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diff --git a/old/dfre110.htm b/old/dfre110.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b24659 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/dfre110.htm @@ -0,0 +1,20015 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire Volume 1</title> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin:10%; text-align:justify} +blockquote {font-size:14pt} +P {font-size:14pt} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> +<p>The Project Gutenberg Etext of History Of The Decline And Fall +Of The Roman Empire Volume 1<br> +</p> + +<p>#2 in our different formats by Edward Gibbon, Esq. With notes +by the Rev. H. H. Milman<br> +<br> +</p> + +<p>Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to +check</p> + +<p>the copyright laws for your country before posting these +files!!<br> +</p> + +<p>Please take a look at the important information in this +header.</p> + +<p>We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping +an</p> + +<p>electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove +this.<br> +<br> +</p> + +<p>**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic +Texts**<br> +</p> + +<p>**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since +1971**<br> +</p> + +<p>*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and +Donations*<br> +</p> + +<p>Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, +and</p> + +<p>further information is included below. We need your +donations.<br> +<br> +</p> + +<p>History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire Volume +1<br> +<br> +</p> + +<p>by Edward Gibbon, Esq. With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman<br> +</p> + +<p>April, 1997 [Etext # 890]<br> +<br> +</p> + +<p>The Project Gutenberg Etext of History Of The Decline And Fall +Of The Roman Empire Volume 1<br> +</p> + +<p>*****This file should be named dfrel10.txt or +dfrel10.zip******<br> +</p> + +<p>Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, +dfrel11.txt.</p> + +<p>VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, +dfrel10a.txt.<br> +<br> +</p> + +<p>Scanned, proofed and converted to HTML by David Reed. 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If you find +any errors please feel free to notify me of them. I want to make +this the best etext edition possible for both scholars and the +general public. I would like to thank those who have helped in +making this text better. Especially Dale R. Fredrickson who has +hand entered the Greek characters in the footnotes and who has +suggested retaining the conjoined ae character in the text. +Haradda@aol.com and davidr@inconnect.com are my email addresses +for now. Please feel free to send me your comments and I hope you +enjoy this.<br> +</p> + +<p>David Reed<br> +</p> + +<p align="center"><strong>History Of The Decline And Fall Of The +Roman Empire</strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Edward Gibbon, Esq.</p> + +<p>With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman</p> + +<p>Vol. 1</p> + +<p>1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised)<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Introduction</strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Preface By The Editor.<br> +</p> + +<p>The great work of Gibbon is indispensable to the student of +history. The literature of Europe offers no substitute for "The +Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." It has obtained undisputed +possession, as rightful occupant, of the vast period which it +comprehends. However some subjects, which it embraces, may have +undergone more complete investigation, on the general view of the +whole period, this history is the sole undisputed authority to +which all defer, and from which few appeal to the original +writers, or to more modern compilers. The inherent interest of +the subject, the inexhaustible labor employed upon it; the +immense condensation of matter; the luminous arrangement; the +general accuracy; the style, which, however monotonous from its +uniform stateliness, and sometimes wearisome from its elaborate +art., is throughout vigorous, animated, often picturesque always +commands attention, always conveys its meaning with emphatic +energy, describes with singular breadth and fidelity, and +generalizes with unrivalled felicity of expression; all these +high qualifications have secured, and seem likely to secure, its +permanent place in historic literature.<br> +</p> + +<p>This vast design of Gibbon, the magnificent whole into which +he has cast the decay and ruin of the ancient civilization, the +formation and birth of the new order of things, will of itself, +independent of the laborious execution of his immense plan, +render "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" an +unapproachable subject to the future historian:* in the eloquent +language of his recent French editor, M. Guizot: --<br> +</p> + +<p>"The gradual decline of the most extraordinary dominion which +has ever invaded and oppressed the world; the fall of that +immense empire, erected on the ruins of so many kingdoms, +republics, and states both barbarous and civilized; and forming +in its turn, by its dismemberment, a multitude of states, +republics, and kingdoms; the annihilation of the religion of +Greece and Rome; the birth and the progress of the two new +religions which have shared the most beautiful regions of the +earth; the decrepitude of the ancient world, the spectacle of its +expiring glory and degenerate manners; the infancy of the modern +world, the picture of its first progress, of the new direction +given to the mind and character of man -- such a subject must +necessarily fix the attention and excite the interest of men, who +cannot behold with indifference those memorable epochs, during +which, in the fine language of Corneille --<br> +</p> + +<p>'Un grand destin commence, un grand destin +s'achève.'"<br> +</p> + +<p>This extent and harmony of design is unquestionably that which +distinguishes the work of Gibbon from all other great historical +compositions. He has first bridged the abyss between ancient and +modern times, and connected together the two great worlds of +history. The great advantage which the classical historians +possess over those of modern times is in unity of plan, of course +greatly facilitated by the narrower sphere to which their +researches were confined. Except Herodotus, the great historians +of Greece -- we exclude the more modern compilers, like Diodorus +Siculus -- limited themselves to a single period, or at least to +the contracted sphere of Grecian affairs. As far as the +<strong><em>Barbarians</em></strong> trespassed within the +Grecian boundary, or were necessarily mingled up with Grecian +politics, they were admitted into the pale of Grecian history; +but to Thucydides and to Xenophon, excepting in the Persian +inroad of the latter, Greece was the world. Natural unity +confined their narrative almost to chronological order, the +episodes were of rare occurrence and extremely brief. To the +Roman historians the course was equally clear and defined. Rome +was their centre of unity; and the uniformity with which the +circle of the Roman dominion spread around, the regularity with +which their civil polity expanded, forced, as it were, upon the +Roman historian that plan which Polybius announces as the subject +of his history, the means and the manner by which the whole world +became subject to the Roman sway. How different the complicated +politics of the European kingdoms! Every national history, to be +complete, must, in a certain sense, be the history of Europe; +there is no knowing to how remote a quarter it may be necessary +to trace our most domestic events; from a country, how apparently +disconnected, may originate the impulse which gives its direction +to the whole course of affairs.<br> +</p> + +<p>In imitation of his classical models, Gibbon places +<strong><em>Rome</em></strong> as the cardinal point from which +his inquiries diverge, and to which they bear constant reference; +yet how immeasurable the space over which those inquiries range; +how complicated, how confused, how apparently inextricable the +causes which tend to the decline of the Roman empire! how +countless the nations which swarm forth, in mingling and +indistinct hordes, constantly changing the geographical limits -- +incessantly confounding the natural boundaries! At first sight, +the whole period, the whole state of the world, seems to offer no +more secure footing to an historical adventurer than the chaos of +Milton -- to be in a state of irreclaimable disorder, best +described in the language of the poet: --<br> +</p> + +<p>"A dark</p> + +<p>Illimitable ocean, without bound,</p> + +<p>Without dimension, where length, breadth, and height,</p> + +<p>And time, and place, are lost: where eldest Night</p> + +<p>And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold</p> + +<p>Eternal anarchy, amidst the noise</p> + +<p>Of endless wars, and by confusion stand."<br> +</p> + +<p>We feel that the unity and harmony of narrative, which shall +comprehend this period of social disorganization, must be +ascribed entirely to the skill and luminous disposition of the +historian. It is in this sublime Gothic architecture of his work, +in which the boundless range, the infinite variety, the, at first +sight, incongruous gorgeousness of the separate parts, +nevertheless are all subordinate to one main and predominant +idea, that Gibbon is unrivalled. We cannot but admire the manner +in which he masses his materials, and arranges his facts in +successive groups, not according to chronological order, but to +their moral or political connection; the distinctness with which +he marks his periods of gradually increasing decay; and the skill +with which, though advancing on separate parallels of history, he +shows the common tendency of the slower or more rapid religious +or civil innovations. However these principles of composition may +demand more than ordinary attention on the part of the reader, +they can alone impress upon the memory the real course, and the +relative importance of the events. Whoever would justly +appreciate the superiority of Gibbon's lucid arrangement, should +attempt to make his way through the regular but wearisome annals +of Tillemont, or even the less ponderous volumes of Le Beau. Both +these writers adhere, almost entirely, to chronological order; +the consequence is, that we are twenty times called upon to break +off, and resume the thread of six or eight wars in different +parts of the empire; to suspend the operations of a military +expedition for a court intrigue; to hurry away from a siege to a +council; and the same page places us in the middle of a campaign +against the barbarians, and in the depths of the Monophysite +controversy. In Gibbon it is not always easy to bear in mind the +exact dates but the course of events is ever clear and distinct; +like a skilful general, though his troops advance from the most +remote and opposite quarters, they are constantly bearing down +and concentrating themselves on one point -- that which is still +occupied by the name, and by the waning power of Rome. Whether he +traces the progress of hostile religions, or leads from the +shores of the Baltic, or the verge of the Chinese empire, the +successive hosts of barbarians -- though one wave has hardly +burst and discharged itself, before another swells up and +approaches -- all is made to flow in the same direction, and the +impression which each makes upon the tottering fabric of the +Roman greatness, connects their distant movements, and measures +the relative importance assigned to them in the panoramic +history. The more peaceful and didactic episodes on the +development of the Roman law, or even on the details of +ecclesiastical history, interpose themselves as resting-places or +divisions between the periods of barbaric invasion. In short, +though distracted first by the two capitals, and afterwards by +the formal partition of the empire, the extraordinary felicity of +arrangement maintains an order and a regular progression. As our +horizon expands to reveal to us the gathering tempests which are +forming far beyond the boundaries of the civilized world -- as we +follow their successive approach to the trembling frontier -- the +compressed and receding line is still distinctly visible; though +gradually dismembered and the broken fragments assuming the form +of regular states and kingdoms, the real relation of those +kingdoms to the empire is maintained and defined; and even when +the Roman dominion has shrunk into little more than the province +of Thrace -- when the name of Rome, confined, in Italy, to the +walls of the city -- yet it is still the memory, the shade of the +Roman greatness, which extends over the wide sphere into which +the historian expands his later narrative; the whole blends into +the unity, and is manifestly essential to the double catastrophe +of his tragic drama.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the amplitude, the magnificence, or the harmony of design, +are, though imposing, yet unworthy claims on our admiration, +unless the details are filled up with correctness and accuracy. +No writer has been more severely tried on this point than Gibbon. +He has undergone the triple scrutiny of theological zeal +quickened by just resentment, of literary emulation, and of that +mean and invidious vanity which delights in detecting errors in +writers of established fame. On the result of the trial, we may +be permitted to summon competent witnesses before we deliver our +own judgment.<br> +</p> + +<p>M. Guizot, in his preface, after stating that in France and +Germany, as well as in England, in the most enlightened countries +of Europe, Gibbon is constantly cited as an authority, thus +proceeds: --<br> +</p> + +<p>"I have had occasion, during my labors, to consult the +writings of philosophers, who have treated on the finances of the +Roman empire; of scholars, who have investigated the chronology; +of theologians, who have searched the depths of ecclesiastical +history; of writers on law, who have studied with care the Roman +jurisprudence; of Orientalists, who have occupied themselves with +the Arabians and the Koran; of modern historians, who have +entered upon extensive researches touching the crusades and their +influence; each of these writers has remarked and pointed out, in +the 'History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' some +negligences, some false or imperfect views some omissions, which +it is impossible not to suppose voluntary; they have rectified +some facts combated with advantage some assertions; but in +general they have taken the researches and the ideas of Gibbon, +as points of departure, or as proofs of the researches or of the +new opinions which they have advanced."<br> +</p> + +<p>M. Guizot goes on to state his own impressions on reading +Gibbon's history, and no authority will have greater weight with +those to whom the extent and accuracy of his historical +researches are known: --<br> +</p> + +<p>"After a first rapid perusal, which allowed me to feel nothing +but the interest of a narrative, always animated, and, +notwithstanding its extent and the variety of objects which it +makes to pass before the view, always perspicuous, I entered upon +a minute examination of the details of which it was composed; and +the opinion which I then formed was, I confess, singularly +severe. I discovered, in certain chapters, errors which appeared +to me sufficiently important and numerous to make me believe that +they had been written with extreme negligence; in others, I was +struck with a certain tinge of partiality and prejudice, which +imparted to the exposition of the facts that want of truth and +justice, which the English express by their happy term +<strong><em>misrepresentation</em></strong>. Some imperfect +(<strong><em>tronquées</em></strong>) quotations; some +passages, omitted unintentionally or designedly cast a suspicion +on the honesty (<strong><em>bonne foi</em></strong>) of the +author; and his violation of the first law of history -- +increased to my eye by the prolonged attention with which I +occupied myself with every phrase, every note, every reflection +-- caused me to form upon the whole work, a judgment far too +rigorous. After having finished my labors, I allowed some time to +elapse before I reviewed the whole. A second attentive and +regular perusal of the entire work, of the notes of the author, +and of those which I had thought it right to subjoin, showed me +how much I had exaggerated the importance of the reproaches which +Gibbon really deserved; I was struck with the same errors, the +same partiality on certain subjects; but I had been far from +doing adequate justice to the immensity of his researches, the +variety of his knowledge, and above all, to that truly +philosophical discrimination (<strong><em>justesse +d'esprit</em></strong>) which judges the past as it would judge +the present; which does not permit itself to be blinded by the +clouds which time gathers around the dead, and which prevent us +from seeing that, under the toga, as under the modern dress, in +the senate as in our councils, men were what they still are, and +that events took place eighteen centuries ago, as they take place +in our days. I then felt that his book, in spite of its faults, +will always be a noble work -- and that we may correct his errors +and combat his prejudices, without ceasing to admit that few men +have combined, if we are not to say in so high a degree, at least +in a manner so complete, and so well regulated, the necessary +qualifications for a writer of history."<br> +</p> + +<p>The present editor has followed the track of Gibbon through +many parts of his work; he has read his authorities with constant +reference to his pages, and must pronounce his deliberate +judgment, in terms of the highest admiration as to his general +accuracy. Many of his seeming errors are almost inevitable from +the close condensation of his matter. From the immense range of +his history, it was sometimes necessary to compress into a single +sentence, a whole vague and diffuse page of a Byzantine +chronicler. Perhaps something of importance may have thus +escaped, and his expressions may not quite contain the whole +substance of the passage from which they are taken. His limits, +at times, compel him to sketch; where that is the case, it is not +fair to expect the full details of the finished picture. At times +he can only deal with important results; and in his account of a +war, it sometimes requires great attention to discover that the +events which seem to be comprehended in a single campaign, occupy +several years. But this admirable skill in selecting and giving +prominence to the points which are of real weight and importance +-- this distribution of light and shade -- though perhaps it may +occasionally betray him into vague and imperfect statements, is +one of the highest excellencies of Gibbon's historic manner. It +is the more striking, when we pass from the works of his chief +authorities, where, after laboring through long, minute, and +wearisome descriptions of the accessary and subordinate +circumstances, a single unmarked and undistinguished sentence, +which we may overlook from the inattention of fatigue, contains +the great moral and political result.<br> +</p> + +<p>Gibbon's method of arrangement, though on the whole most +favorable to the clear comprehension of the events, leads +likewise to apparent inaccuracy. That which we expect to find in +one part is reserved for another. The estimate which we are to +form, depends on the accurate balance of statements in remote +parts of the work; and we have sometimes to correct and modify +opinions, formed from one chapter by those of another. Yet, on +the other hand, it is astonishing how rarely we detect +contradiction; the mind of the author has already harmonized the +whole result to truth and probability; the general impression is +almost invariably the same. The quotations of Gibbon have +likewise been called in question; -- I have, <strong><em>in +general</em></strong>, been more inclined to admire their +exactitude, than to complain of their indistinctness, or +incompleteness. Where they are imperfect, it is commonly from the +study of brevity, and rather from the desire of compressing the +substance of his notes into pointed and emphatic sentences, than +from dishonesty, or uncandid suppression of truth.<br> +</p> + +<p>These observations apply more particularly to the accuracy and +fidelity of the historian as to his facts; his inferences, of +course, are more liable to exception. It is almost impossible to +trace the line between unfairness and unfaithfulness; between +intentional misrepresentation and undesigned false coloring. The +relative magnitude and importance of events must, in some +respect, depend upon the mind before which they are presented; +the estimate of character, on the habits and feelings of the +reader. Christians, like M. Guizot and ourselves, will see some +things, and some persons, in a different light from the historian +of the Decline and Fall. We may deplore the bias of his mind; we +may ourselves be on our guard against the danger of being misled, +and be anxious to warn less wary readers against the same perils; +but we must not confound this secret and unconscious departure +from truth, with the deliberate violation of that veracity which +is the only title of an historian to our confidence. Gibbon, it +may be fearlessly asserted, is rarely chargeable even with the +suppression of any material fact, which bears upon individual +character; he may, with apparently invidious hostility, enhance +the errors and crimes, and disparage the virtues of certain +persons; yet, in general, he leaves us the materials for forming +a fairer judgment; and if he is not exempt from his own +prejudices, perhaps we might write +<strong><em>passions</em></strong>, yet it must be candidly +acknowledged, that his philosophical bigotry is not more unjust +than the theological partialities of those ecclesiastical writers +who were before in undisputed possession of this province of +history.<br> +</p> + +<p>We are thus naturally led to that great misrepresentation +which pervades his history -- his false estimate of the nature +and influence of Christianity.<br> +</p> + +<p>But on this subject some preliminary caution is necessary, +lest that should be expected from a new edition, which it is +impossible that it should completely accomplish. We must first be +prepared with the only sound preservative against the false +impression likely to be produced by the perusal of Gibbon; and we +must see clearly the real cause of that false impression. The +former of these cautions will be briefly suggested in its proper +place, but it may be as well to state it, here, somewhat more at +length. The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression +produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his +confounding together, in one indistinguishable mass, the +<strong><em>origin</em></strong> and +<strong><em>apostolic</em></strong> propagation of the new +religion, with its <strong><em>later</em></strong> progress. No +argument for the divine authority of Christianity has been urged +with greater force, or traced with higher eloquence, than that +deduced from its primary development, explicable on no other +hypothesis than a heavenly origin, and from its rapid extension +through great part of the Roman empire. But this argument -- one, +when confined within reasonable limits, of unanswerable force -- +becomes more feeble and disputable in proportion as it recedes +from the birthplace, as it were, of the religion. The further +Christianity advanced, the more causes purely human were enlisted +in its favor; nor can it be doubted that those developed with +such artful exclusiveness by Gibbon did concur most essentially +to its establishment. It is in the Christian dispensation, as in +the material world. In both it is as the great First Cause, that +the Deity is most undeniably manifest. When once launched in +regular motion upon the bosom of space, and endowed with all +their properties and relations of weight and mutual attraction, +the heavenly bodies appear to pursue their courses according to +secondary laws, which account for all their sublime regularity. +So Christianity proclaims its Divine Author chiefly in its first +origin and development. When it had once received its impulse +from above -- when it had once been infused into the minds of its +first teachers -- when it had gained full possession of the +reason and affections of the favored few -- it <strong><em>might +be</em></strong> -- and to the Protestant, the rational +Christian, it is impossible to define +<strong><em>when</em></strong> it really +<strong><em>was</em></strong>-- left to make its way by its +native force, under the ordinary secret agencies of all-ruling +Providence. The main question, the <strong><em>divine origin of +the religion</em></strong>, was dexterously eluded, or speciously +conceded by Gibbon; his plan enabled him to commence his account, +in most parts, <strong><em>below the apostolic +times</em></strong>; and it was only by the strength of the dark +coloring with which he brought out the failings and the follies +of the succeeding ages, that a shadow of doubt and suspicion was +thrown back upon the primitive period of Christianity.<br> +</p> + +<p>"The theologian," says Gibbon, "may indulge the pleasing task +of describing religion as she descended from heaven, arrayed in +her native purity; a more melancholy duty is imposed upon the +historian: -- he must discover the inevitable mixture of error +and corruption which she contracted in a long residence upon +earth among a weak and degenerate race of beings." Divest this +passage of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the subsequent tone of +the whole disquisition, and it might commence a Christian history +written in the most Christian spirit of candor. But as the +historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding +the limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was +an Utopia which had no existence but in the imagination of the +theologian -- as he <strong><em>suggested</em></strong> rather +than affirmed that the days of Christian purity were a kind of +poetic golden age; -- so the theologian, by venturing too far +into the domain of the historian, has been perpetually obliged to +contest points on which he had little chance of victory -- to +deny facts established on unshaken evidence -- and thence, to +retire, if not with the shame of defeat, yet with but doubtful +and imperfect success.<br> +</p> + +<p>Paley, with his intuitive sagacity, saw through the difficulty +of answering Gibbon by the ordinary arts of controversy; his +emphatic sentence, "Who can refute a sneer?" contains as much +truth as point. But full and pregnant as this phrase is, it is +not quite the whole truth; it is the tone in which the progress +of Christianity is traced, in +<strong><em>comparison</em></strong> with the rest of the +splendid and prodigally ornamented work, which is the radical +defect in the "Decline and Fall." Christianity alone receives no +embellishment from the magic of Gibbon's language; his +imagination is dead to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a +general zone of jealous disparagement, or neutralized by a +painfully elaborate exposition of its darker and degenerate +periods. There are occasions, indeed, when its pure and exalted +humanity, when its manifestly beneficial influence, can compel +even him, as it were, to fairness, and kindle his unguarded +eloquence to its usual fervor; but, in general, he soon relapses +into a frigid apathy; <strong><em>affects</em></strong> an +ostentatiously severe impartiality; notes all the faults of +Christians in every age with bitter and almost malignant sarcasm; +reluctantly, and with exception and reservation, admits their +claim to admiration. This inextricable bias appears even to +influence his manner of composition. While all the other +assailants of the Roman empire, whether warlike or religious, the +Goth, the Hun, the Arab, the Tartar, Alaric and Attila, Mahomet, +and Zengis, and Tamerlane, are each introduced upon the scene +almost with dramatic animation -- their progress related in a +full, complete, and unbroken narrative -- the triumph of +Christianity alone takes the form of a cold and critical +disquisition. The successes of barbarous energy and brute force +call forth all the consummate skill of composition; while the +moral triumphs of Christian benevolence -- the tranquil heroism +of endurance, the blameless purity, the contempt of guilty fame +and of honors destructive to the human race, which, had they +assumed the proud name of philosophy, would have been blazoned in +his brightest words, because they own religion as their principle +-- sink into narrow asceticism. The +<strong><em>glories</em></strong> of Christianity, in short, +touch on no chord in the heart of the writer; his imagination +remains unkindled; his words, though they maintain their stately +and measured march, have become cool, argumentative, and +inanimate. Who would obscure one hue of that gorgeous coloring in +which Gibbon has invested the dying forms of Paganism, or darken +one paragraph in his splendid view of the rise and progress of +Mahometanism? But who would not have wished that the same equal +justice had been done to Christianity; that its real character +and deeply penetrating influence had been traced with the same +philosophical sagacity, and represented with more sober, as would +become its quiet course, and perhaps less picturesque, but still +with lively and attractive, descriptiveness? He might have thrown +aside, with the same scorn, the mass of ecclesiastical fiction +which envelops the early history of the church, stripped off the +legendary romance, and brought out the facts in their primitive +nakedness and simplicity -- if he had but allowed those facts the +benefit of the glowing eloquence which he denied to them alone. +He might have annihilated the whole fabric of post-apostolic +miracles, if he had left uninjured by sarcastic insinuation those +of the New Testament; he might have cashiered, with Dodwell, the +whole host of martyrs, which owe their existence to the prodigal +invention of later days, had he but bestowed fair room, and dwelt +with his ordinary energy on the sufferings of the genuine +witnesses to the truth of Christianity, the Polycarps, or the +martyrs of Vienne.<br> +</p> + +<p>And indeed, if, after all, the view of the early progress of +Christianity be melancholy and humiliating we must beware lest we +charge the whole of this on the infidelity of the historian. It +is idle, it is disingenuous, to deny or to dissemble the early +depravations of Christianity, its gradual but rapid departure +from its primitive simplicity and purity, still more, from its +spirit of universal love. It may be no unsalutary lesson to the +Christian world, that this silent, this unavoidable, perhaps, yet +fatal change shall have been drawn by an impartial, or even an +hostile hand. The Christianity of every age may take warning, +lest by its own narrow views, its want of wisdom, and its want of +charity, it give the same advantage to the future unfriendly +historian, and disparage the cause of true religion.<br> +</p> + +<p>The design of the present edition is partly corrective, partly +supplementary: corrective, by notes, which point out (it is +hoped, in a perfectly candid and dispassionate spirit with no +desire but to establish the truth) such inaccuracies or +misstatements as may have been detected, particularly with regard +to Christianity; and which thus, with the previous caution, may +counteract to a considerable extent the unfair and unfavorable +impression created against rational religion: supplementary, by +adding such additional information as the editor's reading may +have been able to furnish, from original documents or books, not +accessible at the time when Gibbon wrote.<br> +</p> + +<p>The work originated in the editor's habit of noting on the +margin of his copy of Gibbon references to such authors as had +discovered errors, or thrown new light on the subjects treated by +Gibbon. These had grown to some extent, and seemed to him likely +to be of use to others. The annotations of M. Guizot also +appeared to him worthy of being better known to the English +public than they were likely to be, as appended to the French +translation.<br> +</p> + +<p>The chief works from which the editor has derived his +materials are, I. The French translation, with notes by M. +Guizot; 2d edition, Paris, 1828. The editor has translated almost +all the notes of M. Guizot. Where he has not altogether agreed +with him, his respect for the learning and judgment of that +writer has, in general, induced him to retain the statement from +which he has ventured to differ, with the grounds on which he +formed his own opinion. In the notes on Christianity, he has +retained all those of M. Guizot, with his own, from the +conviction, that on such a subject, to many, the authority of a +French statesman, a Protestant, and a rational and sincere +Christian, would appear more independent and unbiassed, and +therefore be more commanding, than that of an English +clergyman.<br> +</p> + +<p>The editor has not scrupled to transfer the notes of M. Guizot +to the present work. The well-known zeal for knowledge, displayed +in all the writings of that distinguished historian, has led to +the natural inference, that he would not be displeased at the +attempt to make them of use to the English readers of Gibbon. The +notes of M. Guizot are signed with the letter G.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The German translation, with the notes of Wenck. +Unfortunately this learned translator died, after having +completed only the first volume; the rest of the work was +executed by a very inferior hand.<br> +</p> + +<p>The notes of Wenck are extremely valuable; many of them have +been adopted by M. Guizot; they are distinguished by the letter +W.*<br> +</p> + +<p>III. The new edition of Le Beau's "Histoire du Bas Empire, +with notes by M. St. Martin, and M. Brosset." That distinguished +Armenian scholar, M. St. Martin (now, unhappily, deceased) had +added much information from Oriental writers, particularly from +those of Armenia, as well as from more general sources. Many of +his observations have been found as applicable to the work of +Gibbon as to that of Le Beau.<br> +</p> + +<p>IV. The editor has consulted the various answers made to +Gibbon on the first appearance of his work; he must confess, with +little profit. They were, in general, hastily compiled by +inferior and now forgotten writers, with the exception of Bishop +Watson, whose able apology is rather a general argument, than an +examination of misstatements. The name of Milner stands higher +with a certain class of readers, but will not carry much weight +with the severe investigator of history.<br> +</p> + +<p>V. Some few classical works and fragments have come to light, +since the appearance of Gibbon's History, and have been noticed +in their respective places; and much use has been made, in the +latter volumes particularly, of the increase to our stores of +Oriental literature. The editor cannot, indeed, pretend to have +followed his author, in these gleanings, over the whole vast +field of his inquiries; he may have overlooked or may not have +been able to command some works, which might have thrown still +further light on these subjects; but he trusts that what he has +adduced will be of use to the student of historic truth.<br> +</p> + +<p>The editor would further observe, that with regard to some +other objectionable passages, which do not involve misstatement +or inaccuracy, he has intentionally abstained from directing +particular attention towards them by any special protest.<br> +</p> + +<p>The editor's notes are marked M.<br> +</p> + +<p>A considerable part of the quotations (some of which in the +later editions had fallen into great confusion) have been +verified, and have been corrected by the latest and best editions +of the authors.<br> +</p> + +<p>June, 1845.<br> +</p> + +<p>In this new edition, the text and the notes have been +carefully revised, the latter by the editor.<br> +</p> + +<p>Some additional notes have been subjoined, distinguished by +the signature M. 1845.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Preface Of The Author.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>It is not my intention to detain the reader by expatiating on +the variety or the importance of the subject, which I have +undertaken to treat; since the merit of the choice would serve to +render the weakness of the execution still more apparent, and +still less excusable. But as I have presumed to lay before the +public a first volume only of the History of the Decline and Fall +of the Roman Empire, it will, perhaps, be expected that I should +explain, in a few words, the nature and limits of my general +plan.<br> +</p> + +<p>The memorable series of revolutions, which in the course of +about thirteen centuries gradually undermined, and at length +destroyed, the solid fabric of human greatness, may, with some +propriety, be divided into the three following periods:<br> +</p> + +<p>I. The first of these periods may be traced from the age of +Trajan and the Antonines, when the Roman monarchy, having +attained its full strength and maturity, began to verge towards +its decline; and will extend to the subversion of the Western +Empire, by the barbarians of Germany and Scythia, the rude +ancestors of the most polished nations of modern Europe. This +extraordinary revolution, which subjected Rome to the power of a +Gothic conqueror, was completed about the beginning of the sixth +century.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The second period of the Decline and Fall of Rome may be +supposed to commence with the reign of Justinian, who, by his +laws, as well as by his victories, restored a transient splendor +to the Eastern Empire. It will comprehend the invasion of Italy +by the Lombards; the conquest of the Asiatic and African +provinces by the Arabs, who embraced the religion of Mahomet; the +revolt of the Roman people against the feeble princes of +Constantinople; and the elevation of Charlemagne, who, in the +year eight hundred, established the second, or German Empire of +the West<br> +</p> + +<p>III. The last and longest of these periods includes about six +centuries and a half; from the revival of the Western Empire, +till the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and the +extinction of a degenerate race of princes, who continued to +assume the titles of Cæsar and Augustus, after their +dominions were contracted to the limits of a single city; in +which the language, as well as manners, of the ancient Romans, +had been long since forgotten. The writer who should undertake to +relate the events of this period, would find himself obliged to +enter into the general history of the Crusades, as far as they +contributed to the ruin of the Greek Empire; and he would +scarcely be able to restrain his curiosity from making some +inquiry into the state of the city of Rome, during the darkness +and confusion of the middle ages.<br> +</p> + +<p>As I have ventured, perhaps too hastily, to commit to the +press a work which in every sense of the word, deserves the +epithet of imperfect. I consider myself as contracting an +engagement to finish, most probably in a second volume, the first +of these memorable periods; and to deliver to the Public the +complete History of the Decline and Fall of Rome, from the age of +the Antonines to the subversion of the Western Empire. With +regard to the subsequent periods, though I may entertain some +hopes, I dare not presume to give any assurances. The execution +of the extensive plan which I have described, would connect the +ancient and modern history of the world; but it would require +many years of health, of leisure, and of perseverance.<br> +</p> + +<p>Bentinck Street, February 1, 1776.<br> +</p> + +<p>P. S. The entire History, which is now published, of the +Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, abundantly +discharges my engagements with the Public. Perhaps their +favorable opinion may encourage me to prosecute a work, which, +however laborious it may seem, is the most agreeable occupation +of my leisure hours.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Bentinck</em></strong> Street<strong><em>, March +1, 1781.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>An Author easily persuades himself that the public opinion is +still favorable to his labors; and I have now embraced the +serious resolution of proceeding to the last period of my +original design, and of the Roman Empire, the taking of +Constantinople by the Turks, in the year one thousand four +hundred and fifty-three. The most patient Reader, who computes +that three ponderous volumes have been already employed on the +events of four centuries, may, perhaps, be alarmed at the long +prospect of nine hundred years. But it is not my intention to +expatiate with the same minuteness on the whole series of the +Byzantine history. At our entrance into this period, the reign of +Justinian, and the conquests of the Mahometans, will deserve and +detain our attention, and the last age of Constantinople (the +Crusades and the Turks) is connected with the revolutions of +Modern Europe. From the seventh to the eleventh century, the +obscure interval will be supplied by a concise narrative of such +facts as may still appear either interesting or important.<br> +</p> + +<p><em>Bentinck Street, March 1, 1782.</em><br> +</p> + +<p><em><strong>Preface To The First Volume.</strong></em><br> +</p> + +<p>Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical +writer may ascribe to himself; if any merit, indeed, can be +assumed from the performance of an indispensable duty. I may +therefore be allowed to say, that I have carefully examined all +the original materials that could illustrate the subject which I +had undertaken to treat. Should I ever complete the extensive +design which has been sketched out in the Preface, I might +perhaps conclude it with a critical account of the authors +consulted during the progress of the whole work; and however such +an attempt might incur the censure of ostentation, I am persuaded +that it would be susceptible of entertainment, as well as +information.<br> +</p> + +<p>At present I shall content myself with a single observation. +The biographers, who, under the reigns of Diocletian and +Constantine, composed, or rather compiled, the lives of the +Emperors, from Hadrian to the sons of Carus, are usually +mentioned under the names of Ælius Spartianus, Julius +Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, +Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. But there is so much +perplexity in the titles of the MSS., and so many disputes have +arisen among the critics (see Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin. l. iii. +c. 6) concerning their number, their names, and their respective +property, that for the most part I have quoted them without +distinction, under the general and well-known title of the +<em>Augustan History.</em><br> +</p> + +<p><em><strong>Preface To The Fourth Volume Of The Original +Quarto Edition.</strong></em><br> +</p> + +<p>I now discharge my promise, and complete my design, of writing +the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, both in +the West and the East. The whole period extends from the age of +Trajan and the Antonines, to the taking of Constantinople by +Mahomet the Second; and includes a review of the Crusades, and +the state of Rome during the middle ages. Since the publication +of the first volume, twelve years have elapsed; twelve years, +according to my wish, "of health, of leisure, and of +perseverance." I may now congratulate my deliverance from a long +and laborious service, and my satisfaction will be pure and +perfect, if the public favor should be extended to the conclusion +of my work.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was my first intention to have collected, under one view, +the numerous authors, of every age and language, from whom I have +derived the materials of this history; and I am still convinced +that the apparent ostentation would be more than compensated by +real use. If I have renounced this idea, if I have declined an +undertaking which had obtained the approbation of a +master-artist, * my excuse may be found in the extreme difficulty +of assigning a proper measure to such a catalogue. A naked list +of names and editions would not be satisfactory either to myself +or my readers: the characters of the principal Authors of the +Roman and Byzantine History have been occasionally connected with +the events which they describe; a more copious and critical +inquiry might indeed deserve, but it would demand, an elaborate +volume, which might swell by degrees into a general library of +historical writers. For the present, I shall content myself with +renewing my serious protestation, that I have always endeavored +to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a +sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and +that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully +marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact +were reduced to depend.<br> +</p> + +<p>I shall soon revisit the banks of the Lake of Lausanne, a +country which I have known and loved from my early youth. Under a +mild government, amidst a beauteous landscape, in a life of +leisure and independence, and among a people of easy and elegant +manners, I have enjoyed, and may again hope to enjoy, the varied +pleasures of retirement and society. But I shall ever glory in +the name and character of an Englishman: I am proud of my birth +in a free and enlightened country; and the approbation of that +country is the best and most honorable reward of my labors. Were +I ambitious of any other Patron than the Public, I would inscribe +this work to a Statesman, who, in a long, a stormy, and at length +an unfortunate administration, had many political opponents, +almost without a personal enemy; who has retained, in his fall +from power, many faithful and disinterested friends; and who, +under the pressure of severe infirmity, enjoys the lively vigor +of his mind, and the felicity of his incomparable temper. Lord +North will permit me to express the feelings of friendship in the +language of truth: but even truth and friendship should be +silent, if he still dispensed the favors of the crown.<br> +</p> + +<p>In a remote solitude, vanity may still whisper in my ear, that +my readers, perhaps, may inquire whether, in the conclusion of +the present work, I am now taking an everlasting farewell. They +shall hear all that I know myself, and all that I could reveal to +the most intimate friend. The motives of action or silence are +now equally balanced; nor can I pronounce, in my most secret +thoughts, on which side the scale will preponderate. I cannot +dissemble that six quartos must have tried, and may have +exhausted, the indulgence of the Public; that, in the repetition +of similar attempts, a successful Author has much more to lose +than he can hope to gain; that I am now descending into the vale +of years; and that the most respectable of my countrymen, the men +whom I aspire to imitate, have resigned the pen of history about +the same period of their lives. Yet I consider that the annals of +ancient and modern times may afford many rich and interesting +subjects; that I am still possessed of health and leisure; that +by the practice of writing, some skill and facility must be +acquired; and that, in the ardent pursuit of truth and knowledge, +I am not conscious of decay. To an active mind, indolence is more +painful than labor; and the first months of my liberty will be +occupied and amused in the excursions of curiosity and taste. By +such temptations, I have been sometimes seduced from the rigid +duty even of a pleasing and voluntary task: but my time will now +be my own; and in the use or abuse of independence, I shall no +longer fear my own reproaches or those of my friends. I am fairly +entitled to a year of jubilee: next summer and the following +winter will rapidly pass away; and experience only can determine +whether I shall still prefer the freedom and variety of study to +the design and composition of a regular work, which animates, +while it confines, the daily application of the Author. Caprice +and accident may influence my choice; but the dexterity of +self-love will contrive to applaud either active industry or +philosophic repose.<br> +</p> + +<p><em>Downing</em> Street<em>, May 1, 1788.</em><br> +</p> + +<p>P. S. I shall embrace this opportunity of introducing two +<em>verbal</em> remarks, which have not conveniently offered +themselves to my notice. 1. As often as I use the definitions of +<em>beyond</em> the Alps, the Rhine, the Danube, &c., I +generally suppose myself at Rome, and afterwards at +Constantinople; without observing whether this relative geography +may agree with the local, but variable, situation of the reader, +or the historian. 2. In proper names of foreign, and especially +of Oriental origin, it should be always our aim to express, in +our English version, a faithful copy of the original. But this +rule, which is founded on a just regard to uniformity and truth, +must often be relaxed; and the exceptions will be limited or +enlarged by the custom of the language and the taste of the +interpreter. Our alphabets may be often defective; a harsh sound, +an uncouth spelling, might offend the ear or the eye of our +countrymen; and some words, notoriously corrupt, are fixed, and, +as it were, naturalized in the vulgar tongue. The prophet +<em>Mohammed</em> can no longer be stripped of the famous, though +improper, appellation of Mahomet: the well-known cities of +Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo, would almost be lost in the strange +descriptions of <em>Haleb</em>, <em>Demashk</em>, and <em>Al +Cahira</em>: the titles and offices of the Ottoman empire are +fashioned by the practice of three hundred years; and we are +pleased to blend the three Chinese monosyllables, +<em>Con-fû-tzee</em>, in the respectable name of Confucius, +or even to adopt the Portuguese corruption of Mandarin. But I +would vary the use of Zoroaster and <em>Zerdusht</em>, as I drew +my information from Greece or Persia: since our connection with +India, the genuine <em>Timour</em> is restored to the throne of +Tamerlane: our most correct writers have retrenched the +<em>Al</em>, the superfluous article, from the Koran; and we +escape an ambiguous termination, by adopting <em>Moslem</em> +instead of Musulman, in the plural number. In these, and in a +thousand examples, the shades of distinction are often minute; +and I can feel, where I cannot explain, the motives of my +choice.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The +Antoninies.</strong><br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Introduction -- The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In +The Age Of The Antonines.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the second century of the Christian Æra, the empire +of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most +civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive +monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor. +The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had +gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their peaceful +inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and +luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with +decent reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the +sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the +executive powers of government. During a happy period of more +than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by +the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two +Antonines. It is the design of this, and of the two succeeding +chapters, to describe the prosperous condition of their empire; +and after wards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce +the most important circumstances of its decline and fall; a +revolution which will ever be remembered, and is still felt by +the nations of the earth.<br> +</p> + +<p>The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the +republic; and the emperors, for the most part, were satisfied +with preserving those dominions which had been acquired by the +policy of the senate, the active emulations of the consuls, and +the martial enthusiasm of the people. The seven first centuries +were filled with a rapid succession of triumphs; but it was +reserved for Augustus to relinquish the ambitious design of +subduing the whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of moderation +into the public councils. Inclined to peace by his temper and +situation, it was easy for him to discover that Rome, in her +present exalted situation, had much less to hope than to fear +from the chance of arms; and that, in the prosecution of remote +wars, the undertaking became every day more difficult, the event +more doubtful, and the possession more precarious, and less +beneficial. The experience of Augustus added weight to these +salutary reflections, and effectually convinced him that, by the +prudent vigor of his counsels, it would be easy to secure every +concession which the safety or the dignity of Rome might require +from the most formidable barbarians. Instead of exposing his +person and his legions to the arrows of the Parthians, he +obtained, by an honorable treaty, the restitution of the +standards and prisoners which had been taken in the defeat of +Crassus.<br> +</p> + +<p>His generals, in the early part of his reign, attempted the +reduction of Ethiopia and Arabia Felix. They marched near a +thousand miles to the south of the tropic; but the heat of the +climate soon repelled the invaders, and protected the un-warlike +natives of those sequestered regions. The northern countries of +Europe scarcely deserved the expense and labor of conquest. The +forests and morasses of Germany were filled with a hardy race of +barbarians, who despised life when it was separated from freedom; +and though, on the first attack, they seemed to yield to the +weight of the Roman power, they soon, by a signal act of despair, +regained their independence, and reminded Augustus of the +vicissitude of fortune. On the death of that emperor, his +testament was publicly read in the senate. He bequeathed, as a +valuable legacy to his successors, the advice of confining the +empire within those limits which nature seemed to have placed as +its permanent bulwarks and boundaries: on the west, the Atlantic +Ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the Euphrates on the +east; and towards the south, the sandy deserts of Arabia and +Africa.<br> +</p> + +<p>Happily for the repose of mankind, the moderate system +recommended by the wisdom of Augustus, was adopted by the fears +and vices of his immediate successors. Engaged in the pursuit of +pleasure, or in the exercise of tyranny, the first Cæsars +seldom showed themselves to the armies, or to the provinces; nor +were they disposed to suffer, that those triumphs which +<em>their</em> indolence neglected, should be usurped by the +conduct and valor of their lieutenants. The military fame of a +subject was considered as an insolent invasion of the Imperial +prerogative; and it became the duty, as well as interest, of +every Roman general, to guard the frontiers intrusted to his +care, without aspiring to conquests which might have proved no +less fatal to himself than to the vanquished barbarians.<br> +</p> + +<p>The only accession which the Roman empire received, during the +first century of the Christian Æra, was the province of +Britain. In this single instance, the successors of Cæsar +and Augustus were persuaded to follow the example of the former, +rather than the precept of the latter. The proximity of its +situation to the coast of Gaul seemed to invite their arms; the +pleasing though doubtful intelligence of a pearl fishery, +attracted their avarice; and as Britain was viewed in the light +of a distinct and insulated world, the conquest scarcely formed +any exception to the general system of continental measures. +After a war of about forty years, undertaken by the most stupid, +maintained by the most dissolute, and terminated by the most +timid of all the emperors, the far greater part of the island +submitted to the Roman yoke. The various tribes of Britain +possessed valor without conduct, and the love of freedom without +the spirit of union. They took up arms with savage fierceness; +they laid them down, or turned them against each other, with wild +inconsistency; and while they fought singly, they were +successively subdued. Neither the fortitude of Caractacus, nor +the despair of Boadicea, nor the fanaticism of the Druids, could +avert the slavery of their country, or resist the steady progress +of the Imperial generals, who maintained the national glory, when +the throne was disgraced by the weakest, or the most vicious of +mankind. At the very time when Domitian, confined to his palace, +felt the terrors which he inspired, his legions, under the +command of the virtuous Agricola, defeated the collected force of +the Caledonians, at the foot of the Grampian Hills; and his +fleets, venturing to explore an unknown and dangerous navigation, +displayed the Roman arms round every part of the island. The +conquest of Britain was considered as already achieved; and it +was the design of Agricola to complete and insure his success, by +the easy reduction of Ireland, for which, in his opinion, one +legion and a few auxiliaries were sufficient. The western isle +might be improved into a valuable possession, and the Britons +would wear their chains with the less reluctance, if the prospect +and example of freedom were on every side removed from before +their eyes.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the superior merit of Agricola soon occasioned his removal +from the government of Britain; and forever disappointed this +rational, though extensive scheme of conquest. Before his +departure, the prudent general had provided for security as well +as for dominion. He had observed, that the island is almost +divided into two unequal parts by the opposite gulfs, or, as they +are now called, the Friths of Scotland. Across the narrow +interval of about forty miles, he had drawn a line of military +stations, which was afterwards fortified, in the reign of +Antoninus Pius, by a turf rampart, erected on foundations of +stone. This wall of Antoninus, at a small distance beyond the +modern cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, was fixed as the limit of +the Roman province. The native Caledonians preserved, in the +northern extremity of the island, their wild independence, for +which they were not less indebted to their poverty than to their +valor. Their incursions were frequently repelled and chastised; +but their country was never subdued. The masters of the fairest +and most wealthy climates of the globe turned with contempt from +gloomy hills, assailed by the winter tempest, from lakes +concealed in a blue mist, and from cold and lonely heaths, over +which the deer of the forest were chased by a troop of naked +barbarians.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such was the state of the Roman frontiers, and such the maxims +of Imperial policy, from the death of Augustus to the accession +of Trajan. That virtuous and active prince had received the +education of a soldier, and possessed the talents of a general. +The peaceful system of his predecessors was interrupted by scenes +of war and conquest; and the legions, after a long interval, +beheld a military emperor at their head. The first exploits of +Trajan were against the Dacians, the most warlike of men, who +dwelt beyond the Danube, and who, during the reign of Domitian, +had insulted, with impunity, the Majesty of Rome. To the strength +and fierceness of barbarians they added a contempt for life, +which was derived from a warm persuasion of the immortality and +transmigration of the soul. Decebalus, the Dacian king, approved +himself a rival not unworthy of Trajan; nor did he despair of his +own and the public fortune, till, by the confession of his +enemies, he had exhausted every resource both of valor and +policy. This memorable war, with a very short suspension of +hostilities, lasted five years; and as the emperor could exert, +without control, the whole force of the state, it was terminated +by an absolute submission of the barbarians. The new province of +Dacia, which formed a second exception to the precept of +Augustus, was about thirteen hundred miles in circumference. Its +natural boundaries were the Niester, the Teyss or Tibiscus, the +Lower Danube, and the Euxine Sea. The vestiges of a military road +may still be traced from the banks of the Danube to the +neighborhood of Bender, a place famous in modern history, and the +actual frontier of the Turkish and Russian empires.<br> +</p> + +<p>Trajan was ambitious of fame; and as long as mankind shall +continue to bestow more liberal applause on their destroyers than +on their benefactors, the thirst of military glory will ever be +the vice of the most exalted characters. The praises of +Alexander, transmitted by a succession of poets and historians, +had kindled a dangerous emulation in the mind of Trajan. Like +him, the Roman emperor undertook an expedition against the +nations of the East; but he lamented with a sigh, that his +advanced age scarcely left him any hopes of equalling the renown +of the son of Philip. Yet the success of Trajan, however +transient, was rapid and specious. The degenerate Parthians, +broken by intestine discord, fled before his arms. He descended +the River Tigris in triumph, from the mountains of Armenia to the +Persian Gulf. He enjoyed the honor of being the first, as he was +the last, of the Roman generals, who ever navigated that remote +sea. His fleets ravaged the coast of Arabia; and Trajan vainly +flattered himself that he was approaching towards the confines of +India. Every day the astonished senate received the intelligence +of new names and new nations, that acknowledged his sway. They +were informed that the kings of Bosphorus, Colchos, Iberia, +Albania, Osrhoene, and even the Parthian monarch himself, had +accepted their diadems from the hands of the emperor; that the +independent tribes of the Median and Carduchian hills had +implored his protection; and that the rich countries of Armenia, +Mesopotamia, and Assyria, were reduced into the state of +provinces. But the death of Trajan soon clouded the splendid +prospect; and it was justly to be dreaded, that so many distant +nations would throw off the unaccustomed yoke, when they were no +longer restrained by the powerful hand which had imposed it.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter I: The Extend Of The Empire In The Age Of +The Antoninies. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>It was an ancient tradition, that when the Capitol was founded +by one of the Roman kings, the god Terminus (who presided over +boundaries, and was represented, according to the fashion of that +age, by a large stone) alone, among all the inferior deities, +refused to yield his place to Jupiter himself. A favorable +inference was drawn from his obstinacy, which was interpreted by +the augurs as a sure presage that the boundaries of the Roman +power would never recede. During many ages, the prediction, as it +is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment. But though +Terminus had resisted the Majesty of Jupiter, he submitted to the +authority of the emperor Hadrian. The resignation of all the +eastern conquests of Trajan was the first measure of his reign. +He restored to the Parthians the election of an independent +sovereign; withdrew the Roman garrisons from the provinces of +Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria; and, in compliance with the +precept of Augustus, once more established the Euphrates as the +frontier of the empire. Censure, which arraigns the public +actions and the private motives of princes, has ascribed to envy, +a conduct which might be attributed to the prudence and +moderation of Hadrian. The various character of that emperor, +capable, by turns, of the meanest and the most generous +sentiments, may afford some color to the suspicion. It was, +however, scarcely in his power to place the superiority of his +predecessor in a more conspicuous light, than by thus confessing +himself unequal to the task of defending the conquests of +Trajan.