fortunes of his subjects + from the mischievous pursuit. It may be remarked, that these + ancient books, so liberally ascribed to Pythagoras, to Solomon, + or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of more recent adepts. The + Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to the abuse of + chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has deposited + the discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind, there is + not the least mention of the transmutation of metals; and the + persecution of Diocletian is the first authentic event in the + history of alchemy. The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused + that vain science over the globe. Congenial to the avarice of the + human heart, it was studied in China as in Europe, with equal + eagerness, and with equal success. The darkness of the middle + ages insured a favorable reception to every tale of wonder, and + the revival of learning gave new vigor to hope, and suggested + more specious arts of deception. Philosophy, with the aid of + experience, has at length banished the study of alchemy; and the + present age, however desirous of riches, is content to seek them + by the humbler means of commerce and industry. + + The reduction of Egypt was immediately followed by the Persian + war. It was reserved for the reign of Diocletian to vanquish that + powerful nation, and to extort a confession from the successors + of Artaxerxes, of the superior majesty of the Roman empire. + + We have observed, under the reign of Valerian, that Armenia was + subdued by the perfidy and the arms of the Persians, and that, + after the assassination of Chosroes, his son Tiridates, the + infant heir of the monarchy, was saved by the fidelity of his + friends, and educated under the protection of the emperors. + Tiridates derived from his exile such advantages as he could + never have obtained on the throne of Armenia; the early knowledge + of adversity, of mankind, and of the Roman discipline. He + signalized his youth by deeds of valor, and displayed a matchless + dexterity, as well as strength, in every martial exercise, and + even in the less honorable contests of the Olympian games. Those + qualities were more nobly exerted in the defence of his + benefactor Licinius. That officer, in the sedition which + occasioned the death of Probus, was exposed to the most imminent + danger, and the enraged soldiers were forcing their way into his + tent, when they were checked by the single arm of the Armenian + prince. The gratitude of Tiridates contributed soon afterwards to + his restoration. Licinius was in every station the friend and + companion of Galerius, and the merit of Galerius, long before he + was raised to the dignity of Cæsar, had been known and esteemed + by Diocletian. In the third year of that emperor’s reign + Tiridates was invested with the kingdom of Armenia. The justice + of the measure was not less evident than its expediency. It was + time to rescue from the usurpation of the Persian monarch an + important territory, which, since the reign of Nero, had been + always granted under the protection of the empire to a younger + branch of the house of Arsaces. + + When Tiridates appeared on the frontiers of Armenia, he was + received with an unfeigned transport of joy and loyalty. During + twenty-six years, the country had experienced the real and + imaginary hardships of a foreign yoke. The Persian monarchs + adorned their new conquest with magnificent buildings; but those + monuments had been erected at the expense of the people, and were + abhorred as badges of slavery. The apprehension of a revolt had + inspired the most rigorous precautions: oppression had been + aggravated by insult, and the consciousness of the public hatred + had been productive of every measure that could render it still + more implacable. We have already remarked the intolerant spirit + of the Magian religion. The statues of the deified kings of + Armenia, and the sacred images of the sun and moon, were broke in + pieces by the zeal of the conqueror; and the perpetual fire of + Ormuzd was kindled and preserved upon an altar erected on the + summit of Mount Bagavan. It was natural, that a people + exasperated by so many injuries, should arm with zeal in the + cause of their independence, their religion, and their hereditary + sovereign. The torrent bore down every obstacle, and the Persian + garrisons retreated before its fury. The nobles of Armenia flew + to the standard of Tiridates, all alleging their past merit, + offering their future service, and soliciting from the new king + those honors and rewards from which they had been excluded with + disdain under the foreign government. The command of the army was + bestowed on Artavasdes, whose father had saved the infancy of + Tiridates, and whose family had been massacred for that generous + action. The brother of Artavasdes obtained the government of a + province. One of the first military dignities was conferred on + the satrap Otas, a man of singular temperance and fortitude, who + presented to the king his sister and a considerable treasure, + both of which, in a sequestered fortress, Otas had preserved from + violation. Among the Armenian nobles appeared an ally, whose + fortunes are too remarkable to pass unnoticed. His name was + Mamgo, his origin was Scythian, and the horde which acknowledge + his authority had encamped a very few years before on the skirts + of the Chinese empire, which at that time extended as far as the + neighborhood of Sogdiana. Having incurred the displeasure of his + master, Mamgo, with his followers, retired to the banks of the + Oxus, and implored the protection of Sapor. The emperor of China + claimed the fugitive, and alleged the rights of sovereignty. The + Persian monarch pleaded the laws of hospitality, and with some + difficulty avoided a war, by the promise that he would banish + Mamgo to the uttermost parts of the West, a punishment, as he + described it, not less dreadful than death itself. Armenia was + chosen for the place of exile, and a large district was assigned + to the Scythian horde, on which they might feed their flocks and + herds, and remove their encampment from one place to another, + according to the different seasons of the year. They were + employed to repel the invasion of Tiridates; but their leader, + after weighing the obligations and injuries which he had received + from the Persian monarch, resolved to abandon his party. The + Armenian prince, who was well acquainted with the merit as well + as power of Mamgo, treated him with distinguished respect; and, + by admitting him into his confidence, acquired a brave and + faithful servant, who contributed very effectually to his + restoration. + + For a while, fortune appeared to favor the enterprising valor of + Tiridates. He not only expelled the enemies of his family and + country from the whole extent of Armenia, but in the prosecution + of his revenge he carried his arms, or at least his incursions, + into the heart of Assyria. The historian, who has preserved the + name of Tiridates from oblivion, celebrates, with a degree of + national enthusiasm, his personal prowess: and, in the true + spirit of eastern romance, describes the giants and the elephants + that fell beneath his invincible arm. It is from other + information that we discover the distracted state of the Persian + monarchy, to which the king of Armenia was indebted for some part + of his advantages. The throne was disputed by the ambition of + contending brothers; and Hormuz, after exerting without success + the strength of his own party, had recourse to the dangerous + assistance of the barbarians who inhabited the banks of the + Caspian Sea. The civil war was, however, soon terminated, either + by a victor or by a reconciliation; and Narses, who was + universally acknowledged as king of Persia, directed his whole + force against the foreign enemy. The contest then became too + unequal; nor was the valor of the hero able to withstand the + power of the monarch. Tiridates, a second time expelled from the + throne of Armenia, once more took refuge in the court of the + emperors. * Narses soon reëstablished his authority over the + revolted province; and loudly complaining of the protection + afforded by the Romans to rebels and fugitives, aspired to the + conquest of the East. + + Neither prudence nor honor could permit the emperors to forsake + the cause of the Armenian king, and it was resolved to exert the + force of the empire in the Persian war. Diocletian, with the calm + dignity which he constantly assumed, fixed his own station in the + city of Antioch, from whence he prepared and directed the + military operations. The conduct of the legions was intrusted to + the intrepid valor of Galerius, who, for that important purpose, + was removed from the banks of the Danube to those of the + Euphrates. The armies soon encountered each other in the plains + of Mesopotamia, and two battles were fought with various and + doubtful success; but the third engagement was of a more decisive + nature; and the Roman army received a total overthrow, which is + attributed to the rashness of Galerius, who, with an + inconsiderable body of troops, attacked the innumerable host of + the Persians. But the consideration of the country that was the + scene of action, may suggest another reason for his defeat. The + same ground on which Galerius was vanquished, had been rendered + memorable by the death of Crassus, and the slaughter of ten + legions. It was a plain of more than sixty miles, which extended + from the hills of Carrhæ to the Euphrates; a smooth and barren + surface of sandy desert, without a hillock, without a tree, and + without a spring of fresh water. The steady infantry of the + Romans, fainting with heat and thirst, could neither hope for + victory if they preserved their ranks, nor break their ranks + without exposing themselves to the most imminent danger. In this + situation they were gradually encompassed by the superior + numbers, harassed by the rapid evolutions, and destroyed by the + arrows of the barbarian cavalry. The king of Armenia had + signalized his valor in the battle, and acquired personal glory + by the public misfortune. He was pursued as far as the Euphrates; + his horse was wounded, and it appeared impossible for him to + escape the victorious enemy. In this extremity Tiridates embraced + the only refuge which appeared before him: he dismounted and + plunged into the stream. His armor was heavy, the river very + deep, and at those parts at least half a mile in breadth; yet + such was his strength and dexterity, that he reached in safety + the opposite bank. With regard to the Roman general, we are + ignorant of the circumstances of his escape; but when he returned + to Antioch, Diocletian received him, not with the tenderness of a + friend and colleague, but with the indignation of an offended + sovereign. The haughtiest of men, clothed in his purple, but + humbled by the sense of his fault and misfortune, was obliged to + follow the emperor’s chariot above a mile on foot, and to + exhibit, before the whole court, the spectacle of his disgrace. + + As soon as Diocletian had indulged his private resentment, and + asserted the majesty of supreme power, he yielded to the + submissive entreaties of the Cæsar, and permitted him to retrieve + his own honor, as well as that of the Roman arms. In the room of + the unwarlike troops of Asia, which had most probably served in + the first expedition, a second army was drawn from the veterans + and new levies of the Illyrian frontier, and a considerable body + of Gothic auxiliaries were taken into the Imperial pay. At the + head of a chosen army of twenty-five thousand men, Galerius again + passed the Euphrates; but, instead of exposing his legions in the + open plains of Mesopotamia he advanced through the mountains of + Armenia, where he found the inhabitants devoted to his cause, and + the country as favorable to the operations of infantry as it was + inconvenient for the motions of cavalry. Adversity had confirmed + the Roman discipline, while the barbarians, elated by success, + were become so negligent and remiss, that in the moment when they + least expected it, they were surprised by the active conduct of + Galerius, who, attended only by two horsemen, had with his own + eyes secretly examined the state and position of their camp. A + surprise, especially in the night time, was for the most part + fatal to a Persian army. “Their horses were tied, and generally + shackled, to prevent their running away; and if an alarm + happened, a Persian had his housing to fix, his horse to bridle, + and his corselet to put on, before he could mount.” On this + occasion, the impetuous attack of Galerius spread disorder and + dismay over the camp of the barbarians. A slight resistance was + followed by a dreadful carnage, and, in the general confusion, + the wounded monarch (for Narses commanded his armies in person) + fled towards the deserts of Media. His sumptuous tents, and those + of his satraps, afforded an immense booty to the conqueror; and + an incident is mentioned, which proves the rustic but martial + ignorance of the legions in the elegant superfluities of life. A + bag of shining leather, filled with pearls, fell into the hands + of a private soldier; he carefully preserved the bag, but he + threw away its contents, judging that whatever was of no use + could not possibly be of any value. The principal loss of Narses + was of a much more affecting nature. Several of his wives, his + sisters, and children, who had attended the army, were made + captives in the defeat. But though the character of Galerius had + in general very little affinity with that of Alexander, he + imitated, after his victory, the amiable behavior of the + Macedonian towards the family of Darius. The wives and children + of Narses were protected from violence and rapine, conveyed to a + place of safety, and treated with every mark of respect and + tenderness, that was due from a generous enemy to their age, + their sex, and their royal dignity. + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + III. + + While the East anxiously expected the decision of this great + contest, the emperor Diocletian, having assembled in Syria a + strong army of observation, displayed from a distance the + resources of the Roman power, and reserved himself for any future + emergency of the war. On the intelligence of the victory he + condescended to advance towards the frontier, with a view of + moderating, by his presence and counsels, the pride of Galerius. + The interview of the Roman princes at Nisibis was accompanied + with every expression of respect on one side, and of esteem on + the other. It was in that city that they soon afterwards gave + audience to the ambassador of the Great King. The power, or at + least the spirit, of Narses, had been broken by his last defeat; + and he considered an immediate peace as the only means that could + stop the progress of the Roman arms. He despatched Apharban, a + servant who possessed his favor and confidence, with a commission + to negotiate a treaty, or rather to receive whatever conditions + the conqueror should impose. Apharban opened the conference by + expressing his master’s gratitude for the generous treatment of + his family, and by soliciting the liberty of those illustrious + captives. He celebrated the valor of Galerius, without degrading + the reputation of Narses, and thought it no dishonor to confess + the superiority of the victorious Cæsar, over a monarch who had + surpassed in glory all the princes of his race. Notwithstanding + the justice of the Persian cause, he was empowered to submit the + present differences to the decision of the emperors themselves; + convinced as he was, that, in the midst of prosperity, they would + not be unmindful of the vicissitudes of fortune. Apharban + concluded his discourse in the style of eastern allegory, by + observing that the Roman and Persian monarchies were the two eyes + of the world, which would remain imperfect and mutilated if + either of them should be put out. + + “It well becomes the Persians,” replied Galerius, with a + transport of fury, which seemed to convulse his whole frame, “it + well becomes the Persians to expatiate on the vicissitudes of + fortune, and calmly to read us lectures on the virtues of + moderation. Let them remember their own _moderation_ towards the + unhappy Valerian. They vanquished him by fraud, they treated him + with indignity. They detained him till the last moment of his + life in shameful captivity, and after his death they exposed his + body to perpetual ignominy.” Softening, however, his tone, + Galerius insinuated to the ambassador, that it had never been the + practice of the Romans to trample on a prostrate enemy; and that, + on this occasion, they should consult their own dignity rather + than the Persian merit. He dismissed Apharban with a hope that + Narses would soon be informed on what conditions he might obtain, + from the clemency of the emperors, a lasting peace, and the + restoration of his wives and children. In this conference we may + discover the fierce passions of Galerius, as well as his + deference to the superior wisdom and authority of Diocletian. The + ambition of the former grasped at the conquest of the East, and + had proposed to reduce Persia into the state of a province. The + prudence of the latter, who adhered to the moderate policy of + Augustus and the Antonines, embraced the favorable opportunity of + terminating a successful war by an honorable and advantageous + peace. + + In pursuance of their promise, the emperors soon afterwards + appointed Sicorius Probus, one of their secretaries, to acquaint + the Persian court with their final resolution. As the minister of + peace, he was received with every mark of politeness and + friendship; but, under the pretence of allowing him the necessary + repose after so long a journey, the audience of Probus was + deferred from day to day; and he attended the slow motions of the + king, till at length he was admitted to his presence, near the + River Asprudus in Media. The secret motive of Narses, in this + delay, had been to collect such a military force as might enable + him, though sincerely desirous of peace, to negotiate with the + greater weight and dignity. Three persons only assisted at this + important conference, the minister Apharban, the præfect of the + guards, and an officer who had commanded on the Armenian + frontier. The first condition proposed by the ambassador is not + at present of a very intelligible nature; that the city of + Nisibis might be established for the place of mutual exchange, + or, as we should formerly have termed it, for the staple of + trade, between the two empires. There is no difficulty in + conceiving the intention of the Roman princes to improve their + revenue by some restraints upon commerce; but as Nisibis was + situated within their own dominions, and as they were masters + both of the imports and exports, it should seem that such + restraints were the objects of an internal law, rather than of a + foreign treaty. To render them more effectual, some stipulations + were probably required on the side of the king of Persia, which + appeared so very repugnant either to his interest or to his + dignity, that Narses could not be persuaded to subscribe them. As + this was the only article to which he refused his consent, it was + no longer insisted on; and the emperors either suffered the trade + to flow in its natural channels, or contented themselves with + such restrictions, as it depended on their own authority to + establish. + + As soon as this difficulty was removed, a solemn peace was + concluded and ratified between the two nations. The conditions of + a treaty so glorious to the empire, and so necessary to Persia, + may deserve a more peculiar attention, as the history of Rome + presents very few transactions of a similar nature; most of her + wars having either been terminated by absolute conquest, or waged + against barbarians ignorant of the use of letters. I. The Aboras, + or, as it is called by Xenophon, the Araxes, was fixed as the + boundary between the two monarchies. That river, which rose near + the Tigris, was increased, a few miles below Nisibis, by the + little stream of the Mygdonius, passed under the walls of + Singara, and fell into the Euphrates at Circesium, a frontier + town, which, by the care of Diocletian, was very strongly + fortified. Mesopotomia, the object of so many wars, was ceded to + the empire; and the Persians, by this treaty, renounced all + pretensions to that great province. II. They relinquished to the + Romans five provinces beyond the Tigris. Their situation formed a + very useful barrier, and their natural strength was soon improved + by art and military skill. Four of these, to the north of the + river, were districts of obscure fame and inconsiderable extent; + Intiline, Zabdicene, Arzanene, and Moxoene; but on the east of + the Tigris, the empire acquired the large and mountainous + territory of Carduene, the ancient seat of the Carduchians, who + preserved for many ages their manly freedom in the heart of the + despotic monarchies of Asia. The ten thousand Greeks traversed + their country, after a painful march, or rather engagement, of + seven days; and it is confessed by their leader, in his + incomparable relation of the retreat, that they suffered more + from the arrows of the Carduchians, than from the power of the + Great King. Their posterity, the Curds, with very little + alteration either of name or manners, * acknowledged the nominal + sovereignty of the Turkish sultan. III. It is almost needless to + observe, that Tiridates, the faithful ally of Rome, was restored + to the throne of his fathers, and that the rights of the Imperial + supremacy were fully asserted and secured. The limits of Armenia + were extended as far as the fortress of Sintha in Media, and this + increase of dominion was not so much an act of liberality as of + justice. Of the provinces already mentioned beyond the Tigris, + the four first had been dismembered by the Parthians from the + crown of Armenia; and when the Romans acquired the possession of + them, they stipulated, at the expense of the usurpers, an ample + compensation, which invested their ally with the extensive and + fertile country of Atropatene. Its principal city, in the same + situation perhaps as the modern Tauris, was frequently honored by + the residence of Tiridates; and as it sometimes bore the name of + Ecbatana, he imitated, in the buildings and fortifications, the + splendid capital of the Medes. IV. The country of Iberia was + barren, its inhabitants rude and savage. But they were accustomed + to the use of arms, and they separated from the empire barbarians + much fiercer and more formidable than themselves. The narrow + defiles of Mount Caucasus were in their hands, and it was in + their choice, either to admit or to exclude the wandering tribes + of Sarmatia, whenever a rapacious spirit urged them to penetrate + into the richer climes of the South. The nomination of the kings + of Iberia, which was resigned by the Persian monarch to the + emperors, contributed to the strength and security of the Roman + power in Asia. The East enjoyed a profound tranquillity during + forty years; and the treaty between the rival monarchies was + strictly observed till the death of Tiridates; when a new + generation, animated with different views and different passions, + succeeded to the government of the world; and the grandson of + Narses undertook a long and memorable war against the princes of + the house of Constantine. + + The arduous work of rescuing the distressed empire from tyrants + and barbarians had now been completely achieved by a succession + of Illyrian peasants. As soon as Diocletian entered into the + twentieth year of his reign, he celebrated that memorable æra, as + well as the success of his arms, by the pomp of a Roman triumph. + Maximian, the equal partner of his power, was his only companion + in the glory of that day. The two Cæsars had fought and + conquered, but the merit of their exploits was ascribed, + according to the rigor of ancient maxims, to the auspicious + influence of their fathers and emperors. The triumph of + Diocletian and Maximian was less magnificent, perhaps, than those + of Aurelian and Probus, but it was dignified by several + circumstances of superior fame and good fortune. Africa and + Britain, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Nile, furnished their + respective trophies; but the most distinguished ornament was of a + more singular nature, a Persian victory followed by an important + conquest. The representations of rivers, mountains, and + provinces, were carried before the Imperial car. The images of + the captive wives, the sisters, and the children of the Great + King, afforded a new and grateful spectacle to the vanity of the + people. In the eyes of posterity, this triumph is remarkable, by + a distinction of a less honorable kind. It was the last that Rome + ever beheld. Soon after this period, the emperors ceased to + vanquish, and Rome ceased to be the capital of the empire. + + The spot on which Rome was founded had been consecrated by + ancient ceremonies and imaginary miracles. The presence of some + god, or the memory of some hero, seemed to animate every part of + the city, and the empire of the world had been promised to the + Capitol. The native Romans felt and confessed the power of this + agreeable illusion. It was derived from their ancestors, had + grown up with their earliest habits of life, and was protected, + in some measure, by the opinion of political utility. The form + and the seat of government were intimately blended together, nor + was it esteemed possible to transport the one without destroying + the other. But the sovereignty of the capital was gradually + annihilated in the extent of conquest; the provinces rose to the + same level, and the vanquished nations acquired the name and + privileges, without imbibing the partial affections, of Romans. + During a long period, however, the remains of the ancient + constitution, and the influence of custom, preserved the dignity + of Rome. The emperors, though perhaps of African or Illyrian + extraction, respected their adopted country, as the seat of their + power, and the centre of their extensive dominions. The + emergencies of war very frequently required their presence on the + frontiers; but Diocletian and Maximian were the first Roman + princes who fixed, in time of peace, their ordinary residence in + the provinces; and their conduct, however it might be suggested + by private motives, was justified by very specious considerations + of policy. The court of the emperor of the West was, for the most + part, established at Milan, whose situation, at the foot of the + Alps, appeared far more convenient than that of Rome, for the + important purpose of watching the motions of the barbarians of + Germany. Milan soon assumed the splendor of an Imperial city. The + houses are described as numerous and well built; the manners of + the people as polished and liberal. A circus, a theatre, a mint, + a palace, baths, which bore the name of their founder Maximian; + porticos adorned with statues, and a double circumference of + walls, contributed to the beauty of the new capital; nor did it + seem oppressed even by the proximity of Rome. To rival the + majesty of Rome was the ambition likewise of Diocletian, who + employed his leisure, and the wealth of the East, in the + embellishment of Nicomedia, a city placed on the verge of Europe + and Asia, almost at an equal distance between the Danube and the + Euphrates. By the taste of the monarch, and at the expense of the + people, Nicomedia acquired, in the space of a few years, a degree + of magnificence which might appear to have required the labor of + ages, and became inferior only to Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, + in extent of populousness. The life of Diocletian and Maximian + was a life of action, and a considerable portion of it was spent + in camps, or in the long and frequent marches; but whenever the + public business allowed them any relaxation, they seemed to have + retired with pleasure to their favorite residences of Nicomedia + and Milan. Till Diocletian, in the twentieth year of his reign, + celebrated his Roman triumph, it is extremely doubtful whether he + ever visited the ancient capital of the empire. Even on that + memorable occasion his stay did not exceed two months. Disgusted + with the licentious familiarity of the people, he quitted Rome + with precipitation thirteen days before it was expected that he + should have appeared in the senate, invested with the ensigns of + the consular dignity. + + The dislike expressed by Diocletian towards Rome and Roman + freedom was not the effect of momentary caprice, but the result + of the most artful policy. That crafty prince had framed a new + system of Imperial government, which was afterwards completed by + the family of Constantine; and as the image of the old + constitution was religiously preserved in the senate, he resolved + to deprive that order of its small remains of power and + consideration. We may recollect, about eight years before the + elevation of Diocletian, the transient greatness, and the + ambitious hopes, of the Roman senate. As long as that enthusiasm + prevailed, many of the nobles imprudently displayed their zeal in + the cause of freedom; and after the successes of Probus had + withdrawn their countenance from the republican party, the + senators were unable to disguise their impotent resentment. + + As the sovereign of Italy, Maximian was intrusted with the care + of extinguishing this troublesome, rather than dangerous spirit, + and the task was perfectly suited to his cruel temper. The most + illustrious members of the senate, whom Diocletian always + affected to esteem, were involved, by his colleague, in the + accusation of imaginary plots; and the possession of an elegant + villa, or a well-cultivated estate, was interpreted as a + convincing evidence of guilt. The camp of the Prætorians, which + had so long oppressed, began to protect, the majesty of Rome; and + as those haughty troops were conscious of the decline of their + power, they were naturally disposed to unite their strength with + the authority of the senate. By the prudent measures of + Diocletian, the numbers of the Prætorians were insensibly + reduced, their privileges abolished, and their place supplied by + two faithful legions of Illyricum, who, under the new titles of + Jovians and Herculians, were appointed to perform the service of + the Imperial guards. But the most fatal though secret wound, + which the senate received from the hands of Diocletian and + Maximian, was inflicted by the inevitable operation of their + absence. As long as the emperors resided at Rome, that assembly + might be oppressed, but it could scarcely be neglected. The + successors of Augustus exercised the power of dictating whatever + laws their wisdom or caprice might suggest; but those laws were + ratified by the sanction of the senate. The model of ancient + freedom was preserved in its deliberations and decrees; and wise + princes, who respected the prejudices of the Roman people, were + in some measure obliged to assume the language and behavior + suitable to the general and first magistrate of the republic. In + the armies and in the provinces, they displayed the dignity of + monarchs; and when they fixed their residence at a distance from + the capital, they forever laid aside the dissimulation which + Augustus had recommended to his successors. In the exercise of + the legislative as well as the executive power, the sovereign + advised with his ministers, instead of consulting the great + council of the nation. The name of the senate was mentioned with + honor till the last period of the empire; the vanity of its + members was still flattered with honorary distinctions; but the + assembly which had so long been the source, and so long the + instrument of power, was respectfully suffered to sink into + oblivion. The senate of Rome, losing all connection with the + Imperial court and the actual constitution, was left a venerable + but useless monument of antiquity on the Capitoline hill. + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + IV. + + When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of their + ancient capital, they easily forgot the origin and nature of + their legal power. The civil offices of consul, of proconsul, of + censor, and of tribune, by the union of which it had been formed, + betrayed to the people its republican extraction. Those modest + titles were laid aside; and if they still distinguished their + high station by the appellation of Emperor, or Imperator, that + word was understood in a new and more dignified sense, and no + longer denoted the general of the Roman armies, but the sovereign + of the Roman world. The name of Emperor, which was at first of a + military nature, was associated with another of a more servile + kind. The epithet of Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive + signification, was expressive not of the authority of a prince + over his subjects, or of a commander over his soldiers, but of + the despotic power of a master over his domestic slaves. Viewing + it in that odious light, it had been rejected with abhorrence by + the first Cæsars. Their resistance insensibly became more feeble, + and the name less odious; till at length the style of _our Lord + and Emperor_ was not only bestowed by flattery, but was regularly + admitted into the laws and public monuments. Such lofty epithets + were sufficient to elate and satisfy the most excessive vanity; + and if the successors of Diocletian still declined the title of + King, it seems to have been the effect not so much of their + moderation as of their delicacy. Wherever the Latin tongue was in + use, (and it was the language of government throughout the + empire,) the Imperial title, as it was peculiar to themselves, + conveyed a more respectable idea than the name of king, which + they must have shared with a hundred barbarian chieftains; or + which, at the best, they could derive only from Romulus, or from + Tarquin. But the sentiments of the East were very different from + those of the West. From the earliest period of history, the + sovereigns of Asia had been celebrated in the Greek language by + the title of Basileus, or King; and since it was considered as + the first distinction among men, it was soon employed by the + servile provincials of the East, in their humble addresses to the + Roman throne. Even the attributes, or at least the titles, of the + Divinity, were usurped by Diocletian and Maximian, who + transmitted them to a succession of Christian emperors. Such + extravagant compliments, however, soon lose their impiety by + losing their meaning; and when the ear is once accustomed to the + sound, they are heard with indifference, as vague though + excessive professions of respect. + + From the time of Augustus to that of Diocletian, the Roman + princes, conversing in a familiar manner among their + fellow-citizens, were saluted only with the same respect that was + usually paid to senators and magistrates. Their principal + distinction was the Imperial or military robe of purple; whilst + the senatorial garment was marked by a broad, and the equestrian + by a narrow, band or stripe of the same honorable color. The + pride, or rather the policy, of Diocletian engaged that artful + prince to introduce the stately magnificence of the court of + Persia. He ventured to assume the diadem, an ornament detested by + the Romans as the odious ensign of royalty, and the use of which + had been considered as the most desperate act of the madness of + Caligula. It was no more than a broad white fillet set with + pearls, which encircled the emperor’s head. The sumptuous robes + of Diocletian and his successors were of silk and gold; and it is + remarked with indignation that even their shoes were studded with + the most precious gems. The access to their sacred person was + every day rendered more difficult by the institution of new forms + and ceremonies. The avenues of the palace were strictly guarded + by the various _schools_, as they began to be called, of domestic + officers. The interior apartments were intrusted to the jealous + vigilance of the eunuchs, the increase of whose numbers and + influence was the most infallible symptom of the progress of + despotism. When a subject was at length admitted to the Imperial + presence, he was obliged, whatever might be his rank, to fall + prostrate on the ground, and to adore, according to the eastern + fashion, the divinity of his lord and master. Diocletian was a + man of sense, who, in the course of private as well as public + life, had formed a just estimate both of himself and of mankind; + nor is it easy to conceive that in substituting the manners of + Persia to those of Rome he was seriously actuated by so mean a + principle as that of vanity. He flattered himself that an + ostentation of splendor and luxury would subdue the imagination + of the multitude; that the monarch would be less exposed to the + rude license of the people and the soldiers, as his person was + secluded from the public view; and that habits of submission + would insensibly be productive of sentiments of veneration. Like + the modesty affected by Augustus, the state maintained by + Diocletian was a theatrical representation; but it must be + confessed, that of the two comedies, the former was of a much + more liberal and manly character than the latter. It was the aim + of the one to disguise, and the object of the other to display, + the unbounded power which the emperors possessed over the Roman + world. + + Ostentation was the first principle of the new system instituted + by Diocletian. The second was division. He divided the empire, + the provinces, and every branch of the civil as well as military + administration. He multiplied the wheels of the machine of + government, and rendered its operations less rapid, but more + secure. Whatever advantages and whatever defects might attend + these innovations, they must be ascribed in a very great degree + to the first inventor; but as the new frame of policy was + gradually improved and completed by succeeding princes, it will + be more satisfactory to delay the consideration of it till the + season of its full maturity and perfection. Reserving, therefore, + for the reign of Constantine