<br> +</p> + +<p>The martial and ambitious of spirit Trajan formed a very +singular contrast with the moderation of his successor. The +restless activity of Hadrian was not less remarkable when +compared with the gentle repose of Antoninus Pius. The life of +the former was almost a perpetual journey; and as he possessed +the various talents of the soldier, the statesman, and the +scholar, he gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his duty. +Careless of the difference of seasons and of climates, he marched +on foot, and bare-headed, over the snows of Caledonia, and the +sultry plains of the Upper Egypt; nor was there a province of the +empire which, in the course of his reign, was not honored with +the presence of the monarch. But the tranquil life of Antoninus +Pius was spent in the bosom of Italy, and, during the +twenty-three years that he directed the public administration, +the longest journeys of that amiable prince extended no farther +than from his palace in Rome to the retirement of his Lanuvian +villa.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this difference in their personal conduct, the +general system of Augustus was equally adopted and uniformly +pursued by Hadrian and by the two Antonines. They persisted in +the design of maintaining the dignity of the empire, without +attempting to enlarge its limits. By every honorable expedient +they invited the friendship of the barbarians; and endeavored to +convince mankind that the Roman power, raised above the +temptation of conquest, was actuated only by the love of order +and justice. During a long period of forty-three years, their +virtuous labors were crowned with success; and if we except a few +slight hostilities, that served to exercise the legions of the +frontier, the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius offer the fair +prospect of universal peace. The Roman name was revered among the +most remote nations of the earth. The fiercest barbarians +frequently submitted their differences to the arbitration of the +emperor; and we are informed by a contemporary historian that he +had seen ambassadors who were refused the honor which they came +to solicit of being admitted into the rank of subjects.<br> +</p> + +<p>Part II.<br> +</p> + +<p>The terror of the Roman arms added weight and dignity to the +moderation of the emperors. They preserved peace by a constant +preparation for war; and while justice regulated their conduct, +they announced to the nations on their confines, that they were +as little disposed to endure, as to offer an injury. The military +strength, which it had been sufficient for Hadrian and the elder +Antoninus to display, was exerted against the Parthians and the +Germans by the emperor Marcus. The hostilities of the barbarians +provoked the resentment of that philosophic monarch, and, in the +prosecution of a just defence, Marcus and his generals obtained +many signal victories, both on the Euphrates and on the Danube. +The military establishment of the Roman empire, which thus +assured either its tranquillity or success, will now become the +proper and important object of our attention.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the purer ages of the commonwealth, the use of arms was +reserved for those ranks of citizens who had a country to love, a +property to defend, and some share in enacting those laws, which +it was their interest as well as duty to maintain. But in +proportion as the public freedom was lost in extent of conquest, +war was gradually improved into an art, and degraded into a +trade. The legions themselves, even at the time when they were +recruited in the most distant provinces, were supposed to consist +of Roman citizens. That distinction was generally considered, +either as a legal qualification or as a proper recompense for the +soldier; but a more serious regard was paid to the essential +merit of age, strength, and military stature. In all levies, a +just preference was given to the climates of the North over those +of the South: the race of men born to the exercise of arms was +sought for in the country rather than in cities; and it was very +reasonably presumed, that the hardy occupations of smiths, +carpenters, and huntsmen, would supply more vigor and resolution +than the sedentary trades which are employed in the service of +luxury. After every qualification of property had been laid +aside, the armies of the Roman emperors were still commanded, for +the most part, by officers of liberal birth and education; but +the common soldiers, like the mercenary troops of modern Europe, +were drawn from the meanest, and very frequently from the most +profligate, of mankind.<br> +</p> + +<p>That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated +patriotism, is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in +the preservation and prosperity of the free government of which +we are members. Such a sentiment, which had rendered the legions +of the republic almost invincible, could make but a very feeble +impression on the mercenary servants of a despotic prince; and it +became necessary to supply that defect by other motives, of a +different, but not less forcible nature -- honor and religion. +The peasant, or mechanic, imbibed the useful prejudice that he +was advanced to the more dignified profession of arms, in which +his rank and reputation would depend on his own valor; and that, +although the prowess of a private soldier must often escape the +notice of fame, his own behavior might sometimes confer glory or +disgrace on the company, the legion, or even the army, to whose +honors he was associated. On his first entrance into the service, +an oath was administered to him with every circumstance of +solemnity. He promised never to desert his standard, to submit +his own will to the commands of his leaders, and to sacrifice his +life for the safety of the emperor and the empire. The attachment +of the Roman troops to their standards was inspired by the united +influence of religion and of honor. The golden eagle, which +glittered in the front of the legion, was the object of their +fondest devotion; nor was it esteemed less impious than it was +ignominious, to abandon that sacred ensign in the hour of danger. +These motives, which derived their strength from the imagination, +were enforced by fears and hopes of a more substantial kind. +Regular pay, occasional donatives, and a stated recompense, after +the appointed time of service, alleviated the hardships of the +military life, whilst, on the other hand, it was impossible for +cowardice or disobedience to escape the severest punishment. The +centurions were authorized to chastise with blows, the generals +had a right to punish with death; and it was an inflexible maxim +of Roman discipline, that a good soldier should dread his +officers far more than the enemy. From such laudable arts did the +valor of the Imperial troops receive a degree of firmness and +docility unattainable by the impetuous and irregular passions of +barbarians.<br> +</p> + +<p>And yet so sensible were the Romans of the imperfection of +valor without skill and practice, that, in their language, the +name of an army was borrowed from the word which signified +exercise. Military exercises were the important and unremitted +object of their discipline. The recruits and young soldiers were +constantly trained, both in the morning and in the evening, nor +was age or knowledge allowed to excuse the veterans from the +daily repetition of what they had completely learnt. Large sheds +were erected in the winter-quarters of the troops, that their +useful labors might not receive any interruption from the most +tempestuous weather; and it was carefully observed, that the arms +destined to this imitation of war, should be of double the weight +which was required in real action. It is not the purpose of this +work to enter into any minute description of the Roman exercises. +We shall only remark, that they comprehended whatever could add +strength to the body, activity to the limbs, or grace to the +motions. The soldiers were diligently instructed to march, to +run, to leap, to swim, to carry heavy burdens, to handle every +species of arms that was used either for offence or for defence, +either in distant engagement or in a closer onset; to form a +variety of evolutions; and to move to the sound of flutes in the +Pyrrhic or martial dance. In the midst of peace, the Roman troops +familiarized themselves with the practice of war; and it is +prettily remarked by an ancient historian who had fought against +them, that the effusion of blood was the only circumstance which +distinguished a field of battle from a field of exercise. ^39 It +was the policy of the ablest generals, and even of the emperors +themselves, to encourage these military studies by their presence +and example; and we are informed that Hadrian, as well as Trajan, +frequently condescended to instruct the unexperienced soldiers, +to reward the diligent, and sometimes to dispute with them the +prize of superior strength or dexterity. Under the reigns of +those princes, the science of tactics was cultivated with +success; and as long as the empire retained any vigor, their +military instructions were respected as the most perfect model of +Roman discipline.<br> +</p> + +<p>Nine centuries of war had gradually introduced into the +service many alterations and improvements. The legions, as they +are described by Polybius, in the time of the Punic wars, +differed very materially from those which achieved the victories +of Cæsar, or defended the monarchy of Hadrian and the +Antonines. The constitution of the Imperial legion may be +described in a few words. The heavy-armed infantry, which +composed its principal strength, was divided into ten cohorts, +and fifty-five companies, under the orders of a correspondent +number of tribunes and centurions. The first cohort, which always +claimed the post of honor and the custody of the eagle, was +formed of eleven hundred and five soldiers, the most approved for +valor and fidelity. The remaining nine cohorts consisted each of +five hundred and fifty-five; and the whole body of legionary +infantry amounted to six thousand one hundred men. Their arms +were uniform, and admirably adapted to the nature of their +service: an open helmet, with a lofty crest; a breastplate, or +coat of mail; greaves on their legs, and an ample buckler on +their left arm. The buckler was of an oblong and concave figure, +four feet in length, and two and a half in breadth, framed of a +light wood, covered with a bull's hide, and strongly guarded with +plates of brass. Besides a lighter spear, the legionary soldier +grasped in his right hand the formidable <em>pilum</em>, a +ponderous javelin, whose utmost length was about six feet, and +which was terminated by a massy triangular point of steel of +eighteen inches. This instrument was indeed much inferior to our +modern fire-arms; since it was exhausted by a single discharge, +at the distance of only ten or twelve paces. Yet when it was +launched by a firm and skilful hand, there was not any cavalry +that durst venture within its reach, nor any shield or corselet +that could sustain the impetuosity of its weight. As soon as the +Roman had darted his <em>pilum</em>, he drew his sword, and +rushed forwards to close with the enemy. His sword was a short +well-tempered Spanish blade, that carried a double edge, and was +alike suited to the purpose of striking or of pushing; but the +soldier was always instructed to prefer the latter use of his +weapon, as his own body remained less exposed, whilst he +inflicted a more dangerous wound on his adversary. The legion was +usually drawn up eight deep; and the regular distance of three +feet was left between the files as well as ranks. A body of +troops, habituated to preserve this open order, in a long front +and a rapid charge, found themselves prepared to execute every +disposition which the circumstances of war, or the skill of their +leader, might suggest. The soldier possessed a free space for his +arms and motions, and sufficient intervals were allowed, through +which seasonable reenforcements might be introduced to the relief +of the exhausted combatants. The tactics of the Greeks and +Macedonians were formed on very different principles. The +strength of the phalanx depended on sixteen ranks of long pikes, +wedged together in the closest array. But it was soon discovered +by reflection, as well as by the event, that the strength of the +phalanx was unable to contend with the activity of the +legion.<br> +</p> + +<p>The cavalry, without which the force of the legion would have +remained imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the +first, as the companion of the first cohort, consisted of a +hundred and thirty-two men; whilst each of the other nine +amounted only to sixty-six. The entire establishment formed a +regiment, if we may use the modern expression, of seven hundred +and twenty-six horse, naturally connected with its respective +legion, but occasionally separated to act in the line, and to +compose a part of the wings of the army. The cavalry of the +emperors was no longer composed, like that of the ancient +republic, of the noblest youths of Rome and Italy, who, by +performing their military service on horseback, prepared +themselves for the offices of senator and consul; and solicited, +by deeds of valor, the future suffrages of their countrymen. +Since the alteration of manners and government, the most wealthy +of the equestrian order were engaged in the administration of +justice, and of the revenue; and whenever they embraced the +profession of arms, they were immediately intrusted with a troop +of horse, or a cohort of foot. Trajan and Hadrian formed their +cavalry from the same provinces, and the same class of their +subjects, which recruited the ranks of the legion. The horses +were bred, for the most part, in Spain or Cappadocia. The Roman +troopers despised the complete armor with which the cavalry of +the East was encumbered. <em>Their</em> more useful arms +consisted in a helmet, an oblong shield, light boots, and a coat +of mail. A javelin, and a long broad sword, were their principal +weapons of offence. The use of lances and of iron maces they seem +to have borrowed from the barbarians.<br> +</p> + +<p>The safety and honor of the empire was principally intrusted +to the legions, but the policy of Rome condescended to adopt +every useful instrument of war. Considerable levies were +regularly made among the provincials, who had not yet deserved +the honorable distinction of Romans. Many dependent princes and +communities, dispersed round the frontiers, were permitted, for a +while, to hold their freedom and security by the tenure of +military service. Even select troops of hostile barbarians were +frequently compelled or persuaded to consume their dangerous +valor in remote climates, and for the benefit of the state. All +these were included under the general name of auxiliaries; and +howsoever they might vary according to the difference of times +and circumstances, their numbers were seldom much inferior to +those of the legions themselves. Among the auxiliaries, the +bravest and most faithful bands were placed under the command of +præfects and centurions, and severely trained in the arts +of Roman discipline; but the far greater part retained those +arms, to which the nature of their country, or their early habits +of life, more peculiarly adapted them. By this institution, each +legion, to whom a certain proportion of auxiliaries was allotted, +contained within itself every species of lighter troops, and of +missile weapons; and was capable of encountering every nation, +with the advantages of its respective arms and discipline. Nor +was the legion destitute of what, in modern language, would be +styled a train of artillery. It consisted in ten military engines +of the largest, and fifty-five of a smaller size; but all of +which, either in an oblique or horizontal manner, discharged +stones and darts with irresistible violence.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter I: The Extend Of The Empire In The Age Of +The Antoninies. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a +fortified city. As soon as the space was marked out, the pioneers +carefully levelled the ground, and removed every impediment that +might interrupt its perfect regularity. Its form was an exact +quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a square of about seven +hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of twenty +thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops would +expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that extent. In +the midst of the camp, the prætorium, or general's +quarters, rose above the others; the cavalry, the infantry, and +the auxiliaries occupied their respective stations; the streets +were broad and perfectly straight, and a vacant space of two +hundred feet was left on all sides between the tents and the +rampart. The rampart itself was usually twelve feet high, armed +with a line of strong and intricate palisades, and defended by a +ditch of twelve feet in depth as well as in breadth. This +important labor was performed by the hands of the legionaries +themselves; to whom the use of the spade and the pickaxe was no +less familiar than that of the sword or <em>pilum</em>. Active +valor may often be the present of nature; but such patient +diligence can be the fruit only of habit and discipline.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp +was almost instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their +ranks without delay or confusion. Besides their arms, which the +legendaries scarcely considered as an encumbrance, they were +laden with their kitchen furniture, the instruments of +fortification, and the provision of many days. Under this weight, +which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, they were +trained by a regular step to advance, in about six hours, near +twenty miles. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw aside +their baggage, and by easy and rapid evolutions converted the +column of march into an order of battle. The slingers and archers +skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries formed the first line, +and were seconded or sustained by the strength of the legions; +the cavalry covered the flanks, and the military engines were +placed in the rear.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors +defended their extensive conquests, and preserved a military +spirit, at a time when every other virtue was oppressed by luxury +and despotism. If, in the consideration of their armies, we pass +from their discipline to their numbers, we shall not find it easy +to define them with any tolerable accuracy. We may compute, +however, that the legion, which was itself a body of six thousand +eight hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with its attendant +auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred men. +The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was +composed of no less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and +most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and +seventy-five thousand men. Instead of being confined within the +walls of fortified cities, which the Romans considered as the +refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the legions were encamped on +the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the +barbarians. As their stations, for the most part, remained fixed +and permanent, we may venture to describe the distribution of the +troops. Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal +strength lay upon the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of sixteen +legions, in the following proportions: two in the Lower, and +three in the Upper Germany; one in Rhætia, one in Noricum, +four in Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in Dacia. The +defence of the Euphrates was intrusted to eight legions, six of +whom were planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia. With +regard to Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from +any important scene of war, a single legion maintained the +domestic tranquillity of each of those great provinces. Even +Italy was not left destitute of a military force. Above twenty +thousand chosen soldiers, distinguished by the titles of City +Cohorts and Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of +the monarch and the capital. As the authors of almost every +revolution that distracted the empire, the Prætorians will, +very soon, and very loudly, demand our attention; but, in their +arms and institutions, we cannot find any circumstance which +discriminated them from the legions, unless it were a more +splendid appearance, and a less rigid discipline.<br> +</p> + +<p>The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to +their greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful +purpose of government. The ambition of the Romans was confined to +the land; nor was that warlike people ever actuated by the +enterprising spirit which had prompted the navigators of Tyre, of +Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to enlarge the bounds of the +world, and to explore the most remote coasts of the ocean. To the +Romans the ocean remained an object of terror rather than of +curiosity; the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after the +destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was +included within their provinces. The policy of the emperors was +directed only to preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and +to protect the commerce of their subjects. With these moderate +views, Augustus stationed two permanent fleets in the most +convenient ports of Italy, the one at Ravenna, on the Adriatic, +the other at Misenum, in the Bay of Naples. Experience seems at +length to have convinced the ancients, that as soon as their +galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars, they +were suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Augustus +himself, in the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of +his own light frigates (they were called Liburnians) over the +lofty but unwieldy castles of his rival. Of these Liburnians he +composed the two fleets of Ravenna and Misenum, destined to +command, the one the eastern, the other the western division of +the Mediterranean; and to each of the squadrons he attached a +body of several thousand marines. Besides these two ports, which +may be considered as the principal seats of the Roman navy, a +very considerable force was stationed at Frejus, on the coast of +Provence, and the Euxine was guarded by forty ships, and three +thousand soldiers. To all these we add the fleet which preserved +the communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great number of +vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harass +the country, or to intercept the passage of the barbarians. If we +review this general state of the Imperial forces; of the cavalry +as well as infantry; of the legions, the auxiliaries, the guards, +and the navy; the most liberal computation will not allow us to +fix the entire establishment by sea and by land at more than four +hundred and fifty thousand men: a military power, which, however +formidable it may seem, was equalled by a monarch of the last +century, whose kingdom was confined within a single province of +the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and +the strength which supported, the power of Hadrian and the +Antonines. We shall now endeavor, with clearness and precision, +to describe the provinces once united under their sway, but, at +present, divided into so many independent and hostile states.<br> +</p> + +<p>Spain, the western extremity of the empire, of Europe, and of +the ancient world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the +same natural limits; the Pyrenæan Mountains, the +Mediterranean, and the Atlantic Ocean. That great peninsula, at +present so unequally divided between two sovereigns, was +distributed by Augustus into three provinces, Lusitania, +Bætica, and Tarraconensis. The kingdom of Portugal now +fills the place of the warlike country of the Lusitanians; and +the loss sustained by the former on the side of the East, is +compensated by an accession of territory towards the North. The +confines of Grenada and Andalusia correspond with those of +ancient Bætica. The remainder of Spain, Gallicia, and the +Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two Castiles, +Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to form +the third and most considerable of the Roman governments, which, +from the name of its capital, was styled the province of +Tarragona. Of the native barbarians, the Celtiberians were the +most powerful, as the Cantabrians and Asturians proved the most +obstinate. Confident in the strength of their mountains, they +were the last who submitted to the arms of Rome, and the first +who threw off the yoke of the Arabs.<br> +</p> + +<p>Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the +Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater +extent than modern France. To the dominions of that powerful +monarchy, with its recent acquisitions of Alsace and Lorraine, we +must add the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of Switzerland, the four +electorates of the Rhine, and the territories of Liege, +Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. When Augustus gave +laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a division of +Gaul, equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the +course of the rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, +which had comprehended above a hundred independent states. The +sea-coast of the Mediterranean, Languedoc, Provence, and +Dauphine, received their provincial appellation from the colony +of Narbonne. The government of Aquitaine was extended from the +Pyrenees to the Loire. The country between the Loire and the +Seine was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed a new +denomination from the celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or Lyons. +The Belgic lay beyond the Seine, and in more ancient times had +been bounded only by the Rhine; but a little before the age of +Cæsar, the Germans, abusing their superiority of valor, had +occupied a considerable portion of the Belgic territory. The +Roman conquerors very eagerly embraced so flattering a +circumstance, and the Gallic frontier of the Rhine, from Basil to +Leyden, received the pompous names of the Upper and the Lower +Germany. Such, under the reign of the Antonines, were the six +provinces of Gaul; the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, the Celtic, or +Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the two Germanies.<br> +</p> + +<p>We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of +Britain, and to fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this +island. It comprehended all England, Wales, and the Lowlands of +Scotland, as far as the Friths of Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Before +Britain lost her freedom, the country was irregularly divided +between thirty tribes of barbarians, of whom the most +considerable were the Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in +the North, the Silures in South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk +and Suffolk. As far as we can either trace or credit the +resemblance of manners and language, Spain, Gaul, and Britain +were peopled by the same hardy race of savages. Before they +yielded to the Roman arms, they often disputed the field, and +often renewed the contest. After their submission, they +constituted the western division of the European provinces, which +extended from the columns of Hercules to the wall of Antoninus, +and from the mouth of the Tagus to the sources of the Rhine and +Danube.<br> +</p> + +<p>Before the Roman conquest, the country which is now called +Lombardy, was not considered as a part of Italy. It had been +occupied by a powerful colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves +along the banks of the Po, from Piedmont to Romagna, carried +their arms and diffused their name from the Alps to the Apennine. +The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast which now forms the +republic of Genoa. Venice was yet unborn; but the territories of +that state, which lie to the east of the Adige, were inhabited by +the Venetians. The middle part of the peninsula, that now +composes the duchy of Tuscany and the ecclesiastical state, was +the ancient seat of the Etruscans and Umbrians; to the former of +whom Italy was indebted for the first rudiments of civilized +life. The Tyber rolled at the foot of the seven hills of Rome, +and the country of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Volsci, from +that river to the frontiers of Naples, was the theatre of her +infant victories. On that celebrated ground the first consuls +deserved triumphs, their successors adorned villas, and their +posterity have erected convents. Capua and Campania possessed the +immediate territory of Naples; the rest of the kingdom was +inhabited by many warlike nations, the Marsi, the Samnites, the +Apulians, and the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts had been covered +by the flourishing colonies of the Greeks. We may remark, that +when Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions, the little +province of Istria was annexed to that seat of Roman +sovereignty.<br> +</p> + +<p>The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of +the Rhine and the Danube. The latter of those mighty streams, +which rises at the distance of only thirty miles from the former, +flows above thirteen hundred miles, for the most part to the +south-east, collects the tribute of sixty navigable rivers, and +is, at length, through six mouths, received into the Euxine, +which appears scarcely equal to such an accession of waters. The +provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general appellation of +Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were esteemed the most +warlike of the empire; but they deserve to be more particularly +considered under the names of Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, +Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece.<br> +</p> + +<p>The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name +of the Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the +banks of the Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with +the Inn. The greatest part of the flat country is subject to the +elector of Bavaria; the city of Augsburg is protected by the +constitution of the German empire; the Grisons are safe in their +mountains, and the country of Tirol is ranked among the numerous +provinces of the house of Austria.<br> +</p> + +<p>The wide extent of territory which is included between the +Inn, the Danube, and the Save, -- Austria, Styria, Carinthia, +Carniola, the Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia, -- was known to the +ancients under the names of Noricum and Pannonia. In their +original state of independence, their fierce inhabitants were +intimately connected. Under the Roman government they were +frequently united, and they still remain the patrimony of a +single family. They now contain the residence of a German prince, +who styles himself Emperor of the Romans, and form the centre, as +well as strength, of the Austrian power. It may not be improper +to observe, that if we except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern +skirts of Austria, and a part of Hungary between the Teyss and +the Danube, all the other dominions of the House of Austria were +comprised within the limits of the Roman Empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly +belonged, was a long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the +Adriatic. The best part of the sea-coast, which still retains its +ancient appellation, is a province of the Venetian state, and the +seat of the little republic of Ragusa. The inland parts have +assumed the Sclavonian names of Croatia and Bosnia; the former +obeys an Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish pacha; but the +whole country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, whose +savage independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the +Christian and Mahometan power.<br> +</p> + +<p>After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the +Save, it acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister. +It formerly divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, +as we have already seen, was a conquest of Trajan, and the only +province beyond the river. If we inquire into the present state +of those countries, we shall find that, on the left hand of the +Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been annexed, after many +revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the principalities +of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of the +Ottoman Porte. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, +which, during the middle ages, was broken into the barbarian +kingdoms of Servia and Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish +slavery.<br> +</p> + +<p>The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the +Turks on the extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and +Greece, preserves the memory of their ancient state under the +Roman empire. In the time of the Antonines, the martial regions +of Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus and Rhodope, to the +Bosphorus and the Hellespont, had assumed the form of a province. +Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, the new +city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the +Bosphorus, has ever since remained the capital of a great +monarchy. The kingdom of Macedonia, which, under the reign of +Alexander, gave laws to Asia, derived more solid advantages from +the policy of the two Philips; and with its dependencies of +Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the Ægean to the Ionian +Sea. When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and Argos, of Sparta +and Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so many +immortal republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single +province of the Roman empire, which, from the superior influence +of the Achæan league, was usually denominated the province +of Achaia.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors. The +provinces of Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of +Trajan, are all comprehended within the limits of the Turkish +power. But, instead of following the arbitrary divisions of +despotism and ignorance, it will be safer for us, as well as more +agreeable, to observe the indelible characters of nature. The +name of Asia Minor is attributed with some propriety to the +peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the +Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. The +most extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus +and the River Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the +exclusive title of Asia. The jurisdiction of that province +extended over the ancient monarchies of Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, +the maritime countries of the Pamphylians, Lycians, and Carians, +and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, which equalled in arts, though +not in arms, the glory of their parent. The kingdoms of Bithynia +and Pontus possessed the northern side of the peninsula from +Constantinople to Trebizond. On the opposite side, the province +of Cilicia was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland +country, separated from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and +from Armenia by the Euphrates, had once formed the independent +kingdom of Cappadocia. In this place we may observe, that the +northern shores of the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in Asia, and +beyond the Danube in Europe, acknowledged the sovereignty of the +emperors, and received at their hands either tributary princes or +Roman garrisons. Budzak, Crim Tartary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, +are the modern appellations of those savage countries.<br> +</p> + +<p>Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the +Seleucidæ, who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful +revolt of the Parthians confined their dominions between the +Euphrates and the Mediterranean. When Syria became subject to the +Romans, it formed the eastern frontier of their empire: nor did +that province, in its utmost latitude, know any other bounds than +the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards the south, +the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Phoenicia and Palestine +were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the +jurisdiction of Syria. The former of these was a narrow and rocky +coast; the latter was a territory scarcely superior to Wales, +either in fertility or extent. * Yet Phoenicia and Palestine will +forever live in the memory of mankind; since America, as well as +Europe, has received letters from the one, and religion from the +other. A sandy desert, alike destitute of wood and water, skirts +along the doubtful confine of Syria, from the Euphrates to the +Red Sea. The wandering life of the Arabs was inseparably +connected with their independence; and wherever, on some spots +less barren than the rest, they ventured to for many settled +habitations, they soon became subjects to the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what +portion of the globe they should ascribe Egypt. By its situation +that celebrated kingdom is included within the immense peninsula +of Africa; but it is accessible only on the side of Asia, whose +revolutions, in almost every period of history, Egypt has humbly +obeyed. A Roman præfect was seated on the splendid throne +of the Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of the Mamelukes is now in +the hands of a Turkish pacha. The Nile flows down the country, +above five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to the +Mediterranean, and marks on either side of the extent of +fertility by the measure of its inundations. Cyrene, situate +towards the west, and along the sea-coast, was first a Greek +colony, afterwards a province of Egypt, and is now lost in the +desert of Barca. *<br> +</p> + +<p>From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above +fifteen hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the +Mediterranean and the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth +seldom exceeds fourscore or a hundred miles. The eastern division +was considered by the Romans as the more peculiar and proper +province of Africa. Till the arrival of the Phnician colonies, +that fertile country was inhabited by the Libyans, the most +savage of mankind. Under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, +it became the centre of commerce and empire; but the republic of +Carthage is now degenerated into the feeble and disorderly states +of Tripoli and Tunis. The military government of Algiers +oppresses the wide extent of Numidia, as it was once united under +Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the time of Augustus, the limits +of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, two thirds of the +country acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the epithet of +Cæsariensis. The genuine Mauritania, or country of the +Moors, which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was +distinguished by the appellation of Tingitana, is represented by +the modern kingdom of Fez. Salle, on the Ocean, so infamous at +present for its piratical depredations, was noticed by the +Romans, as the extreme object of their power, and almost of their +geography. A city of their foundation may still be discovered +near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom we condescend +to style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, that his +more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were +ever comprehended within the Roman province. The western parts of +Africa are intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so +idly celebrated by the fancy of poets; but which is now diffused +over the immense ocean that rolls between the ancient and the new +continent.<br> +</p> + +<p>Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may +observe, that Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of +about twelve miles, through which the Atlantic flows into the +Mediterranean. The columns of Hercules, so famous among the +ancients, were two mountains which seemed to have been torn +asunder by some convulsion of the elements; and at the foot of +the European mountain, the fortress of Gibraltar is now seated. +The whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its coasts and its +islands, were comprised within the Roman dominion. Of the larger +islands, the two Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and +Minorca from their respective size, are subject at present, the +former to Spain, the latter to Great Britain. * It is easier to +deplore the fate, than to describe the actual condition, of +Corsica. Two Italian sovereigns assume a regal title from +Sardinia and Sicily. Crete, or Candia, with Cyprus, and most of +the smaller islands of Greece and Asia, have been subdued by the +Turkish arms, whilst the little rock of Malta defies their power, +and has emerged, under the government of its military Order, into +fame and opulence.<br> +</p> + +<p>This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments +have formed so many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to +forgive the vanity or ignorance of the ancients. Dazzled with the +extensive sway, the irresistible strength, and the real or +affected moderation of the emperors, they permitted themselves to +despise, and sometimes to forget, the outlying countries which +had been left in the enjoyment of a barbarous independence; and +they gradually usurped the license of confounding the Roman +monarchy with the globe of the earth. But the temper, as well as +knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more sober and +accurate language. He may impress a juster image of the greatness +of Rome, by observing that the empire was above two thousand +miles in breadth, from the wall of Antoninus and the northern +limits of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and the tropic of Cancer; that it +extended in length more than three thousand miles from the +Western Ocean to the Euphrates; that it was situated in the +finest part of the Temperate Zone, between the twenty-fourth and +fifty-sixth degrees of northern latitude; and that it was +supposed to contain above sixteen hundred thousand square miles, +for the most part of fertile and well-cultivated land.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The +Antonines.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In +The Age Of The Antonines.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of conquest, that +we should estimate the greatness of Rome. The sovereign of the +Russian deserts commands a larger portion of the globe. In the +seventh summer after his passage of the Hellespont, Alexander +erected the Macedonian trophies on the banks of the Hyphasis. +Within less than a century, the irresistible Zingis, and the +Mogul princes of his race, spread their cruel devastations and +transient empire from the Sea of China, to the confines of Egypt +and Germany. But the firm edifice of Roman power was raised and +preserved by the wisdom of ages. The obedient provinces of Trajan +and the Antonines were united by laws, and adorned by arts. They +might occasionally suffer from the partial abuse of delegated +authority; but the general principle of government was wise, +simple, and beneficent. They enjoyed the religion of their +ancestors, whilst in civil honors and advantages they were +exalted, by just degrees, to an equality with their +conquerors.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. The policy of the emperors and the senate, as far as it +concerned religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of +the enlightened, and by the habits of the superstitious, part of +their subjects. The various modes of worship, which prevailed in +the Roman world, were all considered by the people, as equally +true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and by the +magistrate, as equally useful. And thus toleration produced not +only mutual indulgence, but even religious concord.<br> +</p> + +<p>The superstition of the people was not imbittered by any +mixture of theological rancor; nor was it confined by the chains +of any speculative system. The devout polytheist, though fondly +attached to his national rites, admitted with implicit faith the +different religions of the earth. Fear, gratitude, and curiosity, +a dream or an omen, a singular disorder, or a distant journey, +perpetually disposed him to multiply the articles of his belief, +and to enlarge the list of his protectors. The thin texture of +the Pagan mythology was interwoven with various but not +discordant materials. As soon as it was allowed that sages and +heroes, who had lived or who had died for the benefit of their +country, were exalted to a state of power and immortality, it was +universally confessed, that they deserved, if not the adoration, +at least the reverence, of all mankind. The deities of a thousand +groves and a thousand streams possessed, in peace, their local +and respective influence; nor could the Romans who deprecated the +wrath of the Tiber, deride the Egyptian who presented his +offering to the beneficent genius of the Nile. The visible powers +of nature, the planets, and the elements were the same throughout +the universe. The invisible governors of the moral world were +inevitably cast in a similar mould of fiction and allegory. Every +virtue, and even vice, acquired its divine representative; every +art and profession its patron, whose attributes, in the most +distant ages and countries, were uniformly derived from the +character of their peculiar votaries. A republic of gods of such +opposite tempers and interests required, in every system, the +moderating hand of a supreme magistrate, who, by the progress of +knowledge and flattery, was gradually invested with the sublime +perfections of an Eternal Parent, and an Omnipotent Monarch. Such +was the mild spirit of antiquity, that the nations were less +attentive to the difference, than to the resemblance, of their +religious worship. The Greek, the Roman, and the Barbarian, as +they met before their respective altars, easily persuaded +themselves, that under various names, and with various +ceremonies, they adored the same deities. The elegant mythology +of Homer gave a beautiful, and almost a regular form, to the +polytheism of the ancient world.<br> +</p> + +<p>The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from the +nature of man, rather than from that of God. They meditated, +however, on the Divine Nature, as a very curious and important +speculation; and in the profound inquiry, they displayed the +strength and weakness of the human understanding. Of the four +most celebrated schools, the Stoics and the Platonists endeavored +to reconcile the jaring interests of reason and piety. They have +left us the most sublime proofs of the existence and perfections +of the first cause; but, as it was impossible for them to +conceive the creation of matter, the workman in the Stoic +philosophy was not sufficiently distinguished from the work; +whilst, on the contrary, the spiritual God of Plato and his +disciples resembled an idea, rather than a substance. The +opinions of the Academics and Epicureans were of a less religious +cast; but whilst the modest science of the former induced them to +doubt, the positive ignorance of the latter urged them to deny, +the providence of a Supreme Ruler. The spirit of inquiry, +prompted by emulation, and supported by freedom, had divided the +public teachers of philosophy into a variety of contending sects; +but the ingenious youth, who, from every part, resorted to +Athens, and the other seats of learning in the Roman empire, were +alike instructed in every school to reject and to despise the +religion of the multitude. How, indeed, was it possible that a +philosopher should accept, as divine truths, the idle tales of +the poets, and the incoherent traditions of antiquity; or that he +should adore, as gods, those imperfect beings whom he must have +despised, as men? Against such unworthy adversaries, Cicero +condescended to employ the arms of reason and eloquence; but the +satire of Lucian was a much more adequate, as well as more +efficacious, weapon. We may be well assured, that a writer, +conversant with the world, would never have ventured to expose +the gods of his country to public ridicule, had they not already +been the objects of secret contempt among the polished and +enlightened orders of society.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the fashionable irreligion which prevailed in +the age of the Antonines, both the interest of the priests and +the credulity of the people were sufficiently respected. In their +writings and conversation, the philosophers of antiquity asserted +the independent dignity of reason; but they resigned their +actions to the commands of law and of custom. Viewing, with a +smile of pity and indulgence, the various errors of the vulgar, +they diligently practised the ceremonies of their fathers, +devoutly frequented the temples of the gods; and sometimes +condescending to act a part on the theatre of superstition, they +concealed the sentiments of an atheist under the sacerdotal +robes. Reasoners of such a temper were scarcely inclined to +wrangle about their respective modes of faith, or of worship. It +was indifferent to them what shape the folly of the multitude +might choose to assume; and they approached with the same inward +contempt, and the same external reverence, the altars of the +Libyan, the Olympian, or the Capitoline Jupiter.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is not easy to conceive from what motives a spirit of +persecution could introduce itself into the Roman councils. The +magistrates could not be actuated by a blind, though honest +bigotry, since the magistrates were themselves philosophers; and +the schools of Athens had given laws to the senate. They could +not be impelled by ambition or avarice, as the temporal and +ecclesiastical powers were united in the same hands. The pontiffs +were chosen among the most illustrious of the senators; and the +office of Supreme Pontiff was constantly exercised by the +emperors themselves. They knew and valued the advantages of +religion, as it is connected with civil government. They +encouraged the public festivals which humanize the manners of the +people. They managed the arts of divination as a convenient +instrument of policy; and they respected, as the firmest bond of +society, the useful persuasion, that, either in this or in a +future life, the crime of perjury is most assuredly punished by +the avenging gods. But whilst they acknowledged the general +advantages of religion, they were convinced that the various +modes of worship contributed alike to the same salutary purposes; +and that, in every country, the form of superstition, which had +received the sanction of time and experience, was the best +adapted to the climate, and to its inhabitants. Avarice and taste +very frequently despoiled the vanquished nations of the elegant +statues of their gods, and the rich ornaments of their temples; +but, in the exercise of the religion which they derived from +their ancestors, they uniformly experienced the indulgence, and +even protection, of the Roman conquerors. The province of Gaul +seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal +toleration. Under the specious pretext of abolishing human +sacrifices, the emperors Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the +dangerous power of the Druids: but the priests themselves, their +gods and their altars, subsisted in peaceful obscurity till the +final destruction of Paganism.<br> +</p> + +<p>Rome, the capital of a great monarchy, was incessantly filled +with subjects and strangers from every part of the world, who all +introduced and enjoyed the favorite superstitions of their native +country. Every city in the empire was justified in maintaining +the purity of its ancient ceremonies; and the Roman senate, using +the common privilege, sometimes interposed, to check this +inundation of foreign rites. * The Egyptian superstition, of all +the most contemptible and abject, was frequently prohibited: the +temples of Serapis and Isis demolished, and their worshippers +banished from Rome and Italy. But the zeal of fanaticism +prevailed over the cold and feeble efforts of policy. The exiles +returned, the proselytes multiplied, the temples were restored +with increasing splendor, and Isis and Serapis at length assumed +their place among the Roman Deities. Nor was this indulgence a +departure from the old maxims of government. In the purest ages +of the commonwealth, Cybele and Æsculapius had been invited +by solemn embassies; and it was customary to tempt the protectors +of besieged cities, by the promise of more distinguished honors +than they possessed in their native country. Rome gradually +became the common temple of her subjects; and the freedom of the +city was bestowed on all the gods of mankind.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The narrow policy of preserving, without any foreign +mixture, the pure blood of the ancient citizens, had checked the +fortune, and hastened the ruin, of Athens and Sparta. The +aspiring genius of Rome sacrificed vanity to ambition, and deemed +it more prudent, as well as honorable, to adopt virtue and merit +for her own wheresoever they were found, among slaves or +strangers, enemies or barbarians. During the most flourishing +æra of the Athenian commonwealth, the number of citizens +gradually decreased from about thirty to twenty-one thousand. If, +on the contrary, we study the growth of the Roman republic, we +may discover, that, notwithstanding the incessant demands of wars +and colonies, the citizens, who, in the first census of Servius +Tullius, amounted to no more than eighty-three thousand, were +multiplied, before the commencement of the social war, to the +number of four hundred and sixty-three thousand men, able to bear +arms in the service of their country. When the allies of Rome +claimed an equal share of honors and privileges, the senate +indeed preferred the chance of arms to an ignominious concession. +The Samnites and the Lucanians paid the severe penalty of their +rashness; but the rest of the Italian states, as they +successively returned to their duty, were admitted into the bosom +of the republic, and soon contributed to the ruin of public +freedom. Under a democratical government, the citizens exercise +the powers of sovereignty; and those powers will be first abused, +and afterwards lost, if they are committed to an unwieldy +multitude. But when the popular assemblies had been suppressed by +the administration of the emperors, the conquerors were +distinguished from the vanquished nations, only as the first and +most honorable order of subjects; and their increase, however +rapid, was no longer exposed to the same dangers. Yet the wisest +princes, who adopted the maxims of Augustus, guarded with the +strictest care the dignity of the Roman name, and diffused the +freedom of the city with a prudent liberality.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of +The Antonines. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Till the privileges of Romans had been progressively extended +to all the inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction +was preserved between Italy and the provinces. The former was +esteemed the centre of public unity, and the firm basis of the +constitution. Italy claimed the birth, or at least the residence, +of the emperors and the senate. The estates of the Italians were +exempt from taxes, their persons from the arbitrary jurisdiction +of governors. Their municipal corporations, formed after the +perfect model of the capital, * were intrusted, under the +immediate eye of the supreme power, with the execution of the +laws. From the foot of the Alps to the extremity of Calabria, all +the natives of Italy were born citizens of Rome. Their partial +distinctions were obliterated, and they insensibly coalesced into +one great nation, united by language, manners, and civil +institutions, and equal to the weight of a powerful empire. The +republic gloried in her generous policy, and was frequently +rewarded by the merit and services of her adopted sons. Had she +always confined the distinction of Romans to the ancient families +within the walls of the city, that immortal name would have been +deprived of some of its noblest ornaments. Virgil was a native of +Mantua; Horace was inclined to doubt whether he should call +himself an Apulian or a Lucanian; it was in Padua that an +historian was found worthy to record the majestic series of Roman +victories. The patriot family of the Catos emerged from Tusculum; +and the little town of Arpinum claimed the double honor of +producing Marius and Cicero, the former of whom deserved, after +Romulus and Camillus, to be styled the Third Founder of Rome; and +the latter, after saving his country from the designs of +Catiline, enabled her to contend with Athens for the palm of +eloquence.<br> +</p> + +<p>The provinces of the empire (as they have been described in +the preceding chapter) were destitute of any public force, or +constitutional freedom. In Etruria, in Greece, and in Gaul, it +was the first care of the senate to dissolve those dangerous +confederacies, which taught mankind that, as the Roman arms +prevailed by division, they might be resisted by union. Those +princes, whom the ostentation of gratitude or generosity +permitted for a while to hold a precarious sceptre, were +dismissed from their thrones, as soon as they had per formed +their appointed task of fashioning to the yoke the vanquished +nations. The free states and cities which had embraced the cause +of Rome were rewarded with a nominal alliance, and insensibly +sunk into real servitude. The public authority was every where +exercised by the ministers of the senate and of the emperors, and +that authority was absolute, and without control. But the same +salutary maxims of government, which had secured the peace and +obedience of Italy were extended to the most distant conquests. A +nation of Romans was gradually formed in the provinces, by the +double expedient of introducing colonies, and of admitting the +most faithful and deserving of the provincials to the freedom of +Rome.<br> +</p> + +<p>"Wheresoever the Roman conquers, he inhabits," is a very just +observation of Seneca, confirmed by history and experience. The +natives of Italy, allured by pleasure or by interest, hastened to +enjoy the advantages of victory; and we may remark, that, about +forty years after the reduction of Asia, eighty thousand Romans +were massacred in one day, by the cruel orders of Mithridates. +These voluntary exiles were engaged, for the most part, in the +occupations of commerce, agriculture, and the farm of the +revenue. But after the legions were rendered permanent by the +emperors, the provinces were peopled by a race of soldiers; and +the veterans, whether they received the reward of their service +in land or in money, usually settled with their families in the +country, where they had honorably spent their youth. Throughout +the empire, but more particularly in the western parts, the most +fertile districts, and the most convenient situations, were +reserved for the establishment of colonies; some of which were of +a civil, and others of a military nature. In their manners and +internal policy, the colonies formed a perfect representation of +their great parent; and they were soon endeared to the natives by +the ties of friendship and alliance, they effectually diffused a +reverence for the Roman name, and a desire, which was seldom +disappointed, of sharing, in due time, its honors and advantages. +The municipal cities insensibly equalled the rank and splendor of +the colonies; and in the reign of Hadrian, it was disputed which +was the preferable condition, of those societies which had issued +from, or those which had been received into, the bosom of Rome. +The right of Latium, as it was called, * conferred on the cities +to which it had been granted, a more partial favor. The +magistrates only, at the expiration of their office, assumed the +quality of Roman citizens; but as those offices were annual, in a +few years they circulated round the principal families. Those of +the provincials who were permitted to bear arms in the legions; +those who exercised any civil employment; all, in a word, who +performed any public service, or displayed any personal talents, +were rewarded with a present, whose value was continually +diminished by the increasing liberality of the emperors. Yet +even, in the age of the Antonines, when the freedom of the city +had been bestowed on the greater number of their subjects, it was +still accompanied with very solid advantages. The bulk of the +people acquired, with that title, the benefit of the Roman laws, +particularly in the interesting articles of marriage, testaments, +and inheritances; and the road of fortune was open to those whose +pretensions were seconded by favor or merit. The grandsons of the +Gauls, who had besieged Julius Cæsar in Alcsia, commanded +legions, governed provinces, and were admitted into the senate of +Rome. Their ambition, instead of disturbing the tranquillity of +the state, was intimately connected with its safety and +greatness.<br> +</p> + +<p>So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over +national manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, +with the progress of their arms, the use of the Latin tongue. The +ancient dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the +Venetian, sunk into oblivion; but in the provinces, the east was +less docile than the west to the voice of its victorious +preceptors. This obvious difference marked the two portions of +the empire with a distinction of colors, which, though it was in +some degree concealed during the meridian splendor of prosperity, +became gradually more visible, as the shades of night descended +upon the Roman world. The western countries were civilized by the +same hands which subdued them. As soon as the barbarians were +reconciled to obedience, their minds were open to any new +impressions of knowledge and politeness. The language of Virgil +and Cicero, though with some inevitable mixture of corruption, +was so universally adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul Britain, and +Pannonia, that the faint traces of the Punic or Celtic idioms +were preserved only in the mountains, or among the peasants. +Education and study insensibly inspired the natives of those +countries with the sentiments of Romans; and Italy gave fashions, +as well as laws, to her Latin provincials. They solicited with +more ardor, and obtained with more facility, the freedom and +honors of the state; supported the national dignity in letters +and in arms; and at length, in the person of Trajan, produced an +emperor whom the Scipios would not have disowned for their +countryman. The situation of the Greeks was very different from +that of the barbarians. The former had been long since civilized +and corrupted. They had too much taste to relinquish their +language, and too much vanity to adopt any foreign institutions. +Still preserving the prejudices, after they had lost the virtues, +of their ancestors, they affected to despise the unpolished +manners of the Roman conquerors, whilst they were compelled to +respect their superior wisdom and power. Nor was the influence of +the Grecian language and sentiments confined to the narrow limits +of that once celebrated country. Their empire, by the progress of +colonies and conquest, had been diffused from the Adriatic to the +Euphrates and the Nile. Asia was covered with Greek cities, and +the long reign of the Macedonian kings had introduced a silent +revolution into Syria and Egypt. In their pompous courts, those +princes united the elegance of Athens with the luxury of the +East, and the example of the court was imitated, at an humble +distance, by the higher ranks of their subjects. Such was the +general division of the Roman empire into the Latin and Greek +languages. To these we may add a third distinction for the body +of the natives in Syria, and especially in Egypt, the use of +their ancient dialects, by secluding them from the commerce of +mankind, checked the improvements of those barbarians. The +slothful effeminacy of the former exposed them to the contempt, +the sullen ferociousness of the latter excited the aversion, of +the conquerors. Those nations had submitted to the Roman power, +but they seldom desired or deserved the freedom of the city: and +it was remarked, that more than two hundred and thirty years +elapsed after the ruin of the Ptolemies, before an Egyptian was +admitted into the senate of Rome.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is a just though trite observation, that victorious Rome +was herself subdued by the arts of Greece. Those immortal writers +who still command the admiration of modern Europe, soon became +the favorite object of study and imitation in Italy and the +western provinces. But the elegant amusements of the Romans were +not suffered to interfere with their sound maxims of policy. +Whilst they acknowledged the charms of the Greek, they asserted +the dignity of the Latin tongue, and the exclusive use of the +latter was inflexibly maintained in the administration of civil +as well as military government. The two languages exercised at +the same time their separate jurisdiction throughout the empire: +the former, as the natural idiom of science; the latter, as the +legal dialect of public transactions. Those who united letters +with business were equally conversant with both; and it was +almost impossible, in any province, to find a Roman subject, of a +liberal education, who was at once a stranger to the Greek and to +the Latin language.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was by such institutions that the nations of the empire +insensibly melted away into the Roman name and people. But there +still remained, in the centre of every province and of every +family, an unhappy condition of men who endured the weight, +without sharing the benefits, of society. In the free states of +antiquity, the domestic slaves were exposed to the wanton rigor +of despotism. The perfect settlement of the Roman empire was +preceded by ages of violence and rapine. The slaves consisted, +for the most part, of barbarian captives, * taken in thousands by +the chance of war, purchased at a vile price, accustomed to a +life of independence, and impatient to break and to revenge their +fetters. Against such internal enemies, whose desperate +insurrections had more than once reduced the republic to the +brink of destruction, the most severe regulations, and the most +cruel treatment, seemed almost justified by the great law of +self-preservation. But when the principal nations of Europe, +Asia, and Africa were united under the laws of one sovereign, the +source of foreign supplies flowed with much less abundance, and +the Romans were reduced to the milder but more tedious method of +propagation. * In their numerous families, and particularly in +their country estates, they encouraged the marriage of their +slaves. The sentiments of nature, the habits of education, and +the possession of a dependent species of property, contributed to +alleviate the hardships of servitude. The existence of a slave +became an object of greater value, and though his happiness still +depended on the temper and circumstances of the master, the +humanity of the latter, instead of being restrained by fear, was +encouraged by the sense of his own interest. The progress of +manners was accelerated by the virtue or policy of the emperors; +and by the edicts of Hadrian and the Antonines, the protection of +the laws was extended to the most abject part of mankind. The +jurisdiction of life and death over the slaves, a power long +exercised and often abused, was taken out of private hands, and +reserved to the magistrates alone. The subterraneous prisons were +abolished; and, upon a just complaint of intolerable treatment, +the injured slave obtained either his deliverance, or a less +cruel master.<br> +</p> + +<p>Hope, the best comfort of our imperfect condition, was not +denied to the Roman slave; and if he had any opportunity of +rendering himself either useful or agreeable, he might very +naturally expect that the diligence and fidelity of a few years +would be rewarded with the inestimable gift of freedom. The +benevolence of the master was so frequently prompted by the +meaner suggestions of vanity and avarice, that the laws found it +more necessary to restrain than to encourage a profuse and +undistinguishing liberality, which might degenerate into a very +dangerous abuse. It was a maxim of ancient jurisprudence, that a +slave had not any country of his own; he acquired with his +liberty an admission into the political society of which his +patron was a member. The consequences of this maxim would have +prostituted the privileges of the Roman city to a mean and +promiscuous multitude. Some seasonable exceptions were therefore +provided; and the honorable distinction was confined to such +slaves only as, for just causes, and with the approbation of the +magistrate, should receive a solemn and legal manumission. Even +these chosen freedmen obtained no more than the private rights of +citizens, and were rigorously excluded from civil or military +honors. Whatever might be the merit or fortune of their sons, +<em>they</em> likewise were esteemed unworthy of a seat in the +senate; nor were the traces of a servile origin allowed to be +completely obliterated till the third or fourth generation. +Without destroying the distinction of ranks, a distant prospect +of freedom and honors was presented, even to those whom pride and +prejudice almost disdained to number among the human species.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was once proposed to discriminate the slaves by a peculiar +habit; but it was justly apprehended that there might be some +danger in acquainting them with their own numbers. Without +interpreting, in their utmost strictness, the liberal +appellations of legions and myriads, we may venture to pronounce, +that the proportion of slaves, who were valued as property, was +more considerable than that of servants, who can be computed only +as an expense. The youths of a promising genius were instructed +in the arts and sciences, and their price was ascertained by the +degree of their skill and talents. Almost every profession, +either liberal or mechanical, might be found in the household of +an opulent senator. The ministers of pomp and sensuality were +multiplied beyond the conception of modern luxury. It was more +for the interest of the merchant or manufacturer to purchase, +than to hire his workmen; and in the country, slaves were +employed as the cheapest and most laborious instruments of +agriculture. To confirm the general observation, and to display +the multitude of slaves, we might allege a variety of particular +instances. It was discovered, on a very melancholy occasion, that +four hundred slaves were maintained in a single palace of Rome. +The same number of four hundred belonged to an estate which an +African widow, of a very private condition, resigned to her son, +whilst she reserved for herself a much larger share of her +property. A freedman, under the name of Augustus, though his +fortune had suffered great losses in the civil wars, left behind +him three thousand six hundred yoke of oxen, two hundred and +fifty thousand head of smaller cattle, and what was almost +included in the description of cattle, four thousand one hundred +and sixteen slaves.<br> +</p> + +<p>The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of +citizens, of provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with +such a degree of accuracy, as the importance of the object would +deserve. We are informed, that when the Emperor Claudius +exercised the office of censor, he took an account of six +millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, +who, with the proportion of women and children, must have +amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of +subjects of an inferior rank was uncertain and fluctuating. But, +after weighing with attention every circumstance which could +influence the balance, it seems probable that there existed, in +the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there +were citizens, of either sex, and of every age; and that the +slaves were at least equal in number to the free inhabitants of +the Roman world. * The total amount of this imperfect calculation +would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons; a +degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern +Europe, and forms the most numerous society that has ever been +united under the same system of government.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of +The Antonines. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Domestic peace and union were the natural consequences of the +moderate and comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans. If we +turn our eyes towards the monarchies of Asia, we shall behold +despotism in the centre, and weakness in the extremities; the +collection of the revenue, or the administration of justice, +enforced by the presence of an army; hostile barbarians +established in the heart of the country, hereditary satraps +usurping the dominion of the provinces, and subjects inclined to +rebellion, though incapable of freedom. But the obedience of the +Roman world was uniform, voluntary, and permanent. The vanquished +nations, blended into one great people, resigned the hope, nay, +even the wish, of resuming their independence, and scarcely +considered their own existence as distinct from the existence of +Rome. The established authority of the emperors pervaded without +an effort the wide extent of their dominions, and was exercised +with the same facility on the banks of the Thames, or of the +Nile, as on those of the Tyber. The legions were destined to +serve against the public enemy, and the civil magistrate seldom +required the aid of a military force. In this state of general +security, the leisure, as well as opulence, both of the prince +and people, were devoted to improve and to adorn the Roman +empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>Among the innumerable monuments of architecture constructed by +the Romans, how many have escaped the notice of history, how few +have resisted the ravages of time and barbarism! And yet, even +the majestic ruins that are still scattered over Italy and the +provinces, would be sufficient to prove that those countries were +once the seat of a polite and powerful empire. Their greatness +alone, or their beauty, might deserve our attention: but they are +rendered more interesting, by two important circumstances, which +connect the agreeable history of the arts with the more useful +history of human manners. Many of those works were erected at +private expense, and almost all were intended for public +benefit.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is natural to suppose that the greatest number, as well as +the most considerable of the Roman edifices, were raised by the +emperors, who possessed so unbounded a command both of men and +money. Augustus was accustomed to boast that he had found his +capital of brick, and that he had left it of marble. The strict +economy of Vespasian was the source of his magnificence. The +works of Trajan bear the stamp of his genius. The public +monuments with which Hadrian adorned every province of the +empire, were executed not only by his orders, but under his +immediate inspection. He was himself an artist; and he loved the +arts, as they conduced to the glory of the monarch. They were +encouraged by the Antonines, as they contributed to the happiness +of the people. But if the emperors were the first, they were not +the only architects of their dominions. Their example was +universally imitated by their principal subjects, who were not +afraid of declaring to the world that they had spirit to +conceive, and wealth to accomplish, the noblest undertakings. +Scarcely had the proud structure of the Coliseum been dedicated +at Rome, before the edifices, of a smaller scale indeed, but of +the same design and materials, were erected for the use, and at +the expense, of the cities of Capua and Verona. The inscription +of the stupendous bridge of Alcantara attests that it was thrown +over the Tagus by the contribution of a few Lusitanian +communities. When Pliny was intrusted with the government of +Bithynia and Pontus, provinces by no means the richest or most +considerable of the empire, he found the cities within his +jurisdiction striving with each other in every useful and +ornamental work, that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, +or the gratitude of their citizens. It was the duty of the +proconsul to supply their deficiencies, to direct their taste, +and sometimes to moderate their emulation. The opulent senators +of Rome and the provinces esteemed it an honor, and almost an +obligation, to adorn the splendor of their age and country; and +the influence of fashion very frequently supplied the want of +taste or generosity. Among a crowd of these private benefactors, +we may select Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, who lived in +the age of the Antonines. Whatever might be the motive of his +conduct, his magnificence would have been worthy of the greatest +kings.<br> +</p> + +<p>[See Theatre Of Marcellus: Augustus built in Rome the theatre +of Marcellus.]<br> +</p> + +<p>The family of Herod, at least after it had been favored by +fortune, was lineally descended from Cimon and Miltiades, Theseus +and Cecrops, Æacus and Jupiter. But the posterity of so +many gods and heroes was fallen into the most abject state. His +grandfather had suffered by the hands of justice, and Julius +Atticus, his father, must have ended his life in poverty and +contempt, had he not discovered an immense treasure buried under +an old house, the last remains of his patrimony. According to the +rigor of the law, the emperor might have asserted his claim, and +the prudent Atticus prevented, by a frank confession, the +officiousness of informers. But the equitable Nerva, who then +filled the throne, refused to accept any part of it, and +commanded him to use, without scruple, the present of fortune. +The cautious Athenian still insisted, that the treasure was too +considerable for a subject, and that he knew not how to <em>use +it</em>. <em>Abuse it then</em>, replied the monarch, with a +good-natured peevishness; for it is your own. Many will be of +opinion, that Atticus literally obeyed the emperor's last +instructions; since he expended the greatest part of his fortune, +which was much increased by an advantageous marriage, in the +service of the public. He had obtained for his son Herod the +prefecture of the free cities of Asia; and the young magistrate, +observing that the town of Troas was indifferently supplied with +water, obtained from the munificence of Hadrian three hundred +myriads of drachms, (about a hundred thousand pounds,) for the +construction of a new aqueduct. But in the execution of the work, +the charge amounted to more than double the estimate, and the +officers of the revenue began to murmur, till the generous +Atticus silenced their complaints, by requesting that he might be +permitted to take upon himself the whole additional expense.<br> +</p> + +<p>The ablest preceptors of Greece and Asia had been invited by +liberal rewards to direct the education of young Herod. Their +pupil soon became a celebrated orator, according to the useless +rhetoric of that age, which, confining itself to the schools, +disdained to visit either the Forum or the Senate. He was honored +with the consulship at Rome: but the greatest part of his life +was spent in a philosophic retirement at Athens, and his adjacent +villas; perpetually surrounded by sophists, who acknowledged, +without reluctance, the superiority of a rich and generous rival. +The monuments of his genius have perished; some considerable +ruins still preserve the fame of his taste and munificence: +modern travellers have measured the remains of the stadium which +he constructed at Athens. It was six hundred feet in length, +built entirely of white marble, capable of admitting the whole +body of the people, and finished in four years, whilst Herod was +president of the Athenian games. To the memory of his wife +Regilla he dedicated a theatre, scarcely to be paralleled in the +empire: no wood except cedar, very curiously carved, was employed +in any part of the building. The Odeum, * designed by Pericles +for musical performances, and the rehearsal of new tragedies, had +been a trophy of the victory of the arts over barbaric greatness; +as the timbers employed in the construction consisted chiefly of +the masts of the Persian vessels. Notwithstanding the repairs +bestowed on that ancient edifice by a king of Cappadocia, it was +again fallen to decay. Herod restored its ancient beauty and +magnificence. Nor was the liberality of that illustrious citizen +confined to the walls of Athens. The most splendid ornaments +bestowed on the temple of Neptune in the Isthmus, a theatre at +Corinth, a stadium at Delphi, a bath at Thermopylæ, and an +aqueduct at Canusium in Italy, were insufficient to exhaust his +treasures. The people of Epirus, Thessaly, Euboea, Boeotia, and +Peloponnesus, experienced his favors; and many inscriptions of +the cities of Greece and Asia gratefully style Herodes Atticus +their patron and benefactor.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the commonwealths of Athens and Rome, the modest simplicity +of private houses announced the equal condition of freedom; +whilst the sovereignty of the people was represented in the +majestic edifices designed to the public use; nor was this +republican spirit totally extinguished by the introduction of +wealth and monarchy. It was in works of national honor and +benefit, that the most virtuous of the emperors affected to +display their magnificence. The golden palace of Nero excited a +just indignation, but the vast extent of ground which had been +usurped by his selfish luxury was more nobly filled under the +succeeding reigns by the Coliseum, the baths of Titus, the +Claudian portico, and the temples dedicated to the goddess of +Peace, and to the genius of Rome. These monuments of +architecture, the property of the Roman people, were adorned with +the most beautiful productions of Grecian painting and sculpture; +and in the temple of Peace, a very curious library was open to +the curiosity of the learned. * At a small distance from thence +was situated the Forum of Trajan. It was surrounded by a lofty +portico, in the form of a quadrangle, into which four triumphal +arches opened a noble and spacious entrance: in the centre arose +a column of marble, whose height, of one hundred and ten feet, +denoted the elevation of the hill that had been cut away. This +column, which still subsists in its ancient beauty, exhibited an +exact representation of the Dacian victories of its founder. The +veteran soldier contemplated the story of his own campaigns, and +by an easy illusion of national vanity, the peaceful citizen +associated himself to the honors of the triumph. All the other +quarters of the capital, and all the provinces of the empire, +were embellished by the same liberal spirit of public +magnificence, and were filled with amphi theatres, theatres, +temples, porticoes, triumphal arches, baths and aqueducts, all +variously conducive to the health, the devotion, and the +pleasures of the meanest citizen. The last mentioned of those +edifices deserve our peculiar attention. The boldness of the +enterprise, the solidity of the execution, and the uses to which +they were subservient, rank the aqueducts among the noblest +monuments of Roman genius and power. The aqueducts of the capital +claim a just preeminence; but the curious traveller, who, without +the light of history, should examine those of Spoleto, of Metz, +or of Segovia, would very naturally conclude that those +provincial towns had formerly been the residence of some potent +monarch. The solitudes of Asia and Africa were once covered with +flourishing cities, whose populousness, and even whose existence, +was derived from such artificial supplies of a perennial stream +of fresh water.<br> +</p> + +<p>We have computed the inhabitants, and contemplated the public +works, of the Roman empire. The observation of the number and +greatness of its cities will serve to confirm the former, and to +multiply the latter. It may not be unpleasing to collect a few +scattered instances relative to that subject without forgetting, +however, that from the vanity of nations and the poverty of +language, the vague appellation of city has been indifferently +bestowed on Rome and upon Laurentum.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. <em>Ancient</em> Italy is said to have contained eleven +hundred and ninety-seven cities; and for whatsoever æra of +antiquity the expression might be intended, there is not any +reason to believe the country less populous in the age of the +Antonines, than in that of Romulus. The petty states of Latium +were contained within the metropolis of the empire, by whose +superior influence they had been attracted. * Those parts of +Italy which have so long languished under the lazy tyranny of +priests and viceroys, had been afflicted only by the more +tolerable calamities of war; and the first symptoms of decay +which they experienced, were amply compensated by the rapid +improvements of the Cisalpine Gaul. The splendor of Verona may be +traced in its remains: yet Verona was less celebrated than +Aquileia or Padua, Milan or Ravenna. II. The spirit of +improvement had passed the Alps, and been felt even in the woods +of Britain, which were gradually cleared away to open a free +space for convenient and elegant habitations. York was the seat +of government; London was already enriched by commerce; and Bath +was celebrated for the salutary effects of its medicinal waters. +Gaul could boast of her twelve hundred cities; and though, in the +northern parts, many of them, without excepting Paris itself, +were little more than the rude and imperfect townships of a +rising people, the southern provinces imitated the wealth and +elegance of Italy. Many were the cities of Gaul, Marseilles, +Arles, Nismes, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Bourdeaux, Autun, Vienna, +Lyons, Langres, and Treves, whose ancient condition might sustain +an equal, and perhaps advantageous comparison with their present +state. With regard to Spain, that country flourished as a +province, and has declined as a kingdom. Exhausted by the abuse +of her strength, by America, and by superstition, her pride might +possibly be confounded, if we required such a list of three +hundred and sixty cities, as Pliny has exhibited under the reign +of Vespasian. III. Three hundred African cities had once +acknowledged the authority of Carthage, nor is it likely that +their numbers diminished under the administration of the +emperors: Carthage itself rose with new splendor from its ashes; +and that capital, as well as Capua and Corinth, soon recovered +all the advantages which can be separated from independent +sovereignty. IV. The provinces of the East present the contrast +of Roman magnificence with Turkish barbarism. The ruins of +antiquity scattered over uncultivated fields, and ascribed, by +ignorance to the power of magic, scarcely afford a shelter to the +oppressed peasant or wandering Arab. Under the reign of the +Cæsars, the proper Asia alone contained five hundred +populous cities, enriched with all the gifts of nature, and +adorned with all the refinements of art. Eleven cities of Asia +had once disputed the honor of dedicating a temple of Tiberius, +and their respective merits were examined by the senate. Four of +them were immediately rejected as unequal to the burden; and +among these was Laodicea, whose splendor is still displayed in +its ruins. Laodicea collected a very considerable revenue from +its flocks of sheep, celebrated for the fineness of their wool, +and had received, a little before the contest, a legacy of above +four hundred thousand pounds by the testament of a generous +citizen. If such was the poverty of Laodicea, what must have been +the wealth of those cities, whose claim appeared preferable, and +particularly of Pergamus, of Smyrna, and of Ephesus, who so long +disputed with each other the titular primacy of Asia? The +capitals of Syria and Egypt held a still superior rank in the +empire; Antioch and Alexandria looked down with disdain on a +crowd of dependent cities, and yielded, with reluctance, to the +majesty of Rome itself.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of +The Antonines. -- Part IV.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>All these cities were connected with each other, and with the +capital, by the public highways, which, issuing from the Forum of +Rome, traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were +terminated only by the frontiers of the empire. If we carefully +trace the distance from the wall of Antoninus to Rome, and from +thence to Jerusalem, it will be found that the great chain of +communication, from the north-west to the south-east point of the +empire, was drawn out to the length if four thousand and eighty +Roman miles. The public roads were accurately divided by +mile-stones, and ran in a direct line from one city to another, +with very little respect for the obstacles either of nature or +private property. Mountains were perforated, and bold arches +thrown over the broadest and most rapid streams. The middle part +of the road was raised into a terrace which commanded the +adjacent country, consisted of several strata of sand, gravel, +and cement, and was paved with large stones, or, in some places +near the capital, with granite. Such was the solid construction +of the Roman highways, whose firmness has not entirely yielded to +the effort of fifteen centuries. They united the subjects of the +most distant provinces by an easy and familiar intercourse; out +their primary object had been to facilitate the marches of the +legions; nor was any country considered as completely subdued, +till it had been rendered, in all its parts, pervious to the arms +and authority of the conqueror. The advantage of receiving the +earliest intelligence, and of conveying their orders with +celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their +extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses +were every where erected at the distance only of five or six +miles; each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, +and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred +miles in a day along the Roman roads. * The use of posts was +allowed to those who claimed it by an Imperial mandate; but +though originally intended for the public service, it was +sometimes indulged to the business or conveniency of private +citizens. Nor was the communication of the Roman empire less free +and open by sea than it was by land. The provinces surrounded and +enclosed the Mediterranean: and Italy, in the shape of an immense +promontory, advanced into the midst of that great lake. The +coasts of Italy are, in general, destitute of safe harbors; but +human industry had corrected the deficiencies of nature; and the +artificial port of Ostia, in particular, situate at the mouth of +the Tyber, and formed by the emperor Claudius, was a useful +monument of Roman greatness. From this port, which was only +sixteen miles from the capital, a favorable breeze frequently +carried vessels in seven days to the columns of Hercules, and in +nine or ten, to Alexandria in Egypt.<br> +</p> + +<p>[See Remains Of Claudian Aquaduct]<br> +</p> + +<p>Whatever evils either reason or declamation have imputed to +extensive empire, the power of Rome was attended with some +beneficial consequences to mankind; and the same freedom of +intercourse which extended the vices, diffused likewise the +improvements, of social life. In the more remote ages of +antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The East was in the +immemorial possession of arts and luxury; whilst the West was +inhabited by rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained +agriculture, or to whom it was totally unknown. Under the +protection of an established government, the productions of +happier climates, and the industry of more civilized nations, +were gradually introduced into the western countries of Europe; +and the natives were encouraged, by an open and profitable +commerce, to multiply the former, as well as to improve the +latter. It would be almost impossible to enumerate all the +articles, either of the animal or the vegetable reign, which were +successively imported into Europe from Asia and Egypt: but it +will not be unworthy of the dignity, and much less of the +utility, of an historical work, slightly to touch on a few of the +principal heads. 1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and the +fruits, that grow in our European gardens, are of foreign +extraction, which, in many cases, is betrayed even by their +names: the apple was a native of Italy, and when the Romans had +tasted the richer flavor of the apricot, the peach, the +pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they contented +themselves with applying to all these new fruits the common +denomination of apple, discriminating them from each other by the +additional epithet of their country. 2. In the time of Homer, the +vine grew wild in the island of Sicily, and most probably in the +adjacent continent; but it was not improved by the skill, nor did +it afford a liquor grateful to the taste, of the savage +inhabitants. A thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, that +of the fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, more than +two thirds were produced from her soil. The blessing was soon +communicated to the Narbonnese province of Gaul; but so intense +was the cold to the north of the Cevennes, that, in the time of +Strabo, it was thought impossible to ripen the grapes in those +parts of Gaul. This difficulty, however, was gradually +vanquished; and there is some reason to believe, that the +vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of the Antonines. 3. +The olive, in the western world, followed the progress of peace, +of which it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the +foundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that +useful plant: it was naturalized in those countries; and at +length carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul. The timid errors +of the ancients, that it required a certain degree of heat, and +could only flourish in the neighborhood of the sea, were +insensibly exploded by industry and experience. 4. The +cultivation of flax was transported from Egypt to Gaul, and +enriched the whole country, however it might impoverish the +particular lands on which it was sown. 5. The use of artificial +grasses became familiar to the farmers both of Italy and the +provinces, particularly the Lucerne, which derived its name and +origin from Media. The assured supply of wholesome and plentiful +food for the cattle during winter, multiplied the number of the +docks and herds, which in their turn contributed to the fertility +of the soil. To all these improvements may be added an assiduous +attention to mines and fisheries, which, by employing a multitude +of laborious hands, serve to increase the pleasures of the rich +and the subsistence of the poor. The elegant treatise of +Columella describes the advanced state of the Spanish husbandry +under the reign of Tiberius; and it may be observed, that those +famines, which so frequently afflicted the infant republic, were +seldom or never experienced by the extensive empire of Rome. The +accidental scarcity, in any single province, was immediately +relieved by the plenty of its more fortunate neighbors.<br> +</p> + +<p>Agriculture is the foundation of manufactures; since the +productions of nature are the materials of art. Under the Roman +empire, the labor of an industrious and ingenious people was +variously, but incessantly, employed in the service of the rich. +In their dress, their table, their houses, and their furniture, +the favorites of fortune united every refinement of conveniency, +of elegance, and of splendor, whatever could soothe their pride +or gratify their sensuality. Such refinements, under the odious +name of luxury, have been severely arraigned by the moralists of +every age; and it might perhaps be more conducive to the virtue, +as well as happiness, of mankind, if all possessed the +necessaries, and none the superfluities, of life. But in the +present imperfect condition of society, luxury, though it may +proceed from vice or folly, seems to be the only means that can +correct the unequal distribution of property. The diligent +mechanic, and the skilful artist, who have obtained no share in +the division of the earth, receive a voluntary tax from the +possessors of land; and the latter are prompted, by a sense of +interest, to improve those estates, with whose produce they may +purchase additional pleasures. This operation, the particular +effects of which are felt in every society, acted with much more +diffusive energy in the Roman world. The provinces would soon +have been exhausted of their wealth, if the manufactures and +commerce of luxury had not insensibly restored to the industrious +subjects the sums which were exacted from them by the arms and +authority of Rome. As long as the circulation was confined within +the bounds of the empire, it impressed the political machine with +a new degree of activity, and its consequences, sometimes +beneficial, could never become pernicious.<br> +</p> + +<p>But it is no easy task to confine luxury within the limits of +an empire. The most remote countries of the ancient world were +ransacked to supply the pomp and delicacy of Rome. The forests of +Scythia afforded some valuable furs. Amber was brought over land +from the shores of the Baltic to the Danube; and the barbarians +were astonished at the price which they received in exchange for +so useless a commodity. There was a considerable demand for +Babylonian carpets, and other manufactures of the East; but the +most important and unpopular branch of foreign trade was carried +on with Arabia and India. Every year, about the time of the +summer solstice, a fleet of a hundred and twenty vessels sailed +from Myos-hormos, a port of Egypt, on the Red Sea. By the +periodical assistance of the monsoons, they traversed the ocean +in about forty days. The coast of Malabar, or the island of +Ceylon, was the usual term of their navigation, and it was in +those markets that the merchants from the more remote countries +of Asia expected their arrival. The return of the fleet of Egypt +was fixed to the months of December or January; and as soon as +their rich cargo had been transported on the backs of camels, +from the Red Sea to the Nile, and had descended that river as far +as Alexandria, it was poured, without delay, into the capital of +the empire. The objects of oriental traffic were splendid and +trifling; silk, a pound of which was esteemed not inferior in +value to a pound of gold; precious stones, among which the pearl +claimed the first rank after the diamond; and a variety of +aromatics, that were consumed in religious worship and the pomp +of funerals. The labor and risk of the voyage was rewarded with +almost incredible profit; but the profit was made upon Roman +subjects, and a few individuals were enriched at the expense of +the public. As the natives of Arabia and India were contented +with the productions and manufactures of their own country, +silver, on the side of the Romans, was the principal, if not the +only * instrument of commerce. It was a complaint worthy of the +gravity of the senate, that, in the purchase of female ornaments, +the wealth of the state was irrecoverably given away to foreign +and hostile nations. The annual loss is computed, by a writer of +an inquisitive but censorious temper, at upwards of eight hundred +thousand pounds sterling. Such was the style of discontent, +brooding over the dark prospect of approaching poverty. And yet, +if we compare the proportion between gold and silver, as it stood +in the time of Pliny, and as it was fixed in the reign of +Constantine, we shall discover within that period a very +considerable increase. There is not the least reason to suppose +that gold was become more scarce; it is therefore evident that +silver was grown more common; that whatever might be the amount +of the Indian and Arabian exports, they were far from exhausting +the wealth of the Roman world; and that the produce of the mines +abundantly supplied the demands of commerce.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the propensity of mankind to exalt the past, +and to depreciate the present, the tranquil and prosperous state +of the empire was warmly felt, and honestly confessed, by the +provincials as well as Romans. "They acknowledged that the true +principles of social life, laws, agriculture, and science, which +had been first invented by the wisdom of Athens, were now firmly +established by the power of Rome, under whose auspicious +influence the fiercest barbarians were united by an equal +government and common language. They affirm, that with the +improvement of arts, the human species were visibly multiplied. +They celebrate the increasing splendor of the cities, the +beautiful face of the country, cultivated and adorned like an +immense garden; and the long festival of peace which was enjoyed +by so many nations, forgetful of the ancient animosities, and +delivered from the apprehension of future danger." Whatever +suspicions may be suggested by the air of rhetoric and +declamation, which seems to prevail in these passages, the +substance of them is perfectly agreeable to historic truth.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was scarcely possible that the eyes of contemporaries +should discover in the public felicity the latent causes of decay +and corruption. This long peace, and the uniform government of +the Romans, introduced a slow and secret poison into the vitals +of the empire. The minds of men were gradually reduced to the +same level, the fire of genius was extinguished, and even the +military spirit evaporated. The natives of Europe were brave and +robust. Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum supplied the legions +with excellent soldiers, and constituted the real strength of the +monarchy. Their personal valor remained, but they no longer +possessed that public courage which is nourished by the love of +independence, the sense of national honor, the presence of +danger, and the habit of command. They received laws and +governors from the will of their sovereign, and trusted for their +defence to a mercenary army. The posterity of their boldest +leaders was contented with the rank of citizens and subjects. The +most aspiring spirits resorted to the court or standard of the +emperors; and the deserted provinces, deprived of political +strength or union, insensibly sunk into the languid indifference +of private life.<br> +</p> + +<p>The love of letters, almost inseparable from peace and +refinement, was fashionable among the subjects of Hadrian and the +Antonines, who were themselves men of learning and curiosity. It +was diffused over the whole extent of their empire; the most +northern tribes of Britons had acquired a taste for rhetoric; +Homer as well as Virgil were transcribed and studied on the banks +of the Rhine and Danube; and the most liberal rewards sought out +the faintest glimmerings of literary merit. The sciences of +physic and astronomy were successfully cultivated by the Greeks; +the observations of Ptolemy and the writings of Galen are studied +by those who have improved their discoveries and corrected their +errors; but if we except the inimitable Lucian, this age of +indolence passed away without having produced a single writer of +original genius, or who excelled in the arts of elegant +composition. ^! The authority of Plato and Aristotle, of Zeno and +Epicurus, still reigned in the schools; and their systems, +transmitted with blind deference from one generation of disciples +to another, precluded every generous attempt to exercise the +powers, or enlarge the limits, of the human mind. The beauties of +the poets and orators, instead of kindling a fire like their own, +inspired only cold and servile mitations: or if any ventured to +deviate from those models, they deviated at the same time from +good sense and propriety. On the revival of letters, the youthful +vigor of the imagination, after a long repose, national +emulation, a new religion, new languages, and a new world, called +forth the genius of Europe. But the provincials of Rome, trained +by a uniform artificial foreign education, were engaged in a very +unequal competition with those bold ancients, who, by expressing +their genuine feelings in their native tongue, had already +occupied every place of honor. The name of Poet was almost +forgotten; that of Orator was usurped by the sophists. A cloud of +critics, of compilers, of commentators, darkened the face of +learning, and the decline of genius was soon followed by the +corruption of taste.<br> +</p> + +<p>The sublime Longinus, who, in somewhat a later period, and in +the court of a Syrian queen, preserved the spirit of ancient +Athens, observes and laments this degeneracy of his +contemporaries, which debased their sentiments, enervated their +courage, and depressed their talents. "In the same manner," says +he, "as some children always remain pygmies, whose infant limbs +have been too closely confined, thus our tender minds, fettered +by the prejudices and habits of a just servitude, are unable to +expand themselves, or to attain that well-proportioned greatness +which we admire in the ancients; who, living under a popular +government, wrote with the same freedom as they acted." This +diminutive stature of mankind, if we pursue the metaphor, was +daily sinking below the old standard, and the Roman world was +indeed peopled by a race of pygmies; when the fierce giants of +the north broke in, and mended the puny breed. They restored a +manly spirit of freedom; and after the revolution of ten +centuries, freedom became the happy parent of taste and +science.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The +Antonines.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The +Antonines.<br> +</p> + +<p>The obvious definition of a monarchy seems to be that of a +state, in which a single person, by whatsoever name he may be +distinguished, is intrusted with the execution of the laws, the +management of the revenue, and the command of the army. But, +unless public liberty is protected by intrepid and vigilant +guardians, the authority of so formidable a magistrate will soon +degenerate into despotism. The influence of the clergy, in an age +of superstition, might be usefully employed to assert the rights +of mankind; but so intimate is the connection between the throne +and the altar, that the banner of the church has very seldom been +seen on the side of the people. * A martial nobility and stubborn +commons, possessed of arms, tenacious of property, and collected +into constitutional assemblies, form the only balance capable of +preserving a free constitution against enterprises of an aspiring +prince.<br> +</p> + +<p>Every barrier of the Roman constitution had been levelled by +the vast ambition of the dictator; every fence had been +extirpated by the cruel hand of the triumvir. After the victory +of Actium, the fate of the Roman world depended on the will of +Octavianus, surnamed Cæsar, by his uncle's adoption, and +afterwards Augustus, by the flattery of the senate. The conqueror +was at the head of forty-four veteran legions, conscious of their +own strength, and of the weakness of the constitution, +habituated, during twenty years' civil war, to every act of blood +and violence, and passionately devoted to the house of +Cæsar, from whence alone they had received, and expected +the most lavish rewards. The provinces, long oppressed by the +ministers of the republic, sighed for the government of a single +person, who would be the master, not the accomplice, of those +petty tyrants. The people of Rome, viewing, with a secret +pleasure, the humiliation of the aristocracy, demanded only bread +and public shows; and were supplied with both by the liberal hand +of Augustus. The rich and polite Italians, who had almost +universally embraced the philosophy of Epicurus, enjoyed the +present blessings of ease and tranquillity, and suffered not the +pleasing dream to be interrupted by the memory of their old +tumultuous freedom. With its power, the senate had lost its +dignity; many of the most noble families were extinct. The +republicans of spirit and ability had perished in the field of +battle, or in the proscription . The door of the assembly had +been designedly left open, for a mixed multitude of more than a +thousand persons, who reflected disgrace upon their rank, instead +of deriving honor from it.<br> +</p> + +<p>The reformation of the senate was one of the first steps in +which Augustus laid aside the tyrant, and professed himself the +father of his country. He was elected censor; and, in concert +with his faithful Agrippa, he examined the list of the senators, +expelled a few members, * whose vices or whose obstinacy required +a public example, persuaded near two hundred to prevent the shame +of an expulsion by a voluntary retreat, raised the qualification +of a senator to about ten thousand pounds, created a sufficient +number of patrician families, and accepted for himself the +honorable title of Prince of the Senate, which had always been +bestowed, by the censors, on the citizen the most eminent for his +honors and services. But whilst he thus restored the dignity, he +destroyed the independence, of the senate. The principles of a +free constitution are irrecoverably lost, when the legislative +power is nominated by the executive.<br> +</p> + +<p>Before an assembly thus modelled and prepared, Augustus +pronounced a studied oration, which displayed his patriotism, and +disguised his ambition. "He lamented, yet excused, his past +conduct. Filial piety had required at his hands the revenge of +his father's murder; the humanity of his own nature had sometimes +given way to the stern laws of necessity, and to a forced +connection with two unworthy colleagues: as long as Antony lived, +the republic forbade him to abandon her to a degenerate Roman, +and a barbarian queen. He was now at liberty to satisfy his duty +and his inclination. He solemnly restored the senate and people +to all their ancient rights; and wished only to mingle with the +crowd of his fellow-citizens, and to share the blessings which he +had obtained for his country."<br> +</p> + +<p>It would require the pen of Tacitus (if Tacitus had assisted +at this assembly) to describe the various emotions of the senate, +those that were suppressed, and those that were affected. It was +dangerous to trust the sincerity of Augustus; to seem to distrust +it was still more dangerous. The respective advantages of +monarchy and a republic have often divided speculative inquirers; +the present greatness of the Roman state, the corruption of +manners, and the license of the soldiers, supplied new arguments +to the advocates of monarchy; and these general views of +government were again warped by the hopes and fears of each +individual. Amidst this confusion of sentiments, the answer of +the senate was unanimous and decisive. They refused to accept the +resignation of Augustus; they conjured him not to desert the +republic, which he had saved. After a decent resistance, the +crafty tyrant submitted to the orders of the senate; and +consented to receive the government of the provinces, and the +general command of the Roman armies, under the well-known names +of Proconsul and Imperator. But he would receive them only for +ten years. Even before the expiration of that period, he hope +that the wounds of civil discord would be completely healed, and +that the republic, restored to its pristine health and vigor, +would no longer require the dangerous interposition of so +extraordinary a magistrate. The memory of this comedy, repeated +several times during the life of Augustus, was preserved to the +last ages of the empire, by the peculiar pomp with which the +perpetual monarchs of Rome always solemnized the tenth years of +their reign.<br> +</p> + +<p>Without any violation of the principles of the constitution, +the general of the Roman armies might receive and exercise an +authority almost despotic over the soldiers, the enemies, and the +subjects of the republic. With regard to the soldiers, the +jealousy of freedom had, even from the earliest ages of Rome, +given way to the hopes of conquest, and a just sense of military +discipline. The dictator, or consul, had a right to command the +service of the Roman youth; and to punish an obstinate or +cowardly disobedience by the most severe and ignominious +penalties, by striking the offender out of the list of citizens, +by confiscating his property, and by selling his person into +slavery. The most sacred rights of freedom, confirmed by the +Porcian and Sempronian laws, were suspended by the military +engagement. In his camp the general exercise an absolute power of +life and death; his jurisdiction was not confined by any forms of +trial, or rules of proceeding, and the execution of the sentence +was immediate and without appeal. The choice of the enemies of +Rome was regularly decided by the legislative authority. The most +important resolutions of peace and war were seriously debated in +the senate, and solemnly ratified by the people. But when the +arms of the legions were carried to a great distance from Italy, +the general assumed the liberty of directing them against +whatever people, and in whatever manner, they judged most +advantageous for the public service. It was from the success, not +from the justice, of their enterprises, that they expected the +honors of a triumph. In the use of victory, especially after they +were no longer controlled by the commissioners of the senate, +they exercised the most unbounded despotism. When Pompey +commanded in the East, he rewarded his soldiers and allies, +dethroned princes, divided kingdoms, founded colonies, and +distributed the treasures of Mithridates. On his return to Rome, +he obtained, by a single act of the senate and people, the +universal ratification of all his proceedings. Such was the power +over the soldiers, and over the enemies of Rome, which was either +granted to, or assumed by, the generals of the republic. They +were, at the same time, the governors, or rather monarchs, of the +conquered provinces, united the civil with the military +character, administered justice as well as the finances, and +exercised both the executive and legislative power of the +state.<br> +</p> + +<p>From what has already been observed in the first chapter of +this work, some notion may be formed of the armies and provinces +thus intrusted to the ruling hand of Augustus. But as it was +impossible that he could personally command the regions of so +many distant frontiers, he was indulged by the senate, as Pompey +had already been, in the permission of devolving the execution of +his great office on a sufficient number of lieutenants. In rank +and authority these officers seemed not inferior to the ancient +proconsuls; but their station was dependent and precarious. They +received and held their commissions at the will of a superior, to +whose <em>auspicious</em> influence the merit of their action was +legally attributed. They were the representatives of the emperor. +The emperor alone was the general of the republic, and his +jurisdiction, civil as well as military, extended over all the +conquests of Rome. It was some satisfaction, however, to the +senate, that he always delegated his power to the members of +their body. The imperial lieutenants were of consular or +prætorian dignity; the legions were commanded by senators, +and the præfecture of Egypt was the only important trust +committed to a Roman knight.<br> +</p> + +<p>Within six days after Augustus had been compelled to accept so +very liberal a grant, he resolved to gratify the pride of the +senate by an easy sacrifice. He represented to them, that they +had enlarged his powers, even beyond that degree which might be +required by the melancholy condition of the times. They had not +permitted him to refuse the laborious command of the armies and +the frontiers; but he must insist on being allowed to restore the +more peaceful and secure provinces to the mild administration of +the civil magistrate. In the division of the provinces, Augustus +provided for his own power and for the dignity of the republic. +The proconsuls of the senate, particularly those of Asia, Greece, +and Africa, enjoyed a more honorable character than the +lieutenants of the emperor, who commanded in Gaul or Syria. The +former were attended by lictors, the latter by soldiers. * A law +was passed, that wherever the emperor was present, his +extraordinary commission should supersede the ordinary +jurisdiction of the governor; a custom was introduced, that the +new conquests belonged to the imperial portion; and it was soon +discovered that the authority of the <em>Prince</em>, the +favorite epithet of Augustus, was the same in every part of the +empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>In return for this imaginary concession, Augustus obtained an +important privilege, which rendered him master of Rome and Italy. +By a dangerous exception to the ancient maxims, he was authorized +to preserve his military command, supported by a numerous body of +guards, even in time of peace, and in the heart of the capital. +His command, indeed, was confined to those citizens who were +engaged in the service by the military oath; but such was the +propensity of the Romans to servitude, that the oath was +voluntarily taken by the magistrates, the senators, and the +equestrian order, till the homage of flattery was insensibly +converted into an annual and solemn protestation of fidelity.<br> +</p> + +<p>Although Augustus considered a military force as the firmest +foundation, he wisely rejected it, as a very odious instrument of +government. It was more agreeable to his temper, as well as to +his policy, to reign under the venerable names of ancient +magistracy, and artfully to collect, in his own person, all the +scattered rays of civil jurisdiction. With this view, he +permitted the senate to confer upon him, for his life, the powers +of the consular and tribunitian offices, which were, in the same +manner, continued to all his successors. The consuls had +succeeded to the kings of Rome, and represented the dignity of +the state. They superintended the ceremonies of religion, levied +and commanded the legions, gave audience to foreign ambassadors, +and presided in the assemblies both of the senate and people. The +general control of the finances was intrusted to their care; and +though they seldom had leisure to administer justice in person, +they were considered as the supreme guardians of law, equity, and +the public peace. Such was their ordinary jurisdiction; but +whenever the senate empowered the first magistrate to consult the +safety of the commonwealth, he was raised by that decree above +the laws, and exercised, in the defence of liberty, a temporary +despotism. The character of the tribunes was, in every respect, +different from that of the consuls. The appearance of the former +was modest and humble; but their persons were sacred and +inviolable. Their force was suited rather for opposition than for +action. They were instituted to defend the oppressed, to pardon +offences, to arraign the enemies of the people, and, when they +judged it necessary, to stop, by a single word, the whole machine +of government. As long as the republic subsisted, the dangerous +influence, which either the consul or the tribune might derive +from their respective jurisdiction, was diminished by several +important restrictions. Their authority expired with the year in +which they were elected; the former office was divided between +two, the latter among ten persons; and, as both in their private +and public interest they were averse to each other, their mutual +conflicts contributed, for the most part, to strengthen rather +than to destroy the balance of the constitution. * But when the +consular and tribunitian powers were united, when they were +vested for life in a single person, when the general of the army +was, at the same time, the minister of the senate and the +representative of the Roman people, it was impossible to resist +the exercise, nor was it easy to define the limits, of his +imperial prerogative.<br> +</p> + +<p>To these accumulated honors, the policy of Augustus soon added +the splendid as well as important dignities of supreme pontiff, +and of censor. By the former he acquired the management of the +religion, and by the latter a legal inspection over the manners +and fortunes, of the Roman people. If so many distinct and +independent powers did not exactly unite with each other, the +complaisance of the senate was prepared to supply every +deficiency by the most ample and extraordinary concessions. The +emperors, as the first ministers of the republic, were exempted +from the obligation and penalty of many inconvenient laws: they +were authorized to convoke the senate, to make several motions in +the same day, to recommend candidates for the honors of the +state, to enlarge the bounds of the city, to employ the revenue +at their discretion, to declare peace and war, to ratify +treaties; and by a most comprehensive clause, they were empowered +to execute whatsoever they should judge advantageous to the +empire, and agreeable to the majesty of things private or public, +human of divine.<br> +</p> + +<p>When all the various powers of executive government were +committed to the <em>Imperial magistrate</em>, the ordinary +magistrates of the commonwealth languished in obscurity, without +vigor, and almost without business. The names and forms of the +ancient administration were preserved by Augustus with the most +anxious care. The usual number of consuls, prætors, and +tribunes, were annually invested with their respective ensigns of +office, and continued to discharge some of their least important +functions. Those honors still attracted the vain ambition of the +Romans; and the emperors themselves, though invested for life +with the powers of the consul ship, frequently aspired to the +title of that annual dignity, which they condescended to share +with the most illustrious of their fellow-citizens. In the +election of these magistrates, the people, during the reign of +Augustus, were permitted to expose all the inconveniences of a +wild democracy. That artful prince, instead of discovering the +least symptom of impatience, humbly solicited their suffrages for +himself or his friends, and scrupulously practised all the duties +of an ordinary candidate. But we may venture to ascribe to his +councils the first measure of the succeeding reign, by which the +elections were transferred to the senate. The assemblies of the +people were forever abolished, and the emperors were delivered +from a dangerous multitude, who, without restoring liberty, might +have disturbed, and perhaps endangered, the established +government.<br> +</p> + +<p>By declaring themselves the protectors of the people, Marius +and Cæsar had subverted the constitution of their country. +But as soon as the senate had been humbled and disarmed, such an +assembly, consisting of five or six hundred persons, was found a +much more tractable and useful instrument of dominion. It was on +the dignity of the senate that Augustus and his successors +founded their new empire; and they affected, on every occasion, +to adopt the language and principles of Patricians. In the +administration of their own powers, they frequently consulted the +great national council, and <em>seemed</em> to refer to its +decision the most important concerns of peace and war. Rome, +Italy, and the internal provinces, were subject to the immediate +jurisdiction of the senate. With regard to civil objects, it was +the supreme court of appeal; with regard to criminal matters, a +tribunal, constituted for the trial of all offences that were +committed by men in any public station, or that affected the +peace and majesty of the Roman people. The exercise of the +judicial power became the most frequent and serious occupation of +the senate; and the important causes that were pleaded before +them afforded a last refuge to the spirit of ancient eloquence. +As a council of state, and as a court of justice, the senate +possessed very considerable prerogatives; but in its legislative +capacity, in which it was supposed virtually to represent the +people, the rights of sovereignty were acknowledged to reside in +that assembly. Every power was derived from their authority, +every law was ratified by their sanction. Their regular meetings +were held on three stated days in every month, the Calends, the +Nones, and the Ides. The debates were conducted with decent +freedom; and the emperors themselves, who gloried in the name of +senators, sat, voted, and divided with their equals.<br> +</p> + +<p>To resume, in a few words, the system of the Imperial +government; as it was instituted by Augustus, and maintained by +those princes who understood their own interest and that of the +people, it may be defined an absolute monarchy disguised by the +forms of a commonwealth. The masters of the Roman world +surrounded their throne with darkness, concealed their +irresistible strength, and humbly professed themselves the +accountable ministers of the senate, whose supreme decrees they +dictated and obeyed.<br> +</p> + +<p>The face of the court corresponded with the forms of the +administration. The emperors, if we except those tyrants whose +capricious folly violated every law of nature and decency, +disdained that pomp and ceremony which might offend their +countrymen, but could add nothing to their real power. In all the +offices of life, they affected to confound themselves with their +subjects, and maintained with them an equal intercourse of visits +and entertainments. Their habit, their palace, their table, were +suited only to the rank of an opulent senator. Their family, +however numerous or splendid, was composed entirely of their +domestic slaves and freedmen. Augustus or Trajan would have +blushed at employing the meanest of the Romans in those menial +offices, which, in the household and bedchamber of a limited +monarch, are so eagerly solicited by the proudest nobles of +Britain.<br> +</p> + +<p>The deification of the emperors is the only instance in which +they departed from their accustomed prudence and modesty. The +Asiatic Greeks were the first inventors, the successors of +Alexander the first objects, of this servile and impious mode of +adulation. * It was easily transferred from the kings to the +governors of Asia; and the Roman magistrates very frequently were +adored as provincial deities, with the pomp of altars and +temples, of festivals and sacrifices. It was natural that the +emperors should not refuse what the proconsuls had accepted; and +the divine honors which both the one and the other received from +the provinces, attested rather the despotism than the servitude +of Rome. But the conquerors soon imitated the vanquished nations +in the arts of flattery; and the imperious spirit of the first +Cæsar too easily consented to assume, during his lifetime, +a place among the tutelar deities of Rome. The milder temper of +his successor declined so dangerous an ambition, which was never +afterwards revived, except by the madness of Caligula and +Domitian. Augustus permitted indeed some of the provincial cities +to erect temples to his honor, on condition that they should +associate the worship of Rome with that of the sovereign; he +tolerated private superstition, of which he might be the object; +but he contented himself with being revered by the senate and the +people in his human character, and wisely left to his successor +the care of his public deification. A regular custom was +introduced, that on the decease of every emperor who had neither +lived nor died like a tyrant, the senate by a solemn decree +should place him in the number of the gods: and the ceremonies of +his apotheosis were blended with those of his funeral. This +legal, and, as it should seem, injudicious profanation, so +abhorrent to our stricter principles, was received with a very +faint murmur, by the easy nature of Polytheism; but it was +received as an institution, not of religion, but of policy. We +should disgrace the virtues of the Antonines by comparing them +with the vices of Hercules or Jupiter. Even the characters of +Cæsar or Augustus were far superior to those of the popular +deities. But it was the misfortune of the former to live in an +enlightened age, and their actions were too faithfully recorded +to admit of such a mixture of fable and mystery, as the devotion +of the vulgar requires. As soon as their divinity was established +by law, it sunk into oblivion, without contributing either to +their own fame, or to the dignity of succeeding princes.