a more exact picture of the new + empire, we shall content ourselves with describing the principal + and decisive outline, as it was traced by the hand of Diocletian. + He had associated three colleagues in the exercise of the supreme + power; and as he was convinced that the abilities of a single man + were inadequate to the public defence, he considered the joint + administration of four princes not as a temporary expedient, but + as a fundamental law of the constitution. It was his intention + that the two elder princes should be distinguished by the use of + the diadem, and the title of _Augusti_; that, as affection or + esteem might direct their choice, they should regularly call to + their assistance two subordinate colleagues; and that the + _Cæsars_, rising in their turn to the first rank, should supply + an uninterrupted succession of emperors. The empire was divided + into four parts. The East and Italy were the most honorable, the + Danube and the Rhine the most laborious stations. The former + claimed the presence of the _Augusti_, the latter were intrusted + to the administration of the _Cæsars_. The strength of the + legions was in the hands of the four partners of sovereignty, and + the despair of successively vanquishing four formidable rivals + might intimidate the ambition of an aspiring general. In their + civil government the emperors were supposed to exercise the + undivided power of the monarch, and their edicts, inscribed with + their joint names, were received in all the provinces, as + promulgated by their mutual councils and authority. + Notwithstanding these precautions, the political union of the + Roman world was gradually dissolved, and a principle of division + was introduced, which, in the course of a few years, occasioned + the perpetual separation of the Eastern and Western Empires. + + The system of Diocletian was accompanied with another very + material disadvantage, which cannot even at present be totally + overlooked; a more expensive establishment, and consequently an + increase of taxes, and the oppression of the people. Instead of a + modest family of slaves and freedmen, such as had contented the + simple greatness of Augustus and Trajan, three or four + magnificent courts were established in the various parts of the + empire, and as many Roman _kings_ contended with each other and + with the Persian monarch for the vain superiority of pomp and + luxury. The number of ministers, of magistrates, of officers, and + of servants, who filled the different departments of the state, + was multiplied beyond the example of former times; and (if we may + borrow the warm expression of a contemporary) “when the + proportion of those who received exceeded the proportion of those + who contributed, the provinces were oppressed by the weight of + tributes.” From this period to the extinction of the empire, it + would be easy to deduce an uninterrupted series of clamors and + complaints. According to his religion and situation, each writer + chooses either Diocletian, or Constantine, or Valens, or + Theodosius, for the object of his invectives; but they + unanimously agree in representing the burden of the public + impositions, and particularly the land tax and capitation, as the + intolerable and increasing grievance of their own times. From + such a concurrence, an impartial historian, who is obliged to + extract truth from satire, as well as from panegyric, will be + inclined to divide the blame among the princes whom they accuse, + and to ascribe their exactions much less to their personal vices, + than to the uniform system of their administration. * The emperor + Diocletian was indeed the author of that system; but during his + reign, the growing evil was confined within the bounds of modesty + and discretion, and he deserves the reproach of establishing + pernicious precedents, rather than of exercising actual + oppression. It may be added, that his revenues were managed with + prudent economy; and that after all the current expenses were + discharged, there still remained in the Imperial treasury an + ample provision either for judicious liberality or for any + emergency of the state. + + It was in the twenty first year of his reign that Diocletian + executed his memorable resolution of abdicating the empire; an + action more naturally to have been expected from the elder or the + younger Antoninus, than from a prince who had never practised the + lessons of philosophy either in the attainment or in the use of + supreme power. Diocletian acquired the glory of giving to the + world the first example of a resignation, which has not been very + frequently imitated by succeeding monarchs. The parallel of + Charles the Fifth, however, will naturally offer itself to our + mind, not only since the eloquence of a modern historian has + rendered that name so familiar to an English reader, but from the + very striking resemblance between the characters of the two + emperors, whose political abilities were superior to their + military genius, and whose specious virtues were much less the + effect of nature than of art. The abdication of Charles appears + to have been hastened by the vicissitudes of fortune; and the + disappointment of his favorite schemes urged him to relinquish a + power which he found inadequate to his ambition. But the reign of + Diocletian had flowed with a tide of uninterrupted success; nor + was it till after he had vanquished all his enemies, and + accomplished all his designs, that he seems to have entertained + any serious thoughts of resigning the empire. Neither Charles nor + Diocletian were arrived at a very advanced period of life; since + the one was only fifty-five, and the other was no more than + fifty-nine years of age; but the active life of those princes, + their wars and journeys, the cares of royalty, and their + application to business, had already impaired their constitution, + and brought on the infirmities of a premature old age. + + Notwithstanding the severity of a very cold and rainy winter, + Diocletian left Italy soon after the ceremony of his triumph, and + began his progress towards the East round the circuit of the + Illyrian provinces. From the inclemency of the weather, and the + fatigue of the journey, he soon contracted a slow illness; and + though he made easy marches, and was generally carried in a close + litter, his disorder, before he arrived at Nicomedia, about the + end of the summer, was become very serious and alarming. During + the whole winter he was confined to his palace: his danger + inspired a general and unaffected concern; but the people could + only judge of the various alterations of his health, from the joy + or consternation which they discovered in the countenances and + behavior of his attendants. The rumor of his death was for some + time universally believed, and it was supposed to be concealed + with a view to prevent the troubles that might have happened + during the absence of the Cæsar Galerius. At length, however, on + the first of March, Diocletian once more appeared in public, but + so pale and emaciated, that he could scarcely have been + recognized by those to whom his person was the most familiar. It + was time to put an end to the painful struggle, which he had + sustained during more than a year, between the care of his health + and that of his dignity. The former required indulgence and + relaxation, the latter compelled him to direct, from the bed of + sickness, the administration of a great empire. He resolved to + pass the remainder of his days in honorable repose, to place his + glory beyond the reach of fortune, and to relinquish the theatre + of the world to his younger and more active associates. + + The ceremony of his abdication was performed in a spacious plain, + about three miles from Nicomedia. The emperor ascended a lofty + throne, and in a speech, full of reason and dignity, declared his + intention, both to the people and to the soldiers who were + assembled on this extraordinary occasion. As soon as he had + divested himself of his purple, he withdrew from the gazing + multitude; and traversing the city in a covered chariot, + proceeded, without delay, to the favorite retirement which he had + chosen in his native country of Dalmatia. On the same day, which + was the first of May, Maximian, as it had been previously + concerted, made his resignation of the Imperial dignity at Milan. + Even in the splendor of the Roman triumph, Diocletian had + meditated his design of abdicating the government. As he wished + to secure the obedience of Maximian, he exacted from him either a + general assurance that he would submit his actions to the + authority of his benefactor, or a particular promise that he + would descend from the throne, whenever he should receive the + advice and the example. This engagement, though it was confirmed + by the solemnity of an oath before the altar of the Capitoline + Jupiter, would have proved a feeble restraint on the fierce + temper of Maximian, whose passion was the love of power, and who + neither desired present tranquility nor future reputation. But he + yielded, however reluctantly, to the ascendant which his wiser + colleague had acquired over him, and retired, immediately after + his abdication, to a villa in Lucania, where it was almost + impossible that such an impatient spirit could find any lasting + tranquility. + + Diocletian, who, from a servile origin, had raised himself to the + throne, passed the nine last years of his life in a private + condition. Reason had dictated, and content seems to have + accompanied, his retreat, in which he enjoyed, for a long time, + the respect of those princes to whom he had resigned the + possession of the world. It is seldom that minds long exercised + in business have formed any habits of conversing with themselves, + and in the loss of power they principally regret the want of + occupation. The amusements of letters and of devotion, which + afford so many resources in solitude, were incapable of fixing + the attention of Diocletian; but he had preserved, or at least he + soon recovered, a taste for the most innocent as well as natural + pleasures, and his leisure hours were sufficiently employed in + building, planting, and gardening. His answer to Maximian is + deservedly celebrated. He was solicited by that restless old man + to reassume the reins of government, and the Imperial purple. He + rejected the temptation with a smile of pity, calmly observing, + that if he could show Maximian the cabbages which he had planted + with his own hands at Salona, he should no longer be urged to + relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power. + In his conversations with his friends, he frequently + acknowledged, that of all arts, the most difficult was the art of + reigning; and he expressed himself on that favorite topic with a + degree of warmth which could be the result only of experience. + “How often,” was he accustomed to say, “is it the interest of + four or five ministers to combine together to deceive their + sovereign! Secluded from mankind by his exalted dignity, the + truth is concealed from his knowledge; he can see only with their + eyes, he hears nothing but their misrepresentations. He confers + the most important offices upon vice and weakness, and disgraces + the most virtuous and deserving among his subjects. By such + infamous arts,” added Diocletian, “the best and wisest princes + are sold to the venal corruption of their courtiers.” A just + estimate of greatness, and the assurance of immortal fame, + improve our relish for the pleasures of retirement; but the Roman + emperor had filled too important a character in the world, to + enjoy without alloy the comforts and security of a private + condition. It was impossible that he could remain ignorant of the + troubles which afflicted the empire after his abdication. It was + impossible that he could be indifferent to their consequences. + Fear, sorrow, and discontent, sometimes pursued him into the + solitude of Salona. His tenderness, or at least his pride, was + deeply wounded by the misfortunes of his wife and daughter; and + the last moments of Diocletian were imbittered by some affronts, + which Licinius and Constantine might have spared the father of so + many emperors, and the first author of their own fortune. A + report, though of a very doubtful nature, has reached our times, + that he prudently withdrew himself from their power by a + voluntary death. + + Before we dismiss the consideration of the life and character of + Diocletian, we may, for a moment, direct our view to the place of + his retirement. Salona, a principal city of his native province + of Dalmatia, was near two hundred Roman miles (according to the + measurement of the public highways) from Aquileia and the + confines of Italy, and about two hundred and seventy from + Sirmium, the usual residence of the emperors whenever they + visited the Illyrian frontier. A miserable village still + preserves the name of Salona; but so late as the sixteenth + century, the remains of a theatre, and a confused prospect of + broken arches and marble columns, continued to attest its ancient + splendor. About six or seven miles from the city Diocletian + constructed a magnificent palace, and we may infer, from the + greatness of the work, how long he had meditated his design of + abdicating the empire. The choice of a spot which united all that + could contribute either to health or to luxury did not require + the partiality of a native. “The soil was dry and fertile, the + air is pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the + summer months, this country seldom feels those sultry and noxious + winds to which the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are + exposed. The views from the palace are no less beautiful than the + soil and climate were inviting. Towards the west lies the fertile + shore that stretches along the Adriatic, in which a number of + small islands are scattered in such a manner as to give this part + of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the north side lies + the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona; and the country + beyond it, appearing in sight, forms a proper contrast to that + more extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents + both to the south and to the east. Towards the north, the view is + terminated by high and irregular mountains, situated at a proper + distance, and in many places covered with villages, woods, and + vineyards.” + + Though Constantine, from a very obvious prejudice, affects to + mention the palace of Diocletian with contempt, yet one of their + successors, who could only see it in a neglected and mutilated + state, celebrates its magnificence in terms of the highest + admiration. It covered an extent of ground consisting of between + nine and ten English acres. The form was quadrangular, flanked + with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were near six hundred, and + the other two near seven hundred feet in length. The whole was + constructed of a beautiful freestone, extracted from the + neighboring quarries of Trau, or Tragutium, and very little + inferior to marble itself. Four streets, intersecting each other + at right angles, divided the several parts of this great edifice, + and the approach to the principal apartment was from a very + stately entrance, which is still denominated the Golden Gate. The + approach was terminated by a peristylium of granite columns, on + one side of which we discover the square temple of Æsculapius, on + the other the octagon temple of Jupiter. The latter of those + deities Diocletian revered as the patron of his fortunes, the + former as the protector of his health. By comparing the present + remains with the precepts of Vitruvius, the several parts of the + building, the baths, bedchamber, the atrium, the basilica, and + the Cyzicene, Corinthian, and Egyptian halls have been described + with some degree of precision, or at least of probability. Their + forms were various, their proportions just; but they all were + attended with two imperfections, very repugnant to our modern + notions of taste and conveniency. These stately rooms had neither + windows nor chimneys. They were lighted from the top, (for the + building seems to have consisted of no more than one story,) and + they received their heat by the help of pipes that were conveyed + along the walls. The range of principal apartments was protected + towards the south-west by a portico five hundred and seventeen + feet long, which must have formed a very noble and delightful + walk, when the beauties of painting and sculpture were added to + those of the prospect. + + Had this magnificent edifice remained in a solitary country, it + would have been exposed to the ravages of time; but it might, + perhaps, have escaped the rapacious industry of man. The village + of Aspalathus, and, long afterwards, the provincial town of + Spalatro, have grown out of its ruins. The Golden Gate now opens + into the market-place. St. John the Baptist has usurped the + honors of Æsculapius; and the temple of Jupiter, under the + protection of the Virgin, is converted into the cathedral church. + For this account of Diocletian’s palace we are principally + indebted to an ingenious artist of our own time and country, whom + a very liberal curiosity carried into the heart of Dalmatia. But + there is room to suspect that the elegance of his designs and + engraving has somewhat flattered the objects which it was their + purpose to represent. We are informed by a more recent and very + judicious traveller, that the awful ruins of Spalatro are not + less expressive of the decline of the art than of the greatness + of the Roman empire in the time of Diocletian. If such was indeed + the state of architecture, we must naturally believe that + painting and sculpture had experienced a still more sensible + decay. The practice of architecture is directed by a few general + and even mechanical rules. But sculpture, and, above all, + painting, propose to themselves the imitation not only of the + forms of nature, but of the characters and passions of the human + soul. In those sublime arts the dexterity of the hand is of + little avail, unless it is animated by fancy, and guided by the + most correct taste and observation. + + It is almost unnecessary to remark, that the civil distractions + of the empire, the license of the soldiers, the inroads of the + barbarians, and the progress of despotism, had proved very + unfavorable to genius, and even to learning. The succession of + Illyrian princes restored the empire without restoring the + sciences. Their military education was not calculated to inspire + them with the love of letters; and even the mind of Diocletian, + however active and capacious in business, was totally uninformed + by study or speculation. The professions of law and physic are of + such common use and certain profit that they will always secure a + sufficient number of practitioners endowed with a reasonable + degree of abilities and knowledge; but it does not appear that + the students in those two faculties appeal to any celebrated + masters who have flourished within that period. The voice of + poetry was silent. History was reduced to dry and confused + abridgments, alike destitute of amusement and instruction. A + languid and affected eloquence was still retained in the pay and + service of the emperors, who encouraged not any arts except those + which contributed to the gratification of their pride, or the + defence of their power. + + The declining age of learning and of mankind is marked, however, + by the rise and rapid progress of the new Platonists. The school + of Alexandria silenced those of Athens; and the ancient sects + enrolled themselves under the banners of the more fashionable + teachers, who recommended their system by the novelty of their + method, and the austerity of their manners. Several of these + masters, Ammonius, Plotinus, Amelius, and Porphyry, were men of + profound thought and intense application; but by mistaking the + true object of philosophy, their labors contributed much less to + improve than to corrupt the human understanding. The knowledge + that is suited to our situation and powers, the whole compass of + moral, natural, and mathematical science, was neglected by the + new Platonists; whilst they exhausted their strength in the + verbal disputes of metaphysics, attempted to explore the secrets + of the invisible world, and studied to reconcile Aristotle with + Plato, on subjects of which both these philosophers were as + ignorant as the rest of mankind. Consuming their reason in these + deep but unsubstantial meditations, their minds were exposed to + illusions of fancy. They flattered themselves that they possessed + the secret of disengaging the soul from its corporal prison; + claimed a familiar intercourse with demons and spirits; and, by a + very singular revolution, converted the study of philosophy into + that of magic. The ancient sages had derided the popular + superstition; after disguising its extravagance by the thin + pretence of allegory, the disciples of Plotinus and Porphyry + became its most zealous defenders. As they agreed with the + Christians in a few mysterious points of faith, they attacked the + remainder of their theological system with all the fury of civil + war. The new Platonists would scarcely deserve a place in the + history of science, but in that of the church the mention of them + will very frequently occur. + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part I. + +Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of +Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxentius. Six Emperors At +The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And Galerius.— Victories Of +Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.— Reunion Of The Empire Under +The Authority Of Constantine. + + The balance of power established by Diocletian subsisted no + longer than while it was sustained by the firm and dexterous hand + of the founder. It required such a fortunate mixture of different + tempers and abilities as could scarcely be found or even expected + a second time; two emperors without jealousy, two Cæsars without + ambition, and the same general interest invariably pursued by + four independent princes. The abdication of Diocletian and + Maximian was succeeded by eighteen years of discord and + confusion. The empire was afflicted by five civil wars; and the + remainder of the time was not so much a state of tranquillity as + a suspension of arms between several hostile monarchs, who, + viewing each other with an eye of fear and hatred, strove to + increase their respective forces at the expense of their + subjects. + + As soon as Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple, their + station, according to the rules of the new constitution, was + filled by the two Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, who + immediately assumed the title of Augustus. + + The honors of seniority and precedence were allowed to the former + of those princes, and he continued under a new appellation to + administer his ancient department of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. + The government of those ample provinces was sufficient to + exercise his talents and to satisfy his ambition. Clemency, + temperance, and moderation, distinguished the amiable character + of Constantius, and his fortunate subjects had frequently + occasion to compare the virtues of their sovereign with the + passions of Maximian, and even with the arts of Diocletian. + Instead of imitating their eastern pride and magnificence, + Constantius preserved the modesty of a Roman prince. He declared, + with unaffected sincerity, that his most valued treasure was in + the hearts of his people, and that, whenever the dignity of the + throne, or the danger of the state, required any extraordinary + supply, he could depend with confidence on their gratitude and + liberality. The provincials of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, sensible + of his worth, and of their own happiness, reflected with anxiety + on the declining health of the emperor Constantius, and the + tender age of his numerous family, the issue of his second + marriage with the daughter of Maximian. + + The stern temper of Galerius was cast in a very different mould; + and while he commanded the esteem of his subjects, he seldom + condescended to solicit their affections. His fame in arms, and, + above all, the success of the Persian war, had elated his haughty + mind, which was naturally impatient of a superior, or even of an + equal. If it were possible to rely on the partial testimony of an + injudicious writer, we might ascribe the abdication of Diocletian + to the menaces of Galerius, and relate the particulars of a + _private_ conversation between the two princes, in which the + former discovered as much pusillanimity as the latter displayed + ingratitude and arrogance. But these obscure anecdotes are + sufficiently refuted by an impartial view of the character and + conduct of Diocletian. Whatever might otherwise have been his + intentions, if he had apprehended any danger from the violence of + Galerius, his good sense would have instructed him to prevent the + ignominious contest; and as he had held the sceptre with glory, + he would have resigned it without disgrace. + + After the elevation of Constantius and Galerius to the rank of + _Augusti_, two new _Cæsars_ were required to supply their place, + and to complete the system of the Imperial government. Diocletian + was sincerely desirous of withdrawing himself from the world; he + considered Galerius, who had married his daughter, as the firmest + support of his family and of the empire; and he consented, + without reluctance, that his successor should assume the merit as + well as the envy of the important nomination. It was fixed + without consulting the interest or inclination of the princes of + the West. Each of them had a son who was arrived at the age of + manhood, and who might have been deemed the most natural + candidates for the vacant honor. But the impotent resentment of + Maximian was no longer to be dreaded; and the moderate + Constantius, though he might despise the dangers, was humanely + apprehensive of the calamities, of civil war. The two persons + whom Galerius promoted to the rank of Cæsar were much better + suited to serve the views of his ambition; and their principal + recommendation seems to have consisted in the want of merit or + personal consequence. The first of these was Daza, or, as he was + afterwards called, Maximin, whose mother was the sister of + Galerius. The unexperienced youth still betrayed, by his manners + and language, his rustic education, when, to his own + astonishment, as well as that of the world, he was invested by + Diocletian with the purple, exalted to the dignity of Cæsar, and + intrusted with the sovereign command of Egypt and Syria. At the + same time, Severus, a faithful servant, addicted to pleasure, but + not incapable of business, was sent to Milan, to receive, from + the reluctant hands of Maximian, the Cæsarian ornaments, and the + possession of Italy and Africa. According to the forms of the + constitution, Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the western + emperor; but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his + benefactor Galerius, who, reserving to himself the intermediate + countries from the confines of Italy to those of Syria, firmly + established his power over three fourths of the monarchy. In the + full confidence that the approaching death of Constantius would + leave him sole master of the Roman world, we are assured that he + had arranged in his mind a long succession of future princes, and + that he meditated his own retreat from public life, after he + should have accomplished a glorious reign of about twenty years. + + But within less than eighteen months, two unexpected revolutions + overturned the ambitious schemes of Galerius. The hopes of + uniting the western provinces to his empire were disappointed by + the elevation of Constantine, whilst Italy and Africa were lost + by the successful revolt of Maxentius. + + I. The fame of Constantine has rendered posterity attentive to + the most minute circumstances of his life and actions. The place + of his birth, as well as the condition of his mother Helena, have + been the subject, not only of literary, but of national disputes. + Notwithstanding the recent tradition, which assigns for her + father a British king, we are obliged to confess, that Helena was + the daughter of an innkeeper; but at the same time, we may defend + the legality of her marriage, against those who have represented + her as the concubine of Constantius. The great Constantine was + most probably born at Naissus, in Dacia; and it is not surprising + that, in a family and province distinguished only by the + profession of arms, the youth should discover very little + inclination to improve his mind by the acquisition of knowledge. + He was about eighteen years of age when his father was promoted + to the rank of Cæsar; but that fortunate event was attended with + his mother’s divorce; and the splendor of an Imperial alliance + reduced the son of Helena to a state of disgrace and humiliation. + Instead of following Constantius in the West, he remained in the + service of Diocletian, signalized his valor in the wars of Egypt + and Persia, and gradually rose to the honorable station of a + tribune of the first order. The figure of Constantine was tall + and majestic; he was dexterous in all his exercises, intrepid in + war, affable in peace; in his whole conduct, the active spirit of + youth was tempered by habitual prudence; and while his mind was + engrossed by ambition, he appeared cold and insensible to the + allurements of pleasure. The favor of the people and soldiers, + who had named him as a worthy candidate for the rank of Cæsar, + served only to exasperate the jealousy of Galerius; and though + prudence might restrain him from exercising any open violence, an + absolute monarch is seldom at a loss how to execute a sure and + secret evenge. Every hour increased the danger of Constantine, + and the anxiety of his father, who, by repeated letters, + expressed the warmest desire of embracing his son. For some time + the policy of Galerius supplied him with delays and excuses; but + it was impossible long to refuse so natural a request of his + associate, without maintaining his refusal by arms. The + permission of the journey was reluctantly granted, and whatever + precautions the emperor might have taken to intercept a return, + the consequences of which he, with so much reason, apprehended, + they were effectually disappointed by the incredible diligence of + Constantine. Leaving the palace of Nicomedia in the night, he + travelled post through Bithynia, Thrace, Dacia, Pannonia, Italy, + and Gaul, and, amidst the joyful acclamations of the people, + reached the port of Boulogne in the very moment when his father + was preparing to embark for Britain. + + The British expedition, and an easy victory over the barbarians + of Caledonia, were the last exploits of the reign of Constantius. + He ended his life in the Imperial palace of York, fifteen months + after he had received the title of Augustus, and almost fourteen + years and a half after he had been promoted to the rank of Cæsar. + His death was immediately succeeded by the elevation of + Constantine. The ideas of inheritance and succession are so very + familiar, that the generality of mankind consider them as founded + not only in reason but in nature itself. Our imagination readily + transfers the same principles from private property to public + dominion: and whenever a virtuous father leaves behind him a son + whose merit seems to justify the esteem, or even the hopes, of + the people, the joint influence of prejudice and of affection + operates with irresistible weight. The flower of the western + armies had followed Constantius into Britain, and the national + troops were reënforced by a numerous body of Alemanni, who obeyed + the orders of Crocus, one of their hereditary chieftains. The + opinion of their own importance, and the assurance that Britain, + Gaul, and Spain would acquiesce in their nomination, were + diligently inculcated to the legions by the adherents of + Constantine. The soldiers were asked, whether they could hesitate + a moment between the honor of placing at their head the worthy + son of their beloved emperor, and the ignominy of tamely + expecting the arrival of some obscure stranger, on whom it might + please the sovereign of Asia to bestow the armies and provinces + of the West. It was insinuated to them, that gratitude and + liberality held a distinguished place among the virtues of + Constantine; nor did that artful prince show himself to the + troops, till they were prepared to salute him with the names of + Augustus and Emperor. The throne was the object of his desires; + and had he been less actuated by ambition, it was his only means + of safety. He was well acquainted with the character and + sentiments of Galerius, and sufficiently apprised, that if he + wished to live he must determine to reign. The decent and even + obstinate resistance which he chose to affect, was contrived to + justify his usurpation; nor did he yield to the acclamations of + the army, till he had provided the proper materials for a letter, + which he immediately despatched to the emperor of the East. + Constantine informed him of the melancholy event of his father’s + death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and + respectfully lamented, that the affectionate violence of his + troops had not permitted him to solicit the Imperial purple in + the regular and constitutional manner. The first emotions of + Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage; and as + he could seldom restrain his passions, he loudly threatened, that + he would commit to the flames both the letter and the messenger. + But his resentment insensibly subsided; and when he recollected + the doubtful chance of war, when he had weighed the character and + strength of his adversary, he consented to embrace the honorable + accommodation which the prudence of Constantine had left open to + him. Without either condemning or ratifying the choice of the + British army, Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague + as the sovereign of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave + him only the title of Cæsar, and the fourth rank among the Roman + princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his + favorite Severus. The apparent harmony of the empire was still + preserved, and Constantine, who already possessed the substance, + expected, without impatience, an opportunity of obtaining the + honors, of supreme power. + + The children of Constantius by his second marriage were six in + number, three of either sex, and whose Imperial descent might + have solicited a preference over the meaner extraction of the son + of Helena. But Constantine was in the thirty-second year of his + age, in the full vigor both of mind and body, at the time when + the eldest of his brothers could not possibly be more than + thirteen years old. His claim of superior merit had been allowed + and ratified by the dying emperor. In his last moments + Constantius bequeathed to his eldest son the care of the safety + as well as greatness of the family; conjuring him to assume both + the authority and the sentiments of a father with regard to the + children of Theodora. Their liberal education, advantageous + marriages, the secure dignity of their lives, and the first + honors of the state with which they were invested, attest the + fraternal affection of Constantine; and as those princes + possessed a mild and grateful disposition, they submitted without + reluctance to the superiority of his genius and fortune. + + II. The ambitious spirit of Galerius was scarcely reconciled to + the disappointment of his views upon the Gallic provinces, before + the unexpected loss of Italy wounded his pride as well as power + in a still more sensible part. The long absence of the emperors + had filled Rome with discontent and indignation; and the people + gradually discovered, that the preference given to Nicomedia and + Milan was not to be ascribed to the particular inclination of + Diocletian, but to the permanent form of government which he had + instituted. It was in vain that, a few months after his + abdication, his successors dedicated, under his name, those + magnificent baths, whose ruins still supply the ground as well as + the materials for so many churches and convents. The tranquility + of those elegant recesses of ease and luxury was disturbed by the + impatient murmurs of the Romans, and a report was insensibly + circulated, that the sums expended in erecting those buildings + would soon be required at their hands. About that time the + avarice of Galerius, or perhaps the exigencies of the state, had + induced him to make a very strict and rigorous inquisition into + the property of his subjects, for the purpose of a general + taxation, both on their lands and on their persons. A very minute + survey appears to have been taken of their real estates; and + wherever there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, + torture was very freely employed to obtain a sincere declaration + of their personal wealth. The privileges which had exalted Italy + above the rank of the provinces were no longer regarded: * and + the officers of the revenue already began to number the Roman + people, and to settle the proportion of the new taxes. Even when + the spirit of freedom had been utterly extinguished, the tamest + subjects have sometimes ventured to resist an unprecedented + invasion of their property; but on this occasion the injury was + aggravated by the insult, and the sense of private interest was + quickened by that of national honor. The conquest of Macedonia, + as we have already observed, had delivered the Roman people from + the weight of personal taxes. Though they had experienced every + form of despotism, they had now enjoyed that exemption near five + hundred years; nor could they patiently brook the insolence of an + Illyrian peasant, who, from his distant residence in Asia, + presumed to number Rome among the tributary cities of his empire. + The rising fury of the people was encouraged by the authority, or + at least the connivance, of the senate; and the feeble remains of + the Prætorian guards, who had reason to apprehend their own + dissolution, embraced so honorable a pretence, and declared their + readiness to draw their swords in the service of their oppressed + country. It was the wish, and it soon became the hope, of every + citizen, that after expelling from Italy their foreign tyrants, + they should elect a prince who, by the place of his residence, + and by his maxims of government, might once more deserve the + title of Roman emperor. The name, as well as the situation, of + Maxentius determined in his favor the popular enthusiasm. + + Maxentius was the son of the emperor Maximian, and he had married + the daughter of Galerius. His birth and alliance seemed to offer + him the fairest promise of succeeding to the empire; but his + vices and incapacity procured him the same exclusion from the + dignity of Cæsar, which Constantine had deserved by a dangerous + superiority of merit. The policy of Galerius preferred such + associates as would never disgrace the choice, nor dispute the + commands, of their benefactor. An obscure stranger was therefore + raised to the throne of Italy, and the son of the late emperor of + the West was left to enjoy the luxury of a private fortune in a + villa a few miles distant from the capital. The gloomy passions + of his soul, shame, vexation, and rage, were inflamed by envy on + the news of Constantine’s success; but the hopes of Maxentius + revived with the public discontent, and he was easily persuaded + to unite his personal injury and pretensions with the cause of + the Roman people. Two Prætorian tribunes and a commissary of + provisions undertook the management of the conspiracy; and as + every order of men was actuated by the same spirit, the immediate + event was neither doubtful nor difficult. The præfect of the + city, and a few magistrates, who maintained their fidelity to + Severus, were massacred by the guards; and Maxentius, invested + with the Imperial ornaments, was acknowledged by the applauding + senate and people as the protector of the Roman freedom and + dignity. It is uncertain whether Maximian was previously + acquainted with the conspiracy; but as soon as the standard of + rebellion was erected at Rome, the old emperor broke from the + retirement where the authority of Diocletian had condemned him to + pass a life of melancholy and solitude, and concealed his + returning ambition under the disguise of paternal tenderness. At + the request of his son and of the senate, he condescended to + reassume the purple. His ancient dignity, his experience, and his + fame in arms, added strength as well as reputation to the party + of Maxentius. + + According to the advice, or rather the orders, of his colleague, + the emperor Severus immediately hastened to Rome, in the full + confidence, that, by his unexpected celerity, he should easily + suppress the tumult of an unwarlike populace, commanded by a + licentious youth. But he found on his arrival the gates of the + city shut against him, the walls filled with men and arms, an + experienced general at the head of the rebels, and his own troops + without spirit or affection. A large body of Moors deserted to + the enemy, allured by the promise of a large donative; and, if it + be true that they had been levied by Maximian in his African war, + preferring the natural feelings of gratitude to the artificial + ties of allegiance. Anulinus, the Prætorian præfect, declared + himself in favor of Maxentius, and drew after him the most + considerable part of the troops, accustomed to obey his commands. + Rome, according to the expression of an orator, recalled her + armies; and the unfortunate Severus, destitute of force and of + counsel, retired, or rather fled, with precipitation, to Ravenna. + Here he might for some time have been safe. The fortifications of + Ravenna were able to resist the attempts, and the morasses that + surrounded the town were sufficient to prevent the approach, of + the Italian army. The sea, which Severus commanded with a + powerful fleet, secured him an inexhaustible supply of + provisions, and gave a free entrance to the legions, which, on + the return of spring, would advance to his assistance from + Illyricum and the East. Maximian, who conducted the siege in + person, was soon convinced that he might waste his time and his + army in the fruitless enterprise, and that he had nothing to hope + either from force or famine. With an art more suitable to the + character of Diocletian than to his own, he directed his attack, + not so much against the walls of Ravenna, as against the mind of + Severus. The treachery which he had experienced disposed that + unhappy prince to distrust the most sincere of his friends and + adherents. The emissaries of Maximian easily persuaded his + credulity, that a conspiracy was formed to betray the town, and + prevailed upon his fears not to expose himself to the discretion + of an irritated conqueror, but to accept the faith of an + honorable capitulation. He was at first received with humanity + and treated with respect. Maximian conducted the captive emperor + to Rome, and gave him the most solemn assurances that he had + secured his life by the resignation of the purple. But Severus + could obtain only an easy death and an Imperial funeral. When the + sentence was signified to him, the manner of executing it was + left to his own choice; he preferred the favorite mode of the + ancients, that of opening his veins; and as soon as he expired, + his body was carried to the sepulchre which had been constructed + for the family of Gallienus. + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part II. + + Though the characters of Constantine and Maxentius had very + little affinity with each other, their situation and interest + were the same; and prudence seemed to require that they should + unite their forces against the common enemy. Notwithstanding the + superiority of his age and dignity, the indefatigable Maximian + passed the Alps, and, courting a personal interview with the + sovereign of Gaul, carried with him his daughter Fausta as the + pledge of the new alliance. The marriage was celebrated at Arles + with every circumstance of magnificence; and the ancient + colleague of Diocletian, who again asserted his claim to the + Western empire, conferred on his son-in-law and ally the title of + Augustus. By consenting to receive that honor from Maximian, + Constantine seemed to embrace the cause of Rome and of the + senate; but his professions were ambiguous, and his assistance + slow and ineffectual. He considered with attention the + approaching contest between the masters of Italy and the emperor + of the East, and was prepared to consult his own safety or + ambition in the event of the war. + + The importance of the occasion called for the presence and + abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army, collected + from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy, resolved to + revenge the death of Severus, and to chastise the rebellious + Romans; or, as he expressed his intentions, in the furious + language of a barbarian, to extirpate the senate, and to destroy + the people by the sword. But the skill of Maximian had concerted + a prudent system of defence. The invader found every place + hostile, fortified, and inaccessible; and though he forced his + way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, his dominion in + Italy was confined to the narrow limits of his camp. Sensible of + the increasing difficulties of his enterprise, the haughty + Galerius made the first advances towards a reconciliation, and + despatched two of his most considerable officers to tempt the + Roman princes by the offer of a conference, and the declaration + of his paternal regard for Maxentius, who might obtain much more + from his liberality than he could hope from the doubtful chance + of war. The offers of Galerius were rejected with firmness, his + perfidious friendship refused with contempt, and it was not long + before he discovered, that, unless he provided for his safety by + a timely retreat, he had some reason to apprehend the fate of + Severus. The wealth which the Romans defended against his + rapacious tyranny, they freely contributed for his destruction. + The name of Maximian, the popular arts of his son, the secret + distribution of large sums, and the promise of still more liberal + rewards, checked the ardor and corrupted the fidelity of the + Illyrian legions; and when Galerius at length gave the signal of + the retreat, it was with some difficulty that he could prevail on + his veterans not to desert a banner which had so often conducted + them to victory and honor. A contemporary writer assigns two + other causes for the failure of the expedition; but they are both + of such a nature, that a cautious historian will scarcely venture + to adopt them. We are told that Galerius, who had formed a very + imperfect notion of the greatness of Rome by the cities of the + East with which he was acquainted, found his forces inadequate to + the siege of that immense capital. But the extent of a city + serves only to render it more accessible to the enemy: Rome had + long since been accustomed to submit on the approach of a + conqueror; nor could the temporary enthusiasm of the people have + long contended against the discipline and valor of the legions. + We are likewise informed that the legions themselves were struck + with horror and remorse, and that those pious sons of the + republic refused to violate the sanctity of their venerable + parent. But when we recollect with how much ease, in the more + ancient civil wars, the zeal of party and the habits of military + obedience had converted the native citizens of Rome into her most + implacable enemies, we shall be inclined to distrust this extreme + delicacy of strangers and barbarians, who had never beheld Italy + till they entered it in a hostile manner. Had they not been + restrained by motives of a more interested nature, they would + probably have answered Galerius in the words of Cæsar’s veterans: + “If our general wishes to lead us to the banks of the Tyber, we + are prepared to trace out his camp. Whatsoever walls he has + determined to level with the ground, our hands are ready to work + the engines: nor shall we hesitate, should the name of the + devoted city be Rome itself.” These are indeed the expressions of + a poet; but of a poet who has been distinguished, and even + censured, for his strict adherence to the truth of history. + + The legions of Galerius exhibited a very melancholy proof of + their disposition, by the ravages which they committed in their + retreat. They murdered, they ravished, they plundered, they drove + away the flocks and herds of the Italians; they burnt the + villages through which they passed, and they endeavored to + destroy the country which it had not been in their power to + subdue. During the whole march, Maxentius hung on their rear, but + he very prudently declined a general engagement with those brave + and desperate veterans. His father had undertaken a second + journey into Gaul, with the hope of persuading Constantine, who + had assembled an army on the frontier, to join in the pursuit, + and to complete the victory. But the actions of Constantine were + guided by reason, and not by resentment. He persisted in the wise + resolution of maintaining a balance of power in the divided + empire, and he no longer hated Galerius, when that aspiring + prince had ceased to be an object of terror. + + The mind of Galerius was the most susceptible of the sterner + passions, but it was not, however, incapable of a sincere and + lasting friendship. Licinius, whose manners as well as character + were not unlike his own, seems to have engaged both his affection + and esteem. Their intimacy had commenced in the happier period + perhaps of their youth and obscurity. It had been cemented by the + freedom and dangers of a military life; they had advanced almost + by equal steps through the successive honors of the service; and + as soon as Galerius was invested with the Imperial dignity, he + seems to have conceived the design of raising his companion to + the same rank with himself. During the short period of his + prosperity, he considered the rank of Cæsar as unworthy of the + age and merit of Licinius, and rather chose to reserve for him + the place of Constantius, and the empire of the West. While the + emperor was employed in the Italian war, he intrusted his friend + with the defence of the Danube; and immediately after his return + from that unfortunate expedition, he invested Licinius with the + vacant purple of Severus, resigning to his immediate command the + provinces of Illyricum. The news of his promotion was no sooner + carried into the East, than Maximin, who governed, or rather + oppressed, the countries of Egypt and Syria, betrayed his envy + and discontent, disdained the inferior name of Cæsar, and, + notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, + exacted, almost by violence, the equal title of Augustus. For the + first, and indeed for the last time, the Roman world was + administered by six emperors. In the West, Constantine and + Maxentius affected to reverence their father Maximian. In the + East, Licinius and Maximin honored with more real consideration + their benefactor Galerius. The opposition of interest, and the + memory of a recent war, divided the empire into two great hostile + powers; but their mutual fears produced an apparent tranquillity, + and even a feigned reconciliation, till the death of the elder + princes, of Maximian, and more particularly of Galerius, gave a + new direction to the views and passions of their surviving + associates. + + When Maximian had reluctantly abdicated the empire, the venal + orators of the times applauded his philosophic moderation. When + his ambition excited, or at least encouraged, a civil war, they + returned thanks to his generous patriotism, and gently censured + that love of ease and retirement which had withdrawn him from the + public service. But it was impossible that minds like those of + Maximian and his son could long possess in harmony an undivided + power. Maxentius considered himself as the legal sovereign of + Italy, elected by the Roman senate and people; nor would he + endure the control of his father, who arrogantly declared that by + his name and abilities the rash youth had been established on the + throne. The cause was solemnly pleaded before the Prætorian + guards; and those troops, who dreaded the severity of the old + emperor, espoused the party of Maxentius. The life and freedom of + Maximian were, however, respected, and he retired from Italy into + Illyricum, affecting to lament his past conduct, and secretly + contriving new mischiefs. But Galerius, who was well acquainted + with his character, soon obliged him to leave his dominions, and + the last refuge of the disappointed Maximian was the court of his + son-in-law Constantine. He was received with respect by that + artful prince, and with the appearance of filial tenderness by + the empress Fausta. That he might remove every suspicion, he + resigned the Imperial purple a second time, professing himself at + length convinced of the vanity of greatness and ambition. Had he + persevered in this resolution, he might have ended his life with + less dignity, indeed, than in his first retirement, yet, however, + with comfort and reputation. But the near prospect of a throne + brought back to his remembrance the state from whence he was + fallen, and he resolved, by a desperate effort, either to reign + or to perish. An incursion of the Franks had summoned + Constantine, with a part of his army, to the banks of the Rhine; + the remainder of the troops were stationed in the southern + provinces of Gaul, which lay exposed to the enterprises of the + Italian emperor, and a considerable treasure was deposited in the + city of Arles. Maximian either craftily invented, or easily + credited, a vain report of the death of Constantine. Without + hesitation he ascended the throne, seized the treasure, and + scattering it with his accustomed profusion among the soldiers, + endeavored to awake in their minds the memory of his ancient + dignity and exploits. Before he could establish his authority, or + finish the negotiation which he appears to have entered into with + his son Maxentius, the celerity of Constantine defeated all his + hopes. On the first news of his perfidy and ingratitude, that + prince returned by rapid marches from the Rhine to the Saone, + embarked on the last-mentioned river at Chalons, and, at Lyons + trusting himself to the rapidity of the Rhone, arrived at the + gates of Arles with a military force which it was impossible for + Maximian to resist, and which scarcely permitted him to take + refuge in the neighboring city of Marseilles. The narrow neck of + land which joined that place to the continent was fortified + against the besiegers, whilst the sea was open, either for the + escape of Maximian, or for the succor of Maxentius, if the latter + should choose to disguise his invasion of Gaul under the + honorable pretence of defending a distressed, or, as he might + allege, an injured father. Apprehensive of the fatal consequences + of delay, Constantine gave orders for an immediate assault; but + the scaling-ladders were found too short for the height of the + walls, and Marseilles might have sustained as long a siege as it + formerly did against the arms of Cæsar, if the garrison, + conscious either of their fault or of their danger, had not + purchased their pardon by delivering up the city and the person + of Maximian. A secret but irrevocable sentence of death was + pronounced against the usurper; he obtained only the same favor + which he had indulged to Severus, and it was published to the + world, that, oppressed by the remorse of his repeated crimes, he + strangled himself with his own hands. After he had lost the + assistance, and disdained the moderate counsels, of Diocletian, + the second period of his active life was a series of public + calamities and personal mortifications, which were terminated, in + about three years, by an ignominious death. He deserved his fate; + but we should find more reason to applaud the humanity of + Constantine, if he had spared an old man, the benefactor of his + father, and the father of his wife. During the whole of this + melancholy transaction, it appears that Fausta sacrificed the + sentiments of nature to her conjugal duties. + + The last years of Galerius were less shameful and unfortunate; + and though he had filled with more glory the subordinate station + of Cæsar than the superior rank of Augustus, he preserved, till + the moment of his death, the first place among the princes of the + Roman world. He survived his retreat from Italy about four years; + and wisely relinquishing his views of universal empire, he + devoted the remainder of his life to the enjoyment of pleasure, + and to the execution of some works of public utility, among which + we may distinguish the discharging into the Danube the + superfluous waters of the Lake Pelso, and the cutting down the + immense forests that encompassed it; an operation worthy of a + monarch, since it gave an extensive country to the agriculture of + his Pannonian subjects. His death was occasioned by a very + painful and lingering disorder. His body, swelled by an + intemperate course of life to an unwieldy corpulence, was covered + with ulcers, and devoured by innumerable swarms of those insects + which have given their name to a most loathsome disease; but as + Galerius had offended a very zealous and powerful party among his + subjects, his sufferings, instead of exciting their compassion, + have been celebrated as the visible effects of divine justice. He + had no sooner expired in his palace of Nicomedia, than the two + emperors who were indebted for their purple to his favors, began + to collect their forces, with the intention either of disputing, + or of dividing, the dominions which he had left without a master. + They were persuaded, however, to desist from the former design, + and to agree in the latter. The provinces of Asia fell to the + share of Maximin, and those of Europe augmented the portion of + Licinius. The Hellespont and the Thracian Bosphorus formed their + mutual boundary, and the banks of those narrow seas, which flowed + in the midst of the Roman world, were covered with soldiers, with + arms, and with fortifications. The deaths of Maximian and of + Galerius reduced the number of emperors to four. The sense of + their true interest soon connected Licinius and Constantine; a + secret alliance was concluded between Maximin and Maxentius, and + their unhappy subjects expected with terror the bloody + consequences of their inevitable dissensions, which were no + longer restrained by the fear or the respect which they had + entertained for Galerius. + + Among so many crimes and misfortunes, occasioned by the passions + of the Roman princes, there is some pleasure in discovering a + single action which may be ascribed to their virtue. In the sixth + year of his reign, Constantine visited the city of Autun, and + generously remitted the arrears of tribute, reducing at the same + time the proportion of their assessment from twenty-five to + eighteen thousand heads, subject to the real and personal + capitation. Yet even this indulgence affords the most + unquestionable proof of the public misery. This tax was so + extremely oppressive, either in itself or in the mode of + collecting it, that whilst the revenue was increased by + extortion, it was diminished by despair: a considerable part of + the territory of Autun was left uncultivated; and great numbers + of the provincials rather chose to live as exiles and outlaws, + than to support the weight of civil society. It is but too + probable, that the bountiful emperor relieved, by a partial act + of liberality, one among the many evils which he had caused by + his general maxims of administration. But even those maxims were + less the effect of choice than of necessity. And if we except the + death of Maximian, the reign of Constantine in Gaul seems to have + been the most innocent and even virtuous period of his life. The + provinces were protected by his presence from the inroads of the + barbarians, who either dreaded or experienced his active valor. + After a signal victory over the Franks and Alemanni, several of + their princes were exposed by his order to the wild beasts in the + amphitheatre of Treves, and the people seem to have enjoyed the + spectacle, without discovering, in such a treatment of royal + captives, any thing that was repugnant to the laws of nations or + of humanity. * + + The virtues of Constantine were rendered more illustrious by the + vices of Maxentius. Whilst the Gallic provinces enjoyed as much + happiness as the condition of the times was capable of receiving, + Italy and Africa groaned under the dominion of a tyrant, as + contemptible as he was odious. The zeal of flattery and faction + has indeed too frequently sacrificed the reputation of the + vanquished to the glory of their successful rivals; but even + those writers who have revealed, with the most freedom and + pleasure, the faults of Constantine, unanimously confess that + Maxentius was cruel, rapacious, and profligate. He had the good + fortune to suppress a slight rebellion in Africa. The governor + and a few adherents had been guilty; the province suffered for + their crime. The flourishing cities of Cirtha and Carthage, and + the whole extent of that fertile country, were wasted by fire and + sword. The abuse of victory was followed by the abuse of law and + justice. A formidable army of sycophants and delators invaded + Africa; the rich and the noble were easily convicted of a + connection with the rebels; and those among them who experienced + the emperor’s clemency, were only punished by the confiscation of + their estates. So signal a victory was celebrated by a + magnificent triumph, and Maxentius exposed to the eyes of the + people the spoils and captives of a Roman province. The state of + the capital was no less deserving of compassion than that of + Africa. The wealth of Rome supplied an inexhaustible fund for his + vain and prodigal expenses, and the ministers of his revenue were + skilled in the arts of rapine. It was under his reign that the + method of exacting a _free gift_ from the senators was first + invented; and as the sum was insensibly increased, the pretences + of levying it, a victory, a birth, a marriage, or an imperial + consulship, were proportionably multiplied. Maxentius had imbibed + the same implacable aversion to the senate, which had + characterized most of the former tyrants of Rome; nor was it + possible for his ungrateful temper to forgive the generous + fidelity which had raised him to the throne, and supported him + against all his enemies. The lives of the senators were exposed + to his jealous suspicions, the dishonor of their wives and + daughters heightened the gratification of his sensual passions. + It may be presumed that an Imperial lover was seldom reduced to + sigh in vain; but whenever persuasion proved ineffectual, he had + recourse to violence; and there remains _one_ memorable example + of a noble matron, who preserved her chastity by a voluntary + death. The soldiers were the only order of men whom he appeared + to respect, or studied to please. He filled Rome and Italy with + armed troops, connived at their tumults, suffered them with + impunity to plunder, and even to massacre, the defenceless + people; and indulging them in the same licentiousness which their + emperor enjoyed, Maxentius often bestowed on his military + favorites the splendid villa, or the beautiful wife, of a + senator. A prince of such a character, alike incapable of + governing, either in peace or in war, might purchase the support, + but he could never obtain the esteem, of the army. Yet his pride + was equal to his other vices. Whilst he passed his indolent life + either within the walls of his palace, or in the neighboring + gardens of Sallust, he was repeatedly heard to declare, that _he_ + _alone_ was emperor, and that the other princes were no more than + his lieutenants, on whom he had devolved the defence of the + frontier provinces, that he might enjoy without interruption the + elegant luxury of the capital. Rome, which had so long regretted + the absence, lamented, during the six years of his reign, the + presence of her sovereign. + + Though Constantine might view the conduct of Maxentius with + abhorrence, and the situation of the Romans with compassion, we + have no reason to presume that he would have taken up arms to + punish the one or to relieve the other. But the tyrant of Italy + rashly ventured to provoke a formidable enemy, whose ambition had + been hitherto restrained by considerations of prudence, rather + than by principles of justice. After the death of Maximian, his + titles, according to the established custom, had been erased, and + his statues thrown down with ignominy. His son, who had + persecuted and deserted him when alive, effected to display the + most pious regard for his memory, and gave orders that a similar + treatment should be immediately inflicted on all the statues that + had been erected in Italy and Africa to the honor of Constantine. + That wise prince, who sincerely wished to decline a war, with the + difficulty and importance of which he was sufficiently + acquainted, at first dissembled the insult, and sought for + redress by the milder expedient of negotiation, till he was + convinced that the hostile and ambitious designs of the Italian + emperor made it necessary for him to arm in his own defence. + Maxentius, who openly avowed his pretensions to the whole + monarchy of the West, had already prepared a very considerable + force to invade the Gallic provinces on the side of Rhætia; and + though he could not expect any assistance from Licinius, he was + flattered with the hope that the legions of Illyricum, allured by + his presents and promises, would desert the standard of that + prince, and unanimously declare themselves his soldiers and + subjects. Constantine no longer hesitated. He had deliberated + with caution, he acted with vigor. He gave a private audience to + the ambassadors, who, in the name of the senate and people, + conjured him to deliver Rome from a detested tyrant; and without + regarding the timid remonstrances of his council, he resolved to + prevent the enemy, and to carry the war into the heart of Italy. + + The enterprise was as full of danger as of glory; and the + unsuccessful event of two former invasions was sufficient to + inspire the most serious apprehensions. The veteran troops, who + revered the name of Maximian, had embraced in both those wars the + party of his son, and were now restrained by a sense of honor, as + well as of interest, from entertaining an idea of a second + desertion. Maxentius, who considered the Prætorian guards as the + firmest defence of his throne, had increased them to their + ancient establishment; and they composed, including the rest of + the Italians who were enlisted into his service, a formidable + body of fourscore thousand men. Forty thousand Moors and + Carthaginians had been raised since the reduction of Africa. Even + Sicily furnished its proportion of troops; and the armies of + Maxentius amounted to one hundred and seventy thousand foot and + eighteen thousand horse. The wealth of Italy supplied the + expenses of the war; and the adjacent provinces were exhausted, + to form immense magazines of corn and every other kind of + provisions. + + The whole force of Constantine consisted of ninety thousand foot + and eight thousand horse; and as the defence of the Rhine + required an extraordinary attention during the absence of the + emperor, it was not in his power to employ above half his troops + in the Italian expedition, unless he sacrificed the public safety + to his private quarrel. At the head of about forty thousand + soldiers he marched to encounter an enemy whose numbers were at + least four times superior to his own. But the armies of Rome, + placed at a secure distance from danger, were enervated by + indulgence and luxury. Habituated to the baths and theatres of + Rome, they took the field with reluctance, and were chiefly + composed of veterans who had almost forgotten, or of new levies + who had never acquired, the use of arms and the practice of war. + The hardy legions of Gaul had long defended the frontiers of the + empire against the barbarians of the North; and in the + performance of that laborious service, their valor was exercised + and their discipline confirmed. There appeared the same + difference between the leaders as between the armies. Caprice or + flattery had tempted Maxentius with the hopes of conquest; but + these aspiring hopes soon gave way to the habits of pleasure and + the consciousness of his inexperience. The intrepid mind of + Constantine had been trained from his earliest youth to war, to + action, and to military command. + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part III. + + When Hannibal marched from Gaul into Italy, he was obliged, first + to discover, and then to open, a way over mountains, and through + savage nations, that had never yielded a passage to a regular + army. The Alps were then guarded by nature, they are now + fortified by art. Citadels, constructed with no less skill than + labor and expense, command every avenue into the plain, and on + that side render Italy almost inaccessible to the enemies of the + king of Sardinia. But in the course of the intermediate period, + the generals, who have attempted the passage, have seldom + experienced any difficulty or resistance. In the age of + Constantine, the peasants of the mountains were civilized and + obedient subjects; the country was plentifully stocked with + provisions, and the stupendous highways, which the Romans had + carried over the Alps, opened several communications between Gaul + and Italy. Constantine preferred the road of the Cottian Alps, + or, as it is now called, of Mount Cenis, and led his troops with + such active diligence, that he descended into the plain of + Piedmont before the court of Maxentius had received any certain + intelligence of his departure from the banks of the Rhine. The + city of Susa, however, which is situated at the foot of Mount + Cenis, was surrounded with walls, and provided with a garrison + sufficiently numerous to check the progress of an invader; but + the impatience of Constantine’s troops disdained the tedious + forms of a siege. The same day that they appeared before Susa, + they applied fire to the gates, and ladders to the walls; and + mounting to the assault amidst a shower of stones and arrows, + they entered the place sword in hand, and cut in pieces the + greatest part of the garrison. The flames were extinguished by + the care of Constantine, and the remains of Susa preserved from + total destruction. About forty miles from thence, a more severe + contest awaited him. A numerous army of Italians was assembled + under the lieutenants of Maxentius, in the plains of Turin. Its + principal strength consisted in a species of heavy cavalry, which + the Romans, since the decline of their discipline, had borrowed + from the nations of the East. The horses, as well as the men, + were clothed in complete armor, the joints of which were artfully + adapted to the motions of their bodies. The aspect of this + cavalry was formidable, their weight almost irresistible; and as, + on this occasion, their generals had drawn them up in a compact + column or wedge, with a sharp point, and with spreading flanks, + they flattered themselves that they could easily break and + trample down the army of Constantine. They might, perhaps, have + succeeded in their design, had not their experienced adversary + embraced the same method of defence, which in similar + circumstances had been practised by Aurelian. The skilful + evolutions of Constantine divided and baffled this massy column + of cavalry. The troops of Maxentius fled in confusion towards + Turin; and as the gates of the city were shut against them, very + few escaped the sword of the victorious pursuers. By this + important service, Turin deserved to experience the clemency and + even favor of the conqueror. He made his entry into the Imperial + palace of Milan, and almost all the cities of Italy between the + Alps and the Po not only acknowledged the power, but embraced + with zeal the party, of Constantine. + + From Milan to Rome, the Æmilian and Flaminian highways offered an + easy march of about four hundred miles; but though Constantine + was impatient to encounter the tyrant, he prudently directed his + operations against another army of Italians, who, by their + strength and position, might either oppose his progress, or, in + case of a misfortune, might intercept his retreat. Ruricius + Pompeianus, a general distinguished by his valor and ability, had + under his command the city of Verona, and all the troops that + were stationed in the province of Venetia. As soon as he was + informed that Constantine was advancing towards him, he detached + a large body of cavalry, which was defeated in an engagement near + Brescia, and pursued by the Gallic legions as far as the gates of + Verona. The necessity, the importance, and the difficulties of + the siege of Verona, immediately presented themselves to the + sagacious mind of Constantine. The city was accessible only by a + narrow peninsula towards the west, as the other three sides were + surrounded by the Adige, a rapid river, which covered the + province of Venetia, from whence the besieged derived an + inexhaustible supply of men and provisions. It was not without + great difficulty, and after several fruitless attempts, that + Constantine found means to pass the river at some distance above + the city, and in a place where the torrent was less violent. He + then encompassed Verona with strong lines, pushed his attacks + with prudent vigor, and repelled a desperate sally of Pompeianus. + That intrepid general, when he had used every means of defence + that the strength of the place or that of the garrison could + afford, secretly escaped from Verona, anxious not for his own, + but for the public safety. With indefatigable diligence he soon + collected an army sufficient either to meet Constantine in the + field, or to attack him if he obstinately remained within his + lines. The emperor, attentive to the motions, and informed of the + approach of so formidable an enemy, left a part of his legions to + continue the operations of the siege, whilst, at the head of + those troops on whose valor and fidelity he more particularly + depended, he advanced in person to engage the general of + Maxentius. The army of Gaul was drawn up in two lines, according + to the usual practice of war; but their experienced leader, + perceiving that the numbers of the Italians far exceeded his own, + suddenly changed his disposition, and, reducing the second, + extended the front of his first line to a just proportion with + that of the enemy. Such evolutions, which only veteran troops can + execute without confusion in a moment of danger, commonly prove + decisive; but as this engagement began towards the close of the + day, and was contested with great obstinacy during the whole + night, there was less room for the conduct of the generals than + for the courage of the soldiers. The return of light displayed + the victory of Constantine, and a field of carnage covered with + many thousands of the vanquished Italians. Their general, + Pompeianus, was found among the slain; Verona immediately + surrendered at discretion, and the garrison was made prisoners of + war. When the officers of the victorious army congratulated their + master on this important success, they ventured to add some + respectful complaints, of such a nature, however, as the most + jealous monarchs will listen to without displeasure. They + represented to Constantine, that, not contented with all the + duties of a commander, he had exposed his own person with an + excess of valor which almost degenerated into rashness; and they + conjured him for the future to pay more regard to the + preservation of a life in which the safety of Rome and of the + empire was involved. + + While Constantine signalized his conduct and valor in the field, + the sovereign of Italy appeared insensible of the calamities and + danger of a civil war which reigned in the heart of his + dominions. Pleasure was still the only business of Maxentius. + Concealing, or at least attempting to conceal, from the public + knowledge