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the consideration of the Imperial government, we have +frequently mentioned the artful founder, under his well-known +title of Augustus, which was not, however, conferred upon him +till the edifice was almost completed. The obscure name of +Octavianus he derived from a mean family, in the little town of +Aricia. It was stained with the blood of the proscription; and he +was desirous, had it been possible, to erase all memory of his +former life. The illustrious surname of Cæsar he had +assumed, as the adopted son of the dictator: but he had too much +good sense, either to hope to be confounded, or to wish to be +compared with that extraordinary man. It was proposed in the +senate to dignify their minister with a new appellation; and +after a serious discussion, that of Augustus was chosen, among +several others, as being the most expressive of the character of +peace and sanctity, which he uniformly affected. +<em>Augustus</em> was therefore a personal, <em>Cæsar</em> +a family distinction. The former should naturally have expired +with the prince on whom it was bestowed; and however the latter +was diffused by adoption and female alliance, Nero was the last +prince who could allege any hereditary claim to the honors of the +Julian line. But, at the time of his death, the practice of a +century had inseparably connected those appellations with the +Imperial dignity, and they have been preserved by a long +succession of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from +the fall of the republic to the present time. A distinction was, +however, soon introduced. The sacred title of Augustus was always +reserved for the monarch, whilst the name of Cæsar was more +freely communicated to his relations; and, from the reign of +Hadrian, at least, was appropriated to the second person in the +state, who was considered as the presumptive heir of the empire. +*<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The +Antonines. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The tender respect of Augustus for a free constitution which +he had destroyed, can only be explained by an attentive +consideration of the character of that subtle tyrant. A cool +head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly disposition, prompted +him at the age of nineteen to assume the mask of hypocrisy, which +he never afterwards laid aside. With the same hand, and probably +with the same temper, he signed the proscription of Cicero, and +the pardon of Cinna. His virtues, and even his vices, were +artificial; and according to the various dictates of his +interest, he was at first the enemy, and at last the father, of +the Roman world. When he framed the artful system of the Imperial +authority, his moderation was inspired by his fears. He wished to +deceive the people by an image of civil liberty, and the armies +by an image of civil government.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. The death of Cæsar was ever before his eyes. He had +lavished wealth and honors on his adherents; but the most favored +friends of his uncle were in the number of the conspirators. The +fidelity of the legions might defend his authority against open +rebellion; but their vigilance could not secure his person from +the dagger of a determined republican; and the Romans, who +revered the memory of Brutus, would applaud the imitation of his +virtue. Cæsar had provoked his fate, as much as by the +ostentation of his power, as by his power itself. The consul or +the tribune might have reigned in peace. The title of king had +armed the Romans against his life. Augustus was sensible that +mankind is governed by names; nor was he deceived in his +expectation, that the senate and people would submit to slavery, +provided they were respectfully assured that they still enjoyed +their ancient freedom. A feeble senate and enervated people +cheerfully acquiesced in the pleasing illusion, as long as it was +supported by the virtue, or even by the prudence, of the +successors of Augustus. It was a motive of self-preservation, not +a principle of liberty, that animated the conspirators against +Caligula, Nero, and Domitian. They attacked the person of the +tyrant, without aiming their blow at the authority of the +emperor.<br> +</p> + +<p>There appears, indeed, <em>one</em> memorable occasion, in +which the senate, after seventy years of patience, made an +ineffectual attempt to re-assume its long-forgotten rights. When +the throne was vacant by the murder of Caligula, the consuls +convoked that assembly in the Capitol, condemned the memory of +the Cæsars, gave the watchword <em>liberty</em> to the few +cohorts who faintly adhered to their standard, and during +eight-and-forty hours acted as the independent chiefs of a free +commonwealth. But while they deliberated, the prætorian +guards had resolved. The stupid Claudius, brother of Germanicus, +was already in their camp, invested with the Imperial purple, and +prepared to support his election by arms. The dream of liberty +was at an end; and the senate awoke to all the horrors of +inevitable servitude. Deserted by the people, and threatened by a +military force, that feeble assembly was compelled to ratify the +choice of the prætorians, and to embrace the benefit of an +amnesty, which Claudius had the prudence to offer, and the +generosity to observe.<br> +</p> + +<p>[See The Capitol: When the throne was vacant by the murder of +Caligula, the consuls convoked that assembly in the Capitol.]<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The insolence of the armies inspired Augustus with fears +of a still more alarming nature. The despair of the citizens +could only attempt, what the power of the soldiers was, at any +time, able to execute. How precarious was his own authority over +men whom he had taught to violate every social duty! He had heard +their seditious clamors; he dreaded their calmer moments of +reflection. One revolution had been purchased by immense rewards; +but a second revolution might double those rewards. The troops +professed the fondest attachment to the house of Cæsar; but +the attachments of the multitude are capricious and inconstant. +Augustus summoned to his aid whatever remained in those fierce +minds of Roman prejudices; enforced the rigor of discipline by +the sanction of law; and, interposing the majesty of the senate +between the emperor and the army, boldly claimed their +allegiance, as the first magistrate of the republic.<br> +</p> + +<p>During a long period of two hundred and twenty years from the +establishment of this artful system to the death of Commodus, the +dangers inherent to a military government were, in a great +measure, suspended. The soldiers were seldom roused to that fatal +sense of their own strength, and of the weakness of the civil +authority, which was, before and afterwards, productive of such +dreadful calamities. Caligula and Domitian were assassinated in +their palace by their own domestics: * the convulsions which +agitated Rome on the death of the former, were confined to the +walls of the city. But Nero involved the whole empire in his +ruin. In the space of eighteen months, four princes perished by +the sword; and the Roman world was shaken by the fury of the +contending armies. Excepting only this short, though violent +eruption of military license, the two centuries from Augustus to +Commodus passed away unstained with civil blood, and undisturbed +by revolutions. The emperor was elected by the <em>authority of +the senate, and the consent of the soldiers</em>. The legions +respected their oath of fidelity; and it requires a minute +inspection of the Roman annals to discover three inconsiderable +rebellions, which were all suppressed in a few months, and +without even the hazard of a battle.<br> +</p> + +<p>In elective monarchies, the vacancy of the throne is a moment +big with danger and mischief. The Roman emperors, desirous to +spare the legions that interval of suspense, and the temptation +of an irregular choice, invested their designed successor with so +large a share of present power, as should enable him, after their +decease, to assume the remainder, without suffering the empire to +perceive the change of masters. Thus Augustus, after all his +fairer prospects had been snatched from him by untimely deaths, +rested his last hopes on Tiberius, obtained for his adopted son +the censorial and tribunitian powers, and dictated a law, by +which the future prince was invested with an authority equal to +his own, over the provinces and the armies. Thus Vespasian +subdued the generous mind of his eldest son. Titus was adored by +the eastern legions, which, under his command, had recently +achieved the conquest of Judæa. His power was dreaded, and, +as his virtues were clouded by the intemperance of youth, his +designs were suspected. Instead of listening to such unworthy +suspicions, the prudent monarch associated Titus to the full +powers of the Imperial dignity; and the grateful son ever +approved himself the humble and faithful minister of so indulgent +a father.<br> +</p> + +<p>The good sense of Vespasian engaged him indeed to embrace +every measure that might confirm his recent and precarious +elevation. The military oath, and the fidelity of the troops, had +been consecrated, by the habits of a hundred years, to the name +and family of the Cæsars; and although that family had been +continued only by the fictitious rite of adoption, the Romans +still revered, in the person of Nero, the grandson of Germanicus, +and the lineal successor of Augustus. It was not without +reluctance and remorse, that the prætorian guards had been +persuaded to abandon the cause of the tyrant. The rapid downfall +of Galba, Otho, and Vitellus, taught the armies to consider the +emperors as the creatures of <em>their</em> will, and the +instruments of <em>their</em> license. The birth of Vespasian was +mean: his grandfather had been a private soldier, his father a +petty officer of the revenue; his own merit had raised him, in an +advanced age, to the empire; but his merit was rather useful than +shining, and his virtues were disgraced by a strict and even +sordid parsimony. Such a prince consulted his true interest by +the association of a son, whose more splendid and amiable +character might turn the public attention from the obscure +origin, to the future glories, of the Flavian house. Under the +mild administration of Titus, the Roman world enjoyed a transient +felicity, and his beloved memory served to protect, above fifteen +years, the vices of his brother Domitian.<br> +</p> + +<p>Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of +Domitian, before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to +stem the torrent of public disorders, which had multiplied under +the long tyranny of his predecessor. His mild disposition was +respected by the good; but the degenerate Romans required a more +vigorous character, whose justice should strike terror into the +guilty. Though he had several relations, he fixed his choice on a +stranger. He adopted Trajan, then about forty years of age, and +who commanded a powerful army in the Lower Germany; and +immediately, by a decree of the senate, declared him his +colleague and successor in the empire. It is sincerely to be +lamented, that whilst we are fatigued with the disgustful +relation of Nero's crimes and follies, we are reduced to collect +the actions of Trajan from the glimmerings of an abridgment, or +the doubtful light of a panegyric. There remains, however, one +panegyric far removed beyond the suspicion of flattery. Above two +hundred and fifty years after the death of Trajan, the senate, in +pouring out the customary acclamations on the accession of a new +emperor, wished that he might surpass the felicity of Augustus, +and the virtue of Trajan.<br> +</p> + +<p>We may readily believe, that the father of his country +hesitated whether he ought to intrust the various and doubtful +character of his kinsman Hadrian with sovereign power. In his +last moments the arts of the empress Plotina either fixed the +irresolution of Trajan, or boldly supposed a fictitious adoption; +the truth of which could not be safely disputed, and Hadrian was +peaceably acknowledged as his lawful successor. Under his reign, +as has been already mentioned, the empire flourished in peace and +prosperity. He encouraged the arts, reformed the laws, asserted +military discipline, and visited all his provinces in person. His +vast and active genius was equally suited to the most enlarged +views, and the minute details of civil policy. But the ruling +passions of his soul were curiosity and vanity. As they +prevailed, and as they were attracted by different objects, +Hadrian was, by turns, an excellent prince, a ridiculous sophist, +and a jealous tyrant. The general tenor of his conduct deserved +praise for its equity and moderation. Yet in the first days of +his reign, he put to death four consular senators, his personal +enemies, and men who had been judged worthy of empire; and the +tediousness of a painful illness rendered him, at last, peevish +and cruel. The senate doubted whether they should pronounce him a +god or a tyrant; and the honors decreed to his memory were +granted to the prayers of the pious Antoninus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The caprice of Hadrian influenced his choice of a successor. +After revolving in his mind several men of distinguished merit, +whom he esteemed and hated, he adopted Ælius Verus a gay +and voluptuous nobleman, recommended by uncommon beauty to the +lover of Antinous. But whilst Hadrian was delighting himself with +his own applause, and the acclamations of the soldiers, whose +consent had been secured by an immense donative, the new +Cæsar was ravished from his embraces by an untimely death. +He left only one son. Hadrian commended the boy to the gratitude +of the Antonines. He was adopted by Pius; and, on the accession +of Marcus, was invested with an equal share of sovereign power. +Among the many vices of this younger Verus, he possessed one +virtue; a dutiful reverence for his wiser colleague, to whom he +willingly abandoned the ruder cares of empire. The philosophic +emperor dissembled his follies, lamented his early death, and +cast a decent veil over his memory.<br> +</p> + +<p>As soon as Hadrian's passion was either gratified or +disappointed, he resolved to deserve the thanks of posterity, by +placing the most exalted merit on the Roman throne. His +discerning eye easily discovered a senator about fifty years of +age, blameless in all the offices of life; and a youth of about +seventeen, whose riper years opened a fair prospect of every +virtue: the elder of these was declared the son and successor of +Hadrian, on condition, however, that he himself should +immediately adopt the younger. The two Antonines (for it is of +them that we are now peaking,) governed the Roman world forty-two +years, with the same invariable spirit of wisdom and virtue. +Although Pius had two sons, he preferred the welfare of Rome to +the interest of his family, gave his daughter Faustina, in +marriage to young Marcus, obtained from the senate the +tribunitian and proconsular powers, and, with a noble disdain, or +rather ignorance of jealousy, associated him to all the labors of +government. Marcus, on the other hand, revered the character of +his benefactor, loved him as a parent, obeyed him as his +sovereign, and, after he was no more, regulated his own +administration by the example and maxims of his predecessor. +Their united reigns are possibly the only period of history in +which the happiness of a great people was the sole object of +government.<br> +</p> + +<p>Titus Antoninus Pius has been justly denominated a second +Numa. The same love of religion, justice, and peace, was the +distinguishing characteristic of both princes. But the situation +of the latter opened a much larger field for the exercise of +those virtues. Numa could only prevent a few neighboring villages +from plundering each other's harvests. Antoninus diffused order +and tranquillity over the greatest part of the earth. His reign +is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials +for history; which is, indeed, little more than the register of +the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. In private life, +he was an amiable, as well as a good man. The native simplicity +of his virtue was a stranger to vanity or affectation. He enjoyed +with moderation the conveniences of his fortune, and the innocent +pleasures of society; and the benevolence of his soul displayed +itself in a cheerful serenity of temper.<br> +</p> + +<p>The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was of severer and +more laborious kind. It was the well-earned harvest of many a +learned conference, of many a patient lecture, and many a +midnight lucubration. At the age of twelve years he embraced the +rigid system of the Stoics, which taught him to submit his body +to his mind, his passions to his reason; to consider virtue as +the only good, vice as the only evil, all things external as +things indifferent. His meditations, composed in the tumult of +the camp, are still extant; and he even condescended to give +lessons of philosophy, in a more public manner than was perhaps +consistent with the modesty of sage, or the dignity of an +emperor. But his life was the noblest commentary on the precepts +of Zeno. He was severe to himself, indulgent to the imperfections +of others, just and beneficent to all mankind. He regretted that +Avidius Cassius, who excited a rebellion in Syria, had +disappointed him, by a voluntary death, * of the pleasure of +converting an enemy into a friend;; and he justified the +sincerity of that sentiment, by moderating the zeal of the senate +against the adherents of the traitor. War he detested, as the +disgrace and calamity of human nature; but when the necessity of +a just defence called upon him to take up arms, he readily +exposed his person to eight winter campaigns, on the frozen banks +of the Danube, the severity of which was at last fatal to the +weakness of his constitution. His memory was revered by a +grateful posterity, and above a century after his death, many +persons preserved the image of Marcus Antoninus among those of +their household gods.<br> +</p> + +<p>If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the +world, during which the condition of the human race was most +happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that +which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of +Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman empire was governed by +absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The +armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four +successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded +involuntary respect. The forms of the civil administration were +carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, +who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with +considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. +Such princes deserved the honor of restoring the republic, had +the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational +freedom.<br> +</p> + +<p>The labors of these monarchs were overpaid by the immense +reward that inseparably waited on their success; by the honest +pride of virtue, and by the exquisite delight of beholding the +general happiness of which they were the authors. A just but +melancholy reflection imbittered, however, the noblest of human +enjoyments. They must often have recollected the instability of a +happiness which depended on the character of single man. The +fatal moment was perhaps approaching, when some licentious youth, +or some jealous tyrant, would abuse, to the destruction, that +absolute power, which they had exerted for the benefit of their +people. The ideal restraints of the senate and the laws might +serve to display the virtues, but could never correct the vices, +of the emperor. The military force was a blind and irresistible +instrument of oppression; and the corruption of Roman manners +would always supply flatterers eager to applaud, and ministers +prepared to serve, the fear or the avarice, the lust or the +cruelty, of their master.<br> +</p> + +<p>These gloomy apprehensions had been already justified by the +experience of the Romans. The annals of the emperors exhibit a +strong and various picture of human nature, which we should +vainly seek among the mixed and doubtful characters of modern +history. In the conduct of those monarchs we may trace the utmost +lines of vice and virtue; the most exalted perfection, and the +meanest degeneracy of our own species. The golden age of Trajan +and the Antonines had been preceded by an age of iron. It is +almost superfluous to enumerate the unworthy successors of +Augustus. Their unparalleled vices, and the splendid theatre on +which they were acted, have saved them from oblivion. The dark, +unrelenting Tiberius, the furious Caligula, the feeble Claudius, +the profligate and cruel Nero, the beastly Vitellius, and the +timid, inhuman Domitian, are condemned to everlasting infamy. +During fourscore years (excepting only the short and doubtful +respite of Vespasian's reign) Rome groaned beneath an unremitting +tyranny, which exterminated the ancient families of the republic, +and was fatal to almost every virtue and every talent that arose +in that unhappy period.<br> +</p> + +<p>Under the reign of these monsters, the slavery of the Romans +was accompanied with two peculiar circumstances, the one +occasioned by their former liberty, the other by their extensive +conquests, which rendered their condition more completely +wretched than that of the victims of tyranny in any other age or +country. From these causes were derived, 1. The exquisite +sensibility of the sufferers; and, 2. The impossibility of +escaping from the hand of the oppressor.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a race +of princes whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, their +table, and their bed, with the blood of their favorites, there is +a saying recorded of a young nobleman, that he never departed +from the sultan's presence, without satisfying himself whether +his head was still on his shoulders. The experience of every day +might almost justify the scepticism of Rustan. Yet the fatal +sword, suspended above him by a single thread, seems not to have +disturbed the slumbers, or interrupted the tranquillity, of the +Persian. The monarch's frown, he well knew, could level him with +the dust; but the stroke of lightning or apoplexy might be +equally fatal; and it was the part of a wise man to forget the +inevitable calamities of human life in the enjoyment of the +fleeting hour. He was dignified with the appellation of the +king's slave; had, perhaps, been purchased from obscure parents, +in a country which he had never known; and was trained up from +his infancy in the severe discipline of the seraglio. His name, +his wealth, his honors, were the gift of a master, who might, +without injustice, resume what he had bestowed. Rustan's +knowledge, if he possessed any, could only serve to confirm his +habits by prejudices. His language afforded not words for any +form of government, except absolute monarchy. The history of the +East informed him, that such had ever been the condition of +mankind. The Koran, and the interpreters of that divine book, +inculcated to him, that the sultan was the descendant of the +prophet, and the vicegerent of heaven; that patience was the +first virtue of a Mussulman, and unlimited obedience the great +duty of a subject.<br> +</p> + +<p>The minds of the Romans were very differently prepared for +slavery. Oppressed beneath the weight of their own corruption and +of military violence, they for a long while preserved the +sentiments, or at least the ideas, of their free-born ancestors. +The education of Helvidius and Thrasea, of Tacitus and Pliny, was +the same as that of Cato and Cicero. From Grecian philosophy, +they had imbibed the justest and most liberal notions of the +dignity of human nature, and the origin of civil society. The +history of their own country had taught them to revere a free, a +virtuous, and a victorious commonwealth; to abhor the successful +crimes of Cæsar and Augustus; and inwardly to despise those +tyrants whom they adored with the most abject flattery. As +magistrates and senators they were admitted into the great +council, which had once dictated laws to the earth, whose +authority was so often prostituted to the vilest purposes of +tyranny. Tiberius, and those emperors who adopted his maxims, +attempted to disguise their murders by the formalities of +justice, and perhaps enjoyed a secret pleasure in rendering the +senate their accomplice as well as their victim. By this +assembly, the last of the Romans were condemned for imaginary +crimes and real virtues. Their infamous accusers assumed the +language of independent patriots, who arraigned a dangerous +citizen before the tribunal of his country; and the public +service was rewarded by riches and honors. The servile judges +professed to assert the majesty of the commonwealth, violated in +the person of its first magistrate, whose clemency they most +applauded when they trembled the most at his inexorable and +impending cruelty. The tyrant beheld their baseness with just +contempt, and encountered their secret sentiments of detestation +with sincere and avowed hatred for the whole body of the +senate.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The division of Europe into a number of independent +states, connected, however, with each other by the general +resemblance of religion, language, and manners, is productive of +the most beneficial consequences to the liberty of mankind. A +modern tyrant, who should find no resistance either in his own +breast, or in his people, would soon experience a gentle restrain +form the example of his equals, the dread of present censure, the +advice of his allies, and the apprehension of his enemies. The +object of his displeasure, escaping from the narrow limits of his +dominions, would easily obtain, in a happier climate, a secure +refuge, a new fortune adequate to his merit, the freedom of +complaint, and perhaps the means of revenge. But the empire of +the Romans filled the world, and when the empire fell into the +hands of a single person, the world became a safe and dreary +prison for his enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether +he was condemned to drags his gilded chain in Rome and the +senate, or to were out a life of exile on the barren rock of +Seriphus, or the frozen bank of the Danube, expected his fate in +silent despair. To resist was fatal, and it was impossible to +fly. On every side he was encompassed with a vast extent of sea +and land, which he could never hope to traverse without being +discovered, seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond +the frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except +the ocean, inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of +fierce manners and unknown language, or dependent kings, who +would gladly purchase the emperor's protection by the sacrifice +of an obnoxious fugitive. "Wherever you are," said Cicero to the +exiled Marcellus, "remember that you are equally within the power +of the conqueror."<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of +Commodus.</strong></p> + +<p><strong>Part I.</strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus. Election Of +Pertinax -- His Attempts To Reform The State -- His Assassination +By The Prætorian Guards.<br> +</p> + +<p>The mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the +Stoics was unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the +most amiable, and the only defective part of his character. His +excellent understanding was often deceived by the unsuspecting +goodness of his heart. Artful men, who study the passions of +princes, and conceal their own, approached his person in the +disguise of philosophic sanctity, and acquired riches and honors +by affecting to despise them. His excessive indulgence to his +brother, * his wife, and his son, exceeded the bounds of private +virtue, and became a public injury, by the example and +consequences of their vices.<br> +</p> + +<p>Faustina, the daughter of Pius and the wife of Marcus, has +been as much celebrated for her gallantries as for her beauty. +The grave simplicity of the philosopher was ill calculated to +engage her wanton levity, or to fix that unbounded passion for +variety, which often discovered personal merit in the meanest of +mankind. The Cupid of the ancients was, in general, a very +sensual deity; and the amours of an empress, as they exact on her +side the plainest advances, are seldom susceptible of much +sentimental delicacy. Marcus was the only man in the empire who +seemed ignorant or insensible of the irregularities of Faustina; +which, according to the prejudices of every age, reflected some +disgrace on the injured husband. He promoted several of her +lovers to posts of honor and profit, and during a connection of +thirty years, invariably gave her proofs of the most tender +confidence, and of a respect which ended not with her life. In +his Meditations, he thanks the gods, who had bestowed on him a +wife so faithful, so gentle, and of such a wonderful simplicity +of manners. The obsequious senate, at his earnest request, +declared her a goddess. She was represented in her temples, with +the attributes of Juno, Venus, and Ceres; and it was decreed, +that, on the day of their nuptials, the youth of either sex +should pay their vows before the altar of their chaste +patroness.<br> +</p> + +<p>The monstrous vices of the son have cast a shade on the purity +of the father's virtues. It has been objected to Marcus, that he +sacrificed the happiness of millions to a fond partiality for a +worthless boy; and that he chose a successor in his own family, +rather than in the republic. Nothing however, was neglected by +the anxious father, and by the men of virtue and learning whom he +summoned to his assistance, to expand the narrow mind of young +Commodus, to correct his growing vices, and to render him worthy +of the throne for which he was designed. But the power of +instruction is seldom of much efficacy, except in those happy +dispositions where it is almost superfluous. The distasteful +lesson of a grave philosopher was, in a moment, obliterated by +the whisper of a profligate favorite; and Marcus himself blasted +the fruits of this labored education, by admitting his son, at +the age of fourteen or fifteen, to a full participation of the +Imperial power. He lived but four years afterwards: but he lived +long enough to repent a rash measure, which raised the impetuous +youth above the restraint of reason and authority.<br> +</p> + +<p>Most of the crimes which disturb the internal peace of +society, are produced by the restraints which the necessary but +unequal laws of property have imposed on the appetites of +mankind, by confining to a few the possession of those objects +that are coveted by many. Of all our passions and appetites, the +love of power is of the most imperious and unsociable nature, +since the pride of one man requires the submission of the +multitude. In the tumult of civil discord, the laws of society +lose their force, and their place is seldom supplied by those of +humanity. The ardor of contention, the pride of victory, the +despair of success, the memory of past injuries, and the fear of +future dangers, all contribute to inflame the mind, and to +silence the voice of pity. From such motives almost every page of +history has been stained with civil blood; but these motives will +not account for the unprovoked cruelties of Commodus, who had +nothing to wish and every thing to enjoy. The beloved son of +Marcus succeeded to his father, amidst the acclamations of the +senate and armies; and when he ascended the throne, the happy +youth saw round him neither competitor to remove, nor enemies to +punish. In this calm, elevated station, it was surely natural +that he should prefer the love of mankind to their detestation, +the mild glories of his five predecessors to the ignominious fate +of Nero and Domitian.<br> +</p> + +<p>Yet Commodus was not, as he has been represented, a tiger born +with an insatiate thirst of human blood, and capable, from his +infancy, of the most inhuman actions. Nature had formed him of a +weak rather than a wicked disposition. His simplicity and +timidity rendered him the slave of his attendants, who gradually +corrupted his mind. His cruelty, which at first obeyed the +dictates of others, degenerated into habit, and at length became +the ruling passion of his soul.<br> +</p> + +<p>Upon the death of his father, Commodus found himself +embarrassed with the command of a great army, and the conduct of +a difficult war against the Quadi and Marcomanni. The servile and +profligate youths whom Marcus had banished, soon regained their +station and influence about the new emperor. They exaggerated the +hardships and dangers of a campaign in the wild countries beyond +the Danube; and they assured the indolent prince that the terror +of his name, and the arms of his lieutenants, would be sufficient +to complete the conquest of the dismayed barbarians, or to impose +such conditions as were more advantageous than any conquest. By a +dexterous application to his sensual appetites, they compared the +tranquillity, the splendor, the refined pleasures of Rome, with +the tumult of a Pannonian camp, which afforded neither leisure +nor materials for luxury. Commodus listened to the pleasing +advice; but whilst he hesitated between his own inclination and +the awe which he still retained for his father's counsellors, the +summer insensibly elapsed, and his triumphal entry into the +capital was deferred till the autumn. His graceful person, +popular address, and imagined virtues, attracted the public +favor; the honorable peace which he had recently granted to the +barbarians, diffused a universal joy; his impatience to revisit +Rome was fondly ascribed to the love of his country; and his +dissolute course of amusements was faintly condemned in a prince +of nineteen years of age.<br> +</p> + +<p>During the three first years of his reign, the forms, and even +the spirit, of the old administration, were maintained by those +faithful counsellors, to whom Marcus had recommended his son, and +for whose wisdom and integrity Commodus still entertained a +reluctant esteem. The young prince and his profligate favorites +revelled in all the license of sovereign power; but his hands +were yet unstained with blood; and he had even displayed a +generosity of sentiment, which might perhaps have ripened into +solid virtue. A fatal incident decided his fluctuating +character.<br> +</p> + +<p>One evening, as the emperor was returning to the palace, +through a dark and narrow portico in the amphitheatre, an +assassin, who waited his passage, rushed upon him with a drawn +sword, loudly exclaiming, "<em>The senate sends you this.</em>" +The menace prevented the deed; the assassin was seized by the +guards, and immediately revealed the authors of the conspiracy. +It had been formed, not in the state, but within the walls of the +palace. Lucilla, the emperor's sister, and widow of Lucius Verus, +impatient of the second rank, and jealous of the reigning +empress, had armed the murderer against her brother's life. She +had not ventured to communicate the black design to her second +husband, Claudius Pompeiarus, a senator of distinguished merit +and unshaken loyalty; but among the crowd of her lovers (for she +imitated the manners of Faustina) she found men of desperate +fortunes and wild ambition, who were prepared to serve her more +violent, as well as her tender passions. The conspirators +experienced the rigor of justice, and the abandoned princess was +punished, first with exile, and afterwards with death.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the words of the assassin sunk deep into the mind of +Commodus, and left an indelible impression of fear and hatred +against the whole body of the senate. * Those whom he had dreaded +as importunate ministers, he now suspected as secret enemies. The +Delators, a race of men discouraged, and almost extinguished, +under the former reigns, again became formidable, as soon as they +discovered that the emperor was desirous of finding disaffection +and treason in the senate. That assembly, whom Marcus had ever +considered as the great council of the nation, was composed of +the most distinguished of the Romans; and distinction of every +kind soon became criminal. The possession of wealth stimulated +the diligence of the informers; rigid virtue implied a tacit +censure of the irregularities of Commodus; important services +implied a dangerous superiority of merit; and the friendship of +the father always insured the aversion of the son. Suspicion was +equivalent to proof; trial to condemnation. The execution of a +considerable senator was attended with the death of all who might +lament or revenge his fate; and when Commodus had once tasted +human blood, he became incapable of pity or remorse.<br> +</p> + +<p>Of these innocent victims of tyranny, none died more lamented +than the two brothers of the Quintilian family, Maximus and +Condianus; whose fraternal love has saved their names from +oblivion, and endeared their memory to posterity. Their studies +and their occupations, their pursuits and their pleasures, were +still the same. In the enjoyment of a great estate, they never +admitted the idea of a separate interest: some fragments are now +extant of a treatise which they composed in common; and in every +action of life it was observed that their two bodies were +animated by one soul. The Antonines, who valued their virtues, +and delighted in their union, raised them, in the same year, to +the consulship; and Marcus afterwards intrusted to their joint +care the civil administration of Greece, and a great military +command, in which they obtained a signal victory over the +Germans. The kind cruelty of Commodus united them in death.<br> +</p> + +<p>The tyrant's rage, after having shed the noblest blood of the +senate, at length recoiled on the principal instrument of his +cruelty. Whilst Commodus was immersed in blood and luxury, he +devolved the detail of the public business on Perennis, a servile +and ambitious minister, who had obtained his post by the murder +of his predecessor, but who possessed a considerable share of +vigor and ability. By acts of extortion, and the forfeited +estates of the nobles sacrificed to his avarice, he had +accumulated an immense treasure. The Prætorian guards were +under his immediate command; and his son, who already discovered +a military genius, was at the head of the Illyrian legions. +Perennis aspired to the empire; or what, in the eyes of Commodus, +amounted to the same crime, he was capable of aspiring to it, had +he not been prevented, surprised, and put to death. The fall of a +minister is a very trifling incident in the general history of +the empire; but it was hastened by an extraordinary circumstance, +which proved how much the nerves of discipline were already +relaxed. The legions of Britain, discontented with the +administration of Perennis, formed a deputation of fifteen +hundred select men, with instructions to march to Rome, and lay +their complaints before the emperor. These military petitioners, +by their own determined behaviour, by inflaming the divisions of +the guards, by exaggerating the strength of the British army, and +by alarming the fears of Commodus, exacted and obtained the +minister's death, as the only redress of their grievances. This +presumption of a distant army, and their discovery of the +weakness of government, was a sure presage of the most dreadful +convulsions.<br> +</p> + +<p>The negligence of the public administration was betrayed, soon +afterwards, by a new disorder, which arose from the smallest +beginnings. A spirit of desertion began to prevail among the +troops: and the deserters, instead of seeking their safety in +flight or concealment, infested the highways. Maternus, a private +soldier, of a daring boldness above his station, collected these +bands of robbers into a little army, set open the prisons, +invited the slaves to assert their freedom, and plundered with +impunity the rich and defenceless cities of Gaul and Spain. The +governors of the provinces, who had long been the spectators, and +perhaps the partners, of his depredations, were, at length, +roused from their supine indolence by the threatening commands of +the emperor. Maternus found that he was encompassed, and foresaw +that he must be overpowered. A great effort of despair was his +last resource. He ordered his followers to disperse, to pass the +Alps in small parties and various disguises, and to assemble at +Rome, during the licentious tumult of the festival of Cybele. To +murder Commodus, and to ascend the vacant throne, was the +ambition of no vulgar robber. His measures were so ably concerted +that his concealed troops already filled the streets of Rome. The +envy of an accomplice discovered and ruined this singular +enterprise, in a moment when it was ripe for execution.<br> +</p> + +<p>Suspicious princes often promote the last of mankind, from a +vain persuasion, that those who have no dependence, except on +their favor, will have no attachment, except to the person of +their benefactor. Cleander, the successor of Perennis, was a +Phrygian by birth; of a nation over whose stubborn, but servile +temper, blows only could prevail. He had been sent from his +native country to Rome, in the capacity of a slave. As a slave he +entered the Imperial palace, rendered himself useful to his +master's passions, and rapidly ascended to the most exalted +station which a subject could enjoy. His influence over the mind +of Commodus was much greater than that of his predecessor; for +Cleander was devoid of any ability or virtue which could inspire +the emperor with envy or distrust. Avarice was the reigning +passion of his soul, and the great principle of his +administration. The rank of Consul, of Patrician, of Senator, was +exposed to public sale; and it would have been considered as +disaffection, if any one had refused to purchase these empty and +disgraceful honors with the greatest part of his fortune. In the +lucrative provincial employments, the minister shared with the +governor the spoils of the people. The execution of the laws was +penal and arbitrary. A wealthy criminal might obtain, not only +the reversal of the sentence by which he was justly condemned, +but might likewise inflict whatever punishment he pleased on the +accuser, the witnesses, and the judge.<br> +</p> + +<p>By these means, Cleander, in the space of three years, had +accumulated more wealth than had ever yet been possessed by any +freedman. Commodus was perfectly satisfied with the magnificent +presents which the artful courtier laid at his feet in the most +seasonable moments. To divert the public envy, Cleander, under +the emperor's name, erected baths, porticos, and places of +exercise, for the use of the people. He flattered himself that +the Romans, dazzled and amused by this apparent liberality, would +be less affected by the bloody scenes which were daily exhibited; +that they would forget the death of Byrrhus, a senator to whose +superior merit the late emperor had granted one of his daughters; +and that they would forgive the execution of Arrius Antoninus, +the last representative of the name and virtues of the Antonines. +The former, with more integrity than prudence, had attempted to +disclose, to his brother-in-law, the true character of Cleander. +An equitable sentence pronounced by the latter, when proconsul of +Asia, against a worthless creature of the favorite, proved fatal +to him. After the fall of Perennis, the terrors of Commodus had, +for a short time, assumed the appearance of a return to virtue. +He repealed the most odious of his acts; loaded his memory with +the public execration, and ascribed to the pernicious counsels of +that wicked minister all the errors of his inexperienced youth. +But his repentance lasted only thirty days; and, under Cleander's +tyranny, the administration of Perennis was often regretted.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of +Commodus. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure of +the calamities of Rome. The first could be only imputed to the +just indignation of the gods; but a monopoly of corn, supported +by the riches and power of the minister, was considered as the +immediate cause of the second. The popular discontent, after it +had long circulated in whispers, broke out in the assembled +circus. The people quitted their favorite amusements for the more +delicious pleasure of revenge, rushed in crowds towards a palace +in the suburbs, one of the emperor's retirements, and demanded, +with angry clamors, the head of the public enemy. Cleander, who +commanded the Prætorian guards, ordered a body of cavalry +to sally forth, and disperse the seditious multitude. The +multitude fled with precipitation towards the city; several were +slain, and many more were trampled to death; but when the cavalry +entered the streets, their pursuit was checked by a shower of +stones and darts from the roofs and windows of the houses. The +foot guards, who had been long jealous of the prerogatives and +insolence of the Prætorian cavalry, embraced the party of +the people. The tumult became a regular engagement, and +threatened a general massacre. The Prætorians, at length, +gave way, oppressed with numbers; and the tide of popular fury +returned with redoubled violence against the gates of the palace, +where Commodus lay, dissolved in luxury, and alone unconscious of +the civil war. It was death to approach his person with the +unwelcome news. He would have perished in this supine security, +had not two women, his eldest sister Fadilla, and Marcia, the +most favored of his concubines, ventured to break into his +presence. Bathed in tears, and with dishevelled hair, they threw +themselves at his feet; and with all the pressing eloquence of +fear, discovered to the affrighted emperor the crimes of the +minister, the rage of the people, and the impending ruin, which, +in a few minutes, would burst over his palace and person. +Commodus started from his dream of pleasure, and commanded that +the head of Cleander should be thrown out to the people. The +desired spectacle instantly appeased the tumult; and the son of +Marcus might even yet have regained the affection and confidence +of his subjects.<br> +</p> + +<p>But every sentiment of virtue and humanity was extinct in the +mind of Commodus. Whilst he thus abandoned the reins of empire to +these unworthy favorites, he valued nothing in sovereign power, +except the unbounded license of indulging his sensual appetites. +His hours were spent in a seraglio of three hundred beautiful +women, and as many boys, of every rank, and of every province; +and, wherever the arts of seduction proved ineffectual, the +brutal lover had recourse to violence. The ancient historians +have expatiated on these abandoned scenes of prostitution, which +scorned every restraint of nature or modesty; but it would not be +easy to translate their too faithful descriptions into the +decency of modern language. The intervals of lust were filled up +with the basest amusements. The influence of a polite age, and +the labor of an attentive education, had never been able to +infuse into his rude and brutish mind the least tincture of +learning; and he was the first of the Roman emperors totally +devoid of taste for the pleasures of the understanding. Nero +himself excelled, or affected to excel, in the elegant arts of +music and poetry: nor should we despise his pursuits, had he not +converted the pleasing relaxation of a leisure hour into the +serious business and ambition of his life. But Commodus, from his +earliest infancy, discovered an aversion to whatever was rational +or liberal, and a fond attachment to the amusements of the +populace; the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the combats +of gladiators, and the hunting of wild beasts. The masters in +every branch of learning, whom Marcus provided for his son, were +heard with inattention and disgust; whilst the Moors and +Parthians, who taught him to dart the javelin and to shoot with +the bow, found a disciple who delighted in his application, and +soon equalled the most skilful of his instructors in the +steadiness of the eye and the dexterity of the hand.<br> +</p> + +<p>The servile crowd, whose fortune depended on their master's +vices, applauded these ignoble pursuits. The perfidious voice of +flattery reminded him, that by exploits of the same nature, by +the defeat of the Nemæan lion, and the slaughter of the +wild boar of Erymanthus, the Grecian Hercules had acquired a +place among the gods, and an immortal memory among men. They only +forgot to observe, that, in the first ages of society, when the +fiercer animals often dispute with man the possession of an +unsettled country, a successful war against those savages is one +of the most innocent and beneficial labors of heroism. In the +civilized state of the Roman empire, the wild beasts had long +since retired from the face of man, and the neighborhood of +populous cities. To surprise them in their solitary haunts, and +to transport them to Rome, that they might be slain in pomp by +the hand of an emperor, was an enterprise equally ridiculous for +the prince and oppressive for the people. Ignorant of these +distinctions, Commodus eagerly embraced the glorious resemblance, +and styled himself (as we still read on his medals ) the +<em>Roman</em> <em>Hercules</em>. * The club and the lion's hide +were placed by the side of the throne, amongst the ensigns of +sovereignty; and statues were erected, in which Commodus was +represented in the character, and with the attributes, of the +god, whose valor and dexterity he endeavored to emulate in the +daily course of his ferocious amusements.<br> +</p> + +<p>Elated with these praises, which gradually extinguished the +innate sense of shame, Commodus resolved to exhibit before the +eyes of the Roman people those exercises, which till then he had +decently confined within the walls of his palace, and to the +presence of a few favorites. On the appointed day, the various +motives of flattery, fear, and curiosity, attracted to the +amphitheatre an innumerable multitude of spectators; and some +degree of applause was deservedly bestowed on the uncommon skill +of the Imperial performer. Whether he aimed at the head or heart +of the animal, the wound was alike certain and mortal. With +arrows whose point was shaped into the form of crescent, Commodus +often intercepted the rapid career, and cut asunder the long, +bony neck of the ostrich. A panther was let loose; and the archer +waited till he had leaped upon a trembling malefactor. In the +same instant the shaft flew, the beast dropped dead, and the man +remained unhurt. The dens of the amphitheatre disgorged at once a +hundred lions: a hundred darts from the unerring hand of Commodus +laid them dead as they run raging round the <em>Arena</em>. +Neither the huge bulk of the elephant, nor the scaly hide of the +rhinoceros, could defend them from his stroke. Æthiopia and +India yielded their most extraordinary productions; and several +animals were slain in the amphitheatre, which had been seen only +in the representations of art, or perhaps of fancy. In all these +exhibitions, the securest precautions were used to protect the +person of the Roman Hercules from the desperate spring of any +savage, who might possibly disregard the dignity of the emperor +and the sanctity of the god. ^<br> +</p> + +<p>But the meanest of the populace were affected with shame and +indignation when they beheld their sovereign enter the lists as a +gladiator, and glory in a profession which the laws and manners +of the Romans had branded with the justest note of infamy. He +chose the habit and arms of the <em>Secutor</em>, whose combat +with the <em>Retiarius</em> formed one of the most lively scenes +in the bloody sports of the amphitheatre. The <em>Secutor</em> +was armed with a helmet, sword, and buckler; his naked antagonist +had only a large net and a trident; with the one he endeavored to +entangle, with the other to despatch his enemy. If he missed the +first throw, he was obliged to fly from the pursuit of the +<em>Secutor</em>, till he had prepared his net for a second cast. +The emperor fought in this character seven hundred and +thirty-five several times. These glorious achievements were +carefully recorded in the public acts of the empire; and that he +might omit no circumstance of infamy, he received from the common +fund of gladiators a stipend so exorbitant that it became a new +and most ignominious tax upon the Roman people. It may be easily +supposed, that in these engagements the master of the world was +always successful; in the amphitheatre, his victories were not +often sanguinary; but when he exercised his skill in the school +of gladiators, or his own palace, his wretched antagonists were +frequently honored with a mortal wound from the hand of Commodus, +and obliged to seal their flattery with their blood. He now +disdained the appellation of Hercules. The name of Paulus, a +celebrated Secutor, was the only one which delighted his ear. It +was inscribed on his colossal statues, and repeated in the +redoubled acclamations of the mournful and applauding senate. +Claudius Pompeianus, the virtuous husband of Lucilla, was the +only senator who asserted the honor of his rank. As a father, he +permitted his sons to consult their safety by attending the +amphitheatre. As a Roman, he declared, that his own life was in +the emperor's hands, but that he would never behold the son of +Marcus prostituting his person and dignity. Notwithstanding his +manly resolution Pompeianus escaped the resentment of the tyrant, +and, with his honor, had the good fortune to preserve his +life.<br> +</p> + +<p>Commodus had now attained the summit of vice and infamy. +Amidst the acclamations of a flattering court, he was unable to +disguise from himself, that he had deserved the contempt and +hatred of every man of sense and virtue in his empire. His +ferocious spirit was irritated by the consciousness of that +hatred, by the envy of every kind of merit, by the just +apprehension of danger, and by the habit of slaughter, which he +contracted in his daily amusements. History has preserved a long +list of consular senators sacrificed to his wanton suspicion, +which sought out, with peculiar anxiety, those unfortunate +persons connected, however remotely, with the family of the +Antonines, without sparing even the ministers of his crimes or +pleasures. His cruelty proved at last fatal to himself. He had +shed with impunity the noblest blood of Rome: he perished as soon +as he was dreaded by his own domestics. Marcia, his favorite +concubine, Eclectus, his chamberlain, and Lætus, his +Prætorian præfect, alarmed by the fate of their +companions and predecessors, resolved to prevent the destruction +which every hour hung over their heads, either from the mad +caprice of the tyrant, * or the sudden indignation of the people. +Marcia seized the occasion of presenting a draught of wine to her +lover, after he had fatigued himself with hunting some wild +beasts. Commodus retired to sleep; but whilst he was laboring +with the effects of poison and drunkenness, a robust youth, by +profession a wrestler, entered his chamber, and strangled him +without resistance. The body was secretly conveyed out of the +palace, before the least suspicion was entertained in the city, +or even in the court, of the emperor's death. Such was the fate +of the son of Marcus, and so easy was it to destroy a hated +tyrant, who, by the artificial powers of government, had +oppressed, during thirteen years, so many millions of subjects, +each of whom was equal to their master in personal strength and +personal abilities.<br> +</p> + +<p>The measures of he conspirators were conducted with the +deliberate coolness and celerity which the greatness of the +occasion required. They resolved instantly to fill the vacant +throne with an emperor whose character would justify and maintain +the action that had been committed. They fixed on Pertinax, +præfect of the city, an ancient senator of consular rank, +whose conspicuous merit had broke through the obscurity of his +birth, and raised him to the first honors of the state. He had +successively governed most of the provinces of the empire; and in +all his great employments, military as well as civil, he had +uniformly distinguished himself by the firmness, the prudence, +and the integrity of his conduct. He now remained almost alone of +the friends and ministers of Marcus; and when, at a late hour of +the night, he was awakened with the news, that the chamberlain +and the præfect were at his door, he received them with +intrepid resignation, and desired they would execute their +master's orders. Instead of death, they offered him the throne of +the Roman world. During some moments he distrusted their +intentions and assurances. Convinced at length of the death of +Commodus, he accepted the purple with a sincere reluctance, the +natural effect of his knowledge both of the duties and of the +dangers of the supreme rank.<br> +</p> + +<p>Lætus conducted without delay his new emperor to the +camp of the Prætorians, diffusing at the same time through +the city a seasonable report that Commodus died suddenly of an +apoplexy; and that the virtuous Pertinax had already succeeded to +the throne. The guards were rather surprised than pleased with +the suspicious death of a prince, whose indulgence and liberality +they alone had experienced; but the emergency of the occasion, +the authority of their præfect, the reputation of Pertinax, +and the clamors of the people, obliged them to stifle their +secret discontents, to accept the donative promised by the new +emperor, to swear allegiance to him, and with joyful acclamations +and laurels in their hands to conduct him to the senate house, +that the military consent might be ratified by the civil +authority.<br> +</p> + +<p>This important night was now far spent; with the dawn of day, +and the commencement of the new year, the senators expected a +summons to attend an ignominious ceremony. * In spite of all +remonstrances, even of those of his creatures who yet preserved +any regard for prudence or decency, Commodus had resolved to pass +the night in the gladiators' school, and from thence to take +possession of the consulship, in the habit and with the +attendance of that infamous crew. On a sudden, before the break +of day, the senate was called together in the temple of Concord, +to meet the guards, and to ratify the election of a new emperor. +For a few minutes they sat in silent suspense, doubtful of their +unexpected deliverance, and suspicious of the cruel artifices of +Commodus: but when at length they were assured that the tyrant +was no more, they resigned themselves to all the transports of +joy and indignation. Pertinax, who modestly represented the +meanness of his extraction, and pointed out several noble +senators more deserving than himself of the empire, was +constrained by their dutiful violence to ascend the throne, and +received all the titles of Imperial power, confirmed by the most +sincere vows of fidelity. The memory of Commodus was branded with +eternal infamy. The names of tyrant, of gladiator, of public +enemy resounded in every corner of the house. They decreed in +tumultuous votes, that his honors should be reversed, his titles +erased from the public monuments, his statues thrown down, his +body dragged with a hook into the stripping room of the +gladiators, to satiate the public fury; and they expressed some +indignation against those officious servants who had already +presumed to screen his remains from the justice of the senate. +But Pertinax could not refuse those last rites to the memory of +Marcus, and the tears of his first protector Claudius Pompeianus, +who lamented the cruel fate of his brother-in-law, and lamented +still more that he had deserved it.<br> +</p> + +<p>These effusions of impotent rage against a dead emperor, whom +the senate had flattered when alive with the most abject +servility, betrayed a just but ungenerous spirit of revenge. The +legality of these decrees was, however, supported by the +principles of the Imperial constitution. To censure, to depose, +or to punish with death, the first magistrate of the republic, +who had abused his delegated trust, was the ancient and undoubted +prerogative of the Roman senate; but the feeble assembly was +obliged to content itself with inflicting on a fallen tyrant that +public justice, from which, during his life and reign, he had +been shielded by the strong arm of military despotism. *<br> +</p> + +<p>Pertinax found a nobler way of condemning his predecessor's +memory; by the contrast of his own virtues with the vices of +Commodus. On the day of his accession, he resigned over to his +wife and son his whole private fortune; that they might have no +pretence to solicit favors at the expense of the state. He +refused to flatter the vanity of the former with the title of +Augusta; or to corrupt the inexperienced youth of the latter by +the rank of Cæsar. Accurately distinguishing between the +duties of a parent and those of a sovereign, he educated his son +with a severe simplicity, which, while it gave him no assured +prospect of the throne, might in time have rendered him worthy of +it. In public, the behavior of Pertinax was grave and affable. He +lived with the virtuous part of the senate, (and, in a private +station, he had been acquainted with the true character of each +individual,) without either pride or jealousy; considered them as +friends and companions, with whom he had shared the danger of the +tyranny, and with whom he wished to enjoy the security of the +present time. He very frequently invited them to familiar +entertainments, the frugality of which was ridiculed by those who +remembered and regretted the luxurious prodigality of +Commodus.<br> +</p> + +<p>To heal, as far as I was possible, the wounds inflicted by the +hand of tyranny, was the pleasing, but melancholy, task of +Pertinax. The innocent victims, who yet survived, were recalled +from exile, released from prison, and restored to the full +possession of their honors and fortunes. The unburied bodies of +murdered senators (for the cruelty of Commodus endeavored to +extend itself beyond death) were deposited in the sepulchres of +their ancestors; their memory was justified and every consolation +was bestowed on their ruined and afflicted families. Among these +consolations, one of the most grateful was the punishment of the +Delators; the common enemies of their master, of virtue, and of +their country. Yet even in the inquisition of these legal +assassins, Pertinax proceeded with a steady temper, which gave +every thing to justice, and nothing to popular prejudice and +resentment.<br> +</p> + +<p>The finances of the state demanded the most vigilant care of +the emperor. Though every measure of injustice and extortion had +been adopted, which could collect the property of the subject +into the coffers of the prince, the rapaciousness of Commodus had +been so very inadequate to his extravagance, that, upon his +death, no more than eight thousand pounds were found in the +exhausted treasury, to defray the current expenses of government, +and to discharge the pressing demand of a liberal donative, which +the new emperor had been obliged to promise to the +Prætorian guards. Yet under these distressed circumstances, +Pertinax had the generous firmness to remit all the oppressive +taxes invented by Commodus, and to cancel all the unjust claims +of the treasury; declaring, in a decree of the senate, "that he +was better satisfied to administer a poor republic with +innocence, than to acquire riches by the ways of tyranny and +dishonor. "Economy and industry he considered as the pure and +genuine sources of wealth; and from them he soon derived a +copious supply for the public necessities. The expense of the +household was immediately reduced to one half. All the +instruments of luxury Pertinax exposed to public auction, gold +and silver plate, chariots of a singular construction, a +superfluous wardrobe of silk and embroidery, and a great number +of beautiful slaves of both sexes; excepting only, with attentive +humanity, those who were born in a state of freedom, and had been +ravished from the arms of their weeping parents. At the same time +that he obliged the worthless favorites of the tyrant to resign a +part of their ill-gotten wealth, he satisfied the just creditors +of the state, and unexpectedly discharged the long arrears of +honest services. He removed the oppressive restrictions which had +been laid upon commerce, and granted all the uncultivated lands +in Italy and the provinces to those who would improve them; with +an exemption from tribute during the term of ten years.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such a uniform conduct had already secured to Pertinax the +noblest reward of a sovereign, the love and esteem of his people. +Those who remembered the virtues of Marcus were happy to +contemplate in their new emperor the features of that bright +original; and flattered themselves, that they should long enjoy +the benign influence of his administration. A hasty zeal to +reform the corrupted state, accompanied with less prudence than +might have been expected from the years and experience of +Pertinax, proved fatal to himself and to his country. His honest +indiscretion united against him the servile crowd, who found +their private benefit in the public disorders, and who preferred +the favor of a tyrant to the inexorable equality of the laws.<br> +</p> + +<p>Amidst the general joy, the sullen and angry countenance of +the Prætorian guards betrayed their inward dissatisfaction. +They had reluctantly submitted to Pertinax; they dreaded the +strictness of the ancient discipline, which he was preparing to +restore; and they regretted the license of the former reign. +Their discontents were secretly fomented by Lætus, their +præfect, who found, when it was too late, that his new +emperor would reward a servant, but would not be ruled by a +favorite. On the third day of his reign, the soldiers seized on a +noble senator, with a design to carry him to the camp, and to +invest him with the Imperial purple. Instead of being dazzled by +the dangerous honor, the affrighted victim escaped from their +violence, and took refuge at the feet of Pertinax. A short time +afterwards, Sosius Falco, one of the consuls of the year, a rash +youth, but of an ancient and opulent family, listened to the +voice of ambition; and a conspiracy was formed during a short +absence of Pertinax, which was crushed by his sudden return to +Rome, and his resolute behavior. Falco was on the point of being +justly condemned to death as a public enemy had he not been saved +by the earnest and sincere entreaties of the injured emperor, who +conjured the senate, that the purity of his reign might not be +stained by the blood even of a guilty senator.<br> +</p> + +<p>These disappointments served only to irritate the rage of the +Prætorian guards. On the twenty-eighth of March, eighty-six +days only after the death of Commodus, a general sedition broke +out in the camp, which the officers wanted either power or +inclination to suppress. Two or three hundred of the most +desperate soldiers marched at noonday, with arms in their hands +and fury in their looks, towards the Imperial palace. The gates +were thrown open by their companions upon guard, and by the +domestics of the old court, who had already formed a secret +conspiracy against the life of the too virtuous emperor. On the +news of their approach, Pertinax, disdaining either flight or +concealment, advanced to meet his assassins; and recalled to +their minds his own innocence, and the sanctity of their recent +oath. For a few moments they stood in silent suspense, ashamed of +their atrocious design, and awed by the venerable aspect and +majestic firmness of their sovereign, till at length, the despair +of pardon reviving their fury, a barbarian of the country of +Tongress levelled the first blow against Pertinax, who was +instantly despatched with a multitude of wounds. His head, +separated from his body, and placed on a lance, was carried in +triumph to the Prætorian camp, in the sight of a mournful +and indignant people, who lamented the unworthy fate of that +excellent prince, and the transient blessings of a reign, the +memory of which could serve only to aggravate their approaching +misfortunes.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius +Julianus.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The +Prætorian Guards -- Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius +Niger In Syria, And Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare +Against The Murderers Of Pertinax -- Civil Wars And Victory Of +Severus Over His Three Rivals -- Relaxation Of Discipline -- New +Maxims Of Government.<br> +</p> + +<p>The power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive +monarchy, than in a small community. It has been calculated by +the ablest politicians, that no state, without being soon +exhausted, can maintain above the hundredth part of its members +in arms and idleness. But although this relative proportion may +be uniform, the influence of the army over the rest of the +society will vary according to the degree of its positive +strength. The advantages of military science and discipline +cannot be exerted, unless a proper number of soldiers are united +into one body, and actuated by one soul. With a handful of men, +such a union would be ineffectual; with an unwieldy host, it +would be impracticable; and the powers of the machine would be +alike destroyed by the extreme minuteness or the excessive weight +of its springs. To illustrate this observation, we need only +reflect, that there is no superiority of natural strength, +artificial weapons, or acquired skill, which could enable one man +to keep in constant subjection one hundred of his +fellow-creatures: the tyrant of a single town, or a small +district, would soon discover that a hundred armed followers were +a weak defence against ten thousand peasants or citizens; but a +hundred thousand well-disciplined soldiers will command, with +despotic sway, ten millions of subjects; and a body of ten or +fifteen thousand guards will strike terror into the most numerous +populace that ever crowded the streets of an immense capital.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Prætorian bands, whose licentious fury was the first +symptom and cause of the decline of the Roman empire, scarcely +amounted to the last-mentioned number They derived their +institution from Augustus. That crafty tyrant, sensible that laws +might color, but that arms alone could maintain, his usurped +dominion, had gradually formed this powerful body of guards, in +constant readiness to protect his person, to awe the senate, and +either to prevent or to crush the first motions of rebellion. He +distinguished these favored troops by a double pay and superior +privileges; but, as their formidable aspect would at once have +alarmed and irritated the Roman people, three cohorts only were +stationed in the capital, whilst the remainder was dispersed in +the adjacent towns of Italy. But after fifty years of peace and +servitude, Tiberius ventured on a decisive measure, which forever +rivetted the fetters of his country. Under the fair pretences of +relieving Italy from the heavy burden of military quarters, and +of introducing a stricter discipline among the guards, he +assembled them at Rome, in a permanent camp, which was fortified +with skilful care, and placed on a commanding situation.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such formidable servants are always necessary, but often fatal +to the throne of despotism. By thus introducing the +Prætorian guards as it were into the palace and the senate, +the emperors taught them to perceive their own strength, and the +weakness of the civil government; to view the vices of their +masters with familiar contempt, and to lay aside that reverential +awe, which distance only, and mystery, can preserve towards an +imaginary power. In the luxurious idleness of an opulent city, +their pride was nourished by the sense of their irresistible +weight; nor was it possible to conceal from them, that the person +of the sovereign, the authority of the senate, the public +treasure, and the seat of empire, were all in their hands. To +divert the Prætorian bands from these dangerous +reflections, the firmest and best established princes were +obliged to mix blandishments with commands, rewards with +punishments, to flatter their pride, indulge their pleasures, +connive at their irregularities, and to purchase their precarious +faith by a liberal donative; which, since the elevation of +Claudius, was enacted as a legal claim, on the accession of every +new emperor.<br> +</p> + +<p>The advocate of the guards endeavored to justify by arguments +the power which they asserted by arms; and to maintain that, +according to the purest principles of the constitution, +<em>their</em> consent was essentially necessary in the +appointment of an emperor. The election of consuls, of generals, +and of magistrates, however it had been recently usurped by the +senate, was the ancient and undoubted right of the Roman people. +But where was the Roman people to be found? Not surely amongst +the mixed multitude of slaves and strangers that filled the +streets of Rome; a servile populace, as devoid of spirit as +destitute of property. The defenders of the state, selected from +the flower of the Italian youth, and trained in the exercise of +arms and virtue, were the genuine representatives of the people, +and the best entitled to elect the military chief of the +republic. These assertions, however defective in reason, became +unanswerable when the fierce Prætorians increased their +weight, by throwing, like the barbarian conqueror of Rome, their +swords into the scale.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Prætorians had violated the sanctity of the throne +by the atrocious murder of Pertinax; they dishonored the majesty +of it by their subsequent conduct. The camp was without a leader, +for even the præfect Lætus, who had excited the +tempest, prudently declined the public indignation. Amidst the +wild disorder, Sulpicianus, the emperor's father-in-law, and +governor of the city, who had been sent to the camp on the first +alarm of mutiny, was endeavoring to calm the fury of the +multitude, when he was silenced by the clamorous return of the +murderers, bearing on a lance the head of Pertinax. Though +history has accustomed us to observe every principle and every +passion yielding to the imperious dictates of ambition, it is +scarcely credible that, in these moments of horror, Sulpicianus +should have aspired to ascend a throne polluted with the recent +blood of so near a relation and so excellent a prince. He had +already begun to use the only effectual argument, and to treat +for the Imperial dignity; but the more prudent of the +Prætorians, apprehensive that, in this private contract, +they should not obtain a just price for so valuable a commodity, +ran out upon the ramparts; and, with a loud voice, proclaimed +that the Roman world was to be disposed of to the best bidder by +public auction.<br> +</p> + +<p>This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military +license, diffused a universal grief, shame, and indignation +throughout the city. It reached at length the ears of Didius +Julianus, a wealthy senator, who, regardless of the public +calamities, was indulging himself in the luxury of the table. His +wife and his daughter, his freedmen and his parasites, easily +convinced him that he deserved the throne, and earnestly conjured +him to embrace so fortunate an opportunity. The vain old man +hastened to the Prætorian camp, where Sulpicianus was still +in treaty with the guards, and began to bid against him from the +foot of the rampart. The unworthy negotiation was transacted by +faithful emissaries, who passed alternately from one candidate to +the other, and acquainted each of them with the offers of his +rival. Sulpicianus had already promised a donative of five +thousand drachms (above one hundred and sixty pounds) to each +soldier; when Julian, eager for the prize, rose at once to the +sum of six thousand two hundred and fifty drachms, or upwards of +two hundred pounds sterling. The gates of the camp were instantly +thrown open to the purchaser; he was declared emperor, and +received an oath of allegiance from the soldiers, who retained +humanity enough to stipulate that he should pardon and forget the +competition of Sulpicianus. *<br> +</p> + +<p>It was now incumbent on the Prætorians to fulfil the +conditions of the sale. They placed their new sovereign, whom +they served and despised, in the centre of their ranks, +surrounded him on every side with their shields, and conducted +him in close order of battle through the deserted streets of the +city. The senate was commanded to assemble; and those who had +been the distinguished friends of Pertinax, or the personal +enemies of Julian, found it necessary to affect a more than +common share of satisfaction at this happy revolution. After +Julian had filled the senate house with armed soldiers, he +expatiated on the freedom of his election, his own eminent +virtues, and his full assurance of the affections of the senate. +The obsequious assembly congratulated their own and the public +felicity; engaged their allegiance, and conferred on him all the +several branches of the Imperial power. From the senate Julian +was conducted, by the same military procession, to take +possession of the palace. The first objects that struck his eyes, +were the abandoned trunk of Pertinax, and the frugal +entertainment prepared for his supper. The one he viewed with +indifference, the other with contempt. A magnificent feast was +prepared by his order, and he amused himself, till a very late +hour, with dice, and the performances of Pylades, a celebrated +dancer. Yet it was observed, that after the crowd of flatterers +dispersed, and left him to darkness, solitude, and terrible +reflection, he passed a sleepless night; revolving most probably +in his mind his own rash folly, the fate of his virtuous +predecessor, and the doubtful and dangerous tenure of an empire +which had not been acquired by merit, but purchased by money.<br> +</p> + +<p>He had reason to tremble. On the throne of the world he found +himself without a friend, and even without an adherent. The +guards themselves were ashamed of the prince whom their avarice +had persuaded them to accept; nor was there a citizen who did not +consider his elevation with horror, as the last insult on the +Roman name. The nobility, whose conspicuous station, and ample +possessions, exacted the strictest caution, dissembled their +sentiments, and met the affected civility of the emperor with +smiles of complacency and professions of duty. But the people, +secure in their numbers and obscurity, gave a free vent to their +passions. The streets and public places of Rome resounded with +clamors and imprecations. The enraged multitude affronted the +person of Julian, rejected his liberality, and, conscious of the +impotence of their own resentment, they called aloud on the +legions of the frontiers to assert the violated majesty of the +Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>The public discontent was soon diffused from the centre to the +frontiers of the empire. The armies of Britain, of Syria, and of +Illyricum, lamented the death of Pertinax, in whose company, or +under whose command, they had so often fought and conquered. They +received with surprise, with indignation, and perhaps with envy, +the extraordinary intelligence, that the Prætorians had +disposed of the empire by public auction; and they sternly +refused to ratify the ignominious bargain. Their immediate and +unanimous revolt was fatal to Julian, but it was fatal at the +same time to the public peace, as the generals of the respective +armies, Clodius Albinus, Pescennius Niger, and Septimius Severus, +were still more anxious to succeed than to revenge the murdered +Pertinax. Their forces were exactly balanced. Each of them was at +the head of three legions, with a numerous train of auxiliaries; +and however different in their characters, they were all soldiers +of experience and capacity.<br> +</p> + +<p>Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain, surpassed both his +competitors in the nobility of his extraction, which he derived +from some of the most illustrious names of the old republic. But +the branch from which he claimed his descent was sunk into mean +circumstances, and transplanted into a remote province. It is +difficult to form a just idea of his true character. Under the +philosophic cloak of austerity, he stands accused of concealing +most of the vices which degrade human nature. But his accusers +are those venal writers who adored the fortune of Severus, and +trampled on the ashes of an unsuccessful rival. Virtue, or the +appearances of virtue, recommended Albinus to the confidence and +good opinion of Marcus; and his preserving with the son the same +interest which he had acquired with the father, is a proof at +least that he was possessed of a very flexible disposition. The +favor of a tyrant does not always suppose a want of merit in the +object of it; he may, without intending it, reward a man of worth +and ability, or he may find such a man useful to his own service. +It does not appear that Albinus served the son of Marcus, either +as the minister of his cruelties, or even as the associate of his +pleasures. He was employed in a distant honorable command, when +he received a confidential letter from the emperor, acquainting +him of the treasonable designs of some discontented generals, and +authorizing him to declare himself the guardian and successor of +the throne, by assuming the title and ensigns of Cæsar. The +governor of Britain wisely declined the dangerous honor, which +would have marked him for the jealousy, or involved him in the +approaching ruin, of Commodus. He courted power by nobler, or, at +least, by more specious arts. On a premature report of the death +of the emperor, he assembled his troops; and, in an eloquent +discourse, deplored the inevitable mischiefs of despotism, +described the happiness and glory which their ancestors had +enjoyed under the consular government, and declared his firm +resolution to reinstate the senate and people in their legal +authority. This popular harangue was answered by the loud +acclamations of the British legions, and received at Rome with a +secret murmur of applause. Safe in the possession of his little +world, and in the command of an army less distinguished indeed +for discipline than for numbers and valor, Albinus braved the +menaces of Commodus, maintained towards Pertinax a stately +ambiguous reserve, and instantly declared against the usurpation +of Julian. The convulsions of the capital added new weight to his +sentiments, or rather to his professions of patriotism. A regard +to decency induced him to decline the lofty titles of Augustus +and Emperor; and he imitated perhaps the example of Galba, who, +on a similar occasion, had styled himself the Lieutenant of the +senate and people.<br> +</p> + +<p>Personal merit alone had raised Pescennius Niger, from an +obscure birth and station, to the government of Syria; a +lucrative and important command, which in times of civil +confusion gave him a near prospect of the throne. Yet his parts +seem to have been better suited to the second than to the first +rank; he was an unequal rival, though he might have approved +himself an excellent lieutenant, to Severus, who afterwards +displayed the greatness of his mind by adopting several useful +institutions from a vanquished enemy. In his government Niger +acquired the esteem of the soldiers and the love of the +provincials. His rigid discipline foritfied the valor and +confirmed the obedience of the former, whilst the voluptuous +Syrians were less delighted with the mild firmness of his +administration, than with the affability of his manners, and the +apparent pleasure with which he attended their frequent and +pompous festivals. As soon as the intelligence of the atrocious +murder of Pertinax had reached Antioch, the wishes of Asia +invited Niger to assume the Imperial purple and revenge his +death. The legions of the eastern frontier embraced his cause; +the opulent but unarmed provinces, from the frontiers of +Æthiopia to the Hadriatic, cheerfully submitted to his +power; and the kings beyond the Tigris and the Euphrates +congratulated his election, and offered him their homage and +services. The mind of Niger was not capable of receiving this +sudden tide of fortune: he flattered himself that his accession +would be undisturbed by competition and unstained by civil blood; +and whilst he enjoyed the vain pomp of triumph, he neglected to +secure the means of victory. Instead of entering into an +effectual negotiation with the powerful armies of the West, whose +resolution might decide, or at least must balance, the mighty +contest; instead of advancing without delay towards Rome and +Italy, where his presence was impatiently expected, Niger trifled +away in the luxury of Antioch those irretrievable moments which +were diligently improved by the decisive activity of Severus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The country of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which occupied the space +between the Danube and the Hadriatic, was one of the last and +most difficult conquests of the Romans. In the defence of +national freedom, two hundred thousand of these barbarians had +once appeared in the field, alarmed the declining age of +Augustus, and exercised the vigilant prudence of Tiberius at the +head of the collected force of the empire. The Pannonians yielded +at length to the arms and institutions of Rome. Their recent +subjection, however, the neighborhood, and even the mixture, of +the unconquered tribes, and perhaps the climate, adapted, as it +has been observed, to the production of great bodies and slow +minds, all contributed to preserve some remains of their original +ferocity, and under the tame and uniform countenance of Roman +provincials, the hardy features of the natives were still to be +discerned. Their warlike youth afforded an inexhaustible supply +of recruits to the legions stationed on the banks of the Danube, +and which, from a perpetual warfare against the Germans and +Sarmazans, were deservedly esteemed the best troops in the +service.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Pannonian army was at this time commanded by Septimius +Severus, a native of Africa, who, in the gradual ascent of +private honors, had concealed his daring ambition, which was +never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of +pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of +humanity. On the first news of the murder of Pertinax, he +assembled his troops, painted in the most lively colors the +crime, the insolence, and the weakness of the Prætorian +guards, and animated the legions to arms and to revenge. He +concluded (and the peroration was thought extremely eloquent) +with promising every soldier about four hundred pounds; an +honorable donative, double in value to the infamous bribe with +which Julian had purchased the empire. The acclamations of the +army immediately saluted Severus with the names of Augustus, +Pertinax, and Emperor; and he thus attained the lofty station to +which he was invited, by conscious merit and a long train of +dreams and omens, the fruitful offsprings either of his +superstition or policy.<br> +</p> + +<p>The new candidate for empire saw and improved the peculiar +advantage of his situation. His province extended to the Julian +Alps, which gave an easy access into Italy; and he remembered the +saying of Augustus, That a Pannonian army might in ten days +appear in sight of Rome. By a celerity proportioned to the +greatness of the occasion, he might reasonably hope to revenge +Pertinax, punish Julian, and receive the homage of the senate and +people, as their lawful emperor, before his competitors, +separated from Italy by an immense tract of sea and land, were +apprised of his success, or even of his election. During the +whole expedition, he scarcely allowed himself any moments for +sleep or food; marching on foot, and in complete armor, at the +head of his columns, he insinuated himself into the confidence +and affection of his troops, pressed their diligence, revived +their spirits, animated their hopes, and was well satisfied to +share the hardships of the meanest soldier, whilst he kept in +view the infinite superiority of his reward.<br> +</p> + +<p>The wretched Julian had expected, and thought himself +prepared, to dispute the empire with the governor of Syria; but +in the invincible and rapid approach of the Pannonian legions, he +saw his inevitable ruin. The hasty arrival of every messenger +increased his just apprehensions. He was successively informed, +that Severus had passed the Alps; that the Italian cities, +unwilling or unable to oppose his progress, had received him with +the warmest professions of joy and duty; that the important place +of Ravenna had surrendered without resistance, and that the +Hadriatic fleet was in the hands of the conqueror. The enemy was +now within two hundred and fifty miles of Rome; and every moment +diminished the narrow span of life and empire allotted to +Julian.<br> +</p> + +<p>He attempted, however, to prevent, or at least to protract, +his ruin. He implored the venal faith of the Prætorians, +filled the city with unavailing preparations for war, drew lines +round the suburbs, and even strengthened the fortifications of +the palace; as if those last intrenchments could be defended, +without hope of relief, against a victorious invader. Fear and +shame prevented the guards from deserting his standard; but they +trembled at the name of the Pannonian legions, commanded by an +experienced general, and accustomed to vanquish the barbarians on +the frozen Danube. They quitted, with a sigh, the pleasures of +the baths and theatres, to put on arms, whose use they had almost +forgotten, and beneath the weight of which they were oppressed. +The unpractised elephants, whose uncouth appearance, it was +hoped, would strike terror into the army of the north, threw +their unskilful riders; and the awkward evolutions of the +marines, drawn from the fleet of Misenum, were an object of +ridicule to the populace; whilst the senate enjoyed, with secret +pleasure, the distress and weakness of the usurper.<br> +</p> + +<p>Every motion of Julian betrayed his trembling perplexity. He +insisted that Severus should be declared a public enemy by the +senate. He entreated that the Pannonian general might be +associated to the empire. He sent public ambassadors of consular +rank to negotiate with his rival; he despatched private assassins +to take away his life. He designed that the Vestal virgins, and +all the colleges of priests, in their sacerdotal habits, and +bearing before them the sacred pledges of the Roman religion, +should advance in solemn procession to meet the Pannonian +legions; and, at the same time, he vainly tried to interrogate, +or to appease, the fates, by magic ceremonies and unlawful +sacrifices.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus. +-- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Severus, who dreaded neither his arms nor his enchantments, +guarded himself from the only danger of secret conspiracy, by the +faithful attendance of six hundred chosen men, who never quitted +his person or their cuirasses, either by night or by day, during +the whole march. Advancing with a steady and rapid course, he +passed, without difficulty, the defiles of the Apennine, received +into his party the troops and ambassadors sent to retard his +progress, and made a short halt at Interamnia, about seventy +miles from Rome. His victory was already secure, but the despair +of the Prætorians might have rendered it bloody; and +Severus had the laudable ambition of ascending the throne without +drawing the sword. His emissaries, dispersed in the capital, +assured the guards, that provided they would abandon their +worthless prince, and the perpetrators of the murder of Pertinax, +to the justice of the conqueror, he would no longer consider that +melancholy event as the act of the whole body. The faithless +Prætorians, whose resistance was supported only by sullen +obstinacy, gladly complied with the easy conditions, seized the +greatest part of the assassins, and signified to the senate, that +they no longer defended the cause of Julian. That assembly, +convoked by the consul, unanimously acknowledged Severus as +lawful emperor, decreed divine honors to Pertinax, and pronounced +a sentence of deposition and death against his unfortunate +successor. Julian was conducted into a private apartment of the +baths of the palace, and beheaded as a common criminal, after +having purchased, with an immense treasure, an anxious and +precarious reign of only sixty-six days. The almost incredible +expedition of Severus, who, in so short a space of time, +conducted a numerous army from the banks of the Danube to those +of the Tyber, proves at once the plenty of provisions produced by +agriculture and commerce, the goodness of the roads, the +discipline of the legions, and the indolent, subdued temper of +the provinces.<br> +</p> + +<p>The first cares of Severus were bestowed on two measures the +one dictated by policy, the other by decency; the revenge, and +the honors, due to the memory of Pertinax. Before the new emperor +entered Rome, he issued his commands to the Prætorian +guards, directing them to wait his arrival on a large plain near +the city, without arms, but in the habits of ceremony, in which +they were accustomed to attend their sovereign. He was obeyed by +those haughty troops, whose contrition was the effect of their +just terrors. A chosen part of the Illyrian army encompassed them +with levelled spears. Incapable of flight or resistance, they +expected their fate in silent consternation. Severus mounted the +tribunal, sternly reproached them with perfidy and cowardice, +dismissed them with ignominy from the trust which they had +betrayed, despoiled them of their splendid ornaments, and +banished them, on pain of death, to the distance of a hundred +miles from the capital. During the transaction, another +detachment had been sent to seize their arms, occupy their camp, +and prevent the hasty consequences of their despair.<br> +</p> + +<p>The funeral and consecration of Pertinax was next solemnized +with every circumstance of sad magnificence. The senate, with a +melancholy pleasure, performed the last rites to that excellent +prince, whom they had loved, and still regretted. The concern of +his successor was probably less sincere; he esteemed the virtues +of Pertinax, but those virtues would forever have confined his +ambition to a private station. Severus pronounced his funeral +oration with studied eloquence, inward satisfaction, and +well-acted sorrow; and by this pious regard to his memory, +convinced the credulous multitude, that he alone was worthy to +supply his place. Sensible, however, that arms, not ceremonies, +must assert his claim to the empire, he left Rome at the end of +thirty days, and without suffering himself to be elated by this +easy victory, prepared to encounter his more formidable +rivals.<br> +</p> + +<p>The uncommon abilities and fortune of Severus have induced an +elegant historian to compare him with the first and greatest of +the Cæsars. The parallel is, at least, imperfect. Where +shall we find, in the character of Severus, the commanding +superiority of soul, the generous clemency, and the various +genius, which could reconcile and unite the love of pleasure, the +thirst of knowledge, and the fire of ambition? In one instance +only, they may be compared, with some degree of propriety, in the +celerity of their motions, and their civil victories. In less +than four years, Severus subdued the riches of the East, and the +valor of the West. He vanquished two competitors of reputation +and ability, and defeated numerous armies, provided with weapons +and discipline equal to his own. In that age, the art of +fortification, and the principles of tactics, were well +understood by all the Roman generals; and the constant +superiority of Severus was that of an artist, who uses the same +instruments with more skill and industry than his rivals. I shall +not, however, enter into a minute narrative of these military +operations; but as the two civil wars against Niger and against +Albinus were almost the same in their conduct, event, and +consequences, I shall collect into one point of view the most +striking circumstances, tending to develop the character of the +conqueror and the state of the empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>Falsehood and insincerity, unsuitable as they seem to the +dignity of public transactions, offend us with a less degrading +idea of meanness, than when they are found in the intercourse of +private life. In the latter, they discover a want of courage; in +the other, only a defect of power: and, as it is impossible for +the most able statesmen to subdue millions of followers and +enemies by their own personal strength, the world, under the name +of policy, seems to have granted them a very liberal indulgence +of craft and dissimulation. Yet the arts of Severus cannot be +justified by the most ample privileges of state reason. He +promised only to betray, he flattered only to ruin; and however +he might occasionally bind himself by oaths and treaties, his +conscience, obsequious to his interest, always released him from +the inconvenient obligation.<br> +</p> + +<p>If his two competitors, reconciled by their common danger, had +advanced upon him without delay, perhaps Severus would have sunk +under their united effort. Had they even attacked him, at the +same time, with separate views and separate armies, the contest +might have been long and doubtful. But they fell, singly and +successively, an easy prey to the arts as well as arms of their +subtle enemy, lulled into security by the moderation of his +professions, and overwhelmed by the rapidity of his action. He +first marched against Niger, whose reputation and power he the +most dreaded: but he declined any hostile declarations, +suppressed the name of his antagonist, and only signified to the +senate and people his intention of regulating the eastern +provinces. In private, he spoke of Niger, his old friend and +intended successor, with the most affectionate regard, and highly +applauded his generous design of revenging the murder of +Pertinax. To punish the vile usurper of the throne, was the duty +of every Roman general. To persevere in arms, and to resist a +lawful emperor, acknowledged by the senate, would alone render +him criminal. The sons of Niger had fallen into his hands among +the children of the provincial governors, detained at Rome as +pledges for the loyalty of their parents. As long as the power of +Niger inspired terror, or even respect, they were educated with +the most tender care, with the children of Severus himself; but +they were soon involved in their father's ruin, and removed first +by exile, and afterwards by death, from the eye of public +compassion.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whilst Severus was engaged in his eastern war, he had reason +to apprehend that the governor of Britain might pass the sea and +the Alps, occupy the vacant seat of empire, and oppose his return +with the authority of the senate and the forces of the West. The +ambiguous conduct of Albinus, in not assuming the Imperial title, +left room for negotiation. Forgetting, at once, his professions +of patriotism, and the jealousy of sovereign power, he accepted +the precarious rank of Cæsar, as a reward for his fatal +neutrality. Till the first contest was decided, Severus treated +the man, whom he had doomed to destruction, with every mark of +esteem and regard. Even in the letter, in which he announced his +victory over Niger, he styles Albinus the brother of his soul and +empire, sends him the affectionate salutations of his wife Julia, +and his young family, and entreats him to preserve the armies and +the republic faithful to their common interest. The messengers +charged with this letter were instructed to accost the +Cæsar with respect, to desire a private audience, and to +plunge their daggers into his heart. The conspiracy was +discovered, and the too credulous Albinus, at length, passed over +to the continent, and prepared for an unequal contest with his +rival, who rushed upon him at the head of a veteran and +victorious army.<br> +</p> + +<p>The military labors of Severus seem inadequate to the +importance of his conquests. Two engagements, * the one near the +Hellespont, the other in the narrow defiles of Cilicia, decided +the fate of his Syrian competitor; and the troops of Europe +asserted their usual ascendant over the effeminate natives of +Asia. The battle of Lyons, where one hundred and fifty thousand +Romans were engaged, was equally fatal to Albinus. The valor of +the British army maintained, indeed, a sharp and doubtful +contest, with the hardy discipline of the Illyrian legions. The +fame and person of Severus appeared, during a few moments, +irrecoverably lost, till that warlike prince rallied his fainting +troops, and led them on to a decisive victory. The war was +finished by that memorable day.<br> +</p> + +<p>The civil wars of modern Europe have been distinguished, not +only by the fierce animosity, but likewise by the obstinate +perseverance, of the contending factions. They have generally +been justified by some principle, or, at least, colored by some +pretext, of religion, freedom, or loyalty. The leaders were +nobles of independent property and hereditary influence. The +troops fought like men interested in the decision of the quarrel; +and as military spirit and party zeal were strongly diffused +throughout the whole community, a vanquished chief was +immediately supplied with new adherents, eager to shed their +blood in the same cause. But the Romans, after the fall of the +republic, combated only for the choice of masters. Under the +standard of a popular candidate for empire, a few enlisted from +affection, some from fear, many from interest, none from +principle. The legions, uninflamed by party zeal, were allured +into civil war by liberal donatives, and still more liberal +promises. A defeat, by disabling the chief from the performance +of his engagements, dissolved the mercenary allegiance of his +followers, and left them to consult their own safety by a timely +desertion of an unsuccessful cause. It was of little moment to +the provinces, under whose name they were oppressed or governed; +they were driven by the impulsion of the present power, and as +soon as that power yielded to a superior force, they hastened to +implore the clemency of the conqueror, who, as he had an immense +debt to discharge, was obliged to sacrifice the most guilty +countries to the avarice of his soldiers. In the vast extent of +the Roman empire, there were few fortified cities capable of +protecting a routed army; nor was there any person, or family, or +order of men, whose natural interest, unsupported by the powers +of government, was capable of restoring the cause of a sinking +party.<br> +</p> + +<p>Yet, in the contest between Niger and Severus, a single city +deserves an honorable exception. As Byzantium was one of the +greatest passages from Europe into Asia, it had been provided +with a strong garrison, and a fleet of five hundred vessels was +anchored in the harbor. The impetuosity of Severus disappointed +this prudent scheme of defence; he left to his generals the siege +of Byzantium, forced the less guarded passage of the Hellespont, +and, impatient of a meaner enemy, pressed forward to encounter +his rival. Byzantium, attacked by a numerous and increasing army, +and afterwards by the whole naval power of the empire, sustained +a siege of three years, and remained faithful to the name and +memory of Niger. The citizens and soldiers (we know not from what +cause) were animated with equal fury; several of the principal +officers of Niger, who despaired of, or who disdained, a pardon, +had thrown themselves into this last refuge: the fortifications +were esteemed impregnable, and, in the defence of the place, a +celebrated engineer displayed all the mechanic powers known to +the ancients. Byzantium, at length, surrendered to famine. The +magistrates and soldiers were put to the sword, the walls +demolished, the privileges suppressed, and the destined capital +of the East subsisted only as an open village, subject to the +insulting jurisdiction of Perinthus. The historian Dion, who had +admired the flourishing, and lamented the desolate, state of +Byzantium, accused the revenge of Severus, for depriving the +Roman people of the strongest bulwark against the barbarians of +Pontus and Asia The truth of this observation was but too well +justified in the succeeding age, when the Gothic fleets covered +the Euxine, and passed through the undefined Bosphorus into the +centre of the Mediterranean.<br> +</p> + +<p>Both Niger and Albinus were discovered and put to death in +their flight from the field of battle. Their fate excited neither +surprise nor compassion. They had staked their lives against the +chance of empire, and suffered what they would have inflicted; +nor did Severus claim the arrogant superiority of suffering his +rivals to live in a private station. But his unforgiving temper, +stimulated by avarice, indulged a spirit of revenge, where there +was no room for apprehension. The most considerable of the +provincials, who, without any dislike to the fortunate candidate, +had obeyed the governor under whose authority they were +accidentally placed, were punished by death, exile, and +especially by the confiscation of their estates. Many cities of +the East were stripped of their ancient honors, and obliged to +pay, into the treasury of Severus, four times the amount of the +sums contributed by them for the service of Niger.<br> +</p> + +<p>Till the final decision of the war, the cruelty of Severus +was, in some measure, restrained by the uncertainty of the event, +and his pretended reverence for the senate. The head of Albinus, +accompanied with a menacing letter, announced to the Romans that +he was resolved to spare none of the adherents of his unfortunate +competitors. He was irritated by the just suspicion that he had +never possessed the affections of the senate, and he concealed +his old malevolence under the recent discovery of some +treasonable correspondences. Thirty-five senators, however, +accused of having favored the party of Albinus, he freely +pardoned, and, by his subsequent behavior, endeavored to convince +them, that he had forgotten, as well as forgiven, their supposed +offences. But, at the same time, he condemned forty-one other +senators, whose names history has recorded; their wives, +children, and clients attended them in death, * and the noblest +provincials of Spain and Gaul were involved in the same ruin. +Such rigid justice -- for so he termed it -- was, in the opinion +of Severus, the only conduct capable of insuring peace to the +people or stability to the prince; and he condescended slightly +to lament, that to be mild, it was necessary that he should first +be cruel.<br> +</p> + +<p>The true interest of an absolute monarch generally coincides +with that of his people. Their numbers, their wealth, their +order, and their security, are the best and only foundations of +his real greatness; and were he totally devoid of virtue, +prudence might supply its place, and would dictate the same rule +of conduct. Severus considered the Roman empire as his property, +and had no sooner secured the possession, than he bestowed his +care on the cultivation and improvement of so valuable an +acquisition. Salutary laws, executed with inflexible firmness, +soon corrected most of the abuses with which, since the death of +Marcus, every part of the government had been infected. In the +administration of justice, the judgments of the emperor were +characterized by attention, discernment, and impartiality; and +whenever he deviated from the strict line of equity, it was +generally in favor of the poor and oppressed; not so much indeed +from any sense of humanity, as from the natural propensity of a +despot to humble the pride of greatness, and to sink all his +subjects to the same common level of absolute dependence. His +expensive taste for building, magnificent shows, and above all a +constant and liberal distribution of corn and provisions, were +the surest means of captivating the affection of the Roman +people. The misfortunes of civil discord were obliterated. The +clam of peace and prosperity was once more experienced in the +provinces; and many cities, restored by the munificence of +Severus, assumed the title of his colonies, and attested by +public monuments their gratitude and felicity. The fame of the +Roman arms was revived by that warlike and successful emperor, +and he boasted, with a just pride, that, having received the +empire oppressed with foreign and domestic wars, he left it +established in profound, universal, and honorable peace.<br> +</p> + +<p>Although the wounds of civil war appeared completely healed, +its mortal poison still lurked in the vitals of the constitution. +Severus possessed a considerable share of vigor and ability; but +the daring soul of the first Cæsar, or the deep policy of +Augustus, were scarcely equal to the task of curbing the +insolence of the victorious legions. By gratitude, by misguided +policy, by seeming necessity, Severus was reduced to relax the +nerves of discipline. The vanity of his soldiers was flattered +with the honor of wearing gold rings their ease was indulged in +the permission of living with their wives in the idleness of +quarters. He increased their pay beyond the example of former +times, and taught them to expect, and soon to claim, +extraordinary donatives on every public occasion of danger or +festivity. Elated by success, enervated by luxury, and raised +above the level of subjects by their dangerous privileges, they +soon became incapable of military fatigue, oppressive to the +country, and impatient of a just subordination. Their officers +asserted the superiority of rank by a more profuse and elegant +luxury. There is still extant a letter of Severus, lamenting the +licentious stage of the army, * and exhorting one of his generals +to begin the necessary reformation from the tribunes themselves; +since, as he justly observes, the officer who has forfeited the +esteem, will never command the obedience, of his soldiers. Had +the emperor pursued the train of reflection, he would have +discovered, that the primary cause of this general corruption +might be ascribed, not indeed to the example, but to the +pernicious indulgence, however, of the commander-in-chief.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Prætorians, who murdered their emperor and sold the +empire, had received the just punishment of their treason; but +the necessary, though dangerous, institution of guards was soon +restored on a new model by Severus, and increased to four times +the ancient number. Formerly these troops had been recruited in +Italy; and as the adjacent provinces gradually imbibed the softer +manners of Rome, the levies were extended to Macedonia, Noricum, +and Spain. In the room of these elegant troops, better adapted to +the pomp of courts than to the uses of war, it was established by +Severus, that from all the legions of the frontiers, the soldiers +most distinguished for strength, valor, and fidelity, should be +occasionally draughted; and promoted, as an honor and reward, +into the more eligible service of the guards. By this new +institution, the Italian youth were diverted from the exercise of +arms, and the capital was terrified by the strange aspect and +manners of a multitude of barbarians. But Severus flattered +himself, that the legions would consider these chosen +Prætorians as the representatives of the whole military +order; and that the present aid of fifty thousand men, superior +in arms and appointments to any force that could be brought into +the field against them, would forever crush the hopes of +rebellion, and secure the empire to himself and his +posterity.<br> +</p> + +<p>The command of these favored and formidable troops soon became +the first office of the empire. As the government degenerated +into military despotism, the Prætorian Præfect, who +in his origin had been a simple captain of the guards, * was +placed not only at the head of the army, but of the finances, and +even of the law. In every department of administration, he +represented the person, and exercised the authority, of the +emperor. The first præfect who enjoyed and abused this +immense power was Plautianus, the favorite minister of Severus. +His reign lasted above then years, till the marriage of his +daughter with the eldest son of the emperor, which seemed to +assure his fortune, proved the occasion of his ruin. The +animosities of the palace, by irritating the ambition and +alarming the fears of Plautianus, threatened to produce a +revolution, and obliged the emperor, who still loved him, to +consent with reluctance to his death. After the fall of +Plautianus, an eminent lawyer, the celebrated Papinian, was +appointed to execute the motley office of Prætorian +Præfect.<br> +</p> + +<p>Till the reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good sense +of the emperors had been distinguished by their zeal or affected +reverence for the senate, and by a tender regard to the nice +frame of civil policy instituted by Augustus. But the youth of +Severus had been trained in the implicit obedience of camps, and +his riper years spent in the despotism of military command. His +haughty and inflexible spirit could' not discover, or would not +acknowledge, the advantage of preserving an intermediate power, +however imaginary, between the emperor and the army. He disdained +to profess himself the servant of an assembly that detested his +person and trembled at his frown; he issued his commands, where +his requests would have proved as effectual; assumed the conduct +and style of a sovereign and a conqueror, and exercised, without +disguise, the whole legislative, as well as the executive +power.<br> +</p> + +<p>The victory over the senate was easy and inglorious. Every eye +and every passion were directed to the supreme magistrate, who +possessed the arms and treasure of the state; whilst the senate, +neither elected by the people, nor guarded by military force, nor +animated by public spirit, rested its declining authority on the +frail and crumbling basis of ancient opinion. The fine theory of +a republic insensibly vanished, and made way for the more natural +and substantial feelings of monarchy. As the freedom and honors +of Rome were successively communicated to the provinces, in which +the old government had been either unknown, or was remembered +with abhorrence, the tradition of republican maxims was gradually +obliterated. The Greek historians of the age of the Antonines +observe, with a malicious pleasure, that although the sovereign +of Rome, in compliance with an obsolete prejudice, abstained from +the name of king, he possessed the full measure of regal power. +In the reign of Severus, the senate was filled with polished and +eloquent slaves from the eastern provinces, who justified +personal flattery by speculative principles of servitude. These +new advocates of prerogative were heard with pleasure by the +court, and with patience by the people, when they inculcated the +duty of passive obedience, and descanted on the inevitable +mischiefs of freedom. The lawyers and historians concurred in +teaching, that the Imperial authority was held, not by the +delegated commission, but by the irrevocable resignation of the +senate; that the emperor was freed from the restraint of civil +laws, could command by his arbitrary will the lives and fortunes +of his subjects, and might dispose of the empire as of his +private patrimony. The most eminent of the civil lawyers, and +particularly Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, flourished under the +house of Severus; and the Roman jurisprudence, having closely +united itself with the system of monarchy, was supposed to have +attained its full majority and perfection.<br> +</p> + +<p>The contemporaries of Severus in the enjoyment of the peace +and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had +been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of +his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal +author of the decline of the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, +Usurpation Of Marcinus.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Death Of Severus. -- Tyranny Of Caracalla. -- Usurpation +Of Macrinus. -- Follies Of Elagabalus. -- Virtues Of Alexander +Severus. -- Licentiousness Of The Army. -- General State Of The +Roman Finances.<br> +</p> + +<p>The ascent to greatness, however steep and dangerous, may +entertain an active spirit with the consciousness and exercise of +its own powers: but the possession of a throne could never yet +afford a lasting satisfaction to an ambitious mind. This +melancholy truth was felt and acknowledged by Severus. Fortune +and merit had, from an humble station, elevated him to the first +place among mankind. "He had been all things," as he said +himself, "and all was of little value" Distracted with the care, +not of acquiring, but of preserving an empire, oppressed with age +and infirmities, careless of fame, and satiated with power, all +his prospects of life were closed. The desire of perpetuating the +greatness of his family was the only remaining wish of his +ambition and paternal tenderness.<br> +</p> + +<p>Like most of the Africans, Severus was passionately addicted +to the vain studies of magic and divination, deeply versed in the +interpretation of dreams and omens, and perfectly acquainted with +the science of judicial astrology; which, in almost every age +except the present, has maintained its dominion over the mind of +man. He had lost his first wife, while he was governor of the +Lionnese Gaul. In the choice of a second, he sought only to +connect himself with some favorite of fortune; and as soon as he +had discovered that the young lady of Emesa in Syria had a royal +nativity, he solicited and obtained her hand. Julia Domna (for +that was her name) deserved all that the stars could promise her. +She possessed, even in advanced age, the attractions of beauty, +and united to a lively imagination a firmness of mind, and +strength of judgment, seldom bestowed on her sex. Her amiable +qualities never made any deep impression on the dark and jealous +temper of her husband; but in her son's reign, she administered +the principal affairs of the empire, with a prudence that +supported his authority, and with a moderation that sometimes +corrected his wild extravagancies. Julia applied herself to +letters and philosophy, with some success, and with the most +splendid reputation. She was the patroness of every art, and the +friend of every man of genius. The grateful flattery of the +learned has celebrated her virtues; but, if we may credit the +scandal of ancient history, chastity was very far from being the +most conspicuous virtue of the empress Julia.<br> +</p> + +<p>Two sons, Caracalla and Geta, were the fruit of this marriage, +and the destined heirs of the empire. The fond hopes of the +father, and of the Roman world, were soon disappointed by these +vain youths, who displayed the indolent security of hereditary +princes; and a presumption that fortune would supply the place of +merit and application. Without any emulation of virtue or +talents, they discovered, almost from their infancy, a fixed and +implacable antipathy for each other.<br> +</p> + +<p>Their aversion, confirmed by years, and fomented by the arts +of their interested favorites, broke out in childish, and +gradually in more serious competitions; and, at length, divided +the theatre, the circus, and the court, into two factions, +actuated by the hopes and fears of their respective leaders. The +prudent emperor endeavored, by every expedient of advice and +authority, to allay this growing animosity. The unhappy discord +of his sons clouded all his prospects, and threatened to overturn +a throne raised with so much labor, cemented with so much blood, +and guarded with every defence of arms and treasure. With an +impartial hand he maintained between them an exact balance of +favor, conferred on both the rank of Augustus, with the revered +name of Antoninus; and for the first time the Roman world beheld +three emperors. Yet even this equal conduct served only to +inflame the contest, whilst the fierce Caracalla asserted the +right of primogeniture, and the milder Geta courted the +affections of the people and the soldiers. In the anguish of a +disappointed father, Severus foretold that the weaker of his sons +would fall a sacrifice to the stronger; who, in his turn, would +be ruined by his own vices.<br> +</p> + +<p>In these circumstances the intelligence of a war in Britain, +and of an invasion of the province by the barbarians of the +North, was received with pleasure by Severus. Though the +vigilance of his lieutenants might have been sufficient to repel +the distant enemy, he resolved to embrace the honorable pretext +of withdrawing his sons from the luxury of Rome, which enervated +their minds and irritated their passions; and of inuring their +youth to the toils of war and government. Notwithstanding his +advanced age, (for he was above threescore,) and his gout, which +obliged him to be carried in a litter, he transported himself in +person into that remote island, attended by his two sons, his +whole court, and a formidable army. He immediately passed the +walls of Hadrian and Antoninus, and entered the enemy's country, +with a design of completing the long attempted conquest of +Britain. He penetrated to the northern extremity of the island, +without meeting an enemy. But the concealed ambuscades of the +Caledonians, who hung unseen on the rear and flanks of his army, +the coldness of the climate and the severity of a winter march +across the hills and morasses of Scotland, are reported to have +cost the Romans above fifty thousand men. The Caledonians at +length yielded to the powerful and obstinate attack, sued for +peace, and surrendered a part of their arms, and a large tract of +territory. But their apparent submission lasted no longer than +the present terror. As soon as the Roman legions had retired, +they resumed their hostile independence. Their restless spirit +provoked Severus to send a new army into Caledonia, with the most +bloody orders, not to subdue, but to extirpate the natives. They +were saved by the death of their haughty enemy.<br> +</p> + +<p>This Caledonian war, neither marked by decisive events, nor +attended with any important consequences, would ill deserve our +attention; but it is supposed, not without a considerable degree +of probability, that the invasion of Severus is connected with +the most shining period of the British history or fable. Fingal, +whose fame, with that of his heroes and bards, has been revived +in our language by a recent publication, is said to have +commanded the Caledonians in that memorable juncture, to have +eluded the power of Severus, and to have obtained a signal +victory on the banks of the Carun, in which the son of <em>the +King of the World</em>, Caracul, fled from his arms along the +fields of his pride. Something of a doubtful mist still hangs +over these Highland traditions; nor can it be entirely dispelled +by the most ingenious researches of modern criticism; but if we +could, with safety, indulge the pleasing supposition, that Fingal +lived, and that Ossian sung, the striking contrast of the +situation and manners of the contending nations might amuse a +philosophic mind. The parallel would be little to the advantage +of the more civilized people, if we compared the unrelenting +revenge of Severus with the generous clemency of Fingal; the +timid and brutal cruelty of Caracalla with the bravery, the +tenderness, the elegant genius of Ossian; the mercenary chiefs, +who, from motives of fear or interest, served under the imperial +standard, with the free-born warriors who started to arms at the +voice of the king of Morven; if, in a word, we contemplated the +untutored Caledonians, glowing with the warm virtues of nature, +and the degenerate Romans, polluted with the mean vices of wealth +and slavery.<br> +</p> + +<p>The declining health and last illness of Severus inflamed the +wild ambition and black passions of Caracalla's soul. Impatient +of any delay or division of empire, he attempted, more than once, +to shorten the small remainder of his father's days, and +endeavored, but without success, to excite a mutiny among the +troops. The old emperor had often censured the misguided lenity +of Marcus, who, by a single act of justice, might have saved the +Romans from the tyranny of his worthless son. Placed in the same +situation, he experienced how easily the rigor of a judge +dissolves away in the tenderness of a parent. He deliberated, he +threatened, but he could not punish; and this last and only +instance of mercy was more fatal to the empire than a long series +of cruelty. The disorder of his mind irritated the pains of his +body; he wished impatiently for death, and hastened the instant +of it by his impatience. He expired at York in the sixty-fifth +year of his life, and in the eighteenth of a glorious and +successful reign. In his last moments he recommended concord to +his sons, and his sons to the army. The salutary advice never +reached the heart, or even the understanding, of the impetuous +youths; but the more obedient troops, mindful of their oath of +allegiance, and of the authority of their deceased master, +resisted the solicitations of Caracalla, and proclaimed both +brothers emperors of Rome. The new princes soon left the +Caledonians in peace, returned to the capital, celebrated their +father's funeral with divine honors, and were cheerfully +acknowledged as lawful sovereigns, by the senate, the people, and +the provinces. Some preeminence of rank seems to have been +allowed to the elder brother; but they both administered the +empire with equal and independent power.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such a divided form of government would have proved a source +of discord between the most affectionate brothers. It was +impossible that it could long subsist between two implacable +enemies, who neither desired nor could trust a reconciliation. It +was visible that one only could reign, and that the other must +fall; and each of them, judging of his rival's designs by his +own, guarded his life with the most jealous vigilance from the +repeated attacks of poison or the sword. Their rapid journey +through Gaul and Italy, during which they never ate at the same +table, or slept in the same house, displayed to the provinces the +odious spectacle of fraternal discord. On their arrival at Rome, +they immediately divided the vast extent of the imperial palace. +No communication was allowed between their apartments; the doors +and passages were diligently fortified, and guards posted and +relieved with the same strictness as in a besieged place. The +emperors met only in public, in the presence of their afflicted +mother; and each surrounded by a numerous train of armed +followers. Even on these occasions of ceremony, the dissimulation +of courts could ill disguise the rancor of their hearts.<br> +</p> + +<p>This latent civil war already distracted the whole government, +when a scheme was suggested that seemed of mutual benefit to the +hostile brothers. It was proposed, that since it was impossible +to reconcile their minds, they should separate their interest, +and divide the empire between them. The conditions of the treaty +were already drawn with some accuracy. It was agreed that +Caracalla, as the elder brother should remain in possession of +Europe and the western Africa; and that he should relinquish the +sovereignty of Asia and Egypt to Geta, who might fix his +residence at Alexandria or Antioch, cities little inferior to +Rome itself in wealth and greatness; that numerous armies should +be constantly encamped on either side of the Thracian Bosphorus, +to guard the frontiers of the rival monarchies; and that the +senators of European extraction should acknowledge the sovereign +of Rome, whilst the natives of Asia followed the emperor of the +East. The tears of the empress Julia interrupted the negotiation, +the first idea of which had filled every Roman breast with +surprise and indignation. The mighty mass of conquest was so +intimately united by the hand of time and policy, that it +required the most forcible violence to rend it asunder. The +Romans had reason to dread, that the disjointed members would +soon be reduced by a civil war under the dominion of one master; +but if the separation was permanent, the division of the +provinces must terminate in the dissolution of an empire whose +unity had hitherto remained inviolate.