the misfortunes of his arms, he indulged himself in a + vain confidence which deferred the remedies of the approaching + evil, without deferring the evil itself. The rapid progress of + Constantine was scarcely sufficient to awaken him from his fatal + security; he flattered himself, that his well-known liberality, + and the majesty of the Roman name, which had already delivered + him from two invasions, would dissipate with the same facility + the rebellious army of Gaul. The officers of experience and + ability, who had served under the banners of Maximian, were at + length compelled to inform his effeminate son of the imminent + danger to which he was reduced; and, with a freedom that at once + surprised and convinced him, to urge the necessity of preventing + his ruin by a vigorous exertion of his remaining power. The + resources of Maxentius, both of men and money, were still + considerable. The Prætorian guards felt how strongly their own + interest and safety were connected with his cause; and a third + army was soon collected, more numerous than those which had been + lost in the battles of Turin and Verona. It was far from the + intention of the emperor to lead his troops in person. A stranger + to the exercises of war, he trembled at the apprehension of so + dangerous a contest; and as fear is commonly superstitious, he + listened with melancholy attention to the rumors of omens and + presages which seemed to menace his life and empire. Shame at + length supplied the place of courage, and forced him to take the + field. He was unable to sustain the contempt of the Roman people. + The circus resounded with their indignant clamors, and they + tumultuously besieged the gates of the palace, reproaching the + pusillanimity of their indolent sovereign, and celebrating the + heroic spirit of Constantine. Before Maxentius left Rome, he + consulted the Sibylline books. The guardians of these ancient + oracles were as well versed in the arts of this world as they + were ignorant of the secrets of fate; and they returned him a + very prudent answer, which might adapt itself to the event, and + secure their reputation, whatever should be the chance of arms. + + The celerity of Constantine’s march has been compared to the + rapid conquest of Italy by the first of the Cæsars; nor is the + flattering parallel repugnant to the truth of history, since no + more than fifty-eight days elapsed between the surrender of + Verona and the final decision of the war. Constantine had always + apprehended that the tyrant would consult the dictates of fear, + and perhaps of prudence; and that, instead of risking his last + hopes in a general engagement, he would shut himself up within + the walls of Rome. His ample magazines secured him against the + danger of famine; and as the situation of Constantine admitted + not of delay, he might have been reduced to the sad necessity of + destroying with fire and sword the Imperial city, the noblest + reward of his victory, and the deliverance of which had been the + motive, or rather indeed the pretence, of the civil war. It was + with equal surprise and pleasure, that on his arrival at a place + called Saxa Rubra, about nine miles from Rome, he discovered the + army of Maxentius prepared to give him battle. Their long front + filled a very spacious plain, and their deep array reached to the + banks of the Tyber, which covered their rear, and forbade their + retreat. We are informed, and we may believe, that Constantine + disposed his troops with consummate skill, and that he chose for + himself the post of honor and danger. Distinguished by the + splendor of his arms, he charged in person the cavalry of his + rival; and his irresistible attack determined the fortune of the + day. The cavalry of Maxentius was principally composed either of + unwieldy cuirassiers, or of light Moors and Numidians. They + yielded to the vigor of the Gallic horse, which possessed more + activity than the one, more firmness than the other. The defeat + of the two wings left the infantry without any protection on its + flanks, and the undisciplined Italians fled without reluctance + from the standard of a tyrant whom they had always hated, and + whom they no longer feared. The Prætorians, conscious that their + offences were beyond the reach of mercy, were animated by revenge + and despair. Notwithstanding their repeated efforts, those brave + veterans were unable to recover the victory: they obtained, + however, an honorable death; and it was observed that their + bodies covered the same ground which had been occupied by their + ranks. The confusion then became general, and the dismayed troops + of Maxentius, pursued by an implacable enemy, rushed by thousands + into the deep and rapid stream of the Tyber. The emperor himself + attempted to escape back into the city over the Milvian bridge; + but the crowds which pressed together through that narrow passage + forced him into the river, where he was immediately drowned by + the weight of his armor. His body, which had sunk very deep into + the mud, was found with some difficulty the next day. The sight + of his head, when it was exposed to the eyes of the people, + convinced them of their deliverance, and admonished them to + receive with acclamations of loyalty and gratitude the fortunate + Constantine, who thus achieved by his valor and ability the most + splendid enterprise of his life. + + In the use of victory, Constantine neither deserved the praise of + clemency, nor incurred the censure of immoderate rigor. He + inflicted the same treatment to which a defeat would have exposed + his own person and family, put to death the two sons of the + tyrant, and carefully extirpated his whole race. The most + distinguished adherents of Maxentius must have expected to share + his fate, as they had shared his prosperity and his crimes; but + when the Roman people loudly demanded a greater number of + victims, the conqueror resisted, with firmness and humanity, + those servile clamors, which were dictated by flattery as well as + by resentment. Informers were punished and discouraged; the + innocent, who had suffered under the late tyranny, were recalled + from exile, and restored to their estates. A general act of + oblivion quieted the minds and settled the property of the + people, both in Italy and in Africa. The first time that + Constantine honored the senate with his presence, he + recapitulated his own services and exploits in a modest oration, + assured that illustrious order of his sincere regard, and + promised to reëstablish its ancient dignity and privileges. The + grateful senate repaid these unmeaning professions by the empty + titles of honor, which it was yet in their power to bestow; and + without presuming to ratify the authority of Constantine, they + passed a decree to assign him the first rank among the three + _Augusti_ who governed the Roman world. Games and festivals were + instituted to preserve the fame of his victory, and several + edifices, raised at the expense of Maxentius, were dedicated to + the honor of his successful rival. The triumphal arch of + Constantine still remains a melancholy proof of the decline of + the arts, and a singular testimony of the meanest vanity. As it + was not possible to find in the capital of the empire a sculptor + who was capable of adorning that public monument, the arch of + Trajan, without any respect either for his memory or for the + rules of propriety, was stripped of its most elegant figures. The + difference of times and persons, of actions and characters, was + totally disregarded. The Parthian captives appear prostrate at + the feet of a prince who never carried his arms beyond the + Euphrates; and curious antiquarians can still discover the head + of Trajan on the trophies of Constantine. The new ornaments which + it was necessary to introduce between the vacancies of ancient + sculpture are executed in the rudest and most unskilful manner. + + The final abolition of the Prætorian guards was a measure of + prudence as well as of revenge. Those haughty troops, whose + numbers and privileges had been restored, and even augmented, by + Maxentius, were forever suppressed by Constantine. Their + fortified camp was destroyed, and the few Prætorians who had + escaped the fury of the sword were dispersed among the legions, + and banished to the frontiers of the empire, where they might be + serviceable without again becoming dangerous. By suppressing the + troops which were usually stationed in Rome, Constantine gave the + fatal blow to the dignity of the senate and people, and the + disarmed capital was exposed without protection to the insults or + neglect of its distant master. We may observe, that in this last + effort to preserve their expiring freedom, the Romans, from the + apprehension of a tribute, had raised Maxentius to the throne. He + exacted that tribute from the senate under the name of a free + gift. They implored the assistance of Constantine. He vanquished + the tyrant, and converted the free gift into a perpetual tax. The + senators, according to the declaration which was required of + their property, were divided into several classes. The most + opulent paid annually eight pounds of gold, the next class paid + four, the last two, and those whose poverty might have claimed an + exemption, were assessed, however, at seven pieces of gold. + Besides the regular members of the senate, their sons, their + descendants, and even their relations, enjoyed the vain + privileges, and supported the heavy burdens, of the senatorial + order; nor will it any longer excite our surprise, that + Constantine should be attentive to increase the number of persons + who were included under so useful a description. After the defeat + of Maxentius, the victorious emperor passed no more than two or + three months in Rome, which he visited twice during the remainder + of his life, to celebrate the solemn festivals of the tenth and + of the twentieth years of his reign. Constantine was almost + perpetually in motion, to exercise the legions, or to inspect the + state of the provinces. Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Sirmium, + Naissus, and Thessalonica, were the occasional places of his + residence, till he founded a new Rome on the confines of Europe + and Asia. + + Before Constantine marched into Italy, he had secured the + friendship, or at least the neutrality, of Licinius, the Illyrian + emperor. He had promised his sister Constantia in marriage to + that prince; but the celebration of the nuptials was deferred + till after the conclusion of the war, and the interview of the + two emperors at Milan, which was appointed for that purpose, + appeared to cement the union of their families and interests. In + the midst of the public festivity they were suddenly obliged to + take leave of each other. An inroad of the Franks summoned + Constantine to the Rhine, and the hostile approach of the + sovereign of Asia demanded the immediate presence of Licinius. + Maximin had been the secret ally of Maxentius, and without being + discouraged by his fate, he resolved to try the fortune of a + civil war. He moved out of Syria, towards the frontiers of + Bithynia, in the depth of winter. The season was severe and + tempestuous; great numbers of men as well as horses perished in + the snow; and as the roads were broken up by incessant rains, he + was obliged to leave behind him a considerable part of the heavy + baggage, which was unable to follow the rapidity of his forced + marches. By this extraordinary effort of diligence, he arrived + with a harassed but formidable army, on the banks of the Thracian + Bosphorus before the lieutenants of Licinius were apprised of his + hostile intentions. Byzantium surrendered to the power of + Maximin, after a siege of eleven days. He was detained some days + under the walls of Heraclea; and he had no sooner taken + possession of that city than he was alarmed by the intelligence + that Licinius had pitched his camp at the distance of only + eighteen miles. After a fruitless negotiation, in which the two + princes attempted to seduce the fidelity of each other’s + adherents, they had recourse to arms. The emperor of the East + commanded a disciplined and veteran army of above seventy + thousand men; and Licinius, who had collected about thirty + thousand Illyrians, was at first oppressed by the superiority of + numbers. His military skill, and the firmness of his troops, + restored the day, and obtained a decisive victory. The incredible + speed which Maximin exerted in his flight is much more celebrated + than his prowess in the battle. Twenty-four hours afterwards he + was seen, pale, trembling, and without his Imperial ornaments, at + Nicomedia, one hundred and sixty miles from the place of his + defeat. The wealth of Asia was yet unexhausted; and though the + flower of his veterans had fallen in the late action, he had + still power, if he could obtain time, to draw very numerous + levies from Syria and Egypt. But he survived his misfortune only + three or four months. His death, which happened at Tarsus, was + variously ascribed to despair, to poison, and to the divine + justice. As Maximin was alike destitute of abilities and of + virtue, he was lamented neither by the people nor by the + soldiers. The provinces of the East, delivered from the terrors + of civil war, cheerfully acknowledged the authority of Licinius. + + The vanquished emperor left behind him two children, a boy of + about eight, and a girl of about seven, years old. Their + inoffensive age might have excited compassion; but the compassion + of Licinius was a very feeble resource, nor did it restrain him + from _extinguishing_the name and memory of his adversary. The + death of Severianus will admit of less excuse, as it was dictated + neither by revenge nor by policy. The conqueror had never + received any injury from the father of that unhappy youth, and + the short and obscure reign of Severus, in a distant part of the + empire, was already forgotten. But the execution of Candidianus + was an act of the blackest cruelty and ingratitude. He was the + natural son of Galerius, the friend and benefactor of Licinius. + The prudent father had judged him too young to sustain the weight + of a diadem; but he hoped that, under the protection of princes + who were indebted to his favor for the Imperial purple, + Candidianus might pass a secure and honorable life. He was now + advancing towards the twentieth year of his age, and the royalty + of his birth, though unsupported either by merit or ambition, was + sufficient to exasperate the jealous mind of Licinius. To these + innocent and illustrious victims of his tyranny, we must add the + wife and daughter of the emperor Diocletian. When that prince + conferred on Galerius the title of Cæsar, he had given him in + marriage his daughter Valeria, whose melancholy adventures might + furnish a very singular subject for tragedy. She had fulfilled + and even surpassed the duties of a wife. As she had not any + children herself, she condescended to adopt the illegitimate son + of her husband, and invariably displayed towards the unhappy + Candidianus the tenderness and anxiety of a real mother. After + the death of Galerius, her ample possessions provoked the + avarice, and her personal attractions excited the desires, of his + successor, Maximin. He had a wife still alive; but divorce was + permitted by the Roman law, and the fierce passions of the tyrant + demanded an immediate gratification. The answer of Valeria was + such as became the daughter and widow of emperors; but it was + tempered by the prudence which her defenceless condition + compelled her to observe. She represented to the persons whom + Maximin had employed on this occasion, “that even if honor could + permit a woman of her character and dignity to entertain a + thought of second nuptials, decency at least must forbid her to + listen to his addresses at a time when the ashes of her husband + and his benefactor were still warm, and while the sorrows of her + mind were still expressed by her mourning garments. She ventured + to declare, that she could place very little confidence in the + professions of a man whose cruel inconstancy was capable of + repudiating a faithful and affectionate wife.” On this repulse, + the love of Maximin was converted into fury; and as witnesses and + judges were always at his disposal, it was easy for him to cover + his fury with an appearance of legal proceedings, and to assault + the reputation as well as the happiness of Valeria. Her estates + were confiscated, her eunuchs and domestics devoted to the most + inhuman tortures; and several innocent and respectable matrons, + who were honored with her friendship, suffered death, on a false + accusation of adultery. The empress herself, together with her + mother Prisca, was condemned to exile; and as they were + ignominiously hurried from place to place before they were + confined to a sequestered village in the deserts of Syria, they + exposed their shame and distress to the provinces of the East, + which, during thirty years, had respected their august dignity. + Diocletian made several ineffectual efforts to alleviate the + misfortunes of his daughter; and, as the last return that he + expected for the Imperial purple, which he had conferred upon + Maximin, he entreated that Valeria might be permitted to share + his retirement of Salona, and to close the eyes of her afflicted + father. He entreated; but as he could no longer threaten, his + prayers were received with coldness and disdain; and the pride of + Maximin was gratified, in treating Diocletian as a suppliant, and + his daughter as a criminal. The death of Maximin seemed to assure + the empresses of a favorable alteration in their fortune. The + public disorders relaxed the vigilance of their guard, and they + easily found means to escape from the place of their exile, and + to repair, though with some precaution, and in disguise, to the + court of Licinius. His behavior, in the first days of his reign, + and the honorable reception which he gave to young Candidianus, + inspired Valeria with a secret satisfaction, both on her own + account and on that of her adopted son. But these grateful + prospects were soon succeeded by horror and astonishment; and the + bloody executions which stained the palace of Nicomedia + sufficiently convinced her that the throne of Maximin was filled + by a tyrant more inhuman than himself. Valeria consulted her + safety by a hasty flight, and, still accompanied by her mother + Prisca, they wandered above fifteen months through the provinces, + concealed in the disguise of plebeian habits. They were at length + discovered at Thessalonica; and as the sentence of their death + was already pronounced, they were immediately beheaded, and their + bodies thrown into the sea. The people gazed on the melancholy + spectacle; but their grief and indignation were suppressed by the + terrors of a military guard. Such was the unworthy fate of the + wife and daughter of Diocletian. We lament their misfortunes, we + cannot discover their crimes; and whatever idea we may justly + entertain of the cruelty of Licinius, it remains a matter of + surprise that he was not contented with some more secret and + decent method of revenge. + + The Roman world was now divided between Constantine and Licinius, + the former of whom was master of the West, and the latter of the + East. It might perhaps have been expected that the conquerors, + fatigued with civil war, and connected by a private as well as + public alliance, would have renounced, or at least would have + suspended, any further designs of ambition. And yet a year had + scarcely elapsed after the death of Maximin, before the + victorious emperors turned their arms against each other. The + genius, the success, and the aspiring temper of Constantine, may + seem to mark him out as the aggressor; but the perfidious + character of Licinius justifies the most unfavorable suspicions, + and by the faint light which history reflects on this + transaction, we may discover a conspiracy fomented by his arts + against the authority of his colleague. Constantine had lately + given his sister Anastasia in marriage to Bassianus, a man of a + considerable family and fortune, and had elevated his new kinsman + to the rank of Cæsar. According to the system of government + instituted by Diocletian, Italy, and perhaps Africa, were + designed for his department in the empire. But the performance of + the promised favor was either attended with so much delay, or + accompanied with so many unequal conditions, that the fidelity of + Bassianus was alienated rather than secured by the honorable + distinction which he had obtained. His nomination had been + ratified by the consent of Licinius; and that artful prince, by + the means of his emissaries, soon contrived to enter into a + secret and dangerous correspondence with the new Cæsar, to + irritate his discontents, and to urge him to the rash enterprise + of extorting by violence what he might in vain solicit from the + justice of Constantine. But the vigilant emperor discovered the + conspiracy before it was ripe for execution; and after solemnly + renouncing the alliance of Bassianus, despoiled him of the + purple, and inflicted the deserved punishment on his treason and + ingratitude. The haughty refusal of Licinius, when he was + required to deliver up the criminals who had taken refuge in his + dominions, confirmed the suspicions already entertained of his + perfidy; and the indignities offered at Æmona, on the frontiers + of Italy, to the statues of Constantine, became the signal of + discord between the two princes. + + The first battle was fought near Cibalis, a city of Pannonia, + situated on the River Save, about fifty miles above Sirmium. From + the inconsiderable forces which in this important contest two + such powerful monarchs brought into the field, it may be inferred + that the one was suddenly provoked, and that the other was + unexpectedly surprised. The emperor of the West had only twenty + thousand, and the sovereign of the East no more than five and + thirty thousand, men. The inferiority of number was, however, + compensated by the advantage of the ground. Constantine had taken + post in a defile about half a mile in breadth, between a steep + hill and a deep morass, and in that situation he steadily + expected and repulsed the first attack of the enemy. He pursued + his success, and advanced into the plain. But the veteran legions + of Illyricum rallied under the standard of a leader who had been + trained to arms in the school of Probus and Diocletian. The + missile weapons on both sides were soon exhausted; the two + armies, with equal valor, rushed to a closer engagement of swords + and spears, and the doubtful contest had already lasted from the + dawn of the day to a late hour of the evening, when the right + wing, which Constantine led in person, made a vigorous and + decisive charge. The judicious retreat of Licinius saved the + remainder of his troops from a total defeat; but when he computed + his loss, which amounted to more than twenty thousand men, he + thought it unsafe to pass the night in the presence of an active + and victorious enemy. Abandoning his camp and magazines, he + marched away with secrecy and diligence at the head of the + greatest part of his cavalry, and was soon removed beyond the + danger of a pursuit. His diligence preserved his wife, his son, + and his treasures, which he had deposited at Sirmium. Licinius + passed through that city, and breaking down the bridge on the + Save, hastened to collect a new army in Dacia and Thrace. In his + flight he bestowed the precarious title of Cæsar on Valens, his + general of the Illyrian frontier. + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part IV. + + The plain of Mardia in Thrace was the theatre of a second battle + no less obstinate and bloody than the former. The troops on both + sides displayed the same valor and discipline; and the victory + was once more decided by the superior abilities of Constantine, + who directed a body of five thousand men to gain an advantageous + height, from whence, during the heat of the action, they attacked + the rear of the enemy, and made a very considerable slaughter. + The troops of Licinius, however, presenting a double front, still + maintained their ground, till the approach of night put an end to + the combat, and secured their retreat towards the mountains of + Macedonia. The loss of two battles, and of his bravest veterans, + reduced the fierce spirit of Licinius to sue for peace. His + ambassador Mistrianus was admitted to the audience of + Constantine: he expatiated on the common topics of moderation and + humanity, which are so familiar to the eloquence of the + vanquished; represented in the most insinuating language, that + the event of the war was still doubtful, whilst its inevitable + calamities were alike pernicious to both the contending parties; + and declared that he was authorized to propose a lasting and + honorable peace in the name of the _two_ emperors his masters. + Constantine received the mention of Valens with indignation and + contempt. “It was not for such a purpose,” he sternly replied, + “that we have advanced from the shores of the western ocean in an + uninterrupted course of combats and victories, that, after + rejecting an ungrateful kinsman, we should accept for our + colleague a contemptible slave. The abdication of Valens is the + first article of the treaty.” It was necessary to accept this + humiliating condition; and the unhappy Valens, after a reign of a + few days, was deprived of the purple and of his life. As soon as + this obstacle was removed, the tranquillity of the Roman world + was easily restored. The successive defeats of Licinius had + ruined his forces, but they had displayed his courage and + abilities. His situation was almost desperate, but the efforts of + despair are sometimes formidable, and the good sense of + Constantine preferred a great and certain advantage to a third + trial of the chance of arms. He consented to leave his rival, or, + as he again styled Licinius, his friend and brother, in the + possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; but the + provinces of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Macedonia, and Greece, + were yielded to the Western empire, and the dominions of + Constantine now extended from the confines of Caledonia to the + extremity of Peloponnesus. It was stipulated by the same treaty, + that three royal youths, the sons of emperors, should be called + to the hopes of the succession. Crispus and the young Constantine + were soon afterwards declared Cæsars in the West, while the + younger Licinius was invested with the same dignity in the East. + In this double proportion of honors, the conqueror asserted the + superiority of his arms and power. + + The reconciliation of Constantine and Licinius, though it was + imbittered by resentment and jealousy, by the remembrance of + recent injuries, and by the apprehension of future dangers, + maintained, however, above eight years, the tranquility of the + Roman world. As a very regular series of the Imperial laws + commences about this period, it would not be difficult to + transcribe the civil regulations which employed the leisure of + Constantine. But the most important of his institutions are + intimately connected with the new system of policy and religion, + which was not perfectly established till the last and peaceful + years of his reign. There are many of his laws, which, as far as + they concern the rights and property of individuals, and the + practice of the bar, are more properly referred to the private + than to the public jurisprudence of the empire; and he published + many edicts of so local and temporary a nature, that they would + ill deserve the notice of a general history. Two laws, however, + may be selected from the crowd; the one for its importance, the + other for its singularity; the former for its remarkable + benevolence, the latter for its excessive severity. 1. The horrid + practice, so familiar to the ancients, of exposing or murdering + their new-born infants, was become every day more frequent in the + provinces, and especially in Italy. It was the effect of + distress; and the distress was principally occasioned by the + intolerant burden of taxes, and by the vexatious as well as cruel + prosecutions of the officers of the revenue against their + insolvent debtors. The less opulent or less industrious part of + mankind, instead of rejoicing in an increase of family, deemed it + an act of paternal tenderness to release their children from the + impending miseries of a life which they themselves were unable to + support. The humanity of Constantine, moved, perhaps, by some + recent and extraordinary instances of despair, * engaged him to + address an edict to all the cities of Italy, and afterwards of + Africa, directing immediate and sufficient relief to be given to + those parents who should produce before the magistrates the + children whom their own poverty would not allow them to educate. + But the promise was too liberal, and the provision too vague, to + effect any general or permanent benefit. The law, though it may + merit some praise, served rather to display than to alleviate the + public distress. It still remains an authentic monument to + contradict and confound those venal orators, who were too well + satisfied with their own situation to discover either vice or + misery under the government of a generous sovereign. 2. The laws + of Constantine against rapes were dictated with very little + indulgence for the most amiable weaknesses of human nature; since + the description of that crime was applied not only to the brutal + violence which compelled, but even to the gentle seduction which + might persuade, an unmarried woman, under the age of twenty-five, + to leave the house of her parents. “The successful ravisher was + punished with death; and as if simple death was inadequate to the + enormity of his guilt, he was either burnt alive, or torn in + pieces by wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The virgin’s + declaration, that she had been carried away with her own consent, + instead of saving her lover, exposed her to share his fate. The + duty of a public prosecution was intrusted to the parents of the + guilty or unfortunate maid; and if the sentiments of nature + prevailed on them to dissemble the injury, and to repair by a + subsequent marriage the honor of their family, they were + themselves punished by exile and confiscation. The slaves, + whether male or female, who were convicted of having been + accessory to rape or seduction, were burnt alive, or put to death + by the ingenious torture of pouring down their throats a quantity + of melted lead. As the crime was of a public kind, the accusation + was permitted even to strangers. The commencement of the action + was not limited to any term of years, and the consequences of the + sentence were extended to the innocent offspring of such an + irregular union.” But whenever the offence inspires less horror + than the punishment, the rigor of penal law is obliged to give + way to the common feelings of mankind. The most odious parts of + this edict were softened or repealed in the subsequent reigns; + and even Constantine himself very frequently alleviated, by + partial acts of mercy, the stern temper of his general + institutions. Such, indeed, was the singular humor of that + emperor, who showed himself as indulgent, and even remiss, in the + execution of his laws, as he was severe, and even cruel, in the + enacting of them. It is scarcely possible to observe a more + decisive symptom of weakness, either in the character of the + prince, or in the constitution of the government. + + The civil administration was sometimes interrupted by the + military defence of the empire. Crispus, a youth of the most + amiable character, who had received with the title of Cæsar the + command of the Rhine, distinguished his conduct, as well as + valor, in several victories over the Franks and Alemanni, and + taught the barbarians of that frontier to dread the eldest son of + Constantine, and the grandson of Constantius. The emperor himself + had assumed the more difficult and important province of the + Danube. The Goths, who in the time of Claudius and Aurelian had + felt the weight of the Roman arms, respected the power of the + empire, even in the midst of its intestine divisions. But the + strength of that warlike nation was now restored by a peace of + near fifty years; a new generation had arisen, who no longer + remembered the misfortunes of ancient days; the Sarmatians of the + Lake Mæotis followed the Gothic standard either as subjects or as + allies, and their united force was poured upon the countries of + Illyricum. Campona, Margus, and Benonia, appear to have been the + scenes of several memorable sieges and battles; and though + Constantine encountered a very obstinate resistance, he prevailed + at length in the contest, and the Goths were compelled to + purchase an ignominious retreat, by restoring the booty and + prisoners which they had taken. Nor was this advantage sufficient + to satisfy the indignation of the emperor. He resolved to + chastise as well as to repulse the insolent barbarians who had + dared to invade the territories of Rome. At the head of his + legions he passed the Danube, after repairing the bridge which + had been constructed by Trajan, penetrated into the strongest + recesses of Dacia, and when he had inflicted a severe revenge, + condescended to give peace to the suppliant Goths, on condition + that, as often as they were required, they should supply his + armies with a body of forty thousand soldiers. Exploits like + these were no doubt honorable to Constantine, and beneficial to + the state; but it may surely be questioned, whether they can + justify the exaggerated assertion of Eusebius, that all Scythia, + as far as the extremity of the North, divided as it was into so + many names and nations of the most various and savage manners, + had been added by his victorious arms to the Roman empire. + + In this exalted state of glory, it was impossible that + Constantine should any longer endure a partner in the empire. + Confiding in the superiority of his genius and military power, he + determined, without any previous injury, to exert them for the + destruction of Licinius, whose advanced age and unpopular vices + seemed to offer a very easy conquest. But the old emperor, + awakened by the approaching danger, deceived the expectations of + his friends, as well as of his enemies. Calling forth that spirit + and those abilities by which he had deserved the friendship of + Galerius and the Imperial purple, he prepared himself for the + contest, collected the forces of the East, and soon filled the + plains of Hadrianople with his troops, and the straits of the + Hellespont with his fleet. The army consisted of one hundred and + fifty thousand foot, and fifteen thousand horse; and as the + cavalry was drawn, for the most part, from Phrygia and + Cappadocia, we may conceive a more favorable opinion of the + beauty of the horses, than of the courage and dexterity of their + riders. The fleet was composed of three hundred and fifty galleys + of three ranks of oars. A hundred and thirty of these were + furnished by Egypt and the adjacent coast of Africa. A hundred + and ten sailed from the ports of Phœnicia and the isle of Cyprus; + and the maritime countries of Bithynia, Ionia, and Caria were + likewise obliged to provide a hundred and ten galleys. The troops + of Constantine were ordered to a rendezvous at Thessalonica; they + amounted to above a hundred and twenty thousand horse and foot. + Their emperor was satisfied with their martial appearance, and + his army contained more soldiers, though fewer men, than that of + his eastern competitor. The legions of Constantine were levied in + the warlike provinces of Europe; action had confirmed their + discipline, victory had elevated their hopes, and there were + among them a great number of veterans, who, after seventeen + glorious campaigns under the same leader, prepared themselves to + deserve an honorable dismission by a last effort of their valor. + But the naval preparations of Constantine were in every respect + much inferior to those of Licinius. The maritime cities of Greece + sent their respective quotas of men and ships to the celebrated + harbor of Piræus, and their united forces consisted of no more + than two hundred small vessels—a very feeble armament, if it is + compared with those formidable fleets which were equipped and + maintained by the republic of Athens during the Peloponnesian + war. Since Italy was no longer the seat of government, the naval + establishments of Misenum and Ravenna had been gradually + neglected; and as the shipping and mariners of the empire were + supported by commerce rather than by war, it was natural that + they should the most abound in the industrious provinces of Egypt + and Asia. It is only surprising that the eastern emperor, who + possessed so great a superiority at sea, should have neglected + the opportunity of carrying an offensive war into the centre of + his rival’s dominions. + + Instead of embracing such an active resolution, which might have + changed the whole face of the war, the prudent Licinius expected + the approach of his rival in a camp near Hadrianople, which he + had fortified with an anxious care that betrayed his apprehension + of the event. Constantine directed his march from Thessalonica + towards that part of Thrace, till he found himself stopped by the + broad and rapid stream of the Hebrus, and discovered the numerous + army of Licinius, which filled the steep ascent of the hill, from + the river to the city of Hadrianople. Many days were spent in + doubtful and distant skirmishes; but at length the obstacles of + the passage and of the attack were removed by the intrepid + conduct of Constantine. In this place we might relate a wonderful + exploit of Constantine, which, though it can scarcely be + paralleled either in poetry or romance, is celebrated, not by a + venal orator devoted to his fortune, but by an historian, the + partial enemy of his fame. We are assured that the valiant + emperor threw himself into the River Hebrus, accompanied only by + twelve horsemen, and that by the effort or terror of his + invincible arm, he broke, slaughtered, and put to flight a host + of a hundred and fifty thousand men. The credulity of Zosimus + prevailed so strongly over his passion, that among