<br> +</p> + +<p>Had the treaty been carried into execution, the sovereign of +Europe might soon have been the conqueror of Asia; but Caracalla +obtained an easier, though a more guilty, victory. He artfully +listened to his mother's entreaties, and consented to meet his +brother in her apartment, on terms of peace and reconciliation. +In the midst of their conversation, some centurions, who had +contrived to conceal themselves, rushed with drawn swords upon +the unfortunate Geta. His distracted mother strove to protect him +in her arms; but, in the unavailing struggle, she was wounded in +the hand, and covered with the blood of her younger son, while +she saw the elder animating and assisting the fury of the +assassins. As soon as the deed was perpetrated, Caracalla, with +hasty steps, and horror in his countenance, ran towards the +Prætorian camp, as his only refuge, and threw himself on +the ground before the statues of the tutelar deities. The +soldiers attempted to raise and comfort him. In broken and +disordered words he informed them of his imminent danger, and +fortunate escape; insinuating that he had prevented the designs +of his enemy, and declared his resolution to live and die with +his faithful troops. Geta had been the favorite of the soldiers; +but complaint was useless, revenge was dangerous, and they still +reverenced the son of Severus. Their discontent died away in idle +murmurs, and Caracalla soon convinced them of the justice of his +cause, by distributing in one lavish donative the accumulated +treasures of his father's reign. The real <em>sentiments</em> of +the soldiers alone were of importance to his power or safety. +Their declaration in his favor commanded the dutiful +<em>professions</em> of the senate. The obsequious assembly was +always prepared to ratify the decision of fortune; * but as +Caracalla wished to assuage the first emotions of public +indignation, the name of Geta was mentioned with decency, and he +received the funeral honors of a Roman emperor. Posterity, in +pity to his misfortune, has cast a veil over his vices. We +consider that young prince as the innocent victim of his +brother's ambition, without recollecting that he himself wanted +power, rather than inclination, to consummate the same attempts +of revenge and murder.<br> +</p> + +<p>The crime went not unpunished. Neither business, nor pleasure, +nor flattery, could defend Caracalla from the stings of a guilty +conscience; and he confessed, in the anguish of a tortured mind, +that his disordered fancy often beheld the angry forms of his +father and his brother rising into life, to threaten and upbraid +him. The consciousness of his crime should have induced him to +convince mankind, by the virtues of his reign, that the bloody +deed had been the involuntary effect of fatal necessity. But the +repentance of Caracalla only prompted him to remove from the +world whatever could remind him of his guilt, or recall the +memory of his murdered brother. On his return from the senate to +the palace, he found his mother in the company of several noble +matrons, weeping over the untimely fate of her younger son. The +jealous emperor threatened them with instant death; the sentence +was executed against Fadilla, the last remaining daughter of the +emperor Marcus; * and even the afflicted Julia was obliged to +silence her lamentations, to suppress her sighs, and to receive +the assassin with smiles of joy and approbation. It was computed +that, under the vague appellation of the friends of Geta, above +twenty thousand persons of both sexes suffered death. His guards +and freedmen, the ministers of his serious business, and the +companions of his looser hours, those who by his interest had +been promoted to any commands in the army or provinces, with the +long connected chain of their dependants, were included in the +proscription; which endeavored to reach every one who had +maintained the smallest correspondence with Geta, who lamented +his death, or who even mentioned his name. Helvius Pertinax, son +to the prince of that name, lost his life by an unseasonable +witticism. It was a sufficient crime of Thrasea Priscus to be +descended from a family in which the love of liberty seemed an +hereditary quality. The particular causes of calumny and +suspicion were at length exhausted; and when a senator was +accused of being a secret enemy to the government, the emperor +was satisfied with the general proof that he was a man of +property and virtue. From this well-grounded principle he +frequently drew the most bloody inferences.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of +Caracalla, Usurpation Of Marcinus. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The execution of so many innocent citizens was bewailed by the +secret tears of their friends and families. The death of +Papinian, the Prætorian Præfect, was lamented as a +public calamity. During the last seven years of Severus, he had +exercised the most important offices of the state, and, by his +salutary influence, guided the emperor's steps in the paths of +justice and moderation. In full assurance of his virtue and +abilities, Severus, on his death-bed, had conjured him to watch +over the prosperity and union of the Imperial family. The honest +labors of Papinian served only to inflame the hatred which +Caracalla had already conceived against his father's minister. +After the murder of Geta, the Præfect was commanded to +exert the powers of his skill and eloquence in a studied apology +for that atrocious deed. The philosophic Seneca had condescended +to compose a similar epistle to the senate, in the name of the +son and assassin of Agrippina. "That it was easier to commit than +to justify a parricide," was the glorious reply of Papinian; who +did not hesitate between the loss of life and that of honor. Such +intrepid virtue, which had escaped pure and unsullied from the +intrigues courts, the habits of business, and the arts of his +profession, reflects more lustre on the memory of Papinian, than +all his great employments, his numerous writings, and the +superior reputation as a lawyer, which he has preserved through +every age of the Roman jurisprudence.<br> +</p> + +<p>It had hitherto been the peculiar felicity of the Romans, and +in the worst of times the consolation, that the virtue of the +emperors was active, and their vice indolent. Augustus, Trajan, +Hadrian, and Marcus visited their extensive dominions in person, +and their progress was marked by acts of wisdom and beneficence. +The tyranny of Tiberius, Nero, and Domitian, who resided almost +constantly at Rome, or in the adjacent was confined to the +senatorial and equestrian orders. But Caracalla was the common +enemy of mankind. He left capital (and he never returned to it) +about a year after the murder of Geta. The rest of his reign was +spent in the several provinces of the empire, particularly those +of the East, and province was by turns the scene of his rapine +and cruelty. The senators, compelled by fear to attend his +capricious motions, were obliged to provide daily entertainments +at an immense expense, which he abandoned with contempt to his +guards; and to erect, in every city, magnificent palaces and +theatres, which he either disdained to visit, or ordered +immediately thrown down. The most wealthy families ruined by +partial fines and confiscations, and the great body of his +subjects oppressed by ingenious and aggravated taxes. In the +midst of peace, and upon the slightest provocation, he issued his +commands, at Alexandria, in Egypt for a general massacre. From a +secure post in the temple of Serapis, he viewed and directed the +slaughter of many thousand citizens, as well as strangers, +without distinguishing the number or the crime of the sufferers; +since as he coolly informed the senate, <em>all</em>the +Alexandrians, those who perished, and those who had escaped, were +alike guilty.<br> +</p> + +<p>The wise instructions of Severus never made any lasting +impression on the mind of his son, who, although not destitute of +imagination and eloquence, was equally devoid of judgment and +humanity. One dangerous maxim, worthy of a tyrant, was remembered +and abused by Caracalla. "To secure the affections of the army, +and to esteem the rest of his subjects as of little moment." But +the liberality of the father had been restrained by prudence, and +his indulgence to the troops was tempered by firmness and +authority. The careless profusion of the son was the policy of +one reign, and the inevitable ruin both of the army and of the +empire. The vigor of the soldiers, instead of being confirmed by +the severe discipline of camps, melted away in the luxury of +cities. The excessive increase of their pay and donatives +exhausted the state to enrich the military order, whose modesty +in peace, and service in war, is best secured by an honorable +poverty. The demeanor of Caracalla was haughty and full of pride; +but with the troops he forgot even the proper dignity of his +rank, encouraged their insolent familiarity, and, neglecting the +essential duties of a general, affected to imitate the dress and +manners of a common soldier.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was impossible that such a character, and such conduct as +that of Caracalla, could inspire either love or esteem; but as +long as his vices were beneficial to the armies, he was secure +from the danger of rebellion. A secret conspiracy, provoked by +his own jealousy, was fatal to the tyrant. The Prætorian +præfecture was divided between two ministers. The military +department was intrusted to Adventus, an experienced rather than +able soldier; and the civil affairs were transacted by Opilius +Macrinus, who, by his dexterity in business, had raised himself, +with a fair character, to that high office. But his favor varied +with the caprice of the emperor, and his life might depend on the +slightest suspicion, or the most casual circumstance. Malice or +fanaticism had suggested to an African, deeply skilled in the +knowledge of futurity, a very dangerous prediction, that Macrinus +and his son were destined to reign over the empire. The report +was soon diffused through the province; and when the man was sent +in chains to Rome, he still asserted, in the presence of the +præfect of the city, the faith of his prophecy. That +magistrate, who had received the most pressing instructions to +inform himself of the <em>successors</em> of Caracalla, +immediately communicated the examination of the African to the +Imperial court, which at that time resided in Syria. But, +notwithstanding the diligence of the public messengers, a friend +of Macrinus found means to apprise him of the approaching danger. +The emperor received the letters from Rome; and as he was then +engaged in the conduct of a chariot race, he delivered them +unopened to the Prætorian Præfect, directing him to +despatch the ordinary affairs, and to report the more important +business that might be contained in them. Macrinus read his fate, +and resolved to prevent it. He inflamed the discontents of some +inferior officers, and employed the hand of Martialis, a +desperate soldier, who had been refused the rank of centurion. +The devotion of Caracalla prompted him to make a pilgrimage from +Edessa to the celebrated temple of the Moon at Carrhæ. * He +was attended by a body of cavalry: but having stopped on the road +for some necessary occasion, his guards preserved a respectful +distance, and Martialis, approaching his person under a presence +of duty, stabbed him with a dagger. The bold assassin was +instantly killed by a Scythian archer of the Imperial guard. Such +was the end of a monster whose life disgraced human nature, and +whose reign accused the patience of the Romans. The grateful +soldiers forgot his vices, remembered only his partial +liberality, and obliged the senate to prostitute their own +dignity and that of religion, by granting him a place among the +gods. Whilst he was upon earth, Alexander the Great was the only +hero whom this god deemed worthy his admiration. He assumed the +name and ensigns of Alexander, formed a Macedonian phalanx of +guards, persecuted the disciples of Aristotle, and displayed, +with a puerile enthusiasm, the only sentiment by which he +discovered any regard for virtue or glory. We can easily +conceive, that after the battle of Narva, and the conquest of +Poland, Charles XII. (though he still wanted the more elegant +accomplishments of the son of Philip) might boast of having +rivalled his valor and magnanimity; but in no one action of his +life did Caracalla express the faintest resemblance of the +Macedonian hero, except in the murder of a great number of his +own and of his father's friends.<br> +</p> + +<p>After the extinction of the house of Severus, the Roman world +remained three days without a master. The choice of the army (for +the authority of a distant and feeble senate was little regarded) +hung in anxious suspense, as no candidate presented himself whose +distinguished birth and merit could engage their attachment and +unite their suffrages. The decisive weight of the Prætorian +guards elevated the hopes of their præfects, and these +powerful ministers began to assert their <em>legal</em> claim to +fill the vacancy of the Imperial throne. Adventus, however, the +senior præfect, conscious of his age and infirmities, of +his small reputation, and his smaller abilities, resigned the +dangerous honor to the crafty ambition of his colleague Macrinus, +whose well-dissembled grief removed all suspicion of his being +accessary to his master's death. The troops neither loved nor +esteemed his character. They cast their eyes around in search of +a competitor, and at last yielded with reluctance to his promises +of unbounded liberality and indulgence. A short time after his +accession, he conferred on his son Diadumenianus, at the age of +only ten years, the Imperial title, and the popular name of +Antoninus. The beautiful figure of the youth, assisted by an +additional donative, for which the ceremony furnished a pretext, +might attract, it was hoped, the favor of the army, and secure +the doubtful throne of Macrinus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The authority of the new sovereign had been ratified by the +cheerful submission of the senate and provinces. They exulted in +their unexpected deliverance from a hated tyrant, and it seemed +of little consequence to examine into the virtues of the +successor of Caracalla. But as soon as the first transports of +joy and surprise had subsided, they began to scrutinize the +merits of Macrinus with a critical severity, and to arraign the +nasty choice of the army. It had hitherto been considered as a +fundamental maxim of the constitution, that the emperor must be +always chosen in the senate, and the sovereign power, no longer +exercised by the whole body, was always delegated to one of its +members. But Macrinus was not a senator. The sudden elevation of +the Prætorian præfects betrayed the meanness of their +origin; and the equestrian order was still in possession of that +great office, which commanded with arbitrary sway the lives and +fortunes of the senate. A murmur of indignation was heard, that a +man, whose obscure extraction had never been illustrated by any +signal service, should dare to invest himself with the purple, +instead of bestowing it on some distinguished senator, equal in +birth and dignity to the splendor of the Imperial station. As +soon as the character of Macrinus was surveyed by the sharp eye +of discontent, some vices, and many defects, were easily +discovered. The choice of his ministers was in many instances +justly censured, and the dissatisfied people, with their usual +candor, accused at once his indolent tameness and his excessive +severity.<br> +</p> + +<p>His rash ambition had climbed a height where it was difficult +to stand with firmness, and impossible to fall without instant +destruction. Trained in the arts of courts and the forms of civil +business, he trembled in the presence of the fierce and +undisciplined multitude, over whom he had assumed the command; +his military talents were despised, and his personal courage +suspected; a whisper that circulated in the camp, disclosed the +fatal secret of the conspiracy against the late emperor, +aggravated the guilt of murder by the baseness of hypocrisy, and +heightened contempt by detestation. To alienate the soldiers, and +to provoke inevitable ruin, the character of a reformer was only +wanting; and such was the peculiar hardship of his fate, that +Macrinus was compelled to exercise that invidious office. The +prodigality of Caracalla had left behind it a long train of ruin +and disorder; and if that worthless tyrant had been capable of +reflecting on the sure consequences of his own conduct, he would +perhaps have enjoyed the dark prospect of the distress and +calamities which he bequeathed to his successors.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the management of this necessary reformation, Macrinus +proceeded with a cautious prudence, which would have restored +health and vigor to the Roman army in an easy and almost +imperceptible manner. To the soldiers already engaged in the +service, he was constrained to leave the dangerous privileges and +extravagant pay given by Caracalla; but the new recruits were +received on the more moderate though liberal establishment of +Severus, and gradually formed to modesty and obedience. One fatal +error destroyed the salutary effects of this judicious plan. The +numerous army, assembled in the East by the late emperor, instead +of being immediately dispersed by Macrinus through the several +provinces, was suffered to remain united in Syria, during the +winter that followed his elevation. In the luxurious idleness of +their quarters, the troops viewed their strength and numbers, +communicated their complaints, and revolved in their minds the +advantages of another revolution. The veterans, instead of being +flattered by the advantageous distinction, were alarmed by the +first steps of the emperor, which they considered as the presage +of his future intentions. The recruits, with sullen reluctance, +entered on a service, whose labors were increased while its +rewards were diminished by a covetous and unwarlike sovereign. +The murmurs of the army swelled with impunity into seditious +clamors; and the partial mutinies betrayed a spirit of discontent +and disaffection that waited only for the slightest occasion to +break out on every side into a general rebellion. To minds thus +disposed, the occasion soon presented itself.<br> +</p> + +<p>The empress Julia had experienced all the vicissitudes of +fortune. From an humble station she had been raised to greatness, +only to taste the superior bitterness of an exalted rank. She was +doomed to weep over the death of one of her sons, and over the +life of the other. The cruel fate of Caracalla, though her good +sense must have long taught her to expect it, awakened the +feelings of a mother and of an empress. Notwithstanding the +respectful civility expressed by the usurper towards the widow of +Severus, she descended with a painful struggle into the condition +of a subject, and soon withdrew herself, by a voluntary death, +from the anxious and humiliating dependence. * Julia Mæsa, +her sister, was ordered to leave the court and Antioch. She +retired to Emesa with an immense fortune, the fruit of twenty +years' favor accompanied by her two daughters, Soæmias and +Mamæ, each of whom was a widow, and each had an only son. +Bassianus, for that was the name of the son of Soæmias, was +consecrated to the honorable ministry of high priest of the Sun; +and this holy vocation, embraced either from prudence or +superstition, contributed to raise the Syrian youth to the empire +of Rome. A numerous body of troops was stationed at Emesa; and as +the severe discipline of Macrinus had constrained them to pass +the winter encamped, they were eager to revenge the cruelty of +such unaccustomed hardships. The soldiers, who resorted in crowds +to the temple of the Sun, beheld with veneration and delight the +elegant dress and figure of the young pontiff; they recognized, +or they thought that they recognized, the features of Caracalla, +whose memory they now adored. The artful Mæsa saw and +cherished their rising partiality, and readily sacrificing her +daughter's reputation to the fortune of her grandson, she +insinuated that Bassianus was the natural son of their murdered +sovereign. The sums distributed by her emissaries with a lavish +hand silenced every objection, and the profusion sufficiently +proved the affinity, or at least the resemblance, of Bassianus +with the great original. The young Antoninus (for he had assumed +and polluted that respectable name) was declared emperor by the +troops of Emesa, asserted his hereditary right, and called aloud +on the armies to follow the standard of a young and liberal +prince, who had taken up arms to revenge his father's death and +the oppression of the military order.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whilst a conspiracy of women and eunuchs was concerted with +prudence, and conducted with rapid vigor, Macrinus, who, by a +decisive motion, might have crushed his infant enemy, floated +between the opposite extremes of terror and security, which alike +fixed him inactive at Antioch. A spirit of rebellion diffused +itself through all the camps and garrisons of Syria, successive +detachments murdered their officers, and joined the party of the +rebels; and the tardy restitution of military pay and privileges +was imputed to the acknowledged weakness of Macrinus. At length +he marched out of Antioch, to meet the increasing and zealous +army of the young pretender. His own troops seemed to take the +field with faintness and reluctance; but, in the heat of the +battle, the Prætorian guards, almost by an involuntary +impulse, asserted the superiority of their valor and discipline. +The rebel ranks were broken; when the mother and grandmother of +the Syrian prince, who, according to their eastern custom, had +attended the army, threw themselves from their covered chariots, +and, by exciting the compassion of the soldiers, endeavored to +animate their drooping courage. Antoninus himself, who, in the +rest of his life, never acted like a man, in this important +crisis of his fate, approved himself a hero, mounted his horse, +and, at the head of his rallied troops, charged sword in hand +among the thickest of the enemy; whilst the eunuch Gannys, * +whose occupations had been confined to female cares and the soft +luxury of Asia, displayed the talents of an able and experienced +general. The battle still raged with doubtful violence, and +Macrinus might have obtained the victory, had he not betrayed his +own cause by a shameful and precipitate flight. His cowardice +served only to protract his life a few days, and to stamp +deserved ignominy on his misfortunes. It is scarcely necessary to +add, that his son Diadumenianus was involved in the same fate. As +soon as the stubborn Prætorians could be convinced that +they fought for a prince who had basely deserted them, they +surrendered to the conqueror: the contending parties of the Roman +army, mingling tears of joy and tenderness, united under the +banners of the imagined son of Caracalla, and the East +acknowledged with pleasure the first emperor of Asiatic +extraction.<br> +</p> + +<p>The letters of Macrinus had condescended to inform the senate +of the slight disturbance occasioned by an impostor in Syria, and +a decree immediately passed, declaring the rebel and his family +public enemies; with a promise of pardon, however, to such of his +deluded adherents as should merit it by an immediate return to +their duty. During the twenty days that elapsed from the +declaration of the victory of Antoninus, (for in so short an +interval was the fate of the Roman world decided,) the capital +and the provinces, more especially those of the East, were +distracted with hopes and fears, agitated with tumult, and +stained with a useless effusion of civil blood, since whosoever +of the rivals prevailed in Syria must reign over the empire. The +specious letters in which the young conqueror announced his +victory to the obedient senate were filled with professions of +virtue and moderation; the shining examples of Marcus and +Augustus, he should ever consider as the great rule of his +administration; and he affected to dwell with pride on the +striking resemblance of his own age and fortunes with those of +Augustus, who in the earliest youth had revenged, by a successful +war, the murder of his father. By adopting the style of Marcus +Aurelius Antoninus, son of Antoninus and grandson of Severus, he +tacitly asserted his hereditary claim to the empire; but, by +assuming the tribunitian and proconsular powers before they had +been conferred on him by a decree of the senate, he offended the +delicacy of Roman prejudice. This new and injudicious violation +of the constitution was probably dictated either by the ignorance +of his Syrian courtiers, or the fierce disdain of his military +followers.<br> +</p> + +<p>As the attention of the new emperor was diverted by the most +trifling amusements, he wasted many months in his luxurious +progress from Syria to Italy, passed at Nicomedia his first +winter after his victory, and deferred till the ensuing summer +his triumphal entry into the capital. A faithful picture, +however, which preceded his arrival, and was placed by his +immediate order over the altar of Victory in the senate house, +conveyed to the Romans the just but unworthy resemblance of his +person and manners. He was drawn in his sacerdotal robes of silk +and gold, after the loose flowing fashion of the Medes and +Phnicians; his head was covered with a lofty tiara, his numerous +collars and bracelets were adorned with gems of an inestimable +value. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his cheeks +painted with an artificial red and white. The grave senators +confessed with a sigh, that, after having long experienced the +stern tyranny of their own countrymen, Rome was at length humbled +beneath the effeminate luxury of Oriental despotism.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Sun was worshipped at Emesa, under the name of Elagabalus, +and under the form of a black conical stone, which, as it was +universally believed, had fallen from heaven on that sacred +place. To this protecting deity, Antoninus, not without some +reason, ascribed his elevation to the throne. The display of +superstitious gratitude was the only serious business of his +reign. The triumph of the god of Emesa over all the religions of +the earth, was the great object of his zeal and vanity; and the +appellation of Elagabalus (for he presumed as pontiff and +favorite to adopt that sacred name) was dearer to him than all +the titles of Imperial greatness. In a solemn procession through +the streets of Rome, the way was strewed with gold dust; the +black stone, set in precious gems, was placed on a chariot drawn +by six milk-white horses richly caparisoned. The pious emperor +held the reins, and, supported by his ministers, moved slowly +backwards, that he might perpetually enjoy the felicity of the +divine presence. In a magnificent temple raised on the Palatine +Mount, the sacrifices of the god Elagabalus were celebrated with +every circumstance of cost and solemnity. The richest wines, the +most extraordinary victims, and the rarest aromatics, were +profusely consumed on his altar. Around the altar, a chorus of +Syrian damsels performed their lascivious dances to the sound of +barbarian music, whilst the gravest personages of the state and +army, clothed in long Phnician tunics, officiated in the meanest +functions, with affected zeal and secret indignation.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of +Caracalla, Usurpation Of Marcinus. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>To this temple, as to the common centre of religious worship, +the Imperial fanatic attempted to remove the Ancilia, the +Palladium, and all the sacred pledges of the faith of Numa. A +crowd of inferior deities attended in various stations the +majesty of the god of Emesa; but his court was still imperfect, +till a female of distinguished rank was admitted to his bed. +Pallas had been first chosen for his consort; but as it was +dreaded lest her warlike terrors might affright the soft delicacy +of a Syrian deity, the Moon, adorned by the Africans under the +name of Astarte, was deemed a more suitable companion for the +Sun. Her image, with the rich offerings of her temple as a +marriage portion, was transported with solemn pomp from Carthage +to Rome, and the day of these mystic nuptials was a general +festival in the capital and throughout the empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>A rational voluptuary adheres with invariable respect to the +temperate dictates of nature, and improves the gratifications of +sense by social intercourse, endearing connections, and the soft +coloring of taste and the imagination. But Elagabalus, (I speak +of the emperor of that name,) corrupted by his youth, his +country, and his fortune, abandoned himself to the grossest +pleasures with ungoverned fury, and soon found disgust and +satiety in the midst of his enjoyments. The inflammatory powers +of art were summoned to his aid: the confused multitude of women, +of wines, and of dishes, and the studied variety of attitude and +sauces, served to revive his languid appetites. New terms and new +inventions in these sciences, the only ones cultivated and +patronized by the monarch, signalized his reign, and transmitted +his infamy to succeeding times. A capricious prodigality supplied +the want of taste and elegance; and whilst Elagabalus lavished +away the treasures of his people in the wildest extravagance, his +own voice and that of his flatterers applauded a spirit of +magnificence unknown to the tameness of his predecessors. To +confound the order of seasons and climates, to sport with the +passions and prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law +of nature and decency, were in the number of his most delicious +amusements. A long train of concubines, and a rapid succession of +wives, among whom was a vestal virgin, ravished by force from her +sacred asylum, were insufficient to satisfy the impotence of his +passions. The master of the Roman world affected to copy the +dress and manners of the female sex, preferred the distaff to the +sceptre, and dishonored the principal dignities of the empire by +distributing them among his numerous lovers; one of whom was +publicly invested with the title and authority of the emperor's, +or, as he more properly styled himself, of the empress's +husband.<br> +</p> + +<p>It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have +been adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. Yet, confining +ourselves to the public scenes displayed before the Roman people, +and attested by grave and contemporary historians, their +inexpressible infamy surpasses that of any other age or country. +The license of an eastern monarch is secluded from the eye of +curiosity by the inaccessible walls of his seraglio. The +sentiments of honor and gallantry have introduced a refinement of +pleasure, a regard for decency, and a respect for the public +opinion, into the modern courts of Europe; * but the corrupt and +opulent nobles of Rome gratified every vice that could be +collected from the mighty conflux of nations and manners. Secure +of impunity, careless of censure, they lived without restraint in +the patient and humble society of their slaves and parasites. The +emperor, in his turn, viewing every rank of his subjects with the +same contemptuous indifference, asserted without control his +sovereign privilege of lust and luxury.<br> +</p> + +<p>The most worthless of mankind are not afraid to condemn in +others the same disorders which they allow in themselves; and can +readily discover some nice difference of age, character, or +station, to justify the partial distinction. The licentious +soldiers, who had raised to the throne the dissolute son of +Caracalla, blushed at their ignominious choice, and turned with +disgust from that monster, to contemplate with pleasure the +opening virtues of his cousin Alexander, the son of Mamæa. +The crafty Mæsa, sensible that her grandson Elagabalus must +inevitably destroy himself by his own vices, had provided another +and surer support of her family. Embracing a favorable moment of +fondness and devotion, she had persuaded the young emperor to +adopt Alexander, and to invest him with the title of Cæsar, +that his own divine occupations might be no longer interrupted by +the care of the earth. In the second rank that amiable prince +soon acquired the affections of the public, and excited the +tyrant's jealousy, who resolved to terminate the dangerous +competition, either by corrupting the manners, or by taking away +the life, of his rival. His arts proved unsuccessful; his vain +designs were constantly discovered by his own loquacious folly, +and disappointed by those virtuous and faithful servants whom the +prudence of Mamæa had placed about the person of her son. +In a hasty sally of passion, Elagabalus resolved to execute by +force what he had been unable to compass by fraud, and by a +despotic sentence degraded his cousin from the rank and honors of +Cæsar. The message was received in the senate with silence, +and in the camp with fury. The Prætorian guards swore to +protect Alexander, and to revenge the dishonored majesty of the +throne. The tears and promises of the trembling Elagabalus, who +only begged them to spare his life, and to leave him in the +possession of his beloved Hierocles, diverted their just +indignation; and they contented themselves with empowering their +præfects to watch over the safety of Alexander, and the +conduct of the emperor.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was impossible that such a reconciliation should last, or +that even the mean soul of Elagabalus could hold an empire on +such humiliating terms of dependence. He soon attempted, by a +dangerous experiment, to try the temper of the soldiers. The +report of the death of Alexander, and the natural suspicion that +he had been murdered, inflamed their passions into fury, and the +tempest of the camp could only be appeased by the presence and +authority of the popular youth. Provoked at this new instance of +their affection for his cousin, and their contempt for his +person, the emperor ventured to punish some of the leaders of the +mutiny. His unseasonable severity proved instantly fatal to his +minions, his mother, and himself. Elagabalus was massacred by the +indignant Prætorians, his mutilated corpse dragged through +the streets of the city, and thrown into the Tiber. His memory +was branded with eternal infamy by the senate; the justice of +whose decree has been ratified by posterity.<br> +</p> + +<p>[See Island In The Tiber: Elagabalus was thrown into the +Tiber]?<br> +</p> + +<p>In the room of Elagabalus, his cousin Alexander was raised to +the throne by the Prætorian guards. His relation to the +family of Severus, whose name he assumed, was the same as that of +his predecessor; his virtue and his danger had already endeared +him to the Romans, and the eager liberality of the senate +conferred upon him, in one day, the various titles and powers of +the Imperial dignity. But as Alexander was a modest and dutiful +youth, of only seventeen years of age, the reins of government +were in the hands of two women, of his mother, Mamæa, and +of Mæsa, his grandmother. After the death of the latter, +who survived but a short time the elevation of Alexander, +Mamæa remained the sole regent of her son and of the +empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>In every age and country, the wiser, or at least the stronger, +of the two sexes, has usurped the powers of the state, and +confined the other to the cares and pleasures of domestic life. +In hereditary monarchies, however, and especially in those of +modern Europe, the gallant spirit of chivalry, and the law of +succession, have accustomed us to allow a singular exception; and +a woman is often acknowledged the absolute sovereign of a great +kingdom, in which she would be deemed incapable of exercising the +smallest employment, civil or military. But as the Roman emperors +were still considered as the generals and magistrates of the +republic, their wives and mothers, although distinguished by the +name of Augusta were never associated to their personal honors; +and a female reign would have appeared an inexpiable prodigy in +the eyes of those primitive Romans, who married without love, or +loved without delicacy and respect. The haughty Agripina aspired, +indeed, to share the honors of the empire which she had conferred +on her son; but her mad ambition, detested by every citizen who +felt for the dignity of Rome, was disappointed by the artful +firmness of Seneca and Burrhus. The good sense, or the +indifference, of succeeding princes, restrained them from +offending the prejudices of their subjects; and it was reserved +for the profligate Elagabalus to discharge the acts of the senate +with the name of his mother Soæmias, who was placed by the +side of the consuls, and subscribed, as a regular member, the +decrees of the legislative assembly. Her more prudent sister, +Mamæa, declined the useless and odious prerogative, and a +solemn law was enacted, excluding women forever from the senate, +and devoting to the infernal gods the head of the wretch by whom +this sanction should be violated. The substance, not the +pageantry, of power. was the object of Mamæa's manly +ambition. She maintained an absolute and lasting empire over the +mind of her son, and in his affection the mother could not brook +a rival. Alexander, with her consent, married the daughter of a +patrician; but his respect for his father-in-law, and love for +the empress, were inconsistent with the tenderness of interest of +Mamæa. The patrician was executed on the ready accusation +of treason, and the wife of Alexander driven with ignominy from +the palace, and banished into Africa.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this act of jealous cruelty, as well as some +instances of avarice, with which Mamæa is charged, the +general tenor of her administration was equally for the benefit +of her son and of the empire. With the approbation of the senate, +she chose sixteen of the wisest and most virtuous senators as a +perpetual council of state, before whom every public business of +moment was debated and determined. The celebrated Ulpian, equally +distinguished by his knowledge of, and his respect for, the laws +of Rome, was at their head; and the prudent firmness of this +aristocracy restored order and authority to the government. As +soon as they had purged the city from foreign superstition and +luxury, the remains of the capricious tyranny of Elagabalus, they +applied themselves to remove his worthless creatures from every +department of the public administration, and to supply their +places with men of virtue and ability. Learning, and the love of +justice, became the only recommendations for civil offices; +valor, and the love of discipline, the only qualifications for +military employments.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the most important care of Mamæa and her wise +counsellors, was to form the character of the young emperor, on +whose personal qualities the happiness or misery of the Roman +world must ultimately depend. The fortunate soil assisted, and +even prevented, the hand of cultivation. An excellent +understanding soon convinced Alexander of the advantages of +virtue, the pleasure of knowledge, and the necessity of labor. A +natural mildness and moderation of temper preserved him from the +assaults of passion, and the allurements of vice. His unalterable +regard for his mother, and his esteem for the wise Ulpian, +guarded his unexperienced youth from the poison of flattery. +*<br> +</p> + +<p>The simple journal of his ordinary occupations exhibits a +pleasing picture of an accomplished emperor, and, with some +allowance for the difference of manners, might well deserve the +imitation of modern princes. Alexander rose early: the first +moments of the day were consecrated to private devotion, and his +domestic chapel was filled with the images of those heroes, who, +by improving or reforming human life, had deserved the grateful +reverence of posterity. But as he deemed the service of mankind +the most acceptable worship of the gods, the greatest part of his +morning hours was employed in his council, where he discussed +public affairs, and determined private causes, with a patience +and discretion above his years. The dryness of business was +relieved by the charms of literature; and a portion of time was +always set apart for his favorite studies of poetry, history, and +philosophy. The works of Virgil and Horace, the republics of +Plato and Cicero, formed his taste, enlarged his understanding, +and gave him the noblest ideas of man and government. The +exercises of the body succeeded to those of the mind; and +Alexander, who was tall, active, and robust, surpassed most of +his equals in the gymnastic arts. Refreshed by the use of the +bath and a slight dinner, he resumed, with new vigor, the +business of the day; and, till the hour of supper, the principal +meal of the Romans, he was attended by his secretaries, with whom +he read and answered the multitude of letters, memorials, and +petitions, that must have been addressed to the master of the +greatest part of the world. His table was served with the most +frugal simplicity, and whenever he was at liberty to consult his +own inclination, the company consisted of a few select friends, +men of learning and virtue, amongst whom Ulpian was constantly +invited. Their conversation was familiar and instructive; and the +pauses were occasionally enlivened by the recital of some +pleasing composition, which supplied the place of the dancers, +comedians, and even gladiators, so frequently summoned to the +tables of the rich and luxurious Romans. The dress of Alexander +was plain and modest, his demeanor courteous and affable: at the +proper hours his palace was open to all his subjects, but the +voice of a crier was heard, as in the Eleusinian mysteries, +pronouncing the same salutary admonition: "Let none enter these +holy walls, unless he is conscious of a pure and innocent +mind."<br> +</p> + +<p>Such a uniform tenor of life, which left not a moment for vice +or folly, is a better proof of the wisdom and justice of +Alexander's government, than all the trifling details preserved +in the compilation of Lampridius. Since the accession of +Commodus, the Roman world had experienced, during the term of +forty years, the successive and various vices of four tyrants. +From the death of Elagabalus, it enjoyed an auspicious calm of +thirteen years. * The provinces, relieved from the oppressive +taxes invented by Caracalla and his pretended son, flourished in +peace and prosperity, under the administration of magistrates, +who were convinced by experience that to deserve the love of the +subjects, was their best and only method of obtaining the favor +of their sovereign. While some gentle restraints were imposed on +the innocent luxury of the Roman people, the price of provisions +and the interest of money, were reduced by the paternal care of +Alexander, whose prudent liberality, without distressing the +industrious, supplied the wants and amusements of the populace. +The dignity, the freedom, the authority of the senate was +restored; and every virtuous senator might approach the person of +the emperor without a fear and without a blush.<br> +</p> + +<p>The name of Antoninus, ennobled by the virtues of Pius and +Marcus, had been communicated by adoption to the dissolute Verus, +and by descent to the cruel Commodus. It became the honorable +appellation of the sons of Severus, was bestowed on young +Diadumenianus, and at length prostituted to the infamy of the +high priest of Emesa. Alexander, though pressed by the studied, +and, perhaps, sincere importunity of the senate, nobly refused +the borrowed lustre of a name; whilst in his whole conduct he +labored to restore the glories and felicity of the age of the +genuine Antonines.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the civil administration of Alexander, wisdom was enforced +by power, and the people, sensible of the public felicity, repaid +their benefactor with their love and gratitude. There still +remained a greater, a more necessary, but a more difficult +enterprise; the reformation of the military order, whose interest +and temper, confirmed by long impunity, rendered them impatient +of the restraints of discipline, and careless of the blessings of +public tranquillity. In the execution of his design, the emperor +affected to display his love, and to conceal his fear of the +army. The most rigid economy in every other branch of the +administration supplied a fund of gold and silver for the +ordinary pay and the extraordinary rewards of the troops. In +their marches he relaxed the severe obligation of carrying +seventeen days' provision on their shoulders. Ample magazines +were formed along the public roads, and as soon as they entered +the enemy's country, a numerous train of mules and camels waited +on their haughty laziness. As Alexander despaired of correcting +the luxury of his soldiers, he attempted, at least, to direct it +to objects of martial pomp and ornament, fine horses, splendid +armor, and shields enriched with silver and gold. He shared +whatever fatigues he was obliged to impose, visited, in person, +the sick and wounded, preserved an exact register of their +services and his own gratitude, and expressed on every occasion, +the warmest regard for a body of men, whose welfare, as he +affected to declare, was so closely connected with that of the +state. By the most gentle arts he labored to inspire the fierce +multitude with a sense of duty, and to restore at least a faint +image of that discipline to which the Romans owed their empire +over so many other nations, as warlike and more powerful than +themselves. But his prudence was vain, his courage fatal, and the +attempt towards a reformation served only to inflame the ills it +was meant to cure.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Prætorian guards were attached to the youth of +Alexander. They loved him as a tender pupil, whom they had saved +from a tyrant's fury, and placed on the Imperial throne. That +amiable prince was sensible of the obligation; but as his +gratitude was restrained within the limits of reason and justice, +they soon were more dissatisfied with the virtues of Alexander, +than they had ever been with the vices of Elagabalus. Their +præfect, the wise Ulpian, was the friend of the laws and of +the people; he was considered as the enemy of the soldiers, and +to his pernicious counsels every scheme of reformation was +imputed. Some trifling accident blew up their discontent into a +furious mutiny; and the civil war raged, during three days, in +Rome, whilst the life of that excellent minister was defended by +the grateful people. Terrified, at length, by the sight of some +houses in flames, and by the threats of a general conflagration, +the people yielded with a sigh, and left the virtuous but +unfortunate Ulpian to his fate. He was pursued into the Imperial +palace, and massacred at the feet of his master, who vainly +strove to cover him with the purple, and to obtain his pardon +from the inexorable soldiers. * Such was the deplorable weakness +of government, that the emperor was unable to revenge his +murdered friend and his insulted dignity, without stooping to the +arts of patience and dissimulation. Epagathus, the principal +leader of the mutiny, was removed from Rome, by the honorable +employment of præfect of Egypt: from that high rank he was +gently degraded to the government of Crete; and when at length, +his popularity among the guards was effaced by time and absence, +Alexander ventured to inflict the tardy but deserved punishment +of his crimes. Under the reign of a just and virtuous prince, the +tyranny of the army threatened with instant death his most +faithful ministers, who were suspected of an intention to correct +their intolerable disorders. The historian Dion Cassius had +commanded the Pannonian legions with the spirit of ancient +discipline. Their brethren of Rome, embracing the common cause of +military license, demanded the head of the reformer. Alexander, +however, instead of yielding to their seditious clamors, showed a +just sense of his merit and services, by appointing him his +colleague in the consulship, and defraying from his own treasury +the expense of that vain dignity: but as was justly apprehended, +that if the soldiers beheld him with the ensigns of his office, +they would revenge the insult in his blood, the nominal first +magistrate of the state retired, by the emperor's advice, from +the city, and spent the greatest part of his consulship at his +villas in Campania.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of +Caracalla, Usurpation Of Marcinus. -- Part IV.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The lenity of the emperor confirmed the insolence of the +troops; the legions imitated the example of the guards, and +defended their prerogative of licentiousness with the same +furious obstinacy. The administration of Alexander was an +unavailing struggle against the corruption of his age. In +llyricum, in Mauritania, in Armenia, in Mesopotamia, in Germany, +fresh mutinies perpetually broke out; his officers were murdered, +his authority was insulted, and his life at last sacrificed to +the fierce discontents of the army. One particular fact well +deserves to be recorded, as it illustrates the manners of the +troops, and exhibits a singular instance of their return to a +sense of duty and obedience. Whilst the emperor lay at Antioch, +in his Persian expedition, the particulars of which we shall +hereafter relate, the punishment of some soldiers, who had been +discovered in the baths of women, excited a sedition in the +legion to which they belonged. Alexander ascended his tribunal, +and with a modest firmness represented to the armed multitude the +absolute necessity, as well as his inflexible resolution, of +correcting the vices introduced by his impure predecessor, and of +maintaining the discipline, which could not be relaxed without +the ruin of the Roman name and empire. Their clamors interrupted +his mild expostulation. "Reserve your shout," said the undaunted +emperor, "till you take the field against the Persians, the +Germans, and the Sarmatians. Be silent in the presence of your +sovereign and benefactor, who bestows upon you the corn, the +clothing, and the money of the provinces. Be silent, or I shall +no longer style you solders, but <em>citizens</em>, if those +indeed who disclaim the laws of Rome deserve to be ranked among +the meanest of the people." His menaces inflamed the fury of the +legion, and their brandished arms already threatened his person. +"Your courage," resumed the intrepid Alexander, "would be more +nobly displayed in the field of battle; <em>me</em> you may +destroy, you cannot intimidate; and the severe justice of the +republic would punish your crime and revenge my death." The +legion still persisted in clamorous sedition, when the emperor +pronounced, with a cud voice, the decisive sentence, +"<em>Citizens!</em> lay down your arms, and depart in peace to +your respective habitations." The tempest was instantly appeased: +the soldiers, filled with grief and shame, silently confessed the +justice of their punishment, and the power of discipline, yielded +up their arms and military ensigns, and retired in confusion, not +to their camp, but to the several inns of the city. Alexander +enjoyed, during thirty days, the edifying spectacle of their +repentance; nor did he restore them to their former rank in the +army, till he had punished with death those tribunes whose +connivance had occasioned the mutiny. The grateful legion served +the emperor whilst living, and revenged him when dead.<br> +</p> + +<p>The resolutions of the multitude generally depend on a moment; +and the caprice of passion might equally determine the seditious +legion to lay down their arms at the emperor's feet, or to plunge +them into his breast. Perhaps, if this singular transaction had +been investigated by the penetration of a philosopher, we should +discover the secret causes which on that occasion authorized the +boldness of the prince, and commanded the obedience of the +troops; and perhaps, if it had been related by a judicious +historian, we should find this action, worthy of Cæsar +himself, reduced nearer to the level of probability and the +common standard of the character of Alexander Severus. The +abilities of that amiable prince seem to have been inadequate to +the difficulties of his situation, the firmness of his conduct +inferior to the purity of his intentions. His virtues, as well as +the vices of Elagabalus, contracted a tincture of weakness and +effeminacy from the soft climate of Syria, of which he was a +native; though he blushed at his foreign origin, and listened +with a vain complacency to the flattering genealogists, who +derived his race from the ancient stock of Roman nobility. The +pride and avarice of his mother cast a shade on the glories of +his reign; an by exacting from his riper years the same dutiful +obedience which she had justly claimed from his unexperienced +youth, Mamæa exposed to public ridicule both her son's +character and her own. The fatigues of the Persian war irritated +the military discontent; the unsuccessful event * degraded the +reputation of the emperor as a general, and even as a soldier. +Every cause prepared, and every circumstance hastened, a +revolution, which distracted the Roman empire with a long series +of intestine calamities.<br> +</p> + +<p>The dissolute tyranny of Commodus, the civil wars occasioned +by his death, and the new maxims of policy introduced by the +house of Severus, had all contributed to increase the dangerous +power of the army, and to obliterate the faint image of laws and +liberty that was still impressed on the minds of the Romans. The +internal change, which undermined the foundations of the empire, +we have endeavored to explain with some degree of order and +perspicuity. The personal characters of the emperors, their +victories, laws, follies, and fortunes, can interest us no +farther than as they are connected with the general history of +the Decline and Fall of the monarchy. Our constant attention to +that great object will not suffer us to overlook a most important +edict of Antoninus Caracalla, which communicated to all the free +inhabitants of the empire the name and privileges of Roman +citizens. His unbounded liberality flowed not, however, from the +sentiments of a generous mind; it was the sordid result of +avarice, and will naturally be illustrated by some observations +on the finances of that state, from the victorious ages of the +commonwealth to the reign of Alexander Severus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The siege of Veii in Tuscany, the first considerable +enterprise of the Romans, was protracted to the tenth year, much +less by the strength of the place than by the unskillfulness of +the besiegers. The unaccustomed hardships of so many winter +campaigns, at the distance of near twenty miles from home, +required more than common encouragements; and the senate wisely +prevented the clamors of the people, by the institution of a +regular pay for the soldiers, which was levied by a general +tribute, assessed according to an equitable proportion on the +property of the citizens. During more than two hundred years +after the conquest of Veii, the victories of the republic added +less to the wealth than to the power of Rome. The states of Italy +paid their tribute in military service only, and the vast force, +both by sea and land, which was exerted in the Punic wars, was +maintained at the expense of the Romans themselves. That +high-spirited people (such is often the generous enthusiasm of +freedom) cheerfully submitted to the most excessive but voluntary +burdens, in the just confidence that they should speedily enjoy +the rich harvest of their labors. Their expectations were not +disappointed. In the course of a few years, the riches of +Syracuse, of Carthage, of Macedonia, and of Asia, were brought in +triumph to Rome. The treasures of Perseus alone amounted to near +two millions sterling, and the Roman people, the sovereign of so +many nations, was forever delivered from the weight of taxes. The +increasing revenue of the provinces was found sufficient to +defray the ordinary establishment of war and government, and the +superfluous mass of gold and silver was deposited in the temple +of Saturn, and reserved for any unforeseen emergency of the +state.<br> +</p> + +<p>History has never, perhaps, suffered a greater or more +irreparable injury than in the loss of the curious register * +bequeathed by Augustus to the senate, in which that experienced +prince so accurately balanced the revenues and expenses of the +Roman empire. Deprived of this clear and comprehensive estimate, +we are reduced to collect a few imperfect hints from such of the +ancients as have accidentally turned aside from the splendid to +the more useful parts of history. We are informed that, by the +conquests of Pompey, the tributes of Asia were raised from fifty +to one hundred and thirty-five millions of drachms; or about four +millions and a half sterling. Under the last and most indolent of +the Ptolemies, the revenue of Egypt is said to have amounted to +twelve thousand five hundred talents; a sum equivalent to more +than two millions and a half of our money, but which was +afterwards considerably improved by the more exact economy of the +Romans, and the increase of the trade of Æthiopia and +India. Gaul was enriched by rapine, as Egypt was by commerce, and +the tributes of those two great provinces have been compared as +nearly equal to each other in value. The ten thousand Euboic or +Phnician talents, about four millions sterling, which vanquished +Carthage was condemned to pay within the term of fifty years, +were a slight acknowledgment of the superiority of Rome, and +cannot bear the least proportion with the taxes afterwards raised +both on the lands and on the persons of the inhabitants, when the +fertile coast of Africa was reduced into a province.<br> +</p> + +<p>Spain, by a very singular fatality, was the Peru and Mexico of +the old world. The discovery of the rich western continent by the +Phnicians, and the oppression of the simple natives, who were +compelled to labor in their own mines for the benefit of +strangers, form an exact type of the more recent history of +Spanish America. The Phnicians were acquainted only with the +sea-coast of Spain; avarice, as well as ambition, carried the +arms of Rome and Carthage into the heart of the country, and +almost every part of the soil was found pregnant with copper, +silver, and gold. * Mention is made of a mine near Carthagena +which yielded every day twenty-five thousand drachmns of silver, +or about three hundred thousand pounds a year. Twenty thousand +pound weight of gold was annually received from the provinces of +Asturia, Gallicia, and Lusitania.<br> +</p> + +<p>We want both leisure and materials to pursue this curious +inquiry through the many potent states that were annihilated in +the Roman empire. Some notion, however, may be formed of the +revenue of the provinces where considerable wealth had been +deposited by nature, or collected by man, if we observe the +severe attention that was directed to the abodes of solitude and +sterility. Augustus once received a petition from the inhabitants +of Gyarus, humbly praying that they might be relieved from one +third of their excessive impositions. Their whole tax amounted +indeed to no more than one hundred and fifty drachms, or about +five pounds: but Gyarus was a little island, or rather a rock, of +the Ægean Sea, destitute of fresh water and every necessary +of life, and inhabited only by a few wretched fishermen.<br> +</p> + +<p>From the faint glimmerings of such doubtful and scattered +lights, we should be inclined to believe, 1st, That (with every +fair allowance for the differences of times and circumstances) +the general income of the Roman provinces could seldom amount to +less than fifteen or twenty millions of our money; and, 2dly, +That so ample a revenue must have been fully adequate to all the +expenses of the moderate government instituted by Augustus, whose +court was the modest family of a private senator, and whose +military establishment was calculated for the defence of the +frontiers, without any aspiring views of conquest, or any serious +apprehension of a foreign invasion.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the seeming probability of both these +conclusions, the latter of them at least is positively disowned +by the language and conduct of Augustus. It is not easy to +determine whether, on this occasion, he acted as the common +father of the Roman world, or as the oppressor of liberty; +whether he wished to relieve the provinces, or to impoverish the +senate and the equestrian order. But no sooner had he assumed the +reins of government, than he frequently intimated the +insufficiency of the tributes, and the necessity of throwing an +equitable proportion of the public burden upon Rome and Italy. In +the prosecution of this unpopular design, he advanced, however, +by cautious and well-weighed steps. The introduction of customs +was followed by the establishment of an excise, and the scheme of +taxation was completed by an artful assessment on the real and +personal property of the Roman citizens, who had been exempted +from any kind of contribution above a century and a half.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. In a great empire like that of Rome, a natural balance of +money must have gradually established itself. It has been already +observed, that as the wealth of the provinces was attracted to +the capital by the strong hand of conquest and power, so a +considerable part of it was restored to the industrious provinces +by the gentle influence of commerce and arts. In the reign of +Augustus and his successors, duties were imposed on every kind of +merchandise, which through a thousand channels flowed to the +great centre of opulence and luxury; and in whatsoever manner the +law was expressed, it was the Roman purchaser, and not the +provincial merchant, who paid the tax. The rate of the customs +varied from the eighth to the fortieth part of the value of the +commodity; and we have a right to suppose that the variation was +directed by the unalterable maxims of policy; that a higher duty +was fixed on the articles of luxury than on those of necessity, +and that the productions raised or manufactured by the labor of +the subjects of the empire were treated with more indulgence than +was shown to the pernicious, or at least the unpopular commerce +of Arabia and India. There is still extant a long but imperfect +catalogue of eastern commodities, which about the time of +Alexander Severus were subject to the payment of duties; +cinnamon, myrrh, pepper, ginger, and the whole tribe of aromatics +a great variety of precious stones, among which the diamond was +the most remarkable for its price, and the emerald for its +beauty; Parthian and Babylonian leather, cottons, silks, both raw +and manufactured, ebony ivory, and eunuchs. We may observe that +the use and value of those effeminate slaves gradually rose with +the decline of the empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, +was extremely moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded +one per cent.; but it comprehended whatever was sold in the +markets or by public auction, from the most considerable +purchases of lands and houses, to those minute objects which can +only derive a value from their infinite multitude and daily +consumption. Such a tax, as it affects the body of the people, +has ever been the occasion of clamor and discontent. An emperor +well acquainted with the wants and resources of the state was +obliged to declare, by a public edict, that the support of the +army depended in a great measure on the produce of the excise. +1<br> +</p> + +<p>III. When Augustus resolved to establish a permanent military +force for the defence of his government against foreign and +domestic enemies, he instituted a peculiar treasury for the pay +of the soldiers, the rewards of the veterans, and the +extra-ordinary expenses of war. The ample revenue of the excise, +though peculiarly appropriated to those uses, was found +inadequate. To supply the deficiency, the emperor suggested a new +tax of five per cent. on all legacies and inheritances. But the +nobles of Rome were more tenacious of property than of freedom. +Their indignant murmurs were received by Augustus with his usual +temper. He candidly referred the whole business to the senate, +and exhorted them to provide for the public service by some other +expedient of a less odious nature. They were divided and +perplexed. He insinuated to them, that their obstinacy would +oblige him to propose a general land tax and capitation. They +acquiesced in silence. . The new imposition on legacies and +inheritances was, however, mitigated by some restrictions. It did +not take place unless the object was of a certain value, most +probably of fifty or a hundred pieces of gold; nor could it be +exacted from the nearest of kin on the father's side. When the +rights of nature and poverty were thus secured, it seemed +reasonable, that a stranger, or a distant relation, who acquired +an unexpected accession of fortune, should cheerfully resign a +twentieth part of it, for the benefit of the state.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such a tax, plentiful as it must prove in every wealthy +community, was most happily suited to the situation of the +Romans, who could frame their arbitrary wills, according to the +dictates of reason or caprice, without any restraint from the +modern fetters of entails and settlements. From various causes, +the partiality of paternal affection often lost its influence +over the stern patriots of the commonwealth, and the dissolute +nobles of the empire; and if the father bequeathed to his son the +fourth part of his estate, he removed all ground of legal +complaint. But a rich childish old man was a domestic tyrant, and +his power increased with his years and infirmities. A servile +crowd, in which he frequently reckoned prætors and consuls, +courted his smiles, pampered his avarice, applauded his follies, +served his passions, and waited with impatience for his death. +The arts of attendance and flattery were formed into a most +lucrative science; those who professed it acquired a peculiar +appellation; and the whole city, according to the lively +descriptions of satire, was divided between two parties, the +hunters and their game. Yet, while so many unjust and extravagant +wills were every day dictated by cunning and subscribed by folly, +a few were the result of rational esteem and virtuous gratitude. +Cicero, who had so often defended the lives and fortunes of his +fellow-citizens, was rewarded with legacies to the amount of a +hundred and seventy thousand pounds; nor do the friends of the +younger Pliny seem to have been less generous to that amiable +orator. Whatever was the motive of the testator, the treasury +claimed, without distinction, the twentieth part of his estate: +and in the course of two or three generations, the whole property +of the subject must have gradually passed through the coffers of +the state.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the first and golden years of the reign of Nero, that +prince, from a desire of popularity, and perhaps from a blind +impulse of benevolence, conceived a wish of abolishing the +oppression of the customs and excise. The wisest senators +applauded his magnanimity: but they diverted him from the +execution of a design which would have dissolved the strength and +resources of the republic. Had it indeed been possible to realize +this dream of fancy, such princes as Trajan and the Antonines +would surely have embraced with ardor the glorious opportunity of +conferring so signal an obligation on mankind. Satisfied, +however, with alleviating the public burden, they attempted not +to remove it. The mildness and precision of their laws +ascertained the rule and measure of taxation, and protected the +subject of every rank against arbitrary interpretations, +antiquated claims, and the insolent vexation of the farmers of +the revenue. For it is somewhat singular, that, in every age, the +best and wisest of the Roman governors persevered in this +pernicious method of collecting the principal branches at least +of the excise and customs.<br> +</p> + +<p>The sentiments, and, indeed, the situation, of Caracalla were +very different from those of the Antonines. Inattentive, or +rather averse, to the welfare of his people, he found himself +under the necessity of gratifying the insatiate avarice which he +had excited in the army. Of the several impositions introduced by +Augustus, the twentieth on inheritances and legacies was the most +fruitful, as well as the most comprehensive. As its influence was +not confined to Rome or Italy, the produce continually increased +with the gradual extension of the Roman City. The new citizens, +though charged, on equal terms, with the payment of new taxes, +which had not affected them as subjects, derived an ample +compensation from the rank they obtained, the privileges they +acquired, and the fair prospect of honors and fortune that was +thrown open to their ambition. But the favor which implied a +distinction was lost in the prodigality of Caracalla, and the +reluctant provincials were compelled to assume the vain title, +and the real obligations, of Roman citizens. * Nor was the +rapacious son of Severus contented with such a measure of +taxation as had appeared sufficient to his moderate predecessors. +Instead of a twentieth, he exacted a tenth of all legacies and +inheritances; and during his reign (for the ancient proportion +was restored after his death) he crushed alike every part of the +empire under the weight of his iron sceptre.<br> +</p> + +<p>When all the provincials became liable to the peculiar +impositions of Roman citizens, they seemed to acquire a legal +exemption from the tributes which they had paid in their former +condition of subjects. Such were not the maxims of government +adopted by Caracalla and his pretended son. The old as well as +the new taxes were, at the same time, levied in the provinces. It +was reserved for the virtue of Alexander to relieve them in a +great measure from this intolerable grievance, by reducing the +tributes to a thirteenth part of the sum exacted at the time of +his accession. It is impossible to conjecture the motive that +engaged him to spare so trifling a remnant of the public evil; +but the noxious weed, which had not been totally eradicated, +again sprang up with the most luxuriant growth, and in the +succeeding age darkened the Roman world with its deadly shade. In +the course of this history, we shall be too often summoned to +explain the land tax, the capitation, and the heavy contributions +of corn, wine, oil, and meat, which were exacted from the +provinces for the use of the court, the army, and the +capital.<br> +</p> + +<p>As long as Rome and Italy were respected as the centre of +government, a national spirit was preserved by the ancient, and +insensibly imbibed by the adopted, citizens. The principal +commands of the army were filled by men who had received a +liberal education, were well instructed in the advantages of laws +and letters, and who had risen, by equal steps, through the +regular succession of civil and military honors. To their +influence and example we may partly ascribe the modest obedience +of the legions during the two first centuries of the Imperial +history.<br> +</p> + +<p>But when the last enclosure of the Roman constitution was +trampled down by Caracalla, the separation of professions +gradually succeeded to the distinction of ranks. The more +polished citizens of the internal provinces were alone qualified +to act as lawyers and magistrates. The rougher trade of arms was +abandoned to the peasants and barbarians of the frontiers, who +knew no country but their camp, no science but that of war no +civil laws, and scarcely those of military discipline. With +bloody hands, savage manners, and desperate resolutions, they +sometimes guarded, but much oftener subverted, the throne of the +emperors.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil +Wars, Death Of Maximin.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong></p> + +<p>The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin. -- Rebellion In Africa +And Italy, Under The Authority Of The Senate. -- Civil Wars And +Seditions. -- Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus +And Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians. -- Usurpation And +Secular Games Of Philip.<br> +</p> + +<p>Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the +world, an hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope +for ridicule. Is it possible to relate without an indignant +smile, that, on the father's decease, the property of a nation, +like that of a drove of oxen, descends to his infant son, as yet +unknown to mankind and to himself; and that the bravest warriors +and the wisest statesmen, relinquishing their natural right to +empire, approach the royal cradle with bended knees and +protestations of inviolable fidelity? Satire and declamation may +paint these obvious topics in the most dazzling colors, but our +more serious thoughts will respect a useful prejudice, that +establishes a rule of succession, independent of the passions of +mankind; and we shall cheerfully acquiesce in any expedient which +deprives the multitude of the dangerous, and indeed the ideal, +power of giving themselves a master.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the cool shade of retirement, we may easily devise +imaginary forms of government, in which the sceptre shall be +constantly bestowed on the most worthy, by the free and incorrupt +suffrage of the whole community. Experience overturns these airy +fabrics, and teaches us, that in a large society, the election of +a monarch can never devolve to the wisest, or to the most +numerous part of the people. The army is the only order of men +sufficiently united to concur in the same sentiments, and +powerful enough to impose them on the rest of their +fellow-citizens; but the temper of soldiers, habituated at once +to violence and to slavery, renders them very unfit guardians of +a legal, or even a civil constitution. Justice, humanity, or +political wisdom, are qualities they are too little acquainted +with in themselves, to appreciate them in others. Valor will +acquire their esteem, and liberality will purchase their +suffrage; but the first of these merits is often lodged in the +most savage breasts; the latter can only exert itself at the +expense of the public; and both may be turned against the +possessor of the throne, by the ambition of a daring rival.<br> +</p> + +<p>The superior prerogative of birth, when it has obtained the +sanction of time and popular opinion, is the plainest and least +invidious of all distinctions among mankind. The acknowledged +right extinguishes the hopes of faction, and the conscious +security disarms the cruelty of the monarch. To the firm +establishment of this idea we owe the peaceful succession and +mild administration of European monarchies. To the defect of it +we must attribute the frequent civil wars, through which an +Asiatic despot is obliged to cut his way to the throne of his +fathers. Yet, even in the East, the sphere of contention is +usually limited to the princes of the reigning house, and as soon +as the more fortunate competitor has removed his brethren by the +sword and the bowstring, he no longer entertains any jealousy of +his meaner subjects. But the Roman empire, after the authority of +the senate had sunk into contempt, was a vast scene of confusion. +The royal, and even noble, families of the provinces had long +since been led in triumph before the car of the haughty +republicans. The ancient families of Rome had successively fallen +beneath the tyranny of the Cæsars; and whilst those princes +were shackled by the forms of a commonwealth, and disappointed by +the repeated failure of their posterity, it was impossible that +any idea of hereditary succession should have taken root in the +minds of their subjects. The right to the throne, which none +could claim from birth, every one assumed from merit. The daring +hopes of ambition were set loose from the salutary restraints of +law and prejudice; and the meanest of mankind might, without +folly, entertain a hope of being raised by valor and fortune to a +rank in the army, in which a single crime would enable him to +wrest the sceptre of the world from his feeble and unpopular +master. After the murder of Alexander Severus, and the elevation +of Maximin, no emperor could think himself safe upon the throne, +and every barbarian peasant of the frontier might aspire to that +august, but dangerous station.<br> +</p> + +<p>About thirty-two years before that event, the emperor Severus, +returning from an eastern expedition, halted in Thrace, to +celebrate, with military games, the birthday of his younger son, +Geta. The country flocked in crowds to behold their sovereign, +and a young barbarian of gigantic stature earnestly solicited, in +his rude dialect, that he might be allowed to contend for the +prize of wrestling. As the pride of discipline would have been +disgraced in the overthrow of a Roman soldier by a Thracian +peasant, he was matched with the stoutest followers of the camp, +sixteen of whom he successively laid on the ground. His victory +was rewarded by some trifling gifts, and a permission to enlist +in the troops. The next day, the happy barbarian was +distinguished above a crowd of recruits, dancing and exulting +after the fashion of his country. As soon as he perceived that he +had attracted the emperor's notice, he instantly ran up to his +horse, and followed him on foot, without the least appearance of +fatigue, in a long and rapid career. "Thracian," said Severus +with astonishment, "art thou disposed to wrestle after thy race?" +"Most willingly, sir," replied the unwearied youth; and, almost +in a breath, overthrew seven of the strongest soldiers in the +army. A gold collar was the prize of his matchless vigor and +activity, and he was immediately appointed to serve in the +horseguards who always attended on the person of the +sovereign.<br> +</p> + +<p>Maximin, for that was his name, though born on the territories +of the empire, descended from a mixed race of barbarians. His +father was a Goth, and his mother of the nation of the Alani. He +displayed on every occasion a valor equal to his strength; and +his native fierceness was soon tempered or disguised by the +knowledge of the world. Under the reign of Severus and his son, +he obtained the rank of centurion, with the favor and esteem of +both those princes, the former of whom was an excellent judge of +merit. Gratitude forbade Maximin to serve under the assassin of +Caracalla. Honor taught him to decline the effeminate insults of +Elagabalus. On the accession of Alexander he returned to court, +and was placed by that prince in a station useful to the service, +and honorable to himself. The fourth legion, to which he was +appointed tribune, soon became, under his care, the best +disciplined of the whole army. With the general applause of the +soldiers, who bestowed on their favorite hero the names of Ajax +and Hercules, he was successively promoted to the first military +command; and had not he still retained too much of his savage +origin, the emperor might perhaps have given his own sister in +marriage to the son of Maximin.<br> +</p> + +<p>Instead of securing his fidelity, these favors served only to +inflame the ambition of the Thracian peasant, who deemed his +fortune inadequate to his merit, as long as he was constrained to +acknowledge a superior. Though a stranger to real wisdom, he was +not devoid of a selfish cunning, which showed him that the +emperor had lost the affection of the army, and taught him to +improve their discontent to his own advantage. It is easy for +faction and calumny to shed their poison on the administration of +the best of princes, and to accuse even their virtues by artfully +confounding them with those vices to which they bear the nearest +affinity. The troops listened with pleasure to the emissaries of +Maximin. They blushed at their own ignominious patience, which, +during thirteen years, had supported the vexatious discipline +imposed by an effeminate Syrian, the timid slave of his mother +and of the senate. It was time, they cried, to cast away that +useless phantom of the civil power, and to elect for their prince +and general a real soldier, educated in camps, exercised in war, +who would assert the glory, and distribute among his companions +the treasures, of the empire. A great army was at that time +assembled on the banks of the Rhine, under the command of the +emperor himself, who, almost immediately after his return from +the Persian war, had been obliged to march against the barbarians +of Germany. The important care of training and reviewing the new +levies was intrusted to Maximin. One day, as he entered the field +of exercise, the troops either from a sudden impulse, or a formed +conspiracy, saluted him emperor, silenced by their loud +acclamations his obstinate refusal, and hastened to consummate +their rebellion by the murder of Alexander Severus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The circumstances of his death are variously related. The +writers, who suppose that he died in ignorance of the ingratitude +and ambition of Maximin, affirm, that, after taking a frugal +repast in the sight of the army, he retired to sleep, and that, +about the seventh hour of the day, a part of his own guards broke +into the imperial tent, and, with many wounds, assassinated their +virtuous and unsuspecting prince. If we credit another, and +indeed a more probable account, Maximin was invested with the +purple by a numerous detachment, at the distance of several miles +from the head-quarters; and he trusted for success rather to the +secret wishes than to the public declarations of the great army. +Alexander had sufficient time to awaken a faint sense of loyalty +among the troops; but their reluctant professions of fidelity +quickly vanished on the appearance of Maximin, who declared +himself the friend and advocate of the military order, and was +unanimously acknowledged emperor of the Romans by the applauding +legions. The son of Mamæa, betrayed and deserted, withdrew +into his tent, desirous at least to conceal his approaching fate +from the insults of the multitude. He was soon followed by a +tribune and some centurions, the ministers of death; but instead +of receiving with manly resolution the inevitable stroke, his +unavailing cries and entreaties disgraced the last moments of his +life, and converted into contempt some portion of the just pity +which his innocence and misfortunes must inspire. His mother, +Mamæa, whose pride and avarice he loudly accused as the +cause of his ruin, perished with her son. The most faithful of +his friends were sacrificed to the first fury of the soldiers. +Others were reserved for the more deliberate cruelty of the +usurper; and those who experienced the mildest treatment, were +stripped of their employments, and ignominiously driven from the +court and army.<br> +</p> + +<p>The former tyrants, Caligula and Nero, Commodus, and +Caracalla, were all dissolute and unexperienced youths, educated +in the purple, and corrupted by the pride of empire, the luxury +of Rome, and the perfidious voice of flattery. The cruelty of +Maximin was derived from a different source, the fear of +contempt. Though he depended on the attachment of the soldiers, +who loved him for virtues like their own, he was conscious that +his mean and barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his +total ignorance of the arts and institutions of civil life, +formed a very unfavorable contrast with the amiable manners of +the unhappy Alexander. He remembered, that, in his humbler +fortune, he had often waited before the door of the haughty +nobles of Rome, and had been denied admittance by the insolence +of their slaves. He recollected too the friendship of a few who +had relieved his poverty, and assisted his rising hopes. But +those who had spurned, and those who had protected, the Thracian, +were guilty of the same crime, the knowledge of his original +obscurity. For this crime many were put to death; and by the +execution of several of his benefactors, Maximin published, in +characters of blood, the indelible history of his baseness and +ingratitude.<br> +</p> + +<p>The dark and sanguinary soul of the tyrant was open to every +suspicion against those among his subjects who were the most +distinguished by their birth or merit. Whenever he was alarmed +with the sound of treason, his cruelty was unbounded and +unrelenting. A conspiracy against his life was either discovered +or imagined, and Magnus, a consular senator, was named as the +principal author of it. Without a witness, without a trial, and +without an opportunity of defence, Magnus, with four thousand of +his supposed accomplices, was put to death. Italy and the whole +empire were infested with innumerable spies and informers. On the +slightest accusation, the first of the Roman nobles, who had +governed provinces, commanded armies, and been adorned with the +consular and triumphal ornaments, were chained on the public +carriages, and hurried away to the emperor's presence. +Confiscation, exile, or simple death, were esteemed uncommon +instances of his lenity. Some of the unfortunate sufferers he +ordered to be sewed up in the hides of slaughtered animals, +others to be exposed to wild beasts, others again to be beaten to +death with clubs. During the three years of his reign, he +disdained to visit either Rome or Italy. His camp, occasionally +removed from the banks of the Rhine to those of the Danube, was +the seat of his stern despotism, which trampled on every +principle of law and justice, and was supported by the avowed +power of the sword. No man of noble birth, elegant +accomplishments, or knowledge of civil business, was suffered +near his person; and the court of a Roman emperor revived the +idea of those ancient chiefs of slaves and gladiators, whose +savage power had left a deep impression of terror and +detestation.<br> +</p> + +<p>As long as the cruelty of Maximin was confined to the +illustrious senators, or even to the bold adventurers, who in the +court or army expose themselves to the caprice of fortune, the +body of the people viewed their sufferings with indifference, or +perhaps with pleasure. But the tyrant's avarice, stimulated by +the insatiate desires of the soldiers, at length attacked the +public property. Every city of the empire was possessed of an +independent revenue, destined to purchase corn for the multitude, +and to supply the expenses of the games and entertainments. By a +single act of authority, the whole mass of wealth was at once +confiscated for the use of the Imperial treasury. The temples +were stripped of their most valuable offerings of gold and +silver, and the statues of gods, heroes, and emperors, were +melted down and coined into money. These impious orders could not +be executed without tumults and massacres, as in many places the +people chose rather to die in the defence of their altars, than +to behold in the midst of peace their cities exposed to the +rapine and cruelty of war. The soldiers themselves, among whom +this sacrilegious plunder was distributed, received it with a +blush; and hardened as they were in acts of violence, they +dreaded the just reproaches of their friends and relations. +Throughout the Roman world a general cry of indignation was +heard, imploring vengeance on the common enemy of human kind; and +at length, by an act of private oppression, a peaceful and +unarmed province was driven into rebellion against him.<br> +</p> + +<p>The procurator of Africa was a servant worthy of such a +master, who considered the fines and confiscations of the rich as +one of the most fruitful branches of the Imperial revenue. An +iniquitous sentence had been pronounced against some opulent +youths of that country, the execution of which would have +stripped them of far the greater part of their patrimony. In this +extremity, a resolution that must either complete or prevent +their ruin, was dictated by despair. A respite of three days, +obtained with difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was +employed in collecting from their estates a great number of +slaves and peasants blindly devoted to the commands of their +lords, and armed with the rustic weapons of clubs and axes. The +leaders of the conspiracy, as they were admitted to the audience +of the procurator, stabbed him with the daggers concealed under +their garments, and, by the assistance of their tumultuary train, +seized on the little town of Thysdrus, and erected the standard +of rebellion against the sovereign of the Roman empire. They +rested their hopes on the hatred of mankind against Maximin, and +they judiciously resolved to oppose to that detested tyrant an +emperor whose mild virtues had already acquired the love and +esteem of the Romans, and whose authority over the province would +give weight and stability to the enterprise. Gordianus, their +proconsul, and the object of their choice, refused, with +unfeigned reluctance, the dangerous honor, and begged with tears, +that they would suffer him to terminate in peace a long and +innocent life, without staining his feeble age with civil blood. +Their menaces compelled him to accept the Imperial purple, his +only refuge, indeed, against the jealous cruelty of Maximin; +since, according to the reasoning of tyrants, those who have been +esteemed worthy of the throne deserve death, and those who +deliberate have already rebelled.<br> +</p> + +<p>The family of Gordianus was one of the most illustrious of the +Roman senate. On the father's side he was descended from the +Gracchi; on his mother's, from the emperor Trajan. A great estate +enabled him to support the dignity of his birth, and in the +enjoyment of it, he displayed an elegant taste and beneficent +disposition. The palace in Rome, formerly inhabited by the great +Pompey, had been, during several generations, in the possession +of Gordian's family. It was distinguished by ancient trophies of +naval victories, and decorated with the works of modern painting. +His villa on the road to Præneste was celebrated for baths +of singular beauty and extent, for three stately rooms of a +hundred feet in length, and for a magnificent portico, supported +by two hundred columns of the four most curious and costly sorts +of marble. The public shows exhibited at his expense, and in +which the people were entertained with many hundreds of wild +beasts and gladiators, seem to surpass the fortune of a subject; +and whilst the liberality of other magistrates was confined to a +few solemn festivals at Rome, the magnificence of Gordian was +repeated, when he was ædile, every month in the year, and +extended, during his consulship, to the principal cities of +Italy. He was twice elevated to the last-mentioned dignity, by +Caracalla and by Alexander; for he possessed the uncommon talent +of acquiring the esteem of virtuous princes, without alarming the +jealousy of tyrants. His long life was innocently spent in the +study of letters and the peaceful honors of Rome; and, till he +was named proconsul of Africa by the voice of the senate and the +approbation of Alexander, he appears prudently to have declined +the command of armies and the government of provinces. * As long +as that emperor lived, Africa was happy under the administration +of his worthy representative: after the barbarous Maximin had +usurped the throne, Gordianus alleviated the miseries which he +was unable to prevent. When he reluctantly accepted the purple, +he was above fourscore years old; a last and valuable remains of +the happy age of the Antonines, whose virtues he revived in his +own conduct, and celebrated in an elegant poem of thirty books. +With the venerable proconsul, his son, who had accompanied him +into Africa as his lieutenant, was likewise declared emperor. His +manners were less pure, but his character was equally amiable +with that of his father. Twenty-two acknowledged concubines, and +a library of sixty-two thousand volumes, attested the variety of +his inclinations; and from the productions which he left behind +him, it appears that the former as well as the latter were +designed for use rather than for ostentation. The Roman people +acknowledged in the features of the younger Gordian the +resemblance of Scipio Africanus, recollected with pleasure that +his mother was the granddaughter of Antoninus Pius, and rested +the public hope on those latent virtues which had hitherto, as +they fondly imagined, lain concealed in the luxurious indolence +of private life.<br> +</p> + +<p>As soon as the Gordians had appeased the first tumult of a +popular election, they removed their court to Carthage. They were +received with the acclamations of the Africans, who honored their +virtues, and who, since the visit of Hadrian, had never beheld +the majesty of a Roman emperor. But these vain acclamations +neither strengthened nor confirmed the title of the Gordians. +They were induced by principle, as well as interest, to solicit +the approbation of the senate; and a deputation of the noblest +provincials was sent, without delay, to Rome, to relate and +justify the conduct of their countrymen, who, having long +suffered with patience, were at length resolved to act with +vigor. The letters of the new princes were modest and respectful, +excusing the necessity which had obliged them to accept the +Imperial title; but submitting their election and their fate to +the supreme judgment of the senate.<br> +</p> + +<p>The inclinations of the senate were neither doubtful nor +divided. The birth and noble alliances of the Gordians had +intimately connected them with the most illustrious houses of +Rome. Their fortune had created many dependants in that assembly, +their merit had acquired many friends. Their mild administration +opened the flattering prospect of the restoration, not only of +the civil but even of the republican government. The terror of +military violence, which had first obliged the senate to forget +the murder of Alexander, and to ratify the election of a +barbarian peasant, now produced a contrary effect, and provoked +them to assert the injured rights of freedom and humanity. The +hatred of Maximin towards the senate was declared and implacable; +the tamest submission had not appeased his fury, the most +cautious innocence would not remove his suspicions; and even the +care of their own safety urged them to share the fortune of an +enterprise, of which (if unsuccessful) they were sure to be the +first victims. These considerations, and perhaps others of a more +private nature, were debated in a previous conference of the +consuls and the magistrates. As soon as their resolution was +decided, they convoked in the temple of Castor the whole body of +the senate, according to an ancient form of secrecy, calculated +to awaken their attention, and to conceal their decrees. +"Conscript fathers," said the consul Syllanus, "the two Gordians, +both of consular dignity, the one your proconsul, the other your +lieutenant, have been declared emperors by the general consent of +Africa. Let us return thanks," he boldly continued, "to the youth +of Thysdrus; let us return thanks to the faithful people of +Carthage, our generous deliverers from a horrid monster -- Why do +you hear me thus coolly, thus timidly? Why do you cast those +anxious looks on each other? Why hesitate? Maximin is a public +enemy! may his enmity soon expire with him, and may we long enjoy +the prudence and felicity of Gordian the father, the valor and +constancy of Gordian the son!" The noble ardor of the consul +revived the languid spirit of the senate. By a unanimous decree, +the election of the Gordians was ratified, Maximin, his son, and +his adherents, were pronounced enemies of their country, and +liberal rewards were offered to whomsoever had the courage and +good fortune to destroy them.<br> +</p> + +<p>[See Temple Of Castor and Pollux]<br> +</p> + +<p>During the emperor's absence, a detachment of the +Prætorian guards remained at Rome, to protect, or rather to +command, the capital. The præfect Vitalianus had signalized +his fidelity to Maximin, by the alacrity with which he had +obeyed, and even prevented the cruel mandates of the tyrant. His +death alone could rescue the authority of the senate, and the +lives of the senators from a state of danger and suspense. Before +their resolves had transpired, a quæstor and some tribunes +were commissioned to take his devoted life. They executed the +order with equal boldness and success; and, with their bloody +daggers in their hands, ran through the streets, proclaiming to +the people and the soldiers the news of the happy revolution. The +enthusiasm of liberty was seconded by the promise of a large +donative, in lands and money; the statues of Maximin were thrown +down; the capital of the empire acknowledged, with transport, the +authority of the two Gordians and the senate; and the example of +Rome was followed by the rest of Italy.<br> +</p> + +<p>A new spirit had arisen in that assembly, whose long patience +had been insulted by wanton despotism and military license. The +senate assumed the reins of government, and, with a calm +intrepidity, prepared to vindicate by arms the cause of freedom. +Among the consular senators recommended by their merit and +services to the favor of the emperor Alexander, it was easy to +select twenty, not unequal to the command of an army, and the +conduct of a war. To these was the defence of Italy intrusted. +Each was appointed to act in his respective department, +authorized to enroll and discipline the Italian youth; and +instructed to fortify the ports and highways, against the +impending invasion of Maximin. A number of deputies, chosen from +the most illustrious of the senatorian and equestrian orders, +were despatched at the same time to the governors of the several +provinces, earnestly conjuring them to fly to the assistance of +their country, and to remind the nations of their ancient ties of +friendship with the Roman senate and people. The general respect +with which these deputies were received, and the zeal of Italy +and the provinces in favor of the senate, sufficiently prove that +the subjects of Maximin were reduced to that uncommon distress, +in which the body of the people has more to fear from oppression +than from resistance. The consciousness of that melancholy truth, +inspires a degree of persevering fury, seldom to be found in +those civil wars which are artificially supported for the benefit +of a few factious and designing leaders.<br> +</p> + +<p>For while the cause of the Gordians was embraced with such +diffusive ardor, the Gordians themselves were no more. The feeble +court of Carthage was alarmed by the rapid approach of +Capelianus, governor of Mauritania, who, with a small band of +veterans, and a fierce host of barbarians, attacked a faithful, +but unwarlike province. The younger Gordian sallied out to meet +the enemy at the head of a few guards, and a numerous +undisciplined multitude, educated in the peaceful luxury of +Carthage. His useless valor served only to procure him an +honorable death on the field of battle. His aged father, whose +reign had not exceeded thirty-six days, put an end to his life on +the first news of the defeat. Carthage, destitute of defence, +opened her gates to the conqueror, and Africa was exposed to the +rapacious cruelty of a slave, obliged to satisfy his unrelenting +master with a large account of blood and treasure.<br> +</p> + +<p>The fate of the Gordians filled Rome with just but unexpected +terror. The senate, convoked in the temple of Concord, affected +to transact the common business of the day; and seemed to +decline, with trembling anxiety, the consideration of their own +and the public danger. A silent consternation prevailed in the +assembly, till a senator, of the name and family of Trajan, +awakened his brethren from their fatal lethargy. He represented +to them that the choice of cautious, dilatory measures had been +long since out of their power; that Maximin, implacable by +nature, and exasperated by injuries, was advancing towards Italy, +at the head of the military force of the empire; and that their +only remaining alternative was either to meet him bravely in the +field, or tamely to expect the tortures and ignominious death +reserved for unsuccessful rebellion. "We have lost," continued +he, "two excellent princes; but unless we desert ourselves, the +hopes of the republic have not perished with the Gordians. Many +are the senators whose virtues have deserved, and whose abilities +would sustain, the Imperial dignity. Let us elect two emperors, +one of whom may conduct the war against the public enemy, whilst +his colleague remains at Rome to direct the civil administration. +I cheerfully expose myself to the danger and envy of the +nomination, and give my vote in favor of Maximus and Balbinus. +Ratify my choice, conscript fathers, or appoint in their place, +others more worthy of the empire." The general apprehension +silenced the whispers of jealousy; the merit of the candidates +was universally acknowledged; and the house resounded with the +sincere acclamations of "Long life and victory to the emperors +Maximus and Balbinus. You are happy in the judgment of the +senate; may the republic be happy under your administration!"<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil +Wars, Death Of Maximin. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The virtues and the reputation of the new emperors justified +the most sanguine hopes of the Romans. The various nature of +their talents seemed to appropriate to each his peculiar +department of peace and war, without leaving room for jealous +emulation. Balbinus was an admired orator, a poet of +distinguished fame, and a wise magistrate, who had exercised with +innocence and applause the civil jurisdiction in almost all the +interior provinces of the empire. His birth was noble, his +fortune affluent, his manners liberal and affable. In him the +love of pleasure was corrected by a sense of dignity, nor had the +habits of ease deprived him of a capacity for business. The mind +of Maximus was formed in a rougher mould. By his valor and +abilities he had raised himself from the meanest origin to the +first employments of the state and army. His victories over the +Sarmatians and the Germans, the austerity of his life, and the +rigid impartiality of his justice, while he was a Præfect +of the city, commanded the esteem of a people whose affections +were engaged in favor of the more amiable Balbinus. The two +colleagues had both been consuls, (Balbinus had twice enjoyed +that honorable office,) both had been named among the twenty +lieutenants of the senate; and since the one was sixty and the +other seventy-four years old, they had both attained the full +maturity of age and experience.<br> +</p> + +<p>After the senate had conferred on Maximus and Balbinus an +equal portion of the consular and tribunitian powers, the title +of Fathers of their country, and the joint office of Supreme +Pontiff, they ascended to the Capitol to return thanks to the +gods, protectors of Rome. The solemn rites of sacrifice were +disturbed by a sedition of the people. The licentious multitude +neither loved the rigid Maximus, nor did they sufficiently fear +the mild and humane Balbinus. Their increasing numbers surrounded +the temple of Jupiter; with obstinate clamors they asserted their +inherent right of consenting to the election of their sovereign; +and demanded, with an apparent moderation, that, besides the two +emperors, chosen by the senate, a third should be added of the +family of the Gordians, as a just return of gratitude to those +princes who had sacrificed their lives for the republic. At the +head of the city-guards, and the youth of the equestrian order, +Maximus and Balbinus attempted to cut their way through the +seditious multitude. The multitude, armed with sticks and stones, +drove them back into the Capitol. It is prudent to yield when the +contest, whatever may be the issue of it, must be fatal to both +parties. A boy, only thirteen years of age, the grandson of the +elder, and nephew * of the younger Gordian, was produced to the +people, invested with the ornaments and title of Cæsar. The +tumult was appeased by this easy condescension; and the two +emperors, as soon as they had been peaceably acknowledged in +Rome, prepared to defend Italy against the common enemy.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whilst in Rome and Africa, revolutions succeeded each other +with such amazing rapidity, that the mind of Maximin was agitated +by the most furious passions. He is said to have received the +news of the rebellion of the Gordians, and of the decree of the +senate against him, not with the temper of a man, but the rage of +a wild beast; which, as it could not discharge itself on the +distant senate, threatened the life of his son, of his friends, +and of all who ventured to approach his person. The grateful +intelligence of the death of the Gordians was quickly followed by +the assurance that the senate, laying aside all hopes of pardon +or accommodation, had substituted in their room two emperors, +with whose merit he could not be unacquainted. Revenge was the +only consolation left to Maximin, and revenge could only be +obtained by arms. The strength of the legions had been assembled +by Alexander from all parts of the empire. Three successful +campaigns against the Germans and the Sarmatians, had raised +their fame, confirmed their discipline, and even increased their +numbers, by filling the ranks with the flower of the barbarian +youth. The life of Maximin had been spent in war, and the candid +severity of history cannot refuse him the valor of a soldier, or +even the abilities of an experienced general. It might naturally +be expected, that a prince of such a character, instead of +suffering the rebellion to gain stability by delay, should +immediately have marched from the banks of the Danube to those of +the Tyber, and that his victorious army, instigated by contempt +for the senate, and eager to gather the spoils of Italy, should +have burned with impatience to finish the easy and lucrative +conquest. Yet as far as we can trust to the obscure chronology of +that period, it appears that the operations of some foreign war +deferred the Italian expedition till the ensuing spring. From the +prudent conduct of Maximin, we may learn that the savage features +of his character have been exaggerated by the pencil of party, +that his passions, however impetuous, submitted to the force of +reason, and that the barbarian possessed something of the +generous spirit of Sylla, who subdued the enemies of Rome before +he suffered himself to revenge his private injuries.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the troops of Maximin, advancing in excellent order, +arrived at the foot of the Julian Alps, they were terrified by +the silence and desolation that reigned on the frontiers of +Italy. The villages and open towns had been abandoned on their +approach by the inhabitants, the cattle was driven away, the +provisions removed or destroyed, the bridges broken down, nor was +any thing left which could afford either shelter or subsistence +to an invader. Such had been the wise orders of the generals of +the senate: whose design was to protract the war, to ruin the +army of Maximin by the slow operation of famine, and to consume +his strength in the sieges of the principal cities of Italy, +which they had plentifully stored with men and provisions from +the deserted country. Aquileia received and withstood the first +shock of the invasion. The streams that issue from the head of +the Hadriatic Gulf, swelled by the melting of the winter snows, +opposed an unexpected obstacle to the arms of Maximin. At length, +on a singular bridge, constructed with art and difficulty, of +large hogsheads, he transported his army to the opposite bank, +rooted up the beautiful vineyards in the neighborhood of +Aquileia, demolished the suburbs, and employed the timber of the +buildings in the engines and towers, with which on every side he +attacked the city. The walls, fallen to decay during the security +of a long peace, had been hastily repaired on this sudden +emergency: but the firmest defence of Aquileia consisted in the +constancy of the citizens; all ranks of whom, instead of being +dismayed, were animated by the extreme danger, and their +knowledge of the tyrant's unrelenting temper. Their courage was +supported and directed by Crispinus and Menophilus, two of the +twenty lieutenants of the senate, who, with a small body of +regular troops, had thrown themselves into the besieged place. +The army of Maximin was repulsed in repeated attacks, his +machines destroyed by showers of artificial fire; and the +generous enthusiasm of the Aquileians was exalted into a +confidence of success, by the opinion that Belenus, their tutelar +deity, combated in person in the defence of his distressed +worshippers.<br> +</p> + +<p>The emperor Maximus, who had advanced as far as Ravenna, to +secure that important place, and to hasten the military +preparations, beheld the event of the war in the more faithful +mirror of reason and policy. He was too sensible, that a single +town could not resist the persevering efforts of a great army; +and he dreaded, lest the enemy, tired with the obstinate +resistance of Aquileia, should on a sudden relinquish the +fruitless siege, and march directly towards Rome. The fate of the +empire and the cause of freedom must then be committed to the +chance of a battle; and what arms could he oppose to the veteran +legions of the Rhine and Danube? Some troops newly levied among +the generous but enervated youth of Italy; and a body of German +auxiliaries, on whose firmness, in the hour of trial, it was +dangerous to depend. In the midst of these just alarms, the +stroke of domestic conspiracy punished the crimes of Maximin, and +delivered Rome and the senate from the calamities that would +surely have attended the victory of an enraged barbarian.<br> +</p> + +<p>The people of Aquileia had scarcely experienced any of the +common miseries of a siege; their magazines were plentifully +supplied, and several fountains within the walls assured them of +an inexhaustible resource of fresh water. The soldiers of Maximin +were, on the contrary, exposed to the inclemency of the season, +the contagion of disease, and the horrors of famine. The open +country was ruined, the rivers filled with the slain, and +polluted with blood. A spirit of despair and disaffection began +to diffuse itself among the troops; and as they were cut off from +all intelligence, they easily believed that the whole empire had +embraced the cause of the senate, and that they were left as +devoted victims to perish under the impregnable walls of +Aquileia. The fierce temper of the tyrant was exasperated by +disappointments, which he imputed to the cowardice of his army; +and his wanton and ill-timed cruelty, instead of striking terror, +inspired hatred, and a just desire of revenge. A party of +Prætorian guards, who trembled for their wives and children +in the camp of Alba, near Rome, executed the sentence of the +senate. Maximin, abandoned by his guards, was slain in his tent, +with his son, (whom he had associated to the honors of the +purple,) Anulinus the præfect, and the principal ministers +of his tyranny. The sight of their heads, borne on the point of +spears, convinced the citizens of Aquileia that the siege was at +an end; the gates of the city were thrown open, a liberal market +was provided for the hungry troops of Maximin, and the whole army +joined in solemn protestations of fidelity to the senate and the +people of Rome, and to their lawful emperors Maximus and +Balbinus. Such was the deserved fate of a brutal savage, +destitute, as he has generally been represented, of every +sentiment that distinguishes a civilized, or even a human being. +The body was suited to the soul. The stature of Maximin exceeded +the measure of eight feet, and circumstances almost incredible +are related of his matchless strength and appetite. Had he lived +in a less enlightened age, tradition and poetry might well have +described him as one of those monstrous giants, whose +supernatural power was constantly exerted for the destruction of +mankind.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is easier to conceive than to describe the universal joy of +the Roman world on the fall of the tyrant, the news of which is +said to have been carried in four days from Aquileia to Rome. The +return of Maximus was a triumphal procession; his colleague and +young Gordian went out to meet him, and the three princes made +their entry into the capital, attended by the ambassadors of +almost all the cities of Italy, saluted with the splendid +offerings of gratitude and superstition, and received with the +unfeigned acclamations of the senate and people, who persuaded +themselves that a golden age would succeed to an age of iron. The +conduct of the two emperors corresponded with these expectations. +They administered justice in person; and the rigor of the one was +tempered by the other's clemency. The oppressive taxes with which +Maximin had loaded the rights of inheritance and succession, were +repealed, or at least moderated. Discipline was revived, and with +the advice of the senate many wise laws were enacted by their +imperial ministers, who endeavored to restore a civil +constitution on the ruins of military tyranny. "What reward may +we expect for delivering Rome from a monster?" was the question +asked by Maximus, in a moment of freedom and confidence. Balbinus +answered it without hesitation -- "The love of the senate, of the +people, and of all mankind." "Alas!" replied his more penetrating +colleague -- "alas! I dread the hatred of the soldiers, and the +fatal effects of their resentment." His apprehensions were but +too well justified by the event.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whilst Maximus was preparing to defend Italy against the +common foe, Balbinus, who remained at Rome, had been engaged in +scenes of blood and intestine discord. Distrust and jealousy +reigned in the senate; and even in the temples where they +assembled, every senator carried either open or concealed arms. +In the midst of their deliberations, two veterans of the guards, +actuated either by curiosity or a sinister motive, audaciously +thrust themselves into the house, and advanced by degrees beyond +the altar of Victory. Gallicanus, a consular, and Mæcenas, +a Prætorian senator, viewed with indignation their insolent +intrusion: drawing their daggers, they laid the spies (for such +they deemed them) dead at the foot of the altar, and then, +advancing to the door of the senate, imprudently exhorted the +multitude to massacre the Prætorians, as the secret +adherents of the tyrant. Those who escaped the first fury of the +tumult took refuge in the camp, which they defended with superior +advantage against the reiterated attacks of the people, assisted +by the numerous bands of gladiators, the property of opulent +nobles. The civil war lasted many days, with infinite loss and +confusion on both sides. When the pipes were broken that supplied +the camp with water, the Prætorians were reduced to +intolerable distress; but in their turn they made desperate +sallies into the city, set fire to a great number of houses, and +filled the streets with the blood of the inhabitants. The emperor +Balbinus attempted, by ineffectual edicts and precarious truces, +to reconcile the factions at Rome. But their animosity, though +smothered for a while, burnt with redoubled violence. The +soldiers, detesting the senate and the people, despised the +weakness of a prince, who wanted either the spirit or the power +to command the obedience of his subjects.<br> +</p> + +<p>After the tyrant's death, his formidable army had +acknowledged, from necessity rather than from choice, the +authority of Maximus, who transported himself without delay to +the camp before Aquileia. As soon as he had received their oath +of fidelity, he addressed them in terms full of mildness and +moderation; lamented, rather than arraigned the wild disorders of +the times, and assured the soldiers, that of all their past +conduct the senate would remember only their generous desertion +of the tyrant, and their voluntary return to their duty. Maximus +enforced his exhortations by a liberal donative, purified the +camp by a solemn sacrifice of expiation, and then dismissed the +legions to their several provinces, impressed, as he hoped, with +a lively sense of gratitude and obedience. But nothing could +reconcile the haughty spirit of the Prætorians. They +attended the emperors on the memorable day of their public entry +into Rome; but amidst the general acclamations, the sullen, +dejected countenance of the guards sufficiently declared that +they considered themselves as the object, rather than the +partners, of the triumph. When the whole body was united in their +camp, those who had served under Maximin, and those who had +remained at Rome, insensibly communicated to each other their +complaints and apprehensions. The emperors chosen by the army had +perished with ignominy; those elected by the senate were seated +on the throne. The long discord between the civil and military +powers was decided by a war, in which the former had obtained a +complete victory. The soldiers must now learn a new doctrine of +submission to the senate; and whatever clemency was affected by +that politic assembly, they dreaded a slow revenge, colored by +the name of discipline, and justified by fair pretences of the +public good. But their fate was still in their own hands; and if +they had courage to despise the vain terrors of an impotent +republic, it was easy to convince the world, that those who were +masters of the arms, were masters of the authority, of the +state.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the senate elected two princes, it is probable that, +besides the declared reason of providing for the various +emergencies of peace and war, they were actuated by the secret +desire of weakening by division the despotism of the supreme +magistrate. Their policy was effectual, but it proved fatal both +to their emperors and to themselves. The jealousy of power was +soon exasperated by the difference of character. Maximus despised +Balbinus as a luxurious noble, and was in his turn disdained by +his colleague as an obscure soldier. Their silent discord was +understood rather than seen; but the mutual consciousness +prevented them from uniting in any vigorous measures of defence +against their common enemies of the Prætorian camp. The +whole city was employed in the Capitoline games, and the emperors +were left almost alone in the palace. On a sudden, they were +alarmed by the approach of a troop of desperate assassins. +Ignorant of each other's situation or designs, (for they already +occupied very distant apartments,) afraid to give or to receive +assistance, they wasted the important moments in idle debates and +fruitless recriminations. The arrival of the guards put an end to +the vain strife. They seized on these emperors of the senate, for +such they called them with malicious contempt, stripped them of +their garments, and dragged them in insolent triumph through the +streets of Rome, with the design of inflicting a slow and cruel +death on these unfortunate princes. The fear of a rescue from the +faithful Germans of the Imperial guards, shortened their +tortures; and their bodies, mangled with a thousand wounds, were +left exposed to the insults or to the pity of the populace.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the space of a few months, six princes had been cut off by +the sword. Gordian, who had already received the title of +Cæsar, was the only person that occurred to the soldiers as +proper to fill the vacant throne. They carried him to the camp, +and unanimously saluted him Augustus and Emperor. His name was +dear to the senate and people; his tender age promised a long +impunity of military license; and the submission of Rome and the +provinces to the choice of the Prætorian guards, saved the +republic, at the expense indeed of its freedom and dignity, from +the horrors of a new civil war in the heart of the capital.<br> +</p> + +<p>As the third Gordian was only nineteen years of age at the +time of his death, the history of his life, were it known to us +with greater accuracy than it really is, would contain little +more than the account of his education, and the conduct of the +ministers, who by turns abused or guided the simplicity of his +unexperienced youth. Immediately after his accession, he fell +into the hands of his mother's eunuchs, that pernicious vermin of +the East, who, since the days of Elagabalus, had infested the +Roman palace. By the artful conspiracy of these wretches, an +impenetrable veil was drawn between an innocent prince and his +oppressed subjects, the virtuous disposition of Gordian was +deceived, and the honors of the empire sold without his +knowledge, though in a very public manner, to the most worthless +of mankind. We are ignorant by what fortunate accident the +emperor escaped from this ignominious slavery, and devolved his +confidence on a minister, whose wise counsels had no object +except the glory of his sovereign and the happiness of the +people. It should seem that love and learning introduced +Misitheus to the favor of Gordian. The young prince married the +daughter of his master of rhetoric, and promoted his +father-in-law to the first offices of the empire. Two admirable +letters that passed between them are still extant. The minister, +with the conscious dignity of virtue, congratulates Gordian that +he is delivered from the tyranny of the eunuchs, and still more +that he is sensible of his deliverance. The emperor acknowledges, +with an amiable confusion, the errors of his past conduct; and +laments, with singular propriety, the misfortune of a monarch, +from whom a venal tribe of courtiers perpetually labor to conceal +the truth.<br> +</p> + +<p>The life of Misitheus had been spent in the profession of +letters, not of arms; yet such was the versatile genius of that +great man, that, when he was appointed Prætorian +Præfect, he discharged the military duties of his place +with vigor and ability. The Persians had invaded Mesopotamia, and +threatened Antioch. By the persuasion of his father-in-law, the +young emperor quitted the luxury of Rome, opened, for the last +time recorded in history, the temple of Janus, and marched in +person into the East. On his approach, with a great army, the +Persians withdrew their garrisons from the cities which they had +already taken, and retired from the Euphrates to the Tigris. +Gordian enjoyed the pleasure of announcing to the senate the +first success of his arms, which he ascribed, with a becoming +modesty and gratitude, to the wisdom of his father and +Præfect. During the whole expedition, Misitheus watched +over the safety and discipline of the army; whilst he prevented +their dangerous murmurs by maintaining a regular plenty in the +camp, and by establishing ample magazines of vinegar, bacon, +straw, barley, and wheat in all the cities of the frontier. But +the prosperity of Gordian expired with Misitheus, who died of a +flux, not with out very strong suspicions of poison. Philip, his +successor in the præfecture, was an Arab by birth, and +consequently, in the earlier part of his life, a robber by +profession. His rise from so obscure a station to the first +dignities of the empire, seems to prove that he was a bold and +able leader. But his boldness prompted him to aspire to the +throne, and his abilities were employed to supplant, not to +serve, his indulgent master. The minds of the soldiers were +irritated by an artificial scarcity, created by his contrivance +in the camp; and the distress of the army was attributed to the +youth and incapacity of the prince. It is not in our power to +trace the successive steps of the secret conspiracy and open +sedition, which were at length fatal to Gordian. A sepulchral +monument was erected to his memory on the spot where he was +killed, near the conflux of the Euphrates with the little river +Aboras. The fortunate Philip, raised to the empire by the votes +of the soldiers, found a ready obedience from the senate and the +provinces.<br> +</p> + +<p>We cannot forbear transcribing the ingenious, though somewhat +fanciful description, which a celebrated writer of our own times +has traced of the military government of the Roman empire. "What +in that age was called the Roman empire, was only an irregular +republic, not unlike the aristocracy of Algiers, where the +militia, possessed of the sovereignty, creates and deposes a +magistrate, who is styled a Dey. Perhaps, indeed, it may be laid +down as a general rule, that a military government is, in some +respects, more republican than monarchical. Nor can it be said +that the soldiers only partook of the government by their +disobedience and rebellions. The speeches made to them by the +emperors, were they not at length of the same nature as those +formerly pronounced to the people by the consuls and the +tribunes? And although the armies had no regular place or forms +of assembly; though their debates were short, their action +sudden, and their resolves seldom the result of cool reflection, +did they not dispose, with absolute sway, of the public fortune? +What was the emperor, except the minister of a violent +government, elected for the private benefit of the soldiers?<br> +</p> + +<p>"When the army had elected Philip, who was Prætorian +præfect to the third Gordian, the latter demanded that he +might remain sole emperor; he was unable to obtain it. He +requested that the power might be equally divided between them; +the army would not listen to his speech. He consented to be +degraded to the rank of Cæsar; the favor was refused him. +He desired, at least, he might be appointed Prætorian +præfect; his prayer was rejected. Finally, he pleaded for +his life. The army, in these several judgments, exercised the +supreme magistracy." According to the historian, whose doubtful +narrative the President De Montesquieu has adopted, Philip, who, +during the whole transaction, had preserved a sullen silence, was +inclined to spare the innocent life of his benefactor; till, +recollecting that his innocence might excite a dangerous +compassion in the Roman world, he commanded, without regard to +his suppliant cries, that he should be seized, stripped, and led +away to instant death. After a moment's pause, the inhuman +sentence was executed.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil +Wars, Death Of Maximin. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>On his return from the East to Rome, Philip, desirous of +obliterating the memory of his crimes, and of captivating the +affections of the people, solemnized the secular games with +infinite pomp and magnificence. Since their institution or +revival by Augustus, they had been celebrated by Claudius, by +Domitian, and by Severus, and were now renewed the fifth time, on +the accomplishment of the full period of a thousand years from +the foundation of Rome. Every circumstance of the secular games +was skillfully adapted to inspire the superstitious mind with +deep and solemn reverence. The long interval between them +exceeded the term of human life; and as none of the spectators +had already seen them, none could flatter themselves with the +expectation of beholding them a second time. The mystic +sacrifices were performed, during three nights, on the banks of +the Tyber; and the Campus Martius resounded with music and +dances, and was illuminated with innumerable lamps and torches. +Slaves and strangers were excluded from any participation in +these national ceremonies. A chorus of twenty-seven youths, and +as many virgins, of noble families, and whose parents were both +alive, implored the propitious gods in favor of the present, and +for the hope of the rising generation; requesting, in religious +hymns, that according to the faith of their ancient oracles, they +would still maintain the virtue, the felicity, and the empire of +the Roman people. The magnificence of Philip's shows and +entertainments dazzled the eyes of the multitude. The devout were +employed in the rites of superstition, whilst the reflecting few +revolved in their anxious minds the past history and the future +fate of the empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>Since Romulus, with a small band of shepherds and outlaws, +fortified himself on the hills near the Tyber, ten centuries had +already elapsed. During the four first ages, the Romans, in the +laborious school of poverty, had acquired the virtues of war and +government: by the vigorous exertion of those virtues, and by the +assistance of fortune, they had obtained, in the course of the +three succeeding centuries, an absolute empire over many +countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The last three hundred +years had been consumed in apparent prosperity and internal +decline. The nation of soldiers, magistrates, and legislators, +who composed the thirty-five tribes of the Roman people, were +dissolved into the common mass of mankind, and confounded with +the millions of servile provincials, who had received the name, +without adopting the spirit, of Romans. A mercenary army, levied +among the subjects and barbarians of the frontier, was the only +order of men who preserved and abused their independence. By +their tumultuary election, a Syrian, a Goth, or an Arab, was +exalted to the throne of Rome, and invested with despotic power +over the conquests and over the country of the Scipios.