the events of + the memorable battle of Hadrianople, he seems to have selected + and embellished, not the most important, but the most marvellous. + The valor and danger of Constantine are attested by a slight + wound which he received in the thigh; but it may be discovered + even from an imperfect narration, and perhaps a corrupted text, + that the victory was obtained no less by the conduct of the + general than by the courage of the hero; that a body of five + thousand archers marched round to occupy a thick wood in the rear + of the enemy, whose attention was diverted by the construction of + a bridge, and that Licinius, perplexed by so many artful + evolutions, was reluctantly drawn from his advantageous post to + combat on equal ground on the plain. The contest was no longer + equal. His confused multitude of new levies was easily vanquished + by the experienced veterans of the West. Thirty-four thousand men + are reported to have been slain. The fortified camp of Licinius + was taken by assault the evening of the battle; the greater part + of the fugitives, who had retired to the mountains, surrendered + themselves the next day to the discretion of the conqueror; and + his rival, who could no longer keep the field, confined himself + within the walls of Byzantium. + + The siege of Byzantium, which was immediately undertaken by + Constantine, was attended with great labor and uncertainty. In + the late civil wars, the fortifications of that place, so justly + considered as the key of Europe and Asia, had been repaired and + strengthened; and as long as Licinius remained master of the sea, + the garrison was much less exposed to the danger of famine than + the army of the besiegers. The naval commanders of Constantine + were summoned to his camp, and received his positive orders to + force the passage of the Hellespont, as the fleet of Licinius, + instead of seeking and destroying their feeble enemy, continued + inactive in those narrow straits, where its superiority of + numbers was of little use or advantage. Crispus, the emperor’s + eldest son, was intrusted with the execution of this daring + enterprise, which he performed with so much courage and success, + that he deserved the esteem, and most probably excited the + jealousy, of his father. The engagement lasted two days; and in + the evening of the first, the contending fleets, after a + considerable and mutual loss, retired into their respective + harbors of Europe and Asia. The second day, about noon, a strong + south wind sprang up, which carried the vessels of Crispus + against the enemy; and as the casual advantage was improved by + his skilful intrepidity, he soon obtained a complete victory. A + hundred and thirty vessels were destroyed, five thousand men were + slain, and Amandus, the admiral of the Asiatic fleet, escaped + with the utmost difficulty to the shores of Chalcedon. As soon as + the Hellespont was open, a plentiful convoy of provisions flowed + into the camp of Constantine, who had already advanced the + operations of the siege. He constructed artificial mounds of + earth of an equal height with the ramparts of Byzantium. The + lofty towers which were erected on that foundation galled the + besieged with large stones and darts from the military engines, + and the battering rams had shaken the walls in several places. If + Licinius persisted much longer in the defence, he exposed himself + to be involved in the ruin of the place. Before he was + surrounded, he prudently removed his person and treasures to + Chalcedon in Asia; and as he was always desirous of associating + companions to the hopes and dangers of his fortune, he now + bestowed the title of Cæsar on Martinianus, who exercised one of + the most important offices of the empire. + + Such were still the resources, and such the abilities, of + Licinius, that, after so many successive defeats, he collected in + Bithynia a new army of fifty or sixty thousand men, while the + activity of Constantine was employed in the siege of Byzantium. + The vigilant emperor did not, however, neglect the last struggles + of his antagonist. A considerable part of his victorious army was + transported over the Bosphorus in small vessels, and the decisive + engagement was fought soon after their landing on the heights of + Chrysopolis, or, as it is now called, of Scutari. The troops of + Licinius, though they were lately raised, ill armed, and worse + disciplined, made head against their conquerors with fruitless + but desperate valor, till a total defeat, and a slaughter of five + and twenty thousand men, irretrievably determined the fate of + their leader. He retired to Nicomedia, rather with the view of + gaining some time for negotiation, than with the hope of any + effectual defence. Constantia, his wife, and the sister of + Constantine, interceded with her brother in favor of her husband, + and obtained from his policy, rather than from his compassion, a + solemn promise, confirmed by an oath, that after the sacrifice of + Martinianus, and the resignation of the purple, Licinius himself + should be permitted to pass the remainder of this life in peace + and affluence. The behavior of Constantia, and her relation to + the contending parties, naturally recalls the remembrance of that + virtuous matron who was the sister of Augustus, and the wife of + Antony. But the temper of mankind was altered, and it was no + longer esteemed infamous for a Roman to survive his honor and + independence. Licinius solicited and accepted the pardon of his + offences, laid himself and his purple at the feet of his lord and + master, was raised from the ground with insulting pity, was + admitted the same day to the Imperial banquet, and soon + afterwards was sent away to Thessalonica, which had been chosen + for the place of his confinement. His confinement was soon + terminated by death, and it is doubtful whether a tumult of the + soldiers, or a decree of the senate, was suggested as the motive + for his execution. According to the rules of tyranny, he was + accused of forming a conspiracy, and of holding a treasonable + correspondence with the barbarians; but as he was never + convicted, either by his own conduct or by any legal evidence, we + may perhaps be allowed, from his weakness, to presume his + innocence. The memory of Licinius was branded with infamy, his + statues were thrown down, and by a hasty edict, of such + mischievous tendency that it was almost immediately corrected, + all his laws, and all the judicial proceedings of his reign, were + at once abolished. By this victory of Constantine, the Roman + world was again united under the authority of one emperor, + thirty-seven years after Diocletian had divided his power and + provinces with his associate Maximian. + + The successive steps of the elevation of Constantine, from his + first assuming the purple at York, to the resignation of + Licinius, at Nicomedia, have been related with some minuteness + and precision, not only as the events are in themselves both + interesting and important, but still more, as they contributed to + the decline of the empire by the expense of blood and treasure, + and by the perpetual increase, as well of the taxes, as of the + military establishment. The foundation of Constantinople, and the + establishment of the Christian religion, were the immediate and + memorable consequences of this revolution. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. + +The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, Manners, +Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. + + A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment + of Christianity may be considered as a very essential part of the + history of the Roman empire. While that great body was invaded by + open violence, or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble + religion gently insinuated itself into the minds of men, grew up + in silence and obscurity, derived new vigor from opposition, and + finally erected the triumphant banner of the Cross on the ruins + of the Capitol. Nor was the influence of Christianity confined to + the period or to the limits of the Roman empire. After a + revolution of thirteen or fourteen centuries, that religion is + still professed by the nations of Europe, the most distinguished + portion of human kind in arts and learning as well as in arms. By + the industry and zeal of the Europeans, it has been widely + diffused to the most distant shores of Asia and Africa; and by + the means of their colonies has been firmly established from + Canada to Chili, in a world unknown to the ancients. + + But this inquiry, however useful or entertaining, is attended + with two peculiar difficulties. The scanty and suspicious + materials of ecclesiastical history seldom enable us to dispel + the dark cloud that hangs over the first age of the church. The + great law of impartiality too often obliges us to reveal the + imperfections of the uninspired teachers and believers of the + gospel; and, to a careless observer, their _faults_ may seem to + cast a shade on the faith which they professed. But the scandal + of the pious Christian, and the fallacious triumph of the + Infidel, should cease as soon as they recollect not only _by + whom_, but likewise _to whom_, the Divine Revelation was given. + The theologian may indulge the pleasing task of describing + Religion as she descended from Heaven, arrayed in her native + purity. A more melancholy duty is imposed on the historian. He + must discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption, + which she contracted in a long residence upon earth, among a weak + and degenerate race of beings. * + + Our curiosity is naturally prompted to inquire by what means the + Christian faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the + established religions of the earth. To this inquiry, an obvious + but satisfactory answer may be returned; that it was owing to the + convincing evidence of the doctrine itself, and to the ruling + providence of its great Author. But as truth and reason seldom + find so favorable a reception in the world, and as the wisdom of + Providence frequently condescends to use the passions of the + human heart, and the general circumstances of mankind, as + instruments to execute its purpose, we may still be permitted, + though with becoming submission, to ask, not indeed what were the + first, but what were the secondary causes of the rapid growth of + the Christian church. It will, perhaps, appear, that it was most + effectually favored and assisted by the five following causes: I. + The inflexible, and if we may use the expression, the intolerant + zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the Jewish + religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial spirit, + which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles from + embracing the law of Moses. II. The doctrine of a future life, + improved by every additional circumstance which could give weight + and efficacy to that important truth. III. The miraculous powers + ascribed to the primitive church. IV. The pure and austere morals + of the Christians. V. The union and discipline of the Christian + republic, which gradually formed an independent and increasing + state in the heart of the Roman empire. + + I. We have already described the religious harmony of the ancient + world, and the facility * with which the most different and even + hostile nations embraced, or at least respected, each other’s + superstitions. A single people refused to join in the common + intercourse of mankind. The Jews, who, under the Assyrian and + Persian monarchies, had languished for many ages the most + despised portion of their slaves, emerged from obscurity under + the successors of Alexander; and as they multiplied to a + surprising degree in the East, and afterwards in the West, they + soon excited the curiosity and wonder of other nations. The + sullen obstinacy with which they maintained their peculiar rites + and unsocial manners seemed to mark them out as a distinct + species of men, who boldly professed, or who faintly disguised, + their implacable habits to the rest of human kind. Neither the + violence of Antiochus, nor the arts of Herod, nor the example of + the circumjacent nations, could ever persuade the Jews to + associate with the institutions of Moses the elegant mythology of + the Greeks. According to the maxims of universal toleration, the + Romans protected a superstition which they despised. The polite + Augustus condescended to give orders, that sacrifices should be + offered for his prosperity in the temple of Jerusalem; whilst the + meanest of the posterity of Abraham, who should have paid the + same homage to the Jupiter of the Capitol, would have been an + object of abhorrence to himself and to his brethren. But the + moderation of the conquerors was insufficient to appease the + jealous prejudices of their subjects, who were alarmed and + scandalized at the ensigns of paganism, which necessarily + introduced themselves into a Roman province. The mad attempt of + Caligula to place his own statue in the temple of Jerusalem was + defeated by the unanimous resolution of a people who dreaded + death much less than such an idolatrous profanation. Their + attachment to the law of Moses was equal to their detestation of + foreign religions. The current of zeal and devotion, as it was + contracted into a narrow channel, ran with the strength, and + sometimes with the fury, of a torrent. + + This inflexible perseverance, which appeared so odious or so + ridiculous to the ancient world, assumes a more awful character, + since Providence has deigned to reveal to us the mysterious + history of the chosen people. But the devout and even scrupulous + attachment to the Mosaic religion, so conspicuous among the Jews + who lived under the second temple, becomes still more surprising, + if it is compared with the stubborn incredulity of their + forefathers. When the law was given in thunder from Mount Sinai, + when the tides of the ocean and the course of the planets were + suspended for the convenience of the Israelites, and when + temporal rewards and punishments were the immediate consequences + of their piety or disobedience, they perpetually relapsed into + rebellion against the visible majesty of their Divine King, + placed the idols of the nations in the sanctuary of Jehovah, and + imitated every fantastic ceremony that was practised in the tents + of the Arabs, or in the cities of Phœnicia. As the protection of + Heaven was deservedly withdrawn from the ungrateful race, their + faith acquired a proportionable degree of vigor and purity. The + contemporaries of Moses and Joshua had beheld with careless + indifference the most amazing miracles. Under the pressure of + every calamity, the belief of those miracles has preserved the + Jews of a later period from the universal contagion of idolatry; + and in contradiction to every known principle of the human mind, + that singular people seems to have yielded a stronger and more + ready assent to the traditions of their remote ancestors, than to + the evidence of their own senses. + + The Jewish religion was admirably fitted for defence, but it was + never designed for conquest; and it seems probable that the + number of proselytes was never much superior to that of + apostates. The divine promises were originally made, and the + distinguishing rite of circumcision was enjoined, to a single + family. When the posterity of Abraham had multiplied like the + sands of the sea, the Deity, from whose mouth they received a + system of laws and ceremonies, declared himself the proper and as + it were the national God of Israel; and with the most jealous + care separated his favorite people from the rest of mankind. The + conquest of the land of Canaan was accompanied with so many + wonderful and with so many bloody circumstances, that the + victorious Jews were left in a state of irreconcilable hostility + with all their neighbors. They had been commanded to extirpate + some of the most idolatrous tribes, and the execution of the + divine will had seldom been retarded by the weakness of humanity. + With the other nations they were forbidden to contract any + marriages or alliances; and the prohibition of receiving them + into the congregation, which in some cases was perpetual, almost + always extended to the third, to the seventh, or even to the + tenth generation. The obligation of preaching to the Gentiles the + faith of Moses had never been inculcated as a precept of the law, + nor were the Jews inclined to impose it on themselves as a + voluntary duty. + + In the admission of new citizens that unsocial people was + actuated by the selfish vanity of the Greeks, rather than by the + generous policy of Rome. The descendants of Abraham were + flattered by the opinion that they alone were the heirs of the + covenant, and they were apprehensive of diminishing the value of + their inheritance by sharing it too easily with the strangers of + the earth. A larger acquaintance with mankind extended their + knowledge without correcting their prejudices; and whenever the + God of Israel acquired any new votaries, he was much more + indebted to the inconstant humor of polytheism than to the active + zeal of his own missionaries. The religion of Moses seems to be + instituted for a particular country as well as for a single + nation; and if a strict obedience had been paid to the order, + that every male, three times in the year, should present himself + before the Lord Jehovah, it would have been impossible that the + Jews could ever have spread themselves beyond the narrow limits + of the promised land. That obstacle was indeed removed by the + destruction of the temple of Jerusalem; but the most considerable + part of the Jewish religion was involved in its destruction; and + the Pagans, who had long wondered at the strange report of an + empty sanctuary, were at a loss to discover what could be the + object, or what could be the instruments, of a worship which was + destitute of temples and of altars, of priests and of sacrifices. + Yet even in their fallen state, the Jews, still asserting their + lofty and exclusive privileges, shunned, instead of courting, the + society of strangers. They still insisted with inflexible rigor + on those parts of the law which it was in their power to + practise. Their peculiar distinctions of days, of meats, and a + variety of trivial though burdensome observances, were so many + objects of disgust and aversion for the other nations, to whose + habits and prejudices they were diametrically opposite. The + painful and even dangerous rite of circumcision was alone capable + of repelling a willing proselyte from the door of the synagogue. + + Under these circumstances, Christianity offered itself to the + world, armed with the strength of the Mosaic law, and delivered + from the weight of its fetters. An exclusive zeal for the truth + of religion, and the unity of God, was as carefully inculcated in + the new as in the ancient system; and whatever was now revealed + to mankind concerning the nature and designs of the Supreme Being + was fitted to increase their reverence for that mysterious + doctrine. The divine authority of Moses and the prophets was + admitted, and even established, as the firmest basis of + Christianity. From the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted + series of predictions had announced and prepared the + long-expected coming of the Messiah, who, in compliance with the + gross apprehensions of the Jews, had been more frequently + represented under the character of a King and Conqueror, than + under that of a Prophet, a Martyr, and the Son of God. By his + expiatory sacrifice, the imperfect sacrifices of the temple were + at once consummated and abolished. The ceremonial law, which + consisted only of types and figures, was succeeded by a pure and + spiritual worship equally adapted to all climates, as well as to + every condition of mankind; and to the initiation of blood was + substituted a more harmless initiation of water. The promise of + divine favor, instead of being partially confined to the + posterity of Abraham, was universally proposed to the freeman and + the slave, to the Greek and to the barbarian, to the Jew and to + the Gentile. Every privilege that could raise the proselyte from + earth to heaven, that could exalt his devotion, secure his + happiness, or even gratify that secret pride which, under the + semblance of devotion, insinuates itself into the human heart, + was still reserved for the members of the Christian church; but + at the same time all mankind was permitted, and even solicited, + to accept the glorious distinction, which was not only proffered + as a favor, but imposed as an obligation. It became the most + sacred duty of a new convert to diffuse among his friends and + relations the inestimable blessing which he had received, and to + warn them against a refusal that would be severely punished as a + criminal disobedience to the will of a benevolent but + all-powerful Deity. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part II. + + The enfranchisement of the church from the bonds of the synagogue + was a work, however, of some time and of some difficulty. The + Jewish converts, who acknowledged Jesus in the character of the + Messiah foretold by their ancient oracles, respected him as a + prophetic teacher of virtue and religion; but they obstinately + adhered to the ceremonies of their ancestors, and were desirous + of imposing them on the Gentiles, who continually augmented the + number of believers. These Judaizing Christians seem to have + argued with some degree of plausibility from the divine origin of + the Mosaic law, and from the immutable perfections of its great + Author. They affirmed, _that_ if the Being, who is the same + through all eternity, had designed to abolish those sacred rites + which had served to distinguish his chosen people, the repeal of + them would have been no less clear and solemn than their first + promulgation: _that_, instead of those frequent declarations, + which either suppose or assert the perpetuity of the Mosaic + religion, it would have been represented as a provisionary scheme + intended to last only to the coming of the Messiah, who should + instruct mankind in a more perfect mode of faith and of worship: + that the Messiah himself, and his disciples who conversed with + him on earth, instead of authorizing by their example the most + minute observances of the Mosaic law, would have published to the + world the abolition of those useless and obsolete ceremonies, + without suffering Christianity to remain during so many years + obscurely confounded among the sects of the Jewish church. + Arguments like these appear to have been used in the defence of + the expiring cause of the Mosaic law; but the industry of our + learned divines has abundantly explained the ambiguous language + of the Old Testament, and the ambiguous conduct of the apostolic + teachers. It was proper gradually to unfold the system of the + gospel, and to pronounce, with the utmost caution and tenderness, + a sentence of condemnation so repugnant to the inclination and + prejudices of the believing Jews. + + The history of the church of Jerusalem affords a lively proof of + the necessity of those precautions, and of the deep impression + which the Jewish religion had made on the minds of its sectaries. + The first fifteen bishops of Jerusalem were all circumcised Jews; + and the congregation over which they presided united the law of + Moses with the doctrine of Christ. It was natural that the + primitive tradition of a church which was founded only forty days + after the death of Christ, and was governed almost as many years + under the immediate inspection of his apostle, should be received + as the standard of orthodoxy. The distant churches very + frequently appealed to the authority of their venerable Parent, + and relieved her distresses by a liberal contribution of alms. + But when numerous and opulent societies were established in the + great cities of the empire, in Antioch, Alexandria, Ephesus, + Corinth, and Rome, the reverence which Jerusalem had inspired to + all the Christian colonies insensibly diminished. The Jewish + converts, or, as they were afterwards called, the Nazarenes, who + had laid the foundations of the church, soon found themselves + overwhelmed by the increasing multitudes, that from all the + various religions of polytheism enlisted under the banner of + Christ: and the Gentiles, who, with the approbation of their + peculiar apostle, had rejected the intolerable weight of the + Mosaic ceremonies, at length refused to their more scrupulous + brethren the same toleration which at first they had humbly + solicited for their own practice. The ruin of the temple of the + city, and of the public religion of the Jews, was severely felt + by the Nazarenes; as in their manners, though not in their faith, + they maintained so intimate a connection with their impious + countrymen, whose misfortunes were attributed by the Pagans to + the contempt, and more justly ascribed by the Christians to the + wrath, of the Supreme Deity. The Nazarenes retired from the ruins + of Jerusalem * to the little town of Pella beyond the Jordan, + where that ancient church languished above sixty years in + solitude and obscurity. They still enjoyed the comfort of making + frequent and devout visits to the _Holy City_, and the hope of + being one day restored to those seats which both nature and + religion taught them to love as well as to revere. But at length, + under the reign of Hadrian, the desperate fanaticism of the Jews + filled up the measure of their calamities; and the Romans, + exasperated by their repeated rebellions, exercised the rights of + victory with unusual rigor. The emperor founded, under the name + of Ælia Capitolina, a new city on Mount Sion, to which he gave + the privileges of a colony; and denouncing the severest penalties + against any of the Jewish people who should dare to approach its + precincts, he fixed a vigilant garrison of a Roman cohort to + enforce the execution of his orders. The Nazarenes had only one + way left to escape the common proscription, and the force of + truth was on this occasion assisted by the influence of temporal + advantages. They elected Marcus for their bishop, a prelate of + the race of the Gentiles, and most probably a native either of + Italy or of some of the Latin provinces. At his persuasion, the + most considerable part of the congregation renounced the Mosaic + law, in the practice of which they had persevered above a + century. By this sacrifice of their habits and prejudices, they + purchased a free admission into the colony of Hadrian, and more + firmly cemented their union with the Catholic church. + + When the name and honors of the church of Jerusalem had been + restored to Mount Sion, the crimes of heresy and schism were + imputed to the obscure remnant of the Nazarenes, which refused to + accompany their Latin bishop. They still preserved their former + habitation of Pella, spread themselves into the villages adjacent + to Damascus, and formed an inconsiderable church in the city of + Berœa, or, as it is now called, of Aleppo, in Syria. The name of + Nazarenes was deemed too honorable for those Christian Jews, and + they soon received, from the supposed poverty of their + understanding, as well as of their condition, the contemptuous + epithet of Ebionites. In a few years after the return of the + church of Jerusalem, it became a matter of doubt and controversy, + whether a man who sincerely acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah, + but who still continued to observe the law of Moses, could + possibly hope for salvation. The humane temper of Justin Martyr + inclined him to answer this question in the affirmative; and + though he expressed himself with the most guarded diffidence, he + ventured to determine in favor of such an imperfect Christian, if + he were content to practise the Mosaic ceremonies, without + pretending to assert their general use or necessity. But when + Justin was pressed to declare the sentiment of the church, he + confessed that there were very many among the orthodox + Christians, who not only excluded their Judaizing brethren from + the hope of salvation, but who declined any intercourse with them + in the common offices of friendship, hospitality, and social + life. The more rigorous opinion prevailed, as it was natural to + expect, over the milder; and an eternal bar of separation was + fixed between the disciples of Moses and those of Christ. The + unfortunate Ebionites, rejected from one religion as apostates, + and from the other as heretics, found themselves compelled to + assume a more decided character; and although some traces of that + obsolete sect may be discovered as late as the fourth century, + they insensibly melted away, either into the church or the + synagogue. + + While the orthodox church preserved a just medium between + excessive veneration and improper contempt for the law of Moses, + the various heretics deviated into equal but opposite extremes of + error and extravagance. From the acknowledged truth of the Jewish + religion, the Ebionites had concluded that it could never be + abolished. From its supposed imperfections, the Gnostics as + hastily inferred that it never was instituted by the wisdom of + the Deity. There are some objections against the authority of + Moses and the prophets, which too readily present themselves to + the sceptical mind; though they can only be derived from our + ignorance of remote antiquity, and from our incapacity to form an + adequate judgment of the divine economy. These objections were + eagerly embraced and as petulantly urged by the vain science of + the Gnostics. As those heretics were, for the most part, averse + to the pleasures of sense, they morosely arraigned the polygamy + of the patriarchs, the gallantries of David, and the seraglio of + Solomon. The conquest of the land of Canaan, and the extirpation + of the unsuspecting natives, they were at a loss how to reconcile + with the common notions of humanity and justice. * But when they + recollected the sanguinary list of murders, of executions, and of + massacres, which stain almost every page of the Jewish annals, + they acknowledged that the barbarians of Palestine had exercised + as much compassion towards their idolatrous enemies, as they had + ever shown to their friends or countrymen. Passing from the + sectaries of the law to the law itself, they asserted that it was + impossible that a religion which consisted only of bloody + sacrifices and trifling ceremonies, and whose rewards as well as + punishments were all of a carnal and temporal nature, could + inspire the love of virtue, or restrain the impetuosity of + passion. The Mosaic account of the creation and fall of man was + treated with profane derision by the Gnostics, who would not + listen with patience to the repose of the Deity after six days’ + labor, to the rib of Adam, the garden of Eden, the trees of life + and of knowledge, the speaking serpent, the forbidden fruit, and + the condemnation pronounced against human kind for the venial + offence of their first progenitors. The God of Israel was + impiously represented by the Gnostics as a being liable to + passion and to error, capricious in his favor, implacable in his + resentment, meanly jealous of his superstitious worship, and + confining his partial providence to a single people, and to this + transitory life. In such a character they could discover none of + the features of the wise and omnipotent Father of the universe. + They allowed that the religion of the Jews was somewhat less + criminal than the idolatry of the Gentiles; but it was their + fundamental doctrine that the Christ whom they adored as the + first and brightest emanation of the Deity appeared upon earth to + rescue mankind from their various errors, and to reveal a new + system of truth and perfection. The most learned of the fathers, + by a very singular condescension, have imprudently admitted the + sophistry of the Gnostics. * Acknowledging that the literal sense + is repugnant to every principle of faith as well as reason, they + deem themselves secure and invulnerable behind the ample veil of + allegory, which they carefully spread over every tender part of + the Mosaic dispensation. + + It has been remarked with more ingenuity than truth, that the + virgin purity of the church was never violated by schism or + heresy before the reign of Trajan or Hadrian, about one hundred + years after the death of Christ. We may observe with much more + propriety, that, during that period, the disciples of the Messiah + were indulged in a freer latitude, both of faith and practice, + than has ever been allowed in succeeding ages. As the terms of + communion were insensibly narrowed, and the spiritual authority + of the prevailing party was exercised with increasing severity, + many of its most respectable adherents, who were called upon to + renounce, were provoked to assert their private opinions, to + pursue the consequences of their mistaken principles, and openly + to erect the standard of rebellion against the unity of the + church. The Gnostics were distinguished as the most polite, the + most learned, and the most wealthy of the Christian name; and + that general appellation, which expressed a superiority of + knowledge, was either assumed by their own pride, or ironically + bestowed by the envy of their adversaries. They were almost + without exception of the race of the Gentiles, and their + principal founders seem to have been natives of Syria or Egypt, + where the warmth of the climate disposes both the mind and the + body to indolent and contemplative devotion. The Gnostics blended + with the faith of Christ many sublime but obscure tenets, which + they derived from oriental philosophy, and even from the religion + of Zoroaster, concerning the eternity of matter, the existence of + two principles, and the mysterious hierarchy of the invisible + world. As soon as they launched out into that vast abyss, they + delivered themselves to the guidance of a disordered imagination; + and as the paths of error are various and infinite, the Gnostics + were imperceptibly divided into more than fifty particular sects, + of whom the most celebrated appear to have been the Basilidians, + the Valentinians, the Marcionites, and, in a still later period, + the Manichæans. Each of these sects could boast of its bishops + and congregations, of its doctors and martyrs; and, instead of + the Four Gospels adopted by the church, the heretics produced a + multitude of histories, in which the actions and discourses of + Christ and of his apostles were adapted to their respective + tenets. The success of the Gnostics was rapid and extensive. They + covered Asia and Egypt, established themselves in Rome, and + sometimes penetrated into the provinces of the West. For the most + part they arose in the second century, flourished during the + third, and were suppressed in the fourth or fifth, by the + prevalence of more fashionable controversies, and by the superior + ascendant of the reigning power. Though they constantly disturbed + the peace, and frequently disgraced the name, of religion, they + contributed to assist rather than to retard the progress of + Christianity. The Gentile converts, whose strongest objections + and prejudices were directed against the law of Moses, could find + admission into many Christian societies, which required not from + their untutored mind any belief of an antecedent revelation. + Their faith was insensibly fortified and enlarged, and the church + was ultimately benefited by the conquests of its most inveterate + enemies. + + But whatever difference of opinion might subsist between the + Orthodox, the Ebionites, and the Gnostics, concerning the + divinity or the obligation of the Mosaic law, they were all + equally animated by the same exclusive zeal, and by the same + abhorrence for idolatry, which had distinguished the Jews from + the other nations of the ancient world. The philosopher, who + considered the system of polytheism as a composition of human + fraud and error, could disguise a smile of contempt under the + mask of devotion, without apprehending that either the mockery, + or the compliance, would expose him to the resentment of any + invisible, or, as he conceived them, imaginary powers. But the + established religions of Paganism were seen by the primitive + Christians in a much more odious and formidable light. It was the + universal sentiment both of the church and of heretics, that the + dæmons were the authors, the patrons, and the objects of + idolatry. Those rebellious spirits who had been degraded from the + rank of angels, and cast down into the infernal pit, were still + permitted to roam upon earth, to torment the bodies, and to + seduce the minds, of sinful men. The dæmons soon discovered and + abused the natural propensity of the human heart towards + devotion, and artfully withdrawing the adoration of mankind from + their Creator, they usurped the place and honors of the Supreme + Deity. By the success of their malicious contrivances, they at + once gratified their own vanity and revenge, and obtained the + only comfort of which they were yet susceptible, the hope of + involving the human species in the participation of their guilt + and misery. It was confessed, or at least it was imagined, that + they had distributed among themselves the most important + characters of polytheism, one dæmon assuming the name and + attributes of Jupiter, another of Æsculapius, a third of Venus, + and a fourth perhaps of Apollo; and that, by the advantage of + their long experience and ærial nature, they were enabled to + execute, with sufficient skill and dignity, the parts which they + had undertaken. They lurked in the temples, instituted festivals + and sacrifices, invented fables, pronounced oracles, and were + frequently allowed to perform miracles. The Christians, who, by + the interposition of evil spirits, could so readily explain every + præternatural appearance, were disposed and even desirous to + admit the most extravagant fictions of the Pagan mythology. But + the belief of the Christian was accompanied with horror. The most + trifling mark of respect to the national worship he considered as + a direct homage yielded to the dæmon, and as an act of rebellion + against the majesty of God. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part III. + + In consequence of this opinion, it was the first but arduous duty + of a Christian to preserve himself pure and undefiled by the + practice of idolatry. The religion of the nations was not merely + a speculative doctrine professed in the schools or preached in + the temples. The innumerable deities and rites of polytheism were + closely interwoven with every circumstance of business or + pleasure, of public or of private life, and it seemed impossible + to escape the observance of them, without, at the same time, + renouncing the commerce of mankind, and all the offices and + amusements of society. The important transactions of peace and + war were prepared or concluded by solemn sacrifices, in which the + magistrate, the senator, and the soldier, were obliged to preside + or to participate. The public spectacles were an essential part + of the cheerful devotion of the Pagans, and the gods were + supposed to accept, as the most grateful offering, the games that + the prince and people celebrated in honor of their peculiar + festivals. The Christians, who with pious horror avoided the + abomination of the circus or the theatre, found himself + encompassed with infernal snares in every convivial + entertainment, as often as his friends, invoking the hospitable + deities, poured out libations to each other’s happiness. When the + bride, struggling with well-affected reluctance, was forced in + hymenæal pomp over the threshold of her new habitation, or when + the sad procession of the dead slowly moved towards the funeral + pile, the Christian, on these interesting occasions, was + compelled to desert the persons who were the dearest to him, + rather than contract the guilt inherent to those impious + ceremonies. Every art and every trade that was in the least + concerned in the framing or adorning of idols was polluted by the + stain of idolatry; a severe sentence, since it devoted to eternal + misery the far greater part of the community, which is employed + in the exercise of liberal or mechanic professions. If we cast + our eyes over the numerous remains of antiquity, we shall + perceive, that besides the immediate representations of the gods, + and the holy instruments of their worship, the elegant forms and + agreeable fictions consecrated by the imagination of the Greeks, + were introduced as the richest ornaments of the houses, the + dress, and the furniture of the Pagans. Even the arts of music + and painting, of eloquence and poetry, flowed from the same + impure origin. In the style of the fathers, Apollo and the Muses + were the organs of the infernal spirit; Homer and Virgil were the + most eminent of his servants; and the beautiful mythology which + pervades and animates the compositions of their genius, is + destined to celebrate the glory of the dæmons. Even the common + language of Greece and Rome abounded with familiar but impious + expressions, which the imprudent Christian might too carelessly + utter, or too patiently hear. + + The dangerous temptations which on every side lurked in ambush to + surprise the unguarded believer, assailed him with redoubled + violence on the days of solemn festivals. So artfully were they + framed and disposed throughout the year, that superstition always + wore the appearance of pleasure, and often of virtue. Some of the + most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual were destined to salute + the new calends of January with vows of public and private + felicity; to indulge the pious remembrance of the dead and + living; to ascertain the inviolable bounds of property; to hail, + on the return of spring, the genial powers of fecundity; to + perpetuate the two memorable æras of Rome, the foundation of the + city and that of the republic; and to restore, during the humane + license of the Saturnalia, the primitive equality of mankind. + Some idea may be conceived of the abhorrence of the Christians + for such impious ceremonies, by the scrupulous delicacy which + they displayed on a much less alarming occasion. On days of + general festivity it was the custom of the ancients to adorn + their doors with lamps and with branches of laurel, and to crown + their heads with a garland of flowers. This innocent and elegant + practice might perhaps have been tolerated as a mere civil + institution. But it most unluckily happened that the doors were + under the protection of the household gods, that the laurel was + sacred to the lover of Daphne, and that garlands of flowers, + though frequently worn as a symbol either of joy or mourning, had + been dedicated in their first origin to the service of + superstition. The trembling Christians, who were persuaded in + this instance to comply with the fashion of their country, and + the commands of the magistrate, labored under the most gloomy + apprehensions, from the reproaches of his own conscience, the + censures of the church, and the denunciations of divine + vengeance. + + Such was the anxious diligence which was required to guard the + chastity of the gospel from the infectious breath of idolatry. + The superstitious observances of public or private rites were + carelessly practised, from education and habit, by the followers + of the established religion. But as often as they occurred, they + afforded the Christians an opportunity of declaring and + confirming their zealous opposition. By these frequent + protestations their attachment to the faith was continually + fortified; and in proportion to the increase of zeal, they + combated with the more ardor and success in the holy war, which + they had undertaken against the empire of the demons. + + II. The writings of Cicero represent in the most lively colors + the ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the ancient + philosophers with regard to the immortality of the soul. When + they are desirous of arming their disciples against the fear of + death, they inculcate, as an obvious though melancholy position, + that the fatal stroke of our dissolution releases us from the + calamities of life; and that those can no longer suffer, who no + longer exist. Yet there were a few sages of Greece and Rome who + had conceived a more exalted, and, in some respects, a juster + idea of human nature, though it must be confessed, that in the + sublime inquiry, their reason had been often guided by their + imagination, and that their imagination had been prompted by + their vanity. When they viewed with complacency the extent of + their own mental powers, when they exercised the various + faculties of memory, of fancy, and of judgment, in the most + profound speculations, or the most important labors, and when + they reflected on the desire of fame, which transported them into + future ages, far beyond the bounds of death and of the grave, + they were unwilling to confound themselves with the beasts of the + field, or to suppose that a being, for whose dignity they + entertained the most sincere admiration, could be limited to a + spot of earth, and to a few years of duration. With this + favorable prepossession they summoned to their aid the science, + or rather the language, of Metaphysics. They soon discovered, + that as none of the properties of matter will apply to the + operations of the mind, the human soul must consequently be a + substance distinct from the body, pure, simple, and spiritual, + incapable of dissolution, and susceptible of a much higher degree + of virtue and happiness after the release from its corporeal + prison. From these specious and noble principles, the + philosophers who trod in the footsteps of Plato deduced a very + unjustifiable conclusion, since they asserted, not only the + future immortality, but the past eternity, of the human soul, + which they were too apt to consider as a portion of the infinite + and self-existing spirit, which pervades and sustains the + universe. A doctrine thus removed beyond the senses and the + experience of mankind might serve to amuse the leisure of a + philosophic mind; or, in the silence of solitude, it might + sometimes impart a ray of comfort to desponding virtue; but the + faint impression which had been received in the schools was soon + obliterated by the commerce and business of active life. We are + sufficiently acquainted with the eminent persons who flourished + in the age of Cicero and of the first Cæsars, with their actions, + their characters, and their motives, to be assured that their + conduct in this life was never regulated by any serious + conviction of the rewards or punishments of a future state. At + the bar and in the senate of Rome the ablest orators were not + apprehensive of giving offence to their hearers by exposing that + doctrine as an idle and extravagant opinion, which was rejected + with contempt by every man of a liberal education and + understanding. + + Since therefore the most sublime efforts of philosophy can extend + no further than feebly to point out the desire, the hope, or, at + most, the probability, of a future state, there is nothing, + except a divine revelation, that can ascertain the existence and + describe the condition, of the invisible country which is + destined to receive the souls of men after their separation from + the body. But we may perceive several defects inherent to the + popular religions of Greece and Rome, which rendered them very + unequal to so arduous a task. 1. The general system of their + mythology was unsupported by any solid proofs; and the wisest + among the Pagans had already disclaimed its usurped authority. 2. + The description of the infernal regions had been abandoned to the + fancy of painters and of poets, who peopled them with so many + phantoms and monsters, who dispensed their rewards and + punishments with so little equity, that a solemn truth, the most + congenial to the human heart, was oppressed and disgraced by the + absurd mixture of the wildest fictions. 3. The doctrine of a + future state was scarcely considered among the devout polytheists + of Greece and Rome as a fundamental article of faith. The + providence of the gods, as it related to public communities + rather than to private individuals, was principally displayed on + the visible theatre of the present world. The petitions which + were offered on the altars of Jupiter or Apollo expressed the + anxiety of their worshippers for temporal happiness, and their + ignorance or indifference concerning a future life. The important + truth of the immortality of the soul was inculcated with more + diligence, as well as success, in India, in Assyria, in Egypt, + and in Gaul; and since we cannot attribute such a difference to + the superior knowledge of the barbarians, we must ascribe it to + the influence of an established priesthood, which employed the + motives of virtue as the instrument of ambition. + + We might naturally expect that a principle so essential to + religion, would have been revealed in the clearest terms to the + chosen people of Palestine, and that it might safely have been + intrusted to the hereditary priesthood of Aaron. It is incumbent + on us to adore the mysterious dispensations of Providence, when + we discover that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is + omitted in the law of Moses; it is darkly insinuated by the + prophets; and during the long period which elapsed between the + Egyptian and the Babylonian servitudes, the hopes as well as + fears of the Jews appear to have been confined within the narrow + compass of the present life. After Cyrus had permitted the exiled + nation to return into the promised land, and after Ezra had + restored the ancient records of their religion, two celebrated + sects, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, insensibly arose at + Jerusalem. The former, selected from the more opulent and + distinguished ranks of society, were strictly attached to the + literal sense of the Mosaic law, and they piously rejected the + immortality of the soul, as an opinion that received no + countenance from the divine book, which they revered as the only + rule of their faith. To the authority of Scripture the Pharisees + added that of tradition, and they accepted, under the name of + traditions, several speculative tenets from the philosophy or + religion of the eastern nations. The doctrines of fate or + predestination, of angels and spirits, and of a future state of + rewards and punishments, were in the number of these new articles + of belief; and as the Pharisees, by the austerity of their + manners, had drawn into their party the body of the Jewish + people, the immortality of the soul became the prevailing + sentiment of the synagogue, under the reign of the Asmonæan + princes and pontiffs. The temper of the Jews was incapable of + contenting itself with such a cold and languid assent as might + satisfy the mind of a Polytheist; and as soon as they admitted + the idea of a future state, they embraced it with the zeal which + has always formed the characteristic of the nation. Their zeal, + however, added nothing to its evidence, or even probability: and + it was still necessary that the doctrine of life and immortality, + which had been dictated by nature, approved by reason, and + received by superstition, should obtain the sanction of divine + truth from the authority and example of Christ. + + When the promise of eternal happiness was proposed to mankind on + condition of adopting the faith, and of observing the precepts, + of the gospel, it is no wonder that so advantageous an offer + should have been accepted by great numbers of every religion, of + every rank, and of every province in the Roman empire. The + ancient Christians were animated by a contempt for their present + existence, and by a just confidence of immortality, of which the + doubtful and imperfect faith of modern ages cannot give us any + adequate notion. In the primitive church, the influence of truth + was very powerfully strengthened by an opinion, which, however it + may deserve respect for its usefulness and antiquity, has not + been found agreeable to experience. It was universally believed, + that the end of the world, and the kingdom of heaven, were at + hand. * The near approach of this wonderful event had been + predicted by the apostles; the tradition of it was preserved by + their earliest disciples, and those who understood in their + literal senses the discourse of Christ himself, were obliged to + expect the second and glorious coming of the Son of Man in the + clouds, before that generation was totally extinguished, which + had beheld his humble condition upon earth, and which might still + be witness of the calamities of the Jews under Vespasian or + Hadrian. The revolution of seventeen centuries has instructed us + not to press too closely the mysterious language of prophecy and + revelation; but as long as, for wise purposes, this error was + permitted to subsist in the church, it was productive of the most + salutary effects on the faith and practice of Christians, who + lived in the awful expectation of that moment, when the globe + itself, and all the various race of mankind, should tremble at + the appearance of their divine Judge. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IV. + + The ancient and popular doctrine of the Millennium was intimately + connected with the second coming of Christ. As the works of the + creation had been finished in six days, their duration in their + present state, according to a tradition which was attributed to + the prophet Elijah, was fixed to six thousand years. By the same + analogy it was inferred, that this long period of labor and + contention, which was now almost elapsed, would be succeeded by a + joyful Sabbath of a thousand years; and that Christ, with the + triumphant band of the saints and the elect who had escaped + death, or who had been miraculously revived, would reign upon + earth till the time appointed for the last and general + resurrection. So pleasing was this hope to the mind of believers, + that the _New Jerusalem_, the seat of this blissful kingdom, was + quickly adorned with all the gayest colors of the imagination. A + felicity consisting only of pure and spiritual pleasure would + have appeared too refined for its inhabitants, who were still + supposed to possess their human nature and senses. A garden of + Eden, with the amusements of the pastoral life, was no longer + suited to the advanced state of society which prevailed under the + Roman empire. A city was therefore erected of gold and precious + stones, and a supernatural plenty of corn and wine was bestowed + on the adjacent territory; in the free enjoyment of whose + spontaneous productions the happy and benevolent people was never + to be restrained by any jealous laws of exclusive property. The + assurance of such a Millennium was carefully inculcated by a + succession of fathers from Justin Martyr, and Irenæus, who + conversed with the immediate disciples of the apostles, down to + Lactantius, who was preceptor to the son of Constantine. Though + it might not be universally received, it appears to have been the + reigning sentiment of the orthodox believers; and it seems so + well adapted to the desires and apprehensions of mankind, that it + must have contributed in a very considerable degree to the + progress of the Christian faith. But when the edifice of the + church was almost completed, the temporary support was laid + aside. The doctrine of Christ’s reign upon earth was at first + treated as a profound allegory, was considered by degrees as a + doubtful and useless opinion, and was at length rejected as the + absurd invention of heresy and fanaticism. A mysterious prophecy, + which still forms a part of the sacred canon, but which was + thought to favor the exploded sentiment, has very narrowly + escaped the proscription of the church. + + Whilst the happiness and glory of a temporal reign were promised + to the disciples of Christ, the most dreadful calamities were + denounced against an unbelieving world. The edification of a new + Jerusalem was to advance by equal steps with the destruction of + the mystic Babylon; and as long as the emperors who reigned + before Constantine persisted in the profession of idolatry, the + epithet of babylon was applied to the city and to the empire of + Rome. A regular series was prepared of all the moral and physical + evils which can afflict a flourishing nation; intestine discord, + and the invasion of the fiercest barbarians from the unknown + regions of the North; pestilence and famine, comets and eclipses, + earthquakes and inundations. All these were only so many + preparatory and alarming signs of the great catastrophe of Rome, + when the country of the Scipios and Cæsars should be consumed by + a flame from Heaven, and the city of the seven hills, with her + palaces, her temples, and her triumphal arches, should be buried + in a vast lake of fire and brimstone. It might, however, afford + some consolation to Roman vanity, that the period of their empire + would be that of the world itself; which, as it had once perished + by the element of water, was destined to experience a second and + a speedy destruction from the element of fire. In the opinion of + a general conflagration, the faith of the Christian very happily + coincided with the tradition of the East, the philosophy of the + Stoics, and the analogy of Nature; and even the country, which, + from religious motives, had been chosen for the origin and + principal scene of the conflagration, was the best adapted for + that purpose by natural and physical causes; by its deep caverns, + beds of sulphur, and numerous volcanoes, of which those of Ætna, + of Vesuvius, and of Lipari, exhibit a very imperfect + representation. The calmest and most intrepid sceptic could not + refuse to acknowledge that the destruction of the present system + of the world by fire was in itself extremely probable. The + Christian, who founded his belief much less on the fallacious + arguments of reason than on the authority of tradition and the + interpretation of Scripture, expected it with terror and + confidence as a certain and approaching event; and as his mind + was perpetually filled with the solemn idea, he considered every + disaster that happened to the empire as an infallible symptom of + an expiring world. + + The condemnation of the wisest and most virtuous of the Pagans, + on account of their ignorance or disbelief of the divine truth, + seems to offend the reason and the humanity of the present age. + But the primitive church, whose faith was of a much firmer + consistence, delivered over, without hesitation, to eternal + torture, the far greater part of the human species. A charitable + hope might perhaps be indulged in favor of Socrates, or some + other sages of antiquity, who had consulted the light of reason + before that of the gospel had arisen. But it was unanimously + affirmed, that those who, since the birth or the death of Christ, + had obstinately persisted in the worship of the dæmons, neither + deserved nor could expect a pardon from the irritated justice of + the Deity. These rigid sentiments, which had been unknown to the + ancient world, appear to have infused a spirit of bitterness into + a system of love and harmony. The ties of blood and friendship + were frequently torn asunder by the difference of religious + faith; and the Christians, who, in this world, found themselves + oppressed by the power of the Pagans, were sometimes seduced by + resentment and spiritual pride to delight in the prospect of + their future triumph. “You are fond of spectacles,” exclaims the + stern Tertullian; “expect the greatest of all spectacles, the + last and eternal judgment of the universe. How shall I admire, + how laugh, how rejoice, how exult, when I behold so many proud + monarchs, so many fancied gods, groaning in the lowest abyss of + darkness; so many magistrates, who persecuted the name of the + Lord, liquefying in fiercer fires than they ever kindled against + the Christians; so many sage philosophers blushing in red-hot + flames with their deluded scholars; so many celebrated poets + trembling before the tribunal, not of Minos, but of Christ; so + many tragedians, more tuneful in the expression of their own + sufferings; so many dancers.” * But the humanity of the reader + will permit me to draw a veil over the rest of this infernal + description, which the zealous African pursues in a long variety + of affected and unfeeling witticisms. + + Doubtless there were many among the primitive Christians of a + temper more suitable to the meekness and charity of their + profession. There were many who felt a sincere compassion for the + danger of their friends and countrymen, and who exerted the most + benevolent zeal to save them from the impending destruction. The + careless Polytheist, assailed by new and unexpected terrors, + against which neither his priests nor his philosophers could + afford him any certain protection, was very frequently terrified + and subdued by the menace of eternal tortures. His fears might + assist the progress of his faith and reason; and if he could once + persuade himself to suspect that the Christian religion might + possibly be true, it became an easy task to convince him that it + was the safest and most prudent party that he could possibly + embrace. + + III. The supernatural gifts, which even in this life were + ascribed to the Christians above the rest of mankind, must have + conduced to their own comfort, and very frequently to the + conviction of infidels. Besides the occasional prodigies, which + might sometimes be effected by the immediate interposition of the + Deity when he suspended the laws of Nature for the service of + religion, the Christian church, from the time of the apostles and + their first disciples, has claimed an uninterrupted succession of + miraculous powers, the gift of tongues, of vision, and of + prophecy, the power of expelling dæmons, of healing the sick, and + of raising the dead. The knowledge of foreign languages was + frequently communicated to the contemporaries of Irenæus, though + Irenæus himself was left to struggle with the difficulties of a + barbarous dialect, whilst he preached the gospel to the natives + of Gaul. The divine inspiration, whether it was conveyed in the + form of a waking or of a sleeping vision, is described as a favor + very liberally bestowed on all ranks of the faithful, on women as + on elders, on boys as well as upon bishops. When their devout + minds were sufficiently prepared by a course of prayer, of + fasting, and of vigils, to receive the extraordinary impulse, + they were transported out of their senses, and delivered in + ecstasy what was inspired, being mere organs of the Holy Spirit, + just as a pipe or flute is of him who blows into it. We may add, + that the design of these visions was, for the most part, either + to disclose the future history, or to guide the present + administration, of the church. The expulsion of the dæmons from + the bodies of those unhappy persons whom they had been permitted + to torment, was considered as a signal though ordinary triumph of + religion, and is repeatedly alleged by the ancient apologists, as + the most convincing evidence of the truth of Christianity. The + awful ceremony was usually performed in a public manner, and in + the presence of a great number of spectators; the patient was + relieved by the power or skill of the exorcist, and the + vanquished dæmon was heard to confess that he was one of the + fabled gods of antiquity, who had impiously usurped the adoration + of mankind. But the miraculous cure of diseases of the most + inveterate or even preternatural kind can no longer occasion any + surprise, when we recollect, that in the days of Irenæus, about + the end of the second century, the resurrection of the dead was + very far from being esteemed an uncommon event; that the miracle + was frequently performed on necessary occasions, by great fasting + and the joint supplication of the church of the place, and that + the persons thus restored to their prayers had lived afterwards + among them many years. At such a period, when faith could boast + of so many wonderful victories over death, it seems difficult to + account for the scepticism of those philosophers, who still + rejected and derided the doctrine of the resurrection. A noble + Grecian had rested on this important ground the whole + controversy, and promised Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, that if + he could be gratified with the sight of a single person who had + been actually raised from the dead, he would immediately embrace + the Christian religion. It is somewhat remarkable, that the + prelate of the first eastern church, however anxious for the + conversion of his friend, thought proper to decline this fair and + reasonable challenge. + + The miracles of the primitive church, after obtaining the + sanction of ages, have been lately attacked in a very free and + ingenious inquiry, which, though it has met with the most + favorable reception from the public, appears to have excited a + general scandal among the divines of our own as well as of the + other Protestant churches of Europe. Our different sentiments on + this subject will be much less influenced by any particular + arguments, than by our habits of study and reflection; and, above + all, by the degree of evidence which we have accustomed ourselves + to require for the proof of a miraculous event. The duty of an + historian does not call upon him to interpose his private + judgment in this nice and important controversy; but he ought not + to dissemble the difficulty of adopting such a theory as may + reconcile the interest of religion with that of reason, of making + a proper application of that theory, and of defining with + precision the limits of that happy period, exempt from error and + from deceit, to which we might be disposed to extend the gift of + supernatural powers. From the first of the fathers to the last of + the popes, a succession of bishops, of saints, of martyrs, and of + miracles, is continued without interruption; and the progress of + superstition was so gradual, and almost imperceptible, that we + know not in what particular link we should break the chain of + tradition. Every age bears testimony to the wonderful events by + which it was distinguished, and its testimony appears no less + weighty and respectable than that of the preceding generation, + till we are insensibly led on to accuse our own inconsistency, if + in the eighth or in the twelfth century we deny to the venerable + Bede, or to the holy Bernard, the same degree of confidence + which, in the second century, we had so liberally granted to + Justin or to Irenæus. If the truth of any of those miracles is + appreciated by their apparent use and propriety, every age had + unbelievers to convince, heretics to confute, and idolatrous + nations to convert; and sufficient motives might always be + produced to justify the interposition of Heaven. And yet, since + every friend to revelation is persuaded of the reality, and every + reasonable man is convinced of the cessation, of miraculous + powers, it is evident that there must have been _some period_ in + which they were either suddenly or gradually withdrawn from the + Christian church. Whatever æra is chosen for that purpose, the + death of the apostles, the conversion of the Roman empire, or the + extinction of the Arian heresy, the insensibility of the + Christians who lived at that time will equally afford a just + matter of surprise. They still supported their pretensions after + they had lost their power. Credulity performed the office of + faith; fanaticism was permitted to assume the language of + inspiration, and the effects of accident or contrivance were + ascribed to supernatural causes. The recent experience of genuine + miracles should have instructed the Christian world in the ways + of Providence, and habituated their eye (if we may use a very + inadequate expression) to the style of the divine artist. Should + the most skilful painter of modern Italy presume to decorate his + feeble imitations with the name of Raphael or of Correggio, the + insolent fraud would be soon discovered, and indignantly + rejected. + + Whatever opinion may be entertained of the miracles of the + primitive church since the time of the apostles, this unresisting + softness of temper, so conspicuous among the believers of the + second and third centuries, proved of some accidental benefit to + the cause of truth and religion. In modern times, a latent and + even involuntary scepticism adheres to the most pious + dispositions. Their admission of supernatural truths is much less + an active consent than a cold and passive acquiescence. + Accustomed long since to observe and to respect the invariable + order of Nature, our reason, or at least our imagination, is not + sufficiently prepared to sustain the visible action of the Deity. + But, in the first ages of Christianity, the situation of mankind + was extremely different. The most curious, or the most credulous, + among the Pagans, were often persuaded to enter into a society + which asserted an actual claim of miraculous powers. The + primitive Christians perpetually trod on mystic ground, and their + minds were exercised by the habits of believing the most + extraordinary events. They felt, or they fancied, that on every + side they were incessantly assaulted by dæmons, comforted by + visions, instructed by prophecy, and surprisingly delivered from + danger, sickness, and from death itself, by the supplications of + the church. The real or imaginary prodigies, of which they so + frequently conceived themselves to be the objects, the + instruments, or the spectators, very happily disposed them to + adopt with the same ease, but with far greater justice, the + authentic wonders of the evangelic history; and thus miracles + that exceeded not the measure of their own experience, inspired + them with the most lively assurance of mysteries which were + acknowledged to surpass the limits of their understanding. It is + this deep impression of supernatural truths which has been so + much celebrated under the name of faith; a state of mind + described as the surest pledge of the divine favor and of future + felicity, and recommended as the first, or perhaps the only merit + of a Christian. According to the more rigid doctors, the moral + virtues, which may be equally practised by infidels, are + destitute of any value or efficacy in the work of our + justification. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part V. + + IV. But the primitive Christian demonstrated his faith by his + virtues; and it was very justly supposed that the divine + persuasion, which enlightened or subdued the understanding, must, + at the same time, purify the heart, and direct the actions, of + the believer. The first apologists of Christianity who justify + the innocence of their brethren, and the writers of a later + period who celebrate the sanctity of their ancestors, display, in + the most lively colors, the reformation of manners which was + introduced into the world by the preaching of the gospel. As it + is my intention to remark only such human causes as were + permitted to second the influence of revelation, I shall slightly + mention two motives which might naturally render the lives of the + primitive Christians much purer and more austere than those of + their Pagan contemporaries, or their degenerate successors; + repentance for their past sins, and the laudable desire of + supporting the reputation of the society in which they were + engaged. * + + It is a very ancient reproach, suggested by the ignorance or the + malice of infidelity, that the Christians allured into their + party the most atrocious criminals, who, as soon as they were + touched by a sense of remorse, were easily persuaded to wash + away, in the water of baptism, the guilt of their past conduct, + for which the temples of the gods refused to grant them any + expiation. But this reproach, when it is cleared from + misrepresentation, contributes as much to the honor as it did to + the increase of the church. The friends of Christianity may + acknowledge without a blush that many of the most eminent saints + had been before their baptism the most abandoned sinners. Those + persons, who in the world had followed, though in an imperfect + manner, the dictates of benevolence and propriety, derived such a + calm satisfaction from the opinion of their own rectitude, as + rendered them much less susceptible of the sudden emotions of + shame, of grief, and of terror, which have given birth to so many + wonderful conversions. After the example of their divine Master, + the missionaries of the gospel disdained not the society of men, + and especially of women, oppressed by the consciousness, and very + often by the effects, of their vices. As they emerged from sin + and superstition to the glorious hope of immortality, they + resolved to devote themselves to a life, not only of virtue, but + of penitence. The desire of perfection became the ruling passion + of their soul; and it is well known that, while reason embraces a + cold mediocrity, our passions hurry us, with rapid violence, over + the space which lies between the most opposite extremes. + + When the new converts had been enrolled in the number of the + faithful, and were admitted to the sacraments of the church, they + found themselves restrained from relapsing into their past + disorders by another consideration of a less spiritual, but of a + very innocent and respectable nature. Any particular society that + has departed from the great body of the nation, or the religion + to which it belonged, immediately becomes the object of universal + as well as invidious observation. In proportion to the smallness + of its numbers, the character of the society may be affected by + the virtues and vices of the persons who compose it; and every + member is engaged to watch with the most vigilant attention over + his own behavior, and over that of his brethren, since, as he + must expect to incur a part of the common disgrace, he may hope + to enjoy a share of the common reputation. When the Christians of + Bithynia were brought before the tribunal of the younger Pliny, + they assured the proconsul, that, far from being engaged in any + unlawful conspiracy, they were bound by a solemn obligation to + abstain from the commission of those crimes which disturb the + private or public peace of society, from theft, robbery, + adultery, perjury, and fraud. Near a century afterwards, + Tertullian, with an honest pride, could boast, that very few + Christians had suffered by the hand of the executioner, except on + account of their religion. Their serious and sequestered life, + averse to the gay luxury of the age, inured them to chastity, + temperance, economy, and all the sober and domestic virtues. As + the greater number were of some trade or profession, it was + incumbent on them, by the strictest integrity and the fairest + dealing, to remove the suspicions which the profane are too apt + to conceive against the appearances of sanctity. The contempt of + the world exercised them in the habits of humility, meekness, and + patience. The more they were persecuted, the more closely they + adhered to each other. Their mutual charity and unsuspecting + confidence has been remarked by infidels, and was too often + abused by perfidious friends. + + It is a very honorable circumstance for the morals of the + primitive Christians, that even their faults, or rather errors, + were derived from an excess of virtue. The bishops and doctors of + the church, whose evidence attests, and whose authority might + influence, the professions, the principles, and even the practice + of their contemporaries, had studied the Scriptures with less + skill than devotion; and they often received, in the most literal + sense, those rigid precepts of Christ and the apostles, to which + the prudence of succeeding commentators has applied a looser and + more figurative mode of interpretation. Ambitious to exalt the + perfection of the gospel above the wisdom of philosophy, the + zealous fathers have carried the duties of self-mortification, of + purity, and of patience, to a height which it is scarcely + possible to attain, and much less to preserve, in our present + state of weakness and corruption. A doctrine so extraordinary and + so sublime must inevitably command the veneration of the people; + but it was ill calculated to obtain the suffrage of those worldly + philosophers who, in the conduct of this transitory life, consult + only the feelings of nature and the interest of society. + + There are two very natural propensities which we may distinguish + in the most virtuous and liberal dispositions, the love of + pleasure and the love of action. If the former is refined by art + and learning, improved by the charms of social intercourse, and + corrected by a just regard to economy, to health, and to + reputation, it is productive of the greatest part of the + happiness of private life. The love of action is a principle of a + much stronger and more doubtful nature. It often leads to anger, + to ambition, and to revenge; but when it is guided by the sense + of propriety and benevolence, it becomes the parent of every + virtue, and if those virtues are accompanied with equal + abilities, a family, a state, or an empire may be indebted for + their safety and prosperity to the undaunted courage of a single + man. To the love of pleasure we may therefore ascribe most of the + agreeable, to the love of action we may attribute most of the + useful and respectable, qualifications. The character in which + both the one and the other should be united and harmonized would + seem to constitute the most perfect idea of human nature. The + insensible and inactive disposition, which should be supposed + alike destitute of both, would be rejected, by the common consent + of mankind, as utterly incapable of procuring any happiness to + the individual, or any public benefit to the world. But it was + not in this world that the primitive Christians were desirous of + making themselves either agreeable or useful. * + + The acquisition of knowledge, the exercise of our reason or + fancy, and the cheerful flow of unguarded conversation, may + employ the leisure of a liberal mind. Such amusements, however, + were rejected with abhorrence, or admitted with the utmost + caution, by the severity of the fathers, who despised all + knowledge that was not useful to salvation, and who considered + all levity of discours as a criminal abuse of the gift of speech. + In our present state of existence the body is so inseparably + connected with the soul, that it seems to be our interest to + taste, with innocence and moderation, the enjoyments of which + that faithful companion is susceptible. Very different was the + reasoning of our devout predecessors; vainly aspiring to imitate + the perfection of angels, they disdained, or they affected to + disdain, every earthly and corporeal delight. Some of our senses + indeed are necessary for our preservation, others for our + subsistence, and others again for our information; and thus far + it was impossible to reject the use of them. The first sensation + of pleasure was marked as the first moment of their abuse. The + unfeeling candidate for heaven was instructed, not only to resist + the grosser allurements of the taste or smell, but even to shut + his ears against the profane harmony of sounds, and to view with + indifference the most finished productions of human art. Gay + apparel, magnificent houses, and elegant furniture, were supposed + to unite the double guilt of pride and of sensuality; a simple + and mortified appearance was more suitable to the Christian who + was certain of his sins and doubtful of his salvation. In their + censures of luxury the fathers are extremely minute and + circumstantial; and among the various articles which excite their + pious indignation we may enumerate false hair, garments of any + color except white, instruments of music, vases of gold or + silver, downy pillows, (as Jacob reposed his head on a stone,) + white bread, foreign wines, public salutations, the use of warm + baths, and the practice of shaving the beard, which, according to + the expression of Tertullian, is a lie against our own faces, and + an impious attempt to improve the works of the Creator. When + Christianity was introduced among the rich and the polite, the + observation of these singular laws was left, as it would be at + present, to the few who were ambitious of superior sanctity. But + it is always easy, as well as agreeable, for the inferior ranks + of mankind to claim a merit from the contempt of that pomp and + pleasure which fortune has placed beyond their reach. The virtue + of the primitive Christians, like that of the first Romans, was + very frequently guarded by poverty and ignorance. + + The chaste severity of the fathers, in whatever related to the + commerce of the two sexes, flowed from the same principle; their + abhorrence of every enjoyment which might gratify the sensual, + and degrade the spiritual nature of man. It was their favorite + opinion, that if Adam had preserved his obedience to the Creator, + he would have lived forever in a state of virgin purity, and that + some harmless mode of vegetation might have peopled paradise with + a race of innocent and immortal beings. The use of marriage was + permitted only to his fallen posterity, as a necessary expedient + to continue the human species, and as a restraint, however + imperfect, on the natural licentiousness of desire. The + hesitation of the orthodox casuists on this interesting subject, + betrays the perplexity of men, unwilling to approve an + institution which they were compelled to tolerate. The + enumeration of the very whimsical laws, which they most + circumstantially imposed on the marriage-bed, would force a smile + from the young and a blush from the fair. It was their unanimous + sentiment that a first marriage was adequate to all the purposes + of nature and of society. The sensual connection was refined into + a resemblance of the mystic union of Christ with his church, and + was pronounced to be indissoluble either by divorce or by death. + The practice of second nuptials was branded with the name of a + legal adultery; and the persons who were guilty of so scandalous + an offence against Christian purity, were soon excluded from the + honors, and even from the alms, of the church. Since desire was + imputed as a crime, and marriage was tolerated as a defect, it + was consistent with the same principles to consider a state of + celibacy as the nearest approach to the divine perfection. It was + with the utmost difficulty that ancient Rome could support the + institution of six vestals; but the primitive church was filled + with a number of persons of either sex, who had devoted + themselves to the profession of perpetual chastity. A few of + these, among whom we may reckon the learned Origen, judged it the + most prudent to disarm the tempter. Some were insensible and some + were invincible against the assaults of the flesh. Disdaining an + ignominious flight, the virgins of the warm climate of Africa + encountered the enemy in the closest engagement; they permitted + priests and deacons to share their bed, and gloried amidst the + flames in their unsullied purity. But insulted Nature sometimes + vindicated her rights, and this new species of martyrdom served + only to introduce a new scandal into the church. Among the + Christian ascetics, however, (a name which they soon acquired + from their painful exercise,) many, as they were less + presumptuous, were probably more successful. The loss of sensual + pleasure was supplied and compensated by spiritual pride. Even + the multitude of Pagans were inclined to estimate the merit of + the sacrifice by its apparent difficulty; and it was in the + praise of these chaste spouses of Christ that the fathers have + poured forth the troubled stream of their eloquence. Such are the + early traces of monastic principles and institutions, which, in a + subsequent age, have counterbalanced all the temporal advantages + of Christianity. + + The Christians were not less averse to the business than to the + pleasures of this world. The defence of our persons and property + they knew not how to reconcile with the patient doctrine which + enjoined an unlimited forgiveness of past injuries, and commanded + them to invite the repetition of fresh insults. Their simplicity + was offended by the use of oaths, by the pomp of magistracy, and + by the active contention of public life; nor could their humane + ignorance be convinced that it was lawful on any occasion to shed + the blood of our fellow-creatures, either by the sword of + justice, or by that of war; even though their criminal or hostile + attempts should threaten the peace and safety of the whole + community. It was acknowledged that, under a less perfect law, + the powers of the Jewish constitution had been exercised, with + the approbation of heaven, by inspired prophets and by anointed + kings. The Christians felt and confessed that such institutions + might be necessary for the present system of the world, and they + cheerfully submitted to the authority of their Pagan governors. + But while they inculcated the maxims of passive obedience, they + refused to take any active part in the civil administration or + the military defence of the empire. Some indulgence might, + perhaps, be allowed to those persons who, before their + conversion, were already engaged in such violent and sanguinary + occupations; but it was impossible that the Christians, without + renouncing a more sacred duty, could assume the character of + soldiers, of magistrates, or of princes. This indolent, or even + criminal disregard to the public welfare, exposed them to the + contempt and reproaches of the Pagans, who very frequently asked, + what must be the fate of the empire, attacked on every side by + the barbarians, if all mankind should adopt the pusillanimous + sentiments of the new sect. To this insulting question the + Christian apologists returned obscure and ambiguous answers, as + they were unwilling to reveal the secret cause of their security; + the expectation that, before the conversion of mankind was + accomplished, war, government, the Roman empire, and the world + itself, would be no more. It may be observed, that, in this + instance likewise, the situation of the first Christians + coincided very happily with their religious scruples, and that + their aversion to an active life contributed rather to excuse + them from the service, than to exclude them from the honors, of + the state and army. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VI. + + V. But the human character, however it may be exalted or + depressed by a temporary enthusiasm, will return by degrees to + its proper and natural level, and will resume those passions that + seem the most adapted to its present condition. The primitive + Christians were dead to the business and pleasures of the world; + but their love of action, which could never be entirely + extinguished, soon revived, and found a new occupation in the + government of the church. A separate society, which attacked the + established religion of the empire, was obliged to adopt some + form of internal policy, and to appoint a sufficient number of + ministers, intrusted not only with the spiritual functions, but + even with the temporal direction of the Christian commonwealth. + The safety of that society, its honor, its aggrandizement, were + productive, even in the most pious minds, of a spirit of + patriotism, such as the first of the Romans had felt for the + republic, and sometimes of a similar indifference, in the use of + whatever means might probably conduce to so desirable an end. The + ambition of raising themselves or their friends to the honors and + offices of the church, was disguised by the laudable intention of + devoting to the public benefit the power and consideration, + which, for that purpose only, it became their duty to solicit. In + the exercise of their functions, they were frequently called upon + to detect the errors of heresy or the arts of faction, to oppose + the designs of perfidious brethren, to stigmatize their + characters with deserved infamy, and to expel them from the bosom + of a society whose peace and happiness they had attempted to + disturb. The ecclesiastical governors of the Christians were + taught to unite the wisdom of the serpent with the innocence of + the dove; but as the former was refined, so the latter was + insensibly corrupted, by the habits of government. In the church + as well as in the world, the persons who were placed in any + public station rendered themselves considerable by their + eloquence and firmness, by their knowledge of mankind, and by + their dexterity in business; and while they concealed from + others, and perhaps from themselves, the secret motives of their + conduct, they too frequently relapsed into all the turbulent + passions of active life, which were tinctured with an additional + degree of bitterness and obstinacy from the infusion of spiritual + zeal. + + The government of the church has often been the subject, as well + as the prize, of religious contention. The hostile disputants of + Rome, of Paris, of Oxford, and of Geneva, have alike struggled to + reduce the primitive and apostolic model to the respective + standards of their own policy. The few who have pursued this + inquiry with more candor and impartiality, are of opinion, that + the apostles declined the office of legislation, and rather chose + to endure some partial scandals and divisions, than to exclude + the Christians of a future age from the liberty of varying their + forms of ecclesiastical government according to the changes of + times and circumstances. The scheme of policy, which, under their + approbation, was adopted for the use of the first century, may be + discovered from the practice of Jerusalem, of Ephesus, or of + Corinth. The societies which were instituted in the cities of the + Roman empire were united only by the ties of faith and charity. + Independence and equality formed the basis of their internal + constitution. The want of discipline and human learning was + supplied by the occasional assistance of the _prophets_, who were + called to that function without distinction of age, of sex, * or + of natural abilities, and who, as often as they felt the divine + impulse, poured forth the effusions of the Spirit in the assembly + of the faithful. But these extraordinary gifts were frequently + abused or misapplied by the prophetic teachers. They displayed + them at an improper season, presumptuously disturbed the service + of the assembly, and, by their pride or mistaken zeal, they + introduced, particularly into the apostolic church of Corinth, a + long and melancholy train of disorders. As the institution of + prophets became useless, and even pernicious, their powers were + withdrawn, and their office abolished. The public functions of + religion were solely intrusted to the established ministers of + the church, the _bishops_ and the _presbyters_; two appellations + which, in their first origin, appear to have distinguished the + same office and the same order of persons. The name of Presbyter + was expressive of their age, or rather of their gravity and + wisdom. The title of Bishop denoted their inspection over the + faith and manners of the Christians who were committed to their + pastoral care. In proportion to the respective numbers of the + faithful, a larger or smaller number of these _episcopal_ + _presbyters_ guided each infant congregation with equal authority + and with united counsels. + + But the most perfect equality of freedom requires the directing + hand of a superior magistrate: and the order of public + deliberations soon introduces the office of a president, invested + at least with the authority of collecting the sentiments, and of + executing the resolutions, of the assembly. A regard for the + public tranquillity, which would so frequently have been + interrupted by annual or by occasional elections, induced the + primitive Christians to constitute an honorable and perpetual + magistracy, and to choose one of the wisest and most holy among + their presbyters to execute, during his life, the duties of their + ecclesiastical governor. It was under these circumstances that + the lofty title of Bishop began to raise itself above the humble + appellation of Presbyter; and while the latter remained the most + natural distinction for the members of every Christian senate, + the former was appropriated to the dignity of its new president. + The advantages of this episcopal form of government, which + appears to have been introduced before the end of the first + century, were so obvious, and so important for the future + greatness, as well as the present peace, of Christianity, that it + was adopted without delay by all the societies which were already + scattered over the empire, had acquired in a very early period + the sanction of antiquity, and is still revered by the most + powerful churches, both of the East and of the West, as a + primitive and even as a divine establishment. It is needless to + observe, that the pious and humble presbyters, who were first + dignified with the episcopal title, could not possess, and would + probably have rejected, the power and pomp which now encircles + the tiara of the Roman pontiff, or the mitre of a German prelate. + But we may define, in a few words, the narrow limits of their + original jurisdiction, which was chiefly of a spiritual, though + in some instances of a temporal nature. It consisted in the + administration of the sacraments and discipline of the church, + the superintendency of religious ceremonies, which imperceptibly + increased in number and variety, the consecration of + ecclesiastical ministers, to whom the bishop assigned their + respective functions, the management of the public fund, and the + determination of all such differences as the faithful were + unwilling to expose before the tribunal of an idolatrous judge. + These powers, during a short period, were exercised according to + the advice of the presbyteral college, and with the consent and + approbation of the assembly of Christians. The primitive bishops + were considered only as the first of their equals, and the + honorable servants of a free people. Whenever the episcopal chair + became vacant by death, a new president was chosen among the + presbyters by the suffrage of the whole congregation, every + member of which supposed himself invested with a sacred and + sacerdotal character. + + Such was the mild and equal constitution by which the Christians + were governed more than a hundred years after the death of the + apostles. Every society formed within itself a separate and + independent republic; and although the most distant of these + little states maintained a mutual as well as friendly intercourse + of letters and deputations, the Christian world was not yet + connected by any supreme authority or legislative assembly. As + the numbers of the faithful were gradually multiplied, they + discovered the advantages that might result from a closer union + of their interest and designs. Towards the end of the second + century, the churches of Greece and Asia adopted the useful + institutions of provincial synods, * and they may justly be + supposed to have borrowed the model of a representative council + from the celebrated examples of their own country, the + Amphictyons, the Achæan league, or the assemblies of the Ionian + cities. It was soon established as a custom and as a law, that + the bishops of the independent churches should meet in the + capital of the province at the stated periods of spring and + autumn. Their deliberations were assisted by the advice of a few + distinguished presbyters, and moderated by the presence of a + listening multitude. Their decrees, which were styled Canons, + regulated every important controversy of faith and discipline; + and it was natural to believe that a liberal effusion of the Holy + Spirit would be poured on the united assembly of the delegates of + the Christian people. The institution of synods was so well + suited to private ambition, and to public interest, that in the + space of a few years it was received throughout the whole empire. + A regular correspondence was established between the provincial + councils, which mutually communicated and approved their + respective proceedings; and the catholic church soon assumed the + form, and acquired the strength, of a great fœderative republic. + + As the legislative authority of the particular churches was + insensibly superseded by the use of councils, the bishops + obtained by their alliance a much larger share of executive and + arbitrary power; and as soon as they were connected by a sense of + their common interest, they were enabled to attack, with united + vigor, the original rights of their clergy and people. The + prelates of the third century imperceptibly changed the language + of exhortation into that of command, scattered the seeds of + future usurpations, and supplied, by scripture allegories and + declamatory rhetoric, their deficiency of force and of reason. + They exalted the unity and power of the church, as it was + represented in the episcopal office, of which every bishop + enjoyed an equal and undivided portion. Princes and magistrates, + it was often repeated, might boast an earthly claim to a + transitory dominion; it was the episcopal authority alone which + was derived from the Deity, and extended itself over this and + over another world. The bishops were the vicegerents of Christ, + the successors of the apostles, and the mystic substitutes of the + high priest of the Mosaic law. Their exclusive privilege of + conferring the sacerdotal character invaded the freedom both of + clerical and of popular elections; and if, in the administration + of the church, they still consulted the judgment of the + presbyters, or the inclination of the people, they most carefully + inculcated the merit of such a voluntary condescension. The + bishops acknowledged the supreme authority which resided in the + assembly of their brethren; but in the government of his peculiar + diocese, each of them exacted from his flock the same implicit + obedience as if that favorite metaphor had been literally just, + and as if the shepherd had been of a more exalted nature than + that of his sheep. This obedience, however, was not imposed + without some efforts on one side, and some resistance on the + other. The democratical part of the constitution was, in many + places, very warmly supported by the zealous or interested + opposition of the inferior clergy. But their patriotism received + the ignominious epithets of faction and schism; and the episcopal + cause was indebted for its rapid progress to the labors of many + active prelates, who, like Cyprian of Carthage, could reconcile + the arts of the most ambitious statesman with the Christian + virtues which seem adapted to the character of a saint and + martyr. + + The same causes which at first had destroyed the equality of the + presbyters introduced among the bishops a preeminence of rank, + and from thence a superiority of jurisdiction. As often as in the + spring and autumn they met in provincial synod, the difference of + personal merit and reputation was very sensibly felt among the + members of the assembly, and the multitude was governed by the + wisdom and eloquence of the few. But the order of public + proceedings required a more regular and less invidious + distinction; the office of perpetual presidents in the councils + of each province was conferred on the bishops of the principal + city; and these aspiring prelates, who soon acquired the lofty + titles of Metropolitans and Primates, secretly prepared + themselves to usurp over their episcopal brethren the same + authority which the bishops had so lately assumed above the + college of presbyters. Nor was it long before an emulation of + preeminence and power prevailed among the Metropolitans + themselves, each of them affecting to display, in the most + pompous terms, the temporal honors and advantages of the city + over which he presided; the numbers and opulence of the + Christians who were subject to their pastoral care; the saints + and martyrs who had arisen among them; and the purity with which + they preserved the tradition of the faith, as it had been + transmitted through a series of orthodox bishops from the apostle + or the apostolic disciple, to whom the foundation of their church + was ascribed. From every cause, either of a civil or of an + ecclesiastical nature, it was easy to foresee that Rome must + enjoy the respect, and would soon claim the obedience, of the + provinces. The society of the faithful bore a just proportion to + the capital of the empire; and the Roman church was the greatest, + the most numerous, and, in regard to the West, the most ancient + of all the Christian establishments, many of which had received + their religion from the pious labors of her missionaries. Instead + of _one_apostolic founder, the utmost boast of Antioch, of + Ephesus, or of Corinth, the banks of the Tyber were supposed to + have been honored with the preaching and martyrdom of the _two_ + most eminent among the apostles; and the bishops of Rome very + prudently claimed the inheritance of whatsoever prerogatives were + attributed either to the person or to the office of St. Peter. + The bishops of Italy and of the provinces were disposed to allow + them a primacy of order and association (such was their very + accurate expression) in the Christian aristocracy. But the power + of a monarch was rejected with abhorrence, and the aspiring + genius of Rome experienced from the nations of Asia and Africa a + more vigorous resistance to her spiritual, than she had formerly + done to her temporal, dominion. The patriotic Cyprian, who ruled + with the most absolute sway the church of Carthage and the + provincial synods, opposed with resolution and success the + ambition of the Roman pontiff, artfully connected his own cause + with that of the eastern bishops, and, like Hannibal, sought out + new allies in the heart of Asia. If this Punic war was carried on + without any effusion of blood, it was owing much less to the + moderation than to the weakness of the contending prelates. + Invectives and excommunications were _their_ only weapons; and + these, during the progress of the whole controversy, they hurled + against each other with equal fury and devotion. The hard + necessity of censuring either a pope, or a saint and martyr, + distresses the modern Catholics whenever they are obliged to + relate the particulars of a dispute in which the champions of + religion indulged such passions as seem much more adapted to the + senate or to the camp. + + The progress of the ecclesiastical authority gave birth to the + memorable distinction of the laity and of the clergy, which had + been unknown to the Greeks and Romans. The former of these + appellations comprehended the body of the Christian people; the + latter, according to the signification of the word, was + appropriated to the chosen portion that had been set apart for + the service of religion; a celebrated order of men, which has + furnished the most important, though not always the most + edifying, subjects for modern history. Their mutual hostilities + sometimes disturbed the peace of the infant church, but their + zeal and activity were united in the common cause, and the love + of power, which (under the most artful disguises) could insinuate + itself into the breasts of bishops and martyrs, animated them to + increase the number of their subjects, and to enlarge the limits + of the Christian empire. They were destitute of any temporal + force, and they were for a long time discouraged and oppressed, + rather than assisted, by the civil magistrate; but they had + acquired, and they employed within their own society, the two + most efficacious instruments of government, rewards and + punishments; the former derived from the pious liberality, the + latter from the devout apprehensions, of the faithful. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VII + + I. The community of goods, which had so agreeably amused the + imagination of Plato, and which subsisted in some degree among + the austere sect of the Essenians, was adopted for a short time + in the primitive church. The fervor of the first proselytes + prompted them to sell those worldly possessions, which they + despised, to lay the price of them at the feet of the apostles, + and to content themselves with receiving an equal share out of + the general distribution. The progress of the Christian religion + relaxed, and gradually abolished, this generous institution, + which, in hands less pure than those of the apostles, would too + soon have been corrupted and abused by the returning selfishness + of human nature; and the converts who embraced the new religion + were permitted to retain the possession of their patrimony, to + receive legacies and inheritances, and to increase their separate + property by all the lawful means of trade and industry. Instead + of an absolute sacrifice, a moderate proportion was accepted by + the ministers of the gospel; and in their weekly or monthly + assemblies, every believer, according to the exigency of the + occasion, and the measure of his wealth and piety, presented his + voluntary offering for the use of the common fund. Nothing, + however inconsiderable, was refused; but it was diligently + inculcated that, in the article of Tithes, the Mosaic law was + still of divine obligation; and that since the Jews, under a less + perfect discipline, had been commanded to pay a tenth part of all + that they possessed, it would become the disciples of Christ to + distinguish themselves by a superior degree of liberality, and to + acquire some merit by resigning a superfluous treasure, which + must so soon be annihilated with the world itself. It is almost + unnecessary to observe, that the revenue of each particular + church, which was of so uncertain and fluctuating a nature, must + have varied with the poverty or the opulence of the faithful, as + they were dispersed in obscure villages, or collected in the + great cities of the empire. In the time of the emperor Decius, it + was the opinion of the magistrates, that the Christians of Rome + were possessed of very considerable wealth; that vessels of gold + and silver were used in their religious worship, and that many + among their proselytes had sold their lands and houses to + increase the public riches of the sect, at the expense, indeed, + of their unfortunate children, who found themselves beggars, + because their parents had been saints. We should listen with + distrust to the suspicions of strangers and enemies: on this + occasion, however, they receive a very specious and probable + color from the two following circumstances, the only ones that + have reached our knowledge, which define any precise sums, or + convey any distinct idea. Almost at the same period, the bishop + of Carthage, from a society less opulent than that of Rome, + collected a hundred thousand sesterces, (above eight hundred and + fifty pounds sterling,) on a sudden call of charity to redeem the + brethren of Numidia, who had been carried away captives by the + barbarians of the desert. About a hundred years before the reign + of Decius, the Roman church had received, in a single donation, + the sum of two hundred thousand sesterces from a stranger of + Pontus, who proposed to fix his residence in the capital. These + oblations, for the most part, were made in money; nor was the + society of Christians either desirous or capable of acquiring, to + any considerable degree, the encumbrance of landed property. It + had been provided by several laws, which were enacted with the + same design as our statutes of mortmain, that no real estates + should be given or bequeathed to any corporate body, without + either a special privilege or a particular dispensation from the + emperor or from the senate; who were seldom disposed to grant + them in favor of a sect, at first the object of their contempt, + and at last of their fears and jealousy. A transaction, however, + is related under the reign of Alexander Severus, which discovers + that the restraint was sometimes eluded or suspended, and that + the Christians were permitted to claim and to possess lands + within the limits of Rome itself. The progress of Christianity, + and the civil confusion of the empire, contributed to relax the + severity of the laws; and before the close of the third century + many considerable estates were bestowed on the opulent churches + of Rome, Milan, Carthage, Antioch, Alexandria, and the other + great cities of Italy and the provinces. + + The bishop was the natural steward of the church; the public + stock was intrusted to his care without account or control; the + presbyters were confined to their spiritual functions, and the + more dependent order of the deacons was solely employed in the + management and distribution of the ecclesiastical revenue. If we + may give credit to the vehement declamations of Cyprian, there + were too many among his African brethren, who, in the execution + of their charge, violated every precept, not only of evangelical + perfection, but even of moral virtue. By some of these unfaithful + stewards the riches of the church were lavished in sensual + pleasures; by others they were perverted to the purposes of + private gain, of fraudulent purchases, and of rapacious usury. + But as long as the contributions of the Christian people were + free and unconstrained, the abuse of their confidence could not + be very frequent, and the general uses to which their liberality + was applied reflected honor on the religious society. A decent + portion was reserved for the maintenance of the bishop and his + clergy; a sufficient sum was allotted for the expenses of the + public worship, of which the feasts of love, the _agapæ_, as they + were called, constituted a very pleasing part. The whole + remainder was the sacred patrimony of the poor. According to the + discretion of the bishop, it was distributed to support widows + and orphans, the lame, the sick, and the aged of the community; + to comfort strangers and pilgrims, and to alleviate the + misfortunes of prisoners and captives, more especially when their + sufferings had been occasioned by their firm attachment to the + cause of religion. A generous intercourse of charity united the + most distant provinces, and the smaller congregations were + cheerfully assisted by the alms of their more opulent brethren. + Such an institution, which paid less regard to the merit than to + the distress of the object, very materially conduced to the + progress of Christianity. The Pagans, who were actuated by a + sense of humanity, while they derided the doctrines, acknowledged + the benevolence, of the new sect. The prospect of immediate + relief and of future protection allured into its hospitable bosom + many of those unhappy persons whom the neglect of the world would + have abandoned to the miseries of want, of sickness, and of old + age. There is some reason likewise to believe that great numbers + of infants, who, according to the inhuman practice of the times, + had been exposed by their parents, were frequently rescued from + death, baptized, educated, and maintained by the piety of the + Christians, and at the expense of the public treasure. + + II. It is the undoubted right of every society to exclude from + its communion and benefits such among its members as reject or + violate those regulations which have been established by general + consent. In the exercise of this power, the censures of the + Christian church were chiefly directed against scandalous + sinners, and particularly those who were guilty of murder, of + fraud, or of incontinence; against the authors or the followers + of any heretical opinions which had been condemned by the + judgment of the episcopal order; and against those unhappy + persons, who, whether from choice or compulsion, had polluted + themselves after their baptism by any act of idolatrous worship. + The consequences of excommunication were of a temporal as well as + a spiritual nature. The Christian against whom it was pronounced + was deprived of any part in the oblations of the faithful. The + ties both of religious and of private friendship were dissolved: + he found himself a profane object of abhorrence to the persons + whom he the most esteemed, or by whom he had been the most + tenderly beloved; and as far as an expulsion from a respectable + society could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace, he was + shunned or suspected by the generality of mankind. The situation + of these unfortunate exiles was in itself very painful and + melancholy; but, as it usually happens, their apprehensions far + exceeded their sufferings. The benefits of the Christian + communion were those of eternal life; nor could they erase from + their minds the awful opinion, that to those ecclesiastical + governors by whom they were condemned, the Deity had committed + the keys of Hell and of Paradise. The heretics, indeed, who might + be supported by the consciousness of their intentions, and by the + flattering hope that they alone had discovered the true path of + salvation, endeavored to regain, in their separate assemblies, + those comforts, temporal as well as spiritual, which they no + longer derived from the great society of Christians. But almost + all those who had reluctantly yielded to the power of vice or + idolatry were sensible of their fallen condition, and anxiously + desirous of being restored to the benefits of the Christian + communion. + + With regard to the treatment of these penitents, two opposite + opinions, the one of justice, the other of mercy, divided the + primitive church. The more rigid and inflexible casuists refused + them forever, and without exception, the meanest place in the + holy community, which they had disgraced or deserted; and leaving + them to the remorse of a guilty conscience, indulged them only + with a faint ray of hope that the contrition of their life and + death might possibly be accepted by the Supreme Being. A milder + sentiment was embraced, in practice as well as in theory, by the + purest and most respectable of the Christian churches. The gates + of reconciliation and of heaven were seldom shut against the + returning penitent; but a severe and solemn form of discipline + was instituted, which, while it served to expiate his crime, + might powerfully deter the spectators from the imitation of his + example. Humbled by a public confession, emaciated by fasting and + clothed in sackcloth, the penitent lay prostrate at the door of + the assembly, imploring with tears the pardon of his offences, + and soliciting the prayers of the faithful. If the fault was of a + very heinous nature, whole years of penance were esteemed an + inadequate satisfaction to the divine justice; and it was always + by slow and painful gradations that the sinner, the heretic, or + the apostate, was readmitted into the bosom of the church. A + sentence of perpetual excommunication was, however, reserved for + some crimes of an extraordinary magnitude, and particularly for + the inexcusable relapses of those penitents who had already + experienced and abused the clemency of their ecclesiastical + superiors. According to the circumstances or the number of the + guilty, the exercise of the Christian discipline was varied by + the discretion of the bishops. The councils of Ancyra and + Illiberis were held about the same time, the one in Galatia, the + other in Spain; but their respective canons, which are still + extant, seem to breathe a very different spirit. The Galatian, + who after his baptism had repeatedly sacrificed to idols, might + obtain his pardon by a penance of seven years; and if he had + seduced others to imitate his example, only three years more were + added to the term of his exile. But the unhappy Spaniard, who had + committed the same offence, was deprived of the hope of + reconciliation, even in the article of death; and his idolatry + was placed at the head of a list of seventeen other crimes, + against which a sentence no less terrible was pronounced. Among + these we may distinguish the inexpiable guilt of calumniating a + bishop, a presbyter, or even a deacon. + + The well-tempered mixture of liberality and rigor, the judicious + dispensation of rewards and punishments, according to the maxims + of policy as well as justice, constituted the _human_ strength of + the church. The Bishops, whose paternal care extended itself to + the government of both worlds, were sensible of the importance of + these prerogatives; and covering their ambition with the fair + pretence of the love of order, they were jealous of any rival in + the exercise of a discipline so necessary to prevent the + desertion of those troops which had enlisted themselves under the + banner of the cross, and whose numbers every day became more + considerable. From the imperious declamations of Cyprian, we + should naturally conclude that the doctrines of excommunication + and penance formed the most essential part of religion; and that + it was much less dangerous for the disciples of Christ to neglect + the observance of the moral duties, than to despise the censures + and authority of their bishops. Sometimes we might imagine that + we were listening to the voice of Moses, when he commanded the + earth to open, and to swallow up, in consuming flames, the + rebellious race which refused obedience to the priesthood of + Aaron; and we should sometimes suppose that we heard a Roman + consul asserting the majesty of the republic, and declaring his + inflexible resolution to enforce the rigor of the laws. * “If + such irregularities are suffered with impunity,” (it is thus that + the bishop of Carthage chides the lenity of his colleague,) “if + such irregularities are suffered, there is an end of Episcopal + Vigor; an end of the sublime and divine power of governing the + Church, an end of Christianity itself.” Cyprian had renounced + those temporal honors which it is probable he would never have + obtained; * but the acquisition of such absolute command over the + consciences and understanding of a congregation, however obscure + or despised by the world, is more truly grateful to the pride of + the human heart than the possession of the most despotic power, + imposed by arms and conquest on a reluctant people. + + In the course of this important, though perhaps tedious inquiry, + I have attempted to display the secondary causes which so + efficaciously assisted the truth of the Christian religion. If + among these causes we have discovered any artificial ornaments, + any accidental circumstances, or any mixture of error and + passion, it cannot appear surprising that mankind should be the + most sensibly affected by such motives as were suited to their + imperfect nature. It was by the aid of these causes, exclusive + zeal, the immediate expectation of another world, the claim of + miracles, the practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of + the primitive church, that Christianity spread itself with so + much success in the Roman empire. To the first of these the + Christians were indebted for their invincible valor, which + disdained to capitulate with the enemy whom they were resolved to + vanquish. The three succeeding causes supplied their valor with + the most formidable arms. The last of these causes united their + courage, directed their arms, and gave their efforts that + irresistible weight, which even a small band of well-trained and + intrepid volunteers has so often possessed over an undisciplined + multitude, ignorant of the subject and careless of the event of + the war. In the various religions of Polytheism, some wandering + fanatics of Egypt and Syria, who addressed themselves to the + credulous superstition of the populace, were perhaps the only + order of priests that derived their whole support and credit from + their sacerdotal profession, and were very deeply affected by a + personal concern for the safety or prosperity of their tutelar + deities. The ministers of Polytheism, both in Rome and in the + provinces, were, for the most part, men of a noble birth, and of + an affluent fortune, who received, as an honorable distinction, + the care of a celebrated temple, or of a public sacrifice, + exhibited, very frequently at their own expense, the sacred + games, and with cold indifference performed the ancient rites, + according to the laws and fashion of their country. As they were + engaged in the ordinary occupations of life, their zeal and + devotion were seldom animated by a sense of interest, or by the + habits of an ecclesiastical character. Confined to their + respective temples and cities, they remained without any + connection of discipline or government; and whilst they + acknowledged the supreme jurisdiction of the senate, of the + college of pontiffs, and of the emperor, those civil magistrates + contented themselves with the easy task of maintaining in peace + and dignity the general worship of mankind. We have already seen + how various, how loose, and how uncertain were the religious + sentiments of Polytheists. They were abandoned, almost without + control, to the natural workings of a superstitious fancy. The + accidental circumstances of their life and situation determined + the object as well as the degree of their devotion; and as long + as their adoration was successively prostituted to a thousand + deities, it was scarcely possible that their hearts could be + susceptible of a very sincere or lively passion for any of them. + + When Christianity appeared in the world, even these faint and + imperfect impressions had lost much of their original power. + Human reason, which by its unassisted strength is incapable of + perceiving the mysteries of faith, had already obtained an easy + triumph over the folly of Paganism; and when Tertullian or + Lactantius employ their labors in exposing its falsehood and + extravagance, they are obliged to transcribe the eloquence of + Cicero or the wit of Lucian. The contagion of these sceptical + writings had been diffused far beyond the number of their + readers. The fashion of incredulity was communicated from the + philosopher to the man of pleasure or business, from the noble to + the plebeian, and from the master to the menial slave who waited + at his table, and who eagerly listened to the freedom of his + conversation. On public occasions the philosophic part of mankind + affected to treat with respect and decency the religious + institutions of their country; but their secret contempt + penetrated through the thin and awkward disguise; and even the + people, when they discovered that their deities were rejected and + derided by those whose rank or understanding they were accustomed + to reverence, were filled with doubts and apprehensions + concerning the truth of those doctrines, to which they had + yielded the most implicit belief. The decline of ancient + prejudice exposed a very numerous portion of human kind to the + danger of a painful and comfortless situation. A state of + scepticism and suspense may amuse a few inquisitive minds. But + the practice of superstition is so congenial to the multitude, + that if they are forcibly awakened, they still regret the loss of + their pleasing vision. Their love of the marvellous and + supernatural, their curiosity with regard to future events, and + their strong propensity to extend their hopes and fears beyond + the limits of the visible world, were the principal causes which + favored the establishment of Polytheism. So urgent on the vulgar + is the necessity of believing, that the fall of any system of + mythology will most probably be succeeded by the introduction of + some other mode of superstition. Some deities of a more recent + and fashionable cast might soon have occupied the deserted + temples of Jupiter and Apollo, if, in the decisive moment, the + wisdom of Providence had not interposed a genuine revelation, + fitted to inspire the most rational esteem and conviction, + whilst, at the same time, it was adorned with all that could + attract the curiosity, the wonder, and the veneration of the + people. In their actual disposition, as many were almost + disengaged from their artificial prejudices, but equally + susceptible and desirous of a devout attachment; an object much + less deserving would have been sufficient to fill the vacant + place in their hearts, and to gratify the uncertain eagerness of + their passions. Those who are inclined to pursue this reflection, + instead of viewing with astonishment the rapid progress of + Christianity, will perhaps be surprised that its success was not + still more rapid and still more universal. + + It has been observed, with truth as well as propriety, that the + conquests of Rome prepared and facilitated those of Christianity. + In the second chapter of this work we have attempted to explain + in what manner the most civilized provinces of Europe, Asia, and + Africa were united under the dominion of one sovereign, and + gradually connected by the most intimate ties of laws, of + manners, and of language. The Jews of Palestine, who had fondly + expected a temporal deliverer, gave so cold a reception to the + miracles of the divine prophet, that it was found unnecessary to + publish, or at least to preserve, any Hebrew gospel. The + authentic histories of the actions of Christ were composed in the + Greek language, at a considerable distance from Jerusalem, and + after the Gentile converts were grown extremely numerous. As soon + as those histories were translated into the Latin tongue, they + were perfectly intelligible to all the subjects of Rome, + excepting only to the peasants of Syria and Egypt, for whose + benefit particular versions were afterwards made. The public + highways, which had been constructed for the use of the legions, + opened an easy passage for the Christian missionaries from + Damascus to Corinth, and from Italy to the extremity of Spain or + Britain; nor did those spiritual conquerors encounter any of the + obstacles which usually retard or prevent the introduction of a + foreign religion into a distant country. There is the strongest + reason to believe, that before the reigns of Diocletian and + Constantine, the faith of Christ had been preached in every + province, and in all the great cities of the empire; but the + foundation of the several congregations, the numbers of the + faithful who composed them, and their proportion to the + unbelieving multitude, are now buried in obscurity, or disguised + by fiction and declamation. Such imperfect circumstances, + however, as have reached our knowledge concerning the increase of + the Christian name in Asia and Greece, in Egypt, in Italy, and in + the West, we shall now proceed to relate, without neglecting the + real or imaginary acquisitions which lay beyond the frontiers of + the Roman empire. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VIII. + + The rich provinces that extend from the Euphrates to the Ionian + Sea were the principal theatre on which the apostle of the + Gentiles displayed his zeal and piety. The seeds of the gospel, + which he had scattered in a fertile soil, were diligently + cultivated by his disciples; and it should seem that, during the + two first centuries, the most considerable body of Christians was + contained within those limits. Among the societies which were + instituted in Syria, none were more ancient or more illustrious + than those of Damascus, of Berea or Aleppo, and of Antioch. The + prophetic introduction of the Apocalypse has described and + immortalized the seven churches of Asia; Ephesus, Smyrna, + Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardes, Laodicea, and Philadelphia; and their + colonies were soon diffused over that populous country. In a very + early period, the islands of Cyprus and Crete, the provinces of + Thrace and Macedonia, gave a favorable reception to the new + religion; and Christian republics were soon founded in the cities + of Corinth, of Sparta, and of Athens. The antiquity of the Greek + and Asiatic churches allowed a sufficient space of time for their + increase and multiplication; and even the swarms of Gnostics and + other heretics serve to display the flourishing condition of the + orthodox church, since the appellation of heretics has always + been applied to the less numerous party. To these domestic + testimonies we may add the confession, the complaints, and the + apprehensions of the Gentiles themselves. From the writings of + Lucian, a philosopher who had studied mankind, and who describes + their manners in the most lively colors, we may learn that, under + the reign of Commodus, his native country of Pontus was filled + with Epicureans and _Christians_. Within fourscore years after + the death of Christ, the humane Pliny laments the magnitude of + the evil which he vainly attempted to eradicate. In his very + curious epistle to the emperor Trajan, he affirms that the + temples were almost deserted, that the sacred victims scarcely + found any purchasers, and that the superstition had not only + infected the cities, but had even spread itself into the villages + and the open country of Pontus and Bithynia. + + Without descending into a minute scrutiny of the expressions or + of the motives of those writers who either celebrate or lament + the progress of Christianity in the East, it may in general be + observed that none of them have left us any grounds from whence a + just estimate might be formed of the real numbers of the faithful + in those provinces. One circumstance, however, has been + fortunately preserved, which seems to cast a more distinct light + on this obscure but interesting subject. Under the reign of + Theodosius, after Christianity had enjoyed, during more than + sixty years, the sunshine of Imperial favor, the ancient and + illustrious church of Antioch consisted of one hundred thousand + persons, three thousand of whom were supported out of the public + oblations. The splendor and dignity of the queen of the East, the + acknowledged populousness of Cæsarea, Seleucia, and Alexandria, + and the destruction of two hundred and fifty thousand souls in + the earthquake which afflicted Antioch under the elder Justin, + are so many convincing proofs that the whole number of its + inhabitants was not less than half a million, and that the + Christians, however multiplied by zeal and power, did not exceed + a fifth part of that great city. How different a proportion must + we adopt when we compare the persecuted with the triumphant + church, the West with the East, remote villages with populous + towns, and countries recently converted to the faith with the + place where the believers first received the appellation of + Christians! It must not, however, be dissembled, that, in another + passage, Chrysostom, to whom we are indebted for this useful + information, computes the multitude of the faithful as even + superior to that of the Jews and Pagans. But the solution of this + apparent difficulty is easy and obvious. The eloquent preacher + draws a parallel between the civil and the ecclesiastical + constitution of Antioch; between the list of Christians who had + acquired heaven by baptism, and the list of citizens who had a + right to share the public liberality. Slaves, strangers, and + infants were comprised in the former; they were excluded from the + latter. + + The extensive commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to + Palestine, gave an easy entrance to the new religion. It was at + first embraced by great numbers of the Theraputæ, or Essenians, + of the Lake Mareotis, a Jewish sect which had abated much of its + reverence for the Mosaic ceremonies. The austere life of the + Essenians, their fasts and excommunications, the community of + goods, the love of celibacy, their zeal for martyrdom, and the + warmth though not the purity of their faith, already offered a + very lively image of the primitive discipline. It was in the + school of Alexandria that the Christian theology appears to have + assumed a regular and scientific form; and when Hadrian visited + Egypt, he found a church composed of Jews and of Greeks, + sufficiently important to attract the notice of that inquisitive + prince. But the progress of Christianity was for a long time + confined within the limits of a single city, which was itself a + foreign colony, and till the close of the second century the + predecessors of Demetrius were the only prelates of the Egyptian + church. Three bishops were consecrated by the hands of Demetrius, + and the number was increased to twenty by his successor Heraclas. + The body of the natives, a people distinguished by a sullen + inflexibility of temper, entertained the new doctrine with + coldness and reluctance; and even in the time of Origen, it was + rare to meet with an Egyptian who had surmounted his early + prejudices in favor of the sacred animals of his country. As + soon, indeed, as Christianity ascended the throne, the zeal of + those barbarians obeyed the prevailing impulsion; the cities of + Egypt were filled with bishops, and the deserts of Thebais + swarmed with hermits. + + A perpetual stream of strangers and provincials flowed into the + capacious bosom of Rome. Whatever was strange or odious, whoever + was guilty or suspected, might hope, in the obscurity of that + immense capital, to elude the vigilance of the law. In such a + various conflux of nations, every teacher, either of truth or + falsehood, every founder, whether of a virtuous or a criminal + association, might easily multiply his disciples or accomplices. + The Christians of Rome, at the time of the accidental persecution + of Nero, are represented by Tacitus as already amounting to a + very great multitude, and the language of that great historian is + almost similar to the style employed by Livy, when he relates the + introduction and the suppression of the rites of Bacchus. After + the Bacchanals had awakened the severity of the senate, it was + likewise apprehended that a very great multitude, as it were + _another people_, had been initiated into those abhorred + mysteries. A more careful inquiry soon demonstrated that the + offenders did not exceed seven thousand; a number indeed + sufficiently alarming, when considered as the object of public + justice. It is with the same candid allowance that we should + interpret the vague expressions of Tacitus, and in a former + instance of Pliny, when they exaggerate the crowds of deluded + fanatics who had forsaken the established worship of the gods. + The church of Rome was undoubtedly the first and most populous of + the empire; and we are possessed of an authentic record which + attests the state of religion in that city about the middle of + the third century, and after a peace of thirty-eight years. The + clergy, at that time, consisted of a bishop, forty-six + presbyters, seven deacons, as many sub-deacons, forty-two + acolythes, and fifty readers, exorcists, and porters. The number + of widows, of the infirm, and of the poor, who were maintained by + the oblations of the faithful, amounted to fifteen hundred. From + reason, as well as from the analogy of Antioch, we may venture to + estimate the Christians of Rome at about fifty thousand. The + populousness of that great capital cannot perhaps be exactly + ascertained; but the most modest calculation will not surely + reduce it lower than a million of inhabitants, of whom the + Christians might constitute at the most a twentieth part. + + The western provincials appeared to have derived the knowledge of + Christianity from the same source which had diffused among them + the language, the sentiments, and the manners of Rome. In this + more important circumstance, Africa, as well as Gaul, was + gradually fashioned to the imitation of the capital. Yet + notwithstanding the many favorable occasions which might invite + the Roman missionaries to visit their Latin provinces, it was + late before they passed either the sea or the Alps; nor can we + discover in those great countries any assured traces either of + faith or of persecution that ascend higher than the reign of the + Antonines. The slow progress of the gospel in the cold climate of + Gaul was extremely different from the eagerness with which it + seems to have been received on the burning sands of Africa. The + African Christians soon formed one of the principal members of + the primitive church. The practice introduced into that province + of appointing bishops to the most inconsiderable towns, and very + frequently to the most obscure villages, contributed to multiply + the splendor and importance of their religious societies, which + during the course of the third century were animated by the zeal + of Tertullian, directed by the abilities of Cyprian, and adorned + by the eloquence of Lactantius. But if, on the contrary, we turn + our eyes towards Gaul, we must content ourselves with + discovering, in the time of Marcus Antoninus, the feeble and + united congregations of Lyons and Vienna; and even as late as the + reign of Decius we are assured, that in a few cities only, Arles, + Narbonne, Thoulouse, Limoges, Clermont, Tours, and Paris, some + scattered churches were supported by the devotion of a small + number of Christians. Silence is indeed very consistent with + devotion; but as it is seldom compatible with zeal, we may + perceive and lament the languid state of Christianity in those + provinces which had exchanged the Celtic for the Latin tongue, + since they did not, during the three first centuries, give birth + to a single ecclesiastical writer. From Gaul, which claimed a + just preeminence of learning and authority over all the countries + on this side of the Alps, the light of the gospel was more + faintly reflected on the remote provinces of Spain and Britain; + and if we may credit the vehement assertions of Tertullian, they + had already received the first rays of the faith, when he + addressed his apology to the magistrates of the emperor Severus. + But the obscure and imperfect origin of the western churches of + Europe has been so negligently recorded, that if we would relate + the time and manner of their foundation, we must supply the + silence of antiquity by those legends which avarice or + superstition long afterwards dictated to the monks in the lazy + gloom of their convents. Of these holy romances, that of the + apostle St. James can alone, by its singular extravagance, + deserve to be mentioned. From a peaceful fisherman of the Lake of + Gennesareth, he was transformed into a valorous knight, who + charged at the head of the Spanish chivalry in their battles + against the Moors. The gravest historians have celebrated his + exploits; the miraculous shrine of Compostella displayed his + power; and the sword of a military order, assisted by the terrors + of the Inquisition, was sufficient to remove every objection of + profane criticism. + + The progress of Christianity was not confined to the Roman + empire; and according to the primitive fathers, who interpret + facts by prophecy, the new religion, within a century after the + death of its divine Author, had already visited every part of the + globe. “There exists not,” says Justin Martyr, “a people, whether + Greek or Barbarian, or any other race of men, by whatsoever + appellation or manners they may be distinguished, however + ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell under tents, + or wander about in covered wagons, among whom prayers are not + offered up in the name of a crucified Jesus to the Father and + Creator of all things.” But this splendid exaggeration, which + even at present it would be extremely difficult to reconcile with + the real state of mankind, can be considered only as the rash + sally of a devout but careless writer, the measure of whose + belief was regulated by that of his wishes. But neither the + belief nor the wishes of the fathers can alter the truth of + history. It will still remain an undoubted fact, that the + barbarians of Scythia and Germany, who afterwards subverted the + Roman monarchy, were involved in the darkness of paganism; and + that even the conversion of Iberia, of Armenia, or of Æthiopia, + was not attempted with any degree of success till the sceptre was + in the hands of an orthodox emperor. Before that time, the + various accidents of war and commerce might indeed diffuse an + imperfect knowledge of the gospel among the tribes of Caledonia, + and among the borderers of the Rhine, the Danube, and the + Euphrates. Beyond the last-mentioned river, Edessa was + distinguished by a firm and early adherence to the faith. From + Edessa the principles of Christianity were easily introduced into + the Greek and Syrian cities which obeyed the successors of + Artaxerxes; but they do not appear to have made any deep + impression on the minds of the Persians, whose religious system, + by the labors of a well-disciplined order of priests, had been + constructed with much more art and solidity than the uncertain + mythology of Greece and Rome. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IX. + + From this impartial though imperfect survey of the progress of + Christianity, it may perhaps seem probable, that the number of + its proselytes has been excessively magnified by fear on the one + side, and by devotion on the other. According to the + irreproachable testimony of Origen, the proportion of the + faithful was very inconsiderable, when compared with the + multitude of an unbelieving world; but, as we are left without + any distinct information, it is impossible to determine, and it + is difficult even to conjecture, the real numbers of the + primitive Christians. The most favorable calculation, however, + that can be deduced from the examples of Antioch and of Rome, + will not permit us to imagine that more than a fraction of the + population placed themselves under the banner of the cross before + the important conversion of Constantine. But their habits of + faith, of zeal, and of union, seemed to multiply their numbers; + and the same causes which contributed to their future increase, + served to render their actual strength more apparent and more + formidable. + + Such is the constitution of civil society, that, whilst a few + persons are distinguished by riches, by honors, and by knowledge, + the body of the people is condemned to obscurity, ignorance and + poverty. The Christian religion, which addressed itself to the + whole human race, must consequently collect a far greater number + of proselytes from the lower than from the superior ranks of + life. This innocent and natural circumstance has been improved + into a very odious imputation, which seems to be less strenuously + denied by the apologists, than it is urged by the adversaries, of + the faith; that the new sect of Christians was almost entirely + composed of the dregs of the populace, of peasants and mechanics, + of boys and women, of beggars and slaves, the last of whom might + sometimes introduce the missionaries into the rich and noble + families to which they belonged. These obscure teachers (such was + the charge of malice and infidelity) are as mute in public as + they are loquacious and dogmatical in private. Whilst they + cautiously avoid the dangerous encounter of philosophers, they + mingle with the rude and illiterate crowd, and insinuate + themselves into those minds whom their age, their sex, or their + education, has the best disposed to receive the impression of + superstitious terrors. + + This unfavorable picture, though not devoid of a faint + resemblance, betrays, by its dark coloring and distorted + features, the pencil of an enemy. As the humble faith of Christ + diffused itself through the world, it was embraced by several + persons who derived some consequence from the advantages of + nature or fortune. Aristides, who presented an eloquent apology + to the emperor Hadrian, was an Athenian philosopher. Justin + Martyr had sought divine knowledge in the schools of Zeno, of + Aristotle, of Pythagoras, and of Plato, before he fortunately was + accosted by the old man, or rather the angel, who turned his + attention to the study of the Jewish prophets. Clemens of + Alexandria had acquired much various reading in the Greek, and + Tertullian in the Latin, language. Julius Africanus and Origen + possessed a very considerable share of the learning of their + times; and although the style of Cyprian is very different from + that of Lactantius, we might almost discover that both those + writers had been public teachers of rhetoric. Even the study of + philosophy was at length introduced among the Christians, but it + was not always productive of the most salutary effects; knowledge + was as often the parent of heresy as of devotion, and the + description which was designed for the followers of Artemon, may, + with equal propriety, be applied to the various sects that + resisted the successors of the apostles. “They presume to alter + the Holy Scriptures, to abandon the ancient rule of faith, and to + form their opinions according to the subtile precepts of logic. + The science of the church is neglected for the study of geometry, + and they lose sight of heaven while they are employed in + measuring the earth. Euclid is perpetually in their hands. + Aristotle and Theophrastus are the objects of their admiration; + and they express an uncommon reverence for the works of Galen. + Their errors are derived from the abuse of the arts and sciences + of the infidels, and they corrupt the simplicity of the gospel by + the refinements of human reason.” + + Nor can it be affirmed with truth, that the advantages of birth + and fortune were always separated from the profession of + Christianity. Several Roman citizens were brought before the + tribunal of Pliny, and he soon discovered, that a great number of + persons of _every order_of men in Bithynia had deserted the + religion of their ancestors. His unsuspected testimony may, in + this instance, obtain more credit than the bold challenge of + Tertullian, when he addresses himself to the fears as well as the + humanity of the proconsul of Africa, by assuring him, that if he + persists in his cruel intentions, he must decimate Carthage, and + that he will find among the guilty many persons of his own rank, + senators and matrons of noblest extraction, and the friends or + relations of his most intimate friends. It appears, however, that + about forty years afterwards the emperor Valerian was persuaded + of the truth of this assertion, since in one of his rescripts he + evidently supposes that senators, Roman knights, and ladies of + quality, were engaged in the Christian sect. The church still + continued to increase its outward splendor as it lost its + internal purity; and, in the reign of Diocletian, the palace, the + courts of justice, and even the army, concealed a multitude of + Christians, who endeavored to reconcile the interests of the + present with those of a future life. + + And yet these exceptions are either too few in number, or too + recent in time, entirely to remove the imputation of ignorance + and obscurity which has been so arrogantly cast on the first + proselytes of Christianity. * Instead of employing in our defence + the fictions of later ages, it will be more prudent to convert + the occasion of scandal into a subject of edification. Our + serious thoughts will suggest to us, that the apostles themselves + were chosen by Providence among the fishermen of Galilee, and + that the lower we depress the temporal condition of the first + Christians, the more reason we shall find to admire their merit + and success. It is incumbent on us diligently to remember, that + the kingdom of heaven was promised to the poor in spirit, and + that minds afflicted by calamity and the contempt of mankind, + cheerfully listen to the divine promise of future happiness; + while, on the contrary, the fortunate are satisfied with the + possession of this world; and the wise abuse in doubt and dispute + their vain superiority of reason and knowledge. + + We stand in need of such reflections to comfort us for the loss + of some illustrious characters, which in our eyes might have + seemed the most worthy of the heavenly present. The names of + Seneca, of the elder and the younger Pliny, of Tacitus, of + Plutarch, of Galen, of the slave Epictetus, and of the emperor + Marcus Antoninus, adorn the age in which they flourished, and + exalt the dignity of human nature. They filled with glory their + respective stations, either in active or contemplative life; + their excellent understandings were improved by study; Philosophy + had purified their minds from the prejudices of the popular + superstitions; and their days were spent in the pursuit of truth + and the practice of virtue. Yet all these sages (it is no less an + object of surprise than of concern) overlooked or rejected the + perfection of the Christian system. Their language or their + silence equally discover their contempt for the growing sect, + which in their time had diffused itself over the Roman empire. + Those among them who condescended to mention the Christians, + consider them only as obstinate and perverse enthusiasts, who + exacted an implicit submission to their mysterious doctrines, + without being able to produce a single argument that could engage + the attention of men of sense and learning. + + It is at least doubtful whether any of these philosophers perused + the apologies * which the primitive Christians repeatedly + published in behalf of themselves and of their religion; but it + is much to be lamented that such a cause was not defended by + abler advocates. They expose with superfluous wit and eloquence + the extravagance of Polytheism. They interest our compassion by + displaying the innocence and sufferings of their injured + brethren. But when they would demonstrate the divine origin of + Christianity, they insist much more strongly on the predictions + which announced, than on the miracles which accompanied, the + appearance of the Messiah. Their favorite argument might serve to + edify a Christian or to convert a Jew, since both the one and the + other acknowledge the authority of those prophecies, and both are + obliged, with devout reverence, to search for their sense and + their accomplishment. But this mode of persuasion loses much of + its weight and influence, when it is addressed to those who + neither understand nor respect the Mosaic dispensation and the + prophetic style. In the unskilful hands of Justin and of the + succeeding apologists, the sublime meaning of the Hebrew oracles + evaporates in distant types, affected conceits, and cold + allegories; and even their authenticity was rendered suspicious + to an unenlightened Gentile, by the mixture of pious forgeries, + which, under the names of Orpheus, Hermes, and the Sibyls, were + obtruded on him as of equal value with the genuine inspirations + of Heaven. The adoption of fraud and sophistry in the defence of + revelation too often reminds us of the injudicious conduct of + those poets who load their _invulnerable_ heroes with a useless + weight of cumbersome and brittle armor. + + But how shall we excuse the supine inattention of the Pagan and + philosophic world, to those evidences which were represented by + the hand of Omnipotence, not to their reason, but to their + senses? During the age of Christ, of his apostles, and of their + first disciples, the doctrine which they preached was confirmed + by innumerable prodigies. The lame walked, the blind saw, the + sick were healed, the dead were raised, dæmons were expelled, and + the laws of Nature were frequently suspended for the benefit of + the church. But the sages of Greece and Rome turned aside from + the awful spectacle, and, pursuing the ordinary occupations of + life and study, appeared unconscious of any alterations in the + moral or physical government of the world. Under the reign of + Tiberius, the whole earth, or at least a celebrated province of + the Roman empire, was involved in a preternatural darkness of + three hours. Even this miraculous event, which ought to have + excited the wonder, the curiosity, and the devotion of mankind, + passed without notice in an age of science and history. It + happened during the lifetime of Seneca and the elder Pliny, who + must have experienced the immediate effects, or received the + earliest intelligence, of the prodigy. Each of these + philosophers, in a laborious work, has recorded all the great + phenomena of Nature, earthquakes, meteors, comets, and eclipses, + which his indefatigable curiosity could collect. Both the one and + the other have omitted to mention the greatest phenomenon to + which the mortal eye has been witness since the creation of the + globe. A distinct chapter of Pliny is designed for eclipses of an + extraordinary nature and unusual duration; but he contents + himself with describing the singular defect of light which + followed the murder of Cæsar, when, during the greatest part of a + year, the orb of the sun appeared pale and without splendor. The + season of obscurity, which cannot surely be compared with the + preternatural darkness of the Passion, had been already + celebrated by most of the poets and historians of that memorable + age. + + END OF VOL. I. + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of +the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + +***** This file should be named 890-0.txt or 890-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/9/890/ + +Produced by David Reed and Dale R. Fredrickson + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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