<br> +</p> + +<p>The limits of the Roman empire still extended from the Western +Ocean to the Tigris, and from Mount Atlas to the Rhine and the +Danube. To the undiscerning eye of the vulgar, Philip appeared a +monarch no less powerful than Hadrian or Augustus had formerly +been. The form was still the same, but the animating health and +vigor were fled. The industry of the people was discouraged and +exhausted by a long series of oppression. The discipline of the +legions, which alone, after the extinction of every other virtue, +had propped the greatness of the state, was corrupted by the +ambition, or relaxed by the weakness, of the emperors. The +strength of the frontiers, which had always consisted in arms +rather than in fortifications, was insensibly undermined; and the +fairest provinces were left exposed to the rapaciousness or +ambition of the barbarians, who soon discovered the decline of +the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter VIII: State Of Persion And Restoration Of The +Monarchy.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy +By Artaxerxes.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those beautiful episodes, +in which he relates some domestic transaction of the Germans or +of the Parthians, his principal object is to relieve the +attention of the reader from a uniform scene of vice and misery. +From the reign of Augustus to the time of Alexander Severus, the +enemies of Rome were in her bosom -- the tyrants and the +soldiers; and her prosperity had a very distant and feeble +interest in the revolutions that might happen beyond the Rhine +and the Euphrates. But when the military order had levelled, in +wild anarchy, the power of the prince, the laws of the senate, +and even the discipline of the camp, the barbarians of the North +and of the East, who had long hovered on the frontier, boldly +attacked the provinces of a declining monarchy. Their vexatious +inroads were changed into formidable irruptions, and, after a +long vicissitude of mutual calamities, many tribes of the +victorious invaders established themselves in the provinces of +the Roman Empire. To obtain a clearer knowledge of these great +events, we shall endeavor to form a previous idea of the +character, forces, and designs of those nations who avenged the +cause of Hannibal and Mithridates.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the more early ages of the world, whilst the forest that +covered Europe afforded a retreat to a few wandering savages, the +inhabitants of Asia were already collected into populous cities, +and reduced under extensive empires, the seat of the arts, of +luxury, and of despotism. The Assyrians reigned over the East, +till the sceptre of Ninus and Semiramis dropped from the hands of +their enervated successors. The Medes and the Babylonians divided +their power, and were themselves swallowed up in the monarchy of +the Persians, whose arms could not be confined within the narrow +limits of Asia. Followed, as it is said, by two millions of men, +Xerxes, the descendant of Cyrus, invaded Greece. Thirty thousand +soldiers, under the command of Alexander, the son of Philip, who +was intrusted by the Greeks with their glory and revenge, were +sufficient to subdue Persia. The princes of the house of Seleucus +usurped and lost the Macedonian command over the East. About the +same time, that, by an ignominious treaty, they resigned to the +Romans the country on this side Mount Tarus, they were driven by +the Parthians, * an obscure horde of Scythian origin, from all +the provinces of Upper Asia. The formidable power of the +Parthians, which spread from India to the frontiers of Syria, was +in its turn subverted by Ardshir, or Artaxerxes; the founder of a +new dynasty, which, under the name of Sassanides, governed Persia +till the invasion of the Arabs. This great revolution, whose +fatal influence was soon experienced by the Romans, happened in +the fourth year of Alexander Severus, two hundred and twenty-six +years after the Christian era.<br> +</p> + +<p>Artaxerxes had served with great reputation in the armies of +Artaban, the last king of the Parthians, and it appears that he +was driven into exile and rebellion by royal ingratitude, the +customary reward for superior merit. His birth was obscure, and +the obscurity equally gave room to the aspersions of his enemies, +and the flattery of his adherents. If we credit the scandal of +the former, Artaxerxes sprang from the illegitimate commerce of a +tanner's wife with a common soldier. The latter represent him as +descended from a branch of the ancient kings of Persian, though +time and misfortune had gradually reduced his ancestors to the +humble station of private citizens. As the lineal heir of the +monarchy, he asserted his right to the throne, and challenged the +noble task of delivering the Persians from the oppression under +which they groaned above five centuries since the death of +Darius. The Parthians were defeated in three great battles. * In +the last of these their king Artaban was slain, and the spirit of +the nation was forever broken. The authority of Artaxerxes was +solemnly acknowledged in a great assembly held at Balch in +Khorasan. Two younger branches of the royal house of Arsaces were +confounded among the prostrate satraps. A third, more mindful of +ancient grandeur than of present necessity, attempted to retire, +with a numerous train of vessels, towards their kinsman, the king +of Armenia; but this little army of deserters was intercepted, +and cut off, by the vigilance of the conqueror, who boldly +assumed the double diadem, and the title of King of Kings, which +had been enjoyed by his predecessor. But these pompous titles, +instead of gratifying the vanity of the Persian, served only to +admonish him of his duty, and to inflame in his soul and should +the ambition of restoring in their full splendor, the religion +and empire of Cyrus.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. During the long servitude of Persia under the Macedonian +and the Parthian yoke, the nations of Europe and Asia had +mutually adopted and corrupted each other's superstitions. The +Arsacides, indeed, practised the worship of the Magi; but they +disgraced and polluted it with a various mixture of foreign +idolatry. * The memory of Zoroaster, the ancient prophet and +philosopher of the Persians, was still revered in the East; but +the obsolete and mysterious language, in which the Zendavesta was +composed, opened a field of dispute to seventy sects, who +variously explained the fundamental doctrines of their religion, +and were all indifferently derided by a crowd of infidels, who +rejected the divine mission and miracles of the prophet. To +suppress the idolaters, reunite the schismatics, and confute the +unbelievers, by the infallible decision of a general council, the +pious Artaxerxes summoned the Magi from all parts of his +dominions. These priests, who had so long sighed in contempt and +obscurity obeyed the welcome summons; and, on the appointed day, +appeared, to the number of about eighty thousand. But as the +debates of so tumultuous an assembly could not have been directed +by the authority of reason, or influenced by the art of policy, +the Persian synod was reduced, by successive operations, to forty +thousand, to four thousand, to four hundred, to forty, and at +last to seven Magi, the most respected for their learning and +piety. One of these, Erdaviraph, a young but holy prelate, +received from the hands of his brethren three cups of +soporiferous wine. He drank them off, and instantly fell into a +long and profound sleep. As soon as he waked, he related to the +king and to the believing multitude, his journey to heaven, and +his intimate conferences with the Deity. Every doubt was silenced +by this supernatural evidence; and the articles of the faith of +Zoroaster were fixed with equal authority and precision. A short +delineation of that celebrated system will be found useful, not +only to display the character of the Persian nation, but to +illustrate many of their most important transactions, both in +peace and war, with the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>The great and fundamental article of the system, was the +celebrated doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious +attempt of Eastern philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral +and physical evil with the attributes of a beneficent Creator and +Governor of the world. The first and original Being, in whom, or +by whom, the universe exists, is denominated in the writings of +Zoroaster, <em>Time without bounds</em>; but it must be +confessed, that this infinite substance seems rather a +metaphysical, abstraction of the mind, than a real object endowed +with self-consciousness, or possessed of moral perfections. From +either the blind or the intelligent operation of this infinite +Time, which bears but too near an affinity with the chaos of the +Greeks, the two secondary but active principles of the universe, +were from all eternity produced, Ormusd and Ahriman, each of them +possessed of the powers of creation, but each disposed, by his +invariable nature, to exercise them with different designs. * The +principle of good is eternally absorbed in light; the principle +of evil eternally buried in darkness. The wise benevolence of +Ormusd formed man capable of virtue, and abundantly provided his +fair habitation with the materials of happiness. By his vigilant +providence, the motion of the planets, the order of the seasons, +and the temperate mixture of the elements, are preserved. But the +malice of Ahriman has long since pierced <em>Ormusd's egg</em>; +or, in other words, has violated the harmony of his works. Since +that fatal eruption, the most minute articles of good and evil +are intimately intermingled and agitated together; the rankest +poisons spring up amidst the most salutary plants; deluges, +earthquakes, and conflagrations attest the conflict of Nature, +and the little world of man is perpetually shaken by vice and +misfortune. Whilst the rest of human kind are led away captives +in the chains of their infernal enemy, the faithful Persian alone +reserves his religious adoration for his friend and protector +Ormusd, and fights under his banner of light, in the full +confidence that he shall, in the last day, share the glory of his +triumph. At that decisive period, the enlightened wisdom of +goodness will render the power of Ormusd superior to the furious +malice of his rival. Ahriman and his followers, disarmed and +subdued, will sink into their native darkness; and virtue will +maintain the eternal peace and harmony of the universe.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter VIII: State Of Persion And Restoration Of +The Monarchy. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by +foreigners, and even by the far greater number of his disciples; +but the most careless observers were struck with the philosophic +simplicity of the Persian worship. "That people," said Herodotus, +"rejects the use of temples, of altars, and of statues, and +smiles at the folly of those nations who imagine that the gods +are sprung from, or bear any affinity with, the human nature. The +tops of the highest mountains are the places chosen for +sacrifices. Hymns and prayers are the principal worship; the +Supreme God, who fills the wide circle of heaven, is the object +to whom they are addressed." Yet, at the same time, in the true +spirit of a polytheist, he accuseth them of adoring Earth, Water, +Fire, the Winds, and the Sun and Moon. But the Persians of every +age have denied the charge, and explained the equivocal conduct, +which might appear to give a color to it. The elements, and more +particularly Fire, Light, and the Sun, whom they called Mithra, +were the objects of their religious reverence, because they +considered them as the purest symbols, the noblest productions, +and the most powerful agents of the Divine Power and Nature.<br> +</p> + +<p>Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression +on the human mind, must exercise our obedience, by enjoining +practices of devotion, for which we can assign no reason; and +must acquire our esteem, by inculcating moral duties analogous to +the dictates of our own hearts. The religion of Zoroaster was +abundantly provided with the former and possessed a sufficient +portion of the latter. At the age of puberty, the faithful +Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the badge of the +divine protection; and from that moment all the actions of his +life, even the most indifferent, or the most necessary, were +sanctified by their peculiar prayers, ejaculations, or +genuflections; the omission of which, under any circumstances, +was a grievous sin, not inferior in guilt to the violation of the +moral duties. The moral duties, however, of justice, mercy, +liberality, &c., were in their turn required of the disciple +of Zoroaster, who wished to escape the persecution of Ahriman, +and to live with Ormusd in a blissful eternity, where the degree +of felicity will be exactly proportioned to the degree of virtue +and piety.<br> +</p> + +<p>But there are some remarkable instances in which Zoroaster +lays aside the prophet, assumes the legislator, and discovers a +liberal concern for private and public happiness, seldom to be +found among the grovelling or visionary schemes of superstition. +Fasting and celibacy, the common means of purchasing the divine +favor, he condemns with abhorrence, as a criminal rejection of +the best gifts of Providence. The saint, in the Magian religion, +is obliged to beget children, to plant useful trees, to destroy +noxious animals, to convey water to the dry lands of Persia, and +to work out his salvation by pursuing all the labors of +agriculture. * We may quote from the Zendavesta a wise and +benevolent maxim, which compensates for many an absurdity. "He +who sows the ground with care and diligence acquires a greater +stock of religious merit than he could gain by the repetition of +ten thousand prayers." In the spring of every year a festival was +celebrated, destined to represent the primitive equality, and the +present connection, of mankind. The stately kings of Persia, +exchanging their vain pomp for more genuine greatness, freely +mingled with the humblest but most useful of their subjects. On +that day the husbandmen were admitted, without distinction, to +the table of the king and his satraps. The monarch accepted their +petitions, inquired into their grievances, and conversed with +them on the most equal terms. "From your labors," was he +accustomed to say, (and to say with truth, if not with +sincerity,) "from your labors we receive our subsistence; you +derive your tranquillity from our vigilance: since, therefore, we +are mutually necessary to each other, let us live together like +brothers in concord and love." Such a festival must indeed have +degenerated, in a wealthy and despotic empire, into a theatrical +representation; but it was at least a comedy well worthy of a +royal audience, and which might sometimes imprint a salutary +lesson on the mind of a young prince.<br> +</p> + +<p>Had Zoroaster, in all his institutions, invariably supported +this exalted character, his name would deserve a place with those +of Numa and Confucius, and his system would be justly entitled to +all the applause, which it has pleased some of our divines, and +even some of our philosophers, to bestow on it. But in that +motley composition, dictated by reason and passion, by enthusiasm +and by selfish motives, some useful and sublime truths were +disgraced by a mixture of the most abject and dangerous +superstition. The Magi, or sacerdotal order, were extremely +numerous, since, as we have already seen, fourscore thousand of +them were convened in a general council. Their forces were +multiplied by discipline. A regular hierarchy was diffused +through all the provinces of Persia; and the Archimagus, who +resided at Balch, was respected as the visible head of the +church, and the lawful successor of Zoroaster. The property of +the Magi was very considerable. Besides the less invidious +possession of a large tract of the most fertile lands of Media, +they levied a general tax on the fortunes and the industry of the +Persians. "Though your good works," says the interested prophet, +"exceed in number the leaves of the trees, the drops of rain, the +stars in the heaven, or the sands on the sea-shore, they will all +be unprofitable to you, unless they are accepted by the +<em>destour</em>, or priest. To obtain the acceptation of this +guide to salvation, you must faithfully pay him <em>tithes</em> +of all you possess, of your goods, of your lands, and of your +money. If the destour be satisfied, your soul will escape hell +tortures; you will secure praise in this world and happiness in +the next. For the destours are the teachers of religion; they +know all things, and they deliver all men." *<br> +</p> + +<p>These convenient maxims of reverence and implicit were +doubtless imprinted with care on the tender minds of youth; since +the Magi were the masters of education in Persia, and to their +hands the children even of the royal family were intrusted. The +Persian priests, who were of a speculative genius, preserved and +investigated the secrets of Oriental philosophy; and acquired, +either by superior knowledge, or superior art, the reputation of +being well versed in some occult sciences, which have derived +their appellation from the Magi. Those of more active +dispositions mixed with the world in courts and cities; and it is +observed, that the administration of Artaxerxes was in a great +measure directed by the counsels of the sacerdotal order, whose +dignity, either from policy or devotion, that prince restored to +its ancient splendor.<br> +</p> + +<p>The first counsel of the Magi was agreeable to the unsociable +genius of their faith, to the practice of ancient kings, and even +to the example of their legislator, who had a victim to a +religious war, excited by his own intolerant zeal. By an edict of +Artaxerxes, the exercise of every worship, except that of +Zoroaster, was severely prohibited. The temples of the Parthians, +and the statues of their deified monarchs, were thrown down with +ignominy. The sword of Aristotle (such was the name given by the +Orientals to the polytheism and philosophy of the Greeks) was +easily broken; the flames of persecution soon reached the more +stubborn Jews and Christians; nor did they spare the heretics of +their own nation and religion. The majesty of Ormusd, who was +jealous of a rival, was seconded by the despotism of Artaxerxes, +who could not suffer a rebel; and the schismatics within his vast +empire were soon reduced to the inconsiderable number of eighty +thousand. * This spirit of persecution reflects dishonor on the +religion of Zoroaster; but as it was not productive of any civil +commotion, it served to strengthen the new monarchy, by uniting +all the various inhabitants of Persia in the bands of religious +zeal.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. Artaxerxes, by his valor and conduct, had wrested the +sceptre of the East from the ancient royal family of Parthia. +There still remained the more difficult task of establishing, +throughout the vast extent of Persia, a uniform and vigorous +administration. The weak indulgence of the Arsacides had resigned +to their sons and brothers the principal provinces, and the +greatest offices of the kingdom in the nature of hereditary +possessions. The vitax, or eighteen most powerful satraps, were +permitted to assume the regal title; and the vain pride of the +monarch was delighted with a nominal dominion over so many vassal +kings. Even tribes of barbarians in their mountains, and the +Greek cities of Upper Asia, within their walls, scarcely +acknowledged, or seldom obeyed. any superior; and the Parthian +empire exhibited, under other names, a lively image of the feudal +system which has since prevailed in Europe. But the active +victor, at the head of a numerous and disciplined army, visited +in person every province of Persia. The defeat of the boldest +rebels, and the reduction of the strongest fortifications, +diffused the terror of his arms, and prepared the way for the +peaceful reception of his authority. An obstinate resistance was +fatal to the chiefs; but their followers were treated with +lenity. A cheerful submission was rewarded with honors and +riches, but the prudent Artaxerxes suffering no person except +himself to assume the title of king, abolished every intermediate +power between the throne and the people. His kingdom, nearly +equal in extent to modern Persia, was, on every side, bounded by +the sea, or by great rivers; by the Euphrates, the Tigris, the +Araxes, the Oxus, and the Indus, by the Caspian Sea, and the Gulf +of Persia. That country was computed to contain, in the last +century, five hundred and fifty-four cities, sixty thousand +villages, and about forty millions of souls. If we compare the +administration of the house of Sassan with that of the house of +Sefi, the political influence of the Magian with that of the +Mahometan religion, we shall probably infer, that the kingdom of +Artaxerxes contained at least as great a number of cities, +villages, and inhabitants. But it must likewise be confessed, +that in every age the want of harbors on the sea-coast, and the +scarcity of fresh water in the inland provinces, have been very +unfavorable to the commerce and agriculture of the Persians; who, +in the calculation of their numbers, seem to have indulged one of +the nearest, though most common, artifices of national +vanity.<br> +</p> + +<p>As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxerxes had triumphed ever +the resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the +neighboring states, who, during the long slumber of his +predecessors, had insulted Persia with impunity. He obtained some +easy victories over the wild Scythians and the effeminate +Indians; but the Romans were an enemy, who, by their past +injuries and present power, deserved the utmost efforts of his +arms. A forty years' tranquillity, the fruit of valor and +moderation, had succeeded the victories of Trajan. During the +period that elapsed from the accession of Marcus to the reign of +Alexander, the Roman and the Parthian empires were twice engaged +in war; and although the whole strength of the Arsacides +contended with a part only of the forces of Rome, the event was +most commonly in favor of the latter. Macrinus, indeed, prompted +by his precarious situation and pusillanimous temper, purchased a +peace at the expense of near two millions of our money; but the +generals of Marcus, the emperor Severus, and his son, erected +many trophies in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Among their +exploits, the imperfect relation of which would have unseasonably +interrupted the more important series of domestic revolutions, we +shall only mention the repeated calamities of the two great +cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon.<br> +</p> + +<p>Seleucia, on the western bank of the Tigris, about forty-five +miles to the north of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the +Macedonian conquests in Upper Asia. Many ages after the fall of +their empire, Seleucia retained the genuine characters of a +Grecian colony, arts, military virtue, and the love of freedom. +The independent republic was governed by a senate of three +hundred nobles; the people consisted of six hundred thousand +citizens; the walls were strong, and as long as concord prevailed +among the several orders of the state, they viewed with contempt +the power of the Parthian: but the madness of faction was +sometimes provoked to implore the dangerous aid of the common +enemy, who was posted almost at the gates of the colony. The +Parthian monarchs, like the Mogul sovereigns of Hindostan, +delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian ancestors; and +the Imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain of +Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, at the distance of +only three miles from Seleucia. The innumerable attendants on +luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and the little +village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city. Under +the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as +Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the +Greek colony; they attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian +kings; yet both cities experienced the same treatment. The sack +and conflagration of Seleucia, with the massacre of three hundred +thousand of the inhabitants, tarnished the glory of the Roman +triumph. Seleucia, already exhausted by the neighborhood of a too +powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in +about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered its strength +to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The +city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in +person, escaped with precipitation; a hundred thousand captives, +and a rich booty, rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. +Notwithstanding these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon +and to Seleucia, as one of the great capitals of the East. In +summer, the monarch of Persia enjoyed at Ecbatana the cool +breezes of the mountains of Media; but the mildness of the +climate engaged him to prefer Ctesiphon for his winter +residence.<br> +</p> + +<p>From these successful inroads the Romans derived no real or +lasting benefit; nor did they attempt to preserve such distant +conquests, separated from the provinces of the empire by a large +tract of intermediate desert. The reduction of the kingdom of +Osrhoene was an acquisition of less splendor indeed, but of a far +more solid advantage. That little state occupied the northern and +most fertile part of Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the +Tigris. Edessa, its capital, was situated about twenty miles +beyond the former of those rivers; and the inhabitants, since the +time of Alexander, were a mixed race of Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, +and Armenians. The feeble sovereigns of Osrhoene, placed on the +dangerous verge of two contending empires, were attached from +inclination to the Parthian cause; but the superior power of Rome +exacted from them a reluctant homage, which is still attested by +their medals. After the conclusion of the Parthian war under +Marcus, it was judged prudent to secure some substantia, pledges +of their doubtful fidelity. Forts were constructed in several +parts of the country, and a Roman garrison was fixed in the +strong town of Nisibis. During the troubles that followed the +death of Commodus, the princes of Osrhoene attempted to shake off +the yoke; but the stern policy of Severus confirmed their +dependence, and the perfidy of Caracalla completed the easy +conquest. Abgarus, the last king of Edessa, was sent in chains to +Rome, his dominions reduced into a province, and his capital +dignified with the rank of colony; and thus the Romans, about ten +years before the fall of the Parthian monarchy, obtained a firm +and permanent establishment beyond the Euphrates.<br> +</p> + +<p>Prudence as well as glory might have justified a war on the +side of Artaxerxes, had his views been confined to the defence or +acquisition of a useful frontier. but the ambitious Persian +openly avowed a far more extensive design of conquest; and he +thought himself able to support his lofty pretensions by the arms +of reason as well as by those of power. Cyrus, he alleged, had +first subdued, and his successors had for a long time possessed, +the whole extent of Asia, as far as the Propontis and the +Ægean Sea; the provinces of Caria and Ionia, under their +empire, had been governed by Persian satraps, and all Egypt, to +the confines of Æthiopia, had acknowledged their +sovereignty. Their rights had been suspended, but not destroyed, +by a long usurpation; and as soon as he received the Persian +diadem, which birth and successful valor had placed upon his +head, the first great duty of his station called upon him to +restore the ancient limits and splendor of the monarchy. The +Great King, therefore, (such was the haughty style of his +embassies to the emperor Alexander,) commanded the Romans +instantly to depart from all the provinces of his ancestors, and, +yielding to the Persians the empire of Asia, to content +themselves with the undisturbed possession of Europe. This +haughty mandate was delivered by four hundred of the tallest and +most beautiful of the Persians; who, by their fine horses, +splendid arms, and rich apparel, displayed the pride and +greatness of their master. Such an embassy was much less an offer +of negotiation than a declaration of war. Both Alexander Severus +and Artaxerxes, collecting the military force of the Roman and +Persian monarchies, resolved in this important contest to lead +their armies in person.<br> +</p> + +<p>If we credit what should seem the most authentic of all +records, an oration, still extant, and delivered by the emperor +himself to the senate, we must allow that the victory of +Alexander Severus was not inferior to any of those formerly +obtained over the Persians by the son of Philip. The army of the +Great King consisted of one hundred and twenty thousand horse, +clothed in complete armor of steel; of seven hundred elephants, +with towers filled with archers on their backs, and of eighteen +hundred chariots armed with scythes. This formidable host, the +like of which is not to be found in eastern history, and has +scarcely been imagined in eastern romance, was discomfited in a +great battle, in which the Roman Alexander proved himself an +intrepid soldier and a skilful general. The Great King fled +before his valor; an immense booty, and the conquest of +Mesopotamia, were the immediate fruits of this signal victory. +Such are the circumstances of this ostentatious and improbable +relation, dictated, as it too plainly appears, by the vanity of +the monarch, adorned by the unblushing servility of his +flatterers, and received without contradiction by a distant and +obsequious senate. Far from being inclined to believe that the +arms of Alexander obtained any memorable advantage over the +Persians, we are induced to suspect that all this blaze of +imaginary glory was designed to conceal some real disgrace.<br> +</p> + +<p>Our suspicious are confirmed by the authority of a +contemporary historian, who mentions the virtues of Alexander +with respect, and his faults with candor. He describes the +judicious plan which had been formed for the conduct of the war. +Three Roman armies were destined to invade Persia at the same +time, and by different roads. But the operations of the campaign, +though wisely concerted, were not executed either with ability or +success. The first of these armies, as soon as it had entered the +marshy plains of Babylon, towards the artificial conflux of the +Euphrates and the Tigris, was encompassed by the superior +numbers, and destroyed by the arrows of the enemy. The alliance +of Chosroes, king of Armenia, and the long tract of mountainous +country, in which the Persian cavalry was of little service, +opened a secure entrance into the heart of Media, to the second +of the Roman armies. These brave troops laid waste the adjacent +provinces, and by several successful actions against Artaxerxes, +gave a faint color to the emperor's vanity. But the retreat of +this victorious army was imprudent, or at least unfortunate. In +repassing the mountains, great numbers of soldiers perished by +the badness of the roads, and the severity of the winter season. +It had been resolved, that whilst these two great detachments +penetrated into the opposite extremes of the Persian dominions, +the main body, under the command of Alexander himself, should +support their attack, by invading the centre of the kingdom. But +the unexperienced youth, influenced by his mother's counsels, and +perhaps by his own fears, deserted the bravest troops, and the +fairest prospect of victory; and after consuming in Mesopotamia +an inactive and inglorious summer, he led back to Antioch an army +diminished by sickness, and provoked by disappointment. The +behavior of Artaxerxes had been very different. Flying with +rapidity from the hills of Media to the marshes of the Euphrates, +he had everywhere opposed the invaders in person; and in either +fortune had united with the ablest conduct the most undaunted +resolution. But in several obstinate engagements against the +veteran legions of Rome, the Persian monarch had lost the flower +of his troops. Even his victories had weakened his power. The +favorable opportunities of the absence of Alexander, and of the +confusions that followed that emperor's death, presented +themselves in vain to his ambition. Instead of expelling the +Romans, as he pretended, from the continent of Asia, he found +himself unable to wrest from their hands the little province of +Mesopotamia.<br> +</p> + +<p>The reign of Artaxerxes, which, from the last defeat of the +Parthians, lasted only fourteen years, forms a memorable +æra in the history of the East, and even in that of Rome. +His character seems to have been marked by those bold and +commanding features, that generally distinguish the princes who +conquer, from those who inherit an empire. Till the last period +of the Persian monarchy, his code of laws was respected as the +groundwork of their civil and religious policy. Several of his +sayings are preserved. One of them in particular discovers a deep +insight into the constitution of government. "The authority of +the prince," said Artaxerxes, "must be defended by a military +force; that force can only be maintained by taxes; all taxes +must, at last, fall upon agriculture; and agriculture can never +flourish except under the protection of justice and moderation." +Artaxerxes bequeathed his new empire, and his ambitious designs +against the Romans, to Sapor, a son not unworthy of his great +father; but those designs were too extensive for the power of +Persia, and served only to involve both nations in a long series +of destructive wars and reciprocal calamities.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Persians, long since civilized and corrupted, were very +far from possessing the martial independence, and the intrepid +hardiness, both of mind and body, which have rendered the +northern barbarians masters of the world. The science of war, +that constituted the more rational force of Greece and Rome, as +it now does of Europe, never made any considerable progress in +the East. Those disciplined evolutions which harmonize and +animate a confused multitude, were unknown to the Persians. They +were equally unskilled in the arts of constructing, besieging, or +defending regular fortifications. They trusted more to their +numbers than to their courage; more to their courage than to +their discipline. The infantry was a half-armed, spiritless crowd +of peasants, levied in haste by the allurements of plunder, and +as easily dispersed by a victory as by a defeat. The monarch and +his nobles transported into the camp the pride and luxury of the +seraglio. Their military operations were impeded by a useless +train of women, eunuchs, horses, and camels; and in the midst of +a successful campaign, the Persian host was often separated or +destroyed by an unexpected famine.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the nobles of Persia, in the bosom of luxury and +despotism, preserved a strong sense of personal gallantry and +national honor. From the age of seven years they were taught to +speak truth, to shoot with the bow, and to ride; and it was +universally confessed, that in the two last of these arts, they +had made a more than common proficiency. The most distinguished +youth were educated under the monarch's eye, practised their +exercises in the gate of his palace, and were severely trained up +to the habits of temperance and obedience, in their long and +laborious parties of hunting. In every province, the satrap +maintained a like school of military virtue. The Persian nobles +(so natural is the idea of feudal tenures) received from the +king's bounty lands and houses, on the condition of their service +in war. They were ready on the first summons to mount on +horseback, with a martial and splendid train of followers, and to +join the numerous bodies of guards, who were carefully selected +from among the most robust slaves, and the bravest adventures of +Asia. These armies, both of light and of heavy cavalry, equally +formidable by the impetuosity of their charge and the rapidity of +their motions, threatened, as an impending cloud, the eastern +provinces of the declining empire of Rome.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The +Barbarians.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In +The Time Of The Emperor Decius.<br> +</p> + +<p>The government and religion of Persia have deserved some +notice, from their connection with the decline and fall of the +Roman empire. We shall occasionally mention the Scythian or +Sarmatian tribes, * which, with their arms and horses, their +flocks and herds, their wives and families, wandered over the +immense plains which spread themselves from the Caspian Sea to +the Vistula, from the confines of Persia to those of Germany. But +the warlike Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and at +length overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a +much more important place in this history, and possess a +stronger, and, if we may use the expression, a more domestic, +claim to our attention and regard. The most civilized nations of +modern Europe issued from the woods of Germany; and in the rude +institutions of those barbarians we may still distinguish the +original principles of our present laws and manners. In their +primitive state of simplicity and independence, the Germans were +surveyed by the discerning eye, and delineated by the masterly +pencil, of Tacitus, the first of historians who applied the +science of philosophy to the study of facts. The expressive +conciseness of his descriptions has served to exercise the +diligence of innumerable antiquarians, and to excite the genius +and penetration of the philosophic historians of our own times. +The subject, however various and important, has already been so +frequently, so ably, and so successfully discussed, that it is +now grown familiar to the reader, and difficult to the writer. We +shall therefore content ourselves with observing, and indeed with +repeating, some of the most important circumstances of climate, +of manners, and of institutions, which rendered the wild +barbarians of Germany such formidable enemies to the Roman +power.<br> +</p> + +<p>Ancient Germany, excluding from its independent limits the +province westward of the Rhine, which had submitted to the Roman +yoke, extended itself over a third part of Europe. Almost the +whole of modern Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, +Livonia, Prussia, and the greater part of Poland, were peopled by +the various tribes of one great nation, whose complexion, +manners, and language denoted a common origin, and preserved a +striking resemblance. On the west, ancient Germany was divided by +the Rhine from the Gallic, and on the south, by the Danube, from +the Illyrian, provinces of the empire. A ridge of hills, rising +from the Danube, and called the Carpathian Mountains, covered +Germany on the side of Dacia or Hungary. The eastern frontier was +faintly marked by the mutual fears of the Germans and the +Sarmatians, and was often confounded by the mixture of warring +and confederating tribes of the two nations. In the remote +darkness of the north, the ancients imperfectly descried a frozen +ocean that lay beyond the Baltic Sea, and beyond the Peninsula, +or islands of Scandinavia.<br> +</p> + +<p>Some ingenious writers have suspected that Europe was much +colder formerly than it is at present; and the most ancient +descriptions of the climate of Germany tend exceedingly to +confirm their theory. The general complaints of intense frost and +eternal winter, are perhaps little to be regarded, since we have +no method of reducing to the accurate standard of the +thermometer, the feelings, or the expressions, of an orator born +in the happier regions of Greece or Asia. But I shall select two +remarkable circumstances of a less equivocal nature. 1. The great +rivers which covered the Roman provinces, the Rhine and the +Danube, were frequently frozen over, and capable of supporting +the most enormous weights. The barbarians, who often chose that +severe season for their inroads, transported, without +apprehension or danger, their numerous armies, their cavalry, and +their heavy wagons, over a vast and solid bridge of ice. Modern +ages have not presented an instance of a like phenomenon. 2. The +reindeer, that useful animal, from whom the savage of the North +derives the best comforts of his dreary life, is of a +constitution that supports, and even requires, the most intense +cold. He is found on the rock of Spitzberg, within ten degrees of +the Pole; he seems to delight in the snows of Lapland and +Siberia: but at present he cannot subsist, much less multiply, in +any country to the south of the Baltic. In the time of +Cæsar the reindeer, as well as the elk and the wild bull, +was a native of the Hercynian forest, which then overshadowed a +great part of Germany and Poland. The modern improvements +sufficiently explain the causes of the diminution of the cold. +These immense woods have been gradually cleared, which +intercepted from the earth the rays of the sun. The morasses have +been drained, and, in proportion as the soil has been cultivated, +the air has become more temperate. Canada, at this day, is an +exact picture of ancient Germany. Although situated in the same +parallel with the finest provinces of France and England, that +country experiences the most rigorous cold. The reindeer are very +numerous, the ground is covered with deep and lasting snow, and +the great river of St. Lawrence is regularly frozen, in a season +when the waters of the Seine and the Thames are usually free from +ice.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is difficult to ascertain, and easy to exaggerate, the +influence of the climate of ancient Germany over the minds and +bodies of the natives. Many writers have supposed, and most have +allowed, though, as it should seem, without any adequate proof, +that the rigorous cold of the North was favorable to long life +and generative vigor, that the women were more fruitful, and the +human species more prolific, than in warmer or more temperate +climates. We may assert, with greater confidence, that the keen +air of Germany formed the large and masculine limbs of the +natives, who were, in general, of a more lofty stature than the +people of the South, gave them a kind of strength better adapted +to violent exertions than to patient labor, and inspired them +with constitutional bravery, which is the result of nerves and +spirits. The severity of a winter campaign, that chilled the +courage of the Roman troops, was scarcely felt by these hardy +children of the North, who, in their turn, were unable to resist +the summer heats, and dissolved away in languor and sickness +under the beams of an Italian sun.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians. +-- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>There is not any where upon the globe a large tract of +country, which we have discovered destitute of inhabitants, or +whose first population can be fixed with any degree of historical +certainty. And yet, as the most philosophic minds can seldom +refrain from investigating the infancy of great nations, our +curiosity consumes itself in toilsome and disappointed efforts. +When Tacitus considered the purity of the German blood, and the +forbidding aspect of the country, he was disposed to pronounce +those barbarians <em>Indigen</em>, or natives of the soil. We may +allow with safety, and perhaps with truth, that ancient Germany +was not originally peopled by any foreign colonies already formed +into a political society; but that the name and nation received +their existence from the gradual union of some wandering savages +of the Hercynian woods. To assert those savages to have been the +spontaneous production of the earth which they inhabited would be +a rash inference, condemned by religion, and unwarranted by +reason.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such rational doubt is but ill suited with the genius of +popular vanity. Among the nations who have adopted the Mosaic +history of the world, the ark of Noah has been of the same use, +as was formerly to the Greeks and Romans the siege of Troy. On a +narrow basis of acknowledged truth, an immense but rude +superstructure of fable has been erected; and the wild Irishman, +as well as the wild Tartar, could point out the individual son of +Japhet, from whose loins his ancestors were lineally descended. +The last century abounded with antiquarians of profound learning +and easy faith, who, by the dim light of legends and traditions, +of conjectures and etymologies, conducted the great grandchildren +of Noah from the Tower of Babel to the extremities of the globe. +Of these judicious critics, one of the most entertaining was Oaus +Rudbeck, professor in the university of Upsal. Whatever is +celebrated either in history or fable, this zealous patriot +ascribes to his country. From Sweden (which formed so +considerable a part of ancient Germany) the Greeks themselves +derived their alphabetical characters, their astronomy, and their +religion. Of that delightful region (for such it appeared to the +eyes of a native) the Atlantis of Plato, the country of the +Hyperboreans, the gardens of the Hesperides, the Fortunate +Islands, and even the Elysian Fields, were all but faint and +imperfect transcripts. A clime so profusely favored by Nature +could not long remain desert after the flood. The learned Rudbeck +allows the family of Noah a few years to multiply from eight to +about twenty thousand persons. He then disperses them into small +colonies to replenish the earth, and to propagate the human +species. The German or Swedish detachment (which marched, if I am +not mistaken, under the command of Askenaz, the son of Gomer, the +son of Japhet) distinguished itself by a more than common +diligence in the prosecution of this great work. The northern +hive cast its swarms over the greatest part of Europe, Africa, +and Asia; and (to use the author's metaphor) the blood circulated +from the extremities to the heart.<br> +</p> + +<p>But all this well-labored system of German antiquities is +annihilated by a single fact, too well attested to admit of any +doubt, and of too decisive a nature to leave room for any reply. +The Germans, in the age of Tacitus, were unacquainted with the +use of letters; and the use of letters is the principal +circumstance that distinguishes a civilized people from a herd of +savages incapable of knowledge or reflection. Without that +artificial help, the human memory soon dissipates or corrupts the +ideas intrusted to her charge; and the nobler faculties of the +mind, no longer supplied with models or with materials, gradually +forget their powers; the judgment becomes feeble and lethargic, +the imagination languid or irregular. Fully to apprehend this +important truth, let us attempt, in an improved society, to +calculate the immense distance between the man of learning and +the <em>illiterate</em> peasant. The former, by reading and +reflection, multiplies his own experience, and lives in distant +ages and remote countries; whilst the latter, rooted to a single +spot, and confined to a few years of existence, surpasses but +very little his fellow-laborer, the ox, in the exercise of his +mental faculties. The same, and even a greater, difference will +be found between nations than between individuals; and we may +safely pronounce, that without some species of writing, no people +has ever preserved the faithful annals of their history, ever +made any considerable progress in the abstract sciences, or ever +possessed, in any tolerable degree of perfection, the useful and +agreeable arts of life.<br> +</p> + +<p>Of these arts, the ancient Germans were wretchedly destitute. +They passed their lives in a state of ignorance and poverty, +which it has pleased some declaimers to dignify with the +appellation of virtuous simplicity. * Modern Germany is said to +contain about two thousand three hundred walled towns. In a much +wider extent of country, the geographer Ptolemy could discover no +more than ninety places which he decorates with the name of +cities; though, according to our ideas, they would but ill +deserve that splendid title. We can only suppose them to have +been rude fortifications, constructed in the centre of the woods, +and designed to secure the women, children, and cattle, whilst +the warriors of the tribe marched out to repel a sudden invasion. +But Tacitus asserts, as a well-known fact, that the Germans, in +his time, had <em>no</em> cities; and that they affected to +despise the works of Roman industry, as places of confinement +rather than of security. Their edifices were not even contiguous, +or formed into regular villas; each barbarian fixed his +independent dwelling on the spot to which a plain, a wood, or a +stream of fresh water, had induced him to give the preference. +Neither stone, nor brick, nor tiles, were employed in these +slight habitations. They were indeed no more than low huts, of a +circular figure, built of rough timber, thatched with straw, and +pierced at the top to leave a free passage for the smoke. In the +most inclement winter, the hardy German was satisfied with a +scanty garment made of the skin of some animal. The nations who +dwelt towards the North clothed themselves in furs; and the women +manufactured for their own use a coarse kind of linen. The game +of various sorts, with which the forests of Germany were +plentifully stocked, supplied its inhabitants with food and +exercise. Their monstrous herds of cattle, less remarkable indeed +for their beauty than for their utility, formed the principal +object of their wealth. A small quantity of corn was the only +produce exacted from the earth; the use of orchards or artificial +meadows was unknown to the Germans; nor can we expect any +improvements in agriculture from a people, whose prosperity every +year experienced a general change by a new division of the arable +lands, and who, in that strange operation, avoided disputes, by +suffering a great part of their territory to lie waste and +without tillage.<br> +</p> + +<p>Gold, silver, and iron, were extremely scarce in Germany. Its +barbarous inhabitants wanted both skill and patience to +investigate those rich veins of silver, which have so liberally +rewarded the attention of the princes of Brunswick and Saxony. +Sweden, which now supplies Europe with iron, was equally ignorant +of its own riches; and the appearance of the arms of the Germans +furnished a sufficient proof how little iron they were able to +bestow on what they must have deemed the noblest use of that +metal. The various transactions of peace and war had introduced +some Roman coins (chiefly silver) among the borderers of the +Rhine and Danube; but the more distant tribes were absolutely +unacquainted with the use of money, carried on their confined +traffic by the exchange of commodities, and prized their rude +earthen vessels as of equal value with the silver vases, the +presents of Rome to their princes and ambassadors. To a mind +capable of reflection, such leading facts convey more +instruction, than a tedious detail of subordinate circumstances. +The value of money has been settled by general consent to express +our wants and our property, as letters were invented to express +our ideas; and both these institutions, by giving a more active +energy to the powers and passions of human nature, have +contributed to multiply the objects they were designed to +represent. The use of gold and silver is in a great measure +factitious; but it would be impossible to enumerate the important +and various services which agriculture, and all the arts, have +received from iron, when tempered and fashioned by the operation +of fire, and the dexterous hand of man. Money, in a word, is the +most universal incitement, iron the most powerful instrument, of +human industry; and it is very difficult to conceive by what +means a people, neither actuated by the one, nor seconded by the +other, could emerge from the grossest barbarism.<br> +</p> + +<p>If we contemplate a savage nation in any part of the globe, a +supine indolence and a carelessness of futurity will be found to +constitute their general character. In a civilized state, every +faculty of man is expanded and exercised; and the great chain of +mutual dependence connects and embraces the several members of +society. The most numerous portion of it is employed in constant +and useful labor. The select few, placed by fortune above that +necessity, can, however, fill up their time by the pursuits of +interest or glory, by the improvement of their estate or of their +understanding, by the duties, the pleasures, and even the follies +of social life. The Germans were not possessed of these varied +resources. The care of the house and family, the management of +the land and cattle, were delegated to the old and the infirm, to +women and slaves. The lazy warrior, destitute of every art that +might employ his leisure hours, consumed his days and nights in +the animal gratifications of sleep and food. And yet, by a +wonderful diversity of nature, (according to the remark of a +writer who had pierced into its darkest recesses,) the same +barbarians are by turns the most indolent and the most restless +of mankind. They delight in sloth, they detest tranquility. The +languid soul, oppressed with its own weight, anxiously required +some new and powerful sensation; and war and danger were the only +amusements adequate to its fierce temper. The sound that summoned +the German to arms was grateful to his ear. It roused him from +his uncomfortable lethargy, gave him an active pursuit, and, by +strong exercise of the body, and violent emotions of the mind, +restored him to a more lively sense of his existence. In the dull +intervals of peace, these barbarians were immoderately addicted +to deep gaming and excessive drinking; both of which, by +different means, the one by inflaming their passions, the other +by extinguishing their reason, alike relieved them from the pain +of thinking. They gloried in passing whole days and nights at +table; and the blood of friends and relations often stained their +numerous and drunken assemblies. Their debts of honor (for in +that light they have transmitted to us those of play) they +discharged with the most romantic fidelity. The desperate +gamester, who had staked his person and liberty on a last throw +of the dice, patiently submitted to the decision of fortune, and +suffered himself to be bound, chastised, and sold into remote +slavery, by his weaker but more lucky antagonist.<br> +</p> + +<p>Strong beer, a liquor extracted with very little art from +wheat or barley, and <em>corrupted</em> (as it is strongly +expressed by Tacitus) into a certain semblance of wine, was +sufficient for the gross purposes of German debauchery. But those +who had tasted the rich wines of Italy, and afterwards of Gaul, +sighed for that more delicious species of intoxication. They +attempted not, however, (as has since been executed with so much +success,) to naturalize the vine on the banks of the Rhine and +Danube; nor did they endeavor to procure by industry the +materials of an advantageous commerce. To solicit by labor what +might be ravished by arms, was esteemed unworthy of the German +spirit. The intemperate thirst of strong liquors often urged the +barbarians to invade the provinces on which art or nature had +bestowed those much envied presents. The Tuscan who betrayed his +country to the Celtic nations, attracted them into Italy by the +prospect of the rich fruits and delicious wines, the productions +of a happier climate. And in the same manner the German +auxiliaries, invited into France during the civil wars of the +sixteenth century, were allured by the promise of plenteous +quarters in the provinces of Champaigne and Burgundy. +Drunkenness, the most illiberal, but not the most dangerous of +our <em>vices</em>, was sometimes capable, in a less civilized +state of mankind, of occasioning a battle, a war, or a +revolution.<br> +</p> + +<p>The climate of ancient Germany has been modified, and the soil +fertilized, by the labor of ten centuries from the time of +Charlemagne. The same extent of ground which at present +maintains, in ease and plenty, a million of husbandmen and +artificers, was unable to supply a hundred thousand lazy warriors +with the simple necessaries of life. The Germans abandoned their +immense forests to the exercise of hunting, employed in pasturage +the most considerable part of their lands, bestowed on the small +remainder a rude and careless cultivation, and then accused the +scantiness and sterility of a country that refused to maintain +the multitude of its inhabitants. When the return of famine +severely admonished them of the importance of the arts, the +national distress was sometimes alleviated by the emigration of a +third, perhaps, or a fourth part of their youth. The possession +and the enjoyment of property are the pledges which bind a +civilized people to an improved country. But the Germans, who +carried with them what they most valued, their arms, their +cattle, and their women, cheerfully abandoned the vast silence of +their woods for the unbounded hopes of plunder and conquest. The +innumerable swarms that issued, or seemed to issue, from the +great storehouse of nations, were multiplied by the fears of the +vanquished, and by the credulity of succeeding ages. And from +facts thus exaggerated, an opinion was gradually established, and +has been supported by writers of distinguished reputation, that, +in the age of Cæsar and Tacitus, the inhabitants of the +North were far more numerous than they are in our days. A more +serious inquiry into the causes of population seems to have +convinced modern philosophers of the falsehood, and indeed the +impossibility, of the supposition. To the names of Mariana and of +Machiavel, we can oppose the equal names of Robertson and +Hume.<br> +</p> + +<p>A warlike nation like the Germans, without either cities, +letters, arts, or money, found some compensation for this savage +state in the enjoyment of liberty. Their poverty secured their +freedom, since our desires and our possessions are the strongest +fetters of despotism. "Among the Suiones (says Tacitus) riches +are held in honor. They are <em>therefore</em> subject to an +absolute monarch, who, instead of intrusting his people with the +free use of arms, as is practised in the rest of Germany, commits +them to the safe custody, not of a citizen, or even of a +freedman, but of a slave. The neighbors of the Suiones, the +Sitones, are sunk even below servitude; they obey a woman." In +the mention of these exceptions, the great historian sufficiently +acknowledges the general theory of government. We are only at a +loss to conceive by what means riches and despotism could +penetrate into a remote corner of the North, and extinguish the +generous flame that blazed with such fierceness on the frontier +of the Roman provinces, or how the ancestors of those Danes and +Norwegians, so distinguished in latter ages by their unconquered +spirit, could thus tamely resign the great character of German +liberty. Some tribes, however, on the coast of the Baltic, +acknowledged the authority of kings, though without relinquishing +the rights of men, but in the far greater part of Germany, the +form of government was a democracy, tempered, indeed, and +controlled, not so much by general and positive laws, as by the +occasional ascendant of birth or valor, of eloquence or +superstition.<br> +</p> + +<p>Civil governments, in their first institution, are voluntary +associations for mutual defence. To obtain the desired end, it is +absolutely necessary that each individual should conceive himself +obliged to submit his private opinions and actions to the +judgment of the greater number of his associates. The German +tribes were contented with this rude but liberal outline of +political society. As soon as a youth, born of free parents, had +attained the age of manhood, he was introduced into the general +council of his countrymen, solemnly invested with a shield and +spear, and adopted as an equal and worthy member of the military +commonwealth. The assembly of the warriors of the tribe was +convened at stated seasons, or on sudden emergencies. The trial +of public offences, the election of magistrates, and the great +business of peace and war, were determined by its independent +voice. Sometimes indeed, these important questions were +previously considered and prepared in a more select council of +the principal chieftains. The magistrates might deliberate and +persuade, the people only could resolve and execute; and the +resolutions of the Germans were for the most part hasty and +violent. Barbarians accustomed to place their freedom in +gratifying the present passion, and their courage in overlooking +all future consequences, turned away with indignant contempt from +the remonstrances of justice and policy, and it was the practice +to signify by a hollow murmur their dislike of such timid +counsels. But whenever a more popular orator proposed to +vindicate the meanest citizen from either foreign or domestic +injury, whenever he called upon his fellow-countrymen to assert +the national honor, or to pursue some enterprise full of danger +and glory, a loud clashing of shields and spears expressed the +eager applause of the assembly. For the Germans always met in +arms, and it was constantly to be dreaded, lest an irregular +multitude, inflamed with faction and strong liquors, should use +those arms to enforce, as well as to declare, their furious +resolves. We may recollect how often the diets of Poland have +been polluted with blood, and the more numerous party has been +compelled to yield to the more violent and seditious.<br> +</p> + +<p>A general of the tribe was elected on occasions of danger; +and, if the danger was pressing and extensive, several tribes +concurred in the choice of the same general. The bravest warrior +was named to lead his countrymen into the field, by his example +rather than by his commands. But this power, however limited, was +still invidious. It expired with the war, and in time of peace +the German tribes acknowledged not any supreme chief. Princes +were, however, appointed, in the general assembly, to administer +justice, or rather to compose differences, in their respective +districts. In the choice of these magistrates, as much regard was +shown to birth as to merit. To each was assigned, by the public, +a guard, and a council of a hundred persons, and the first of the +princes appears to have enjoyed a preeminence of rank and honor +which sometimes tempted the Romans to compliment him with the +regal title.<br> +</p> + +<p>The comparative view of the powers of the magistrates, in two +remarkable instances, is alone sufficient to represent the whole +system of German manners. The disposal of the landed property +within their district was absolutely vested in their hands, and +they distributed it every year according to a new division. At +the same time they were not authorized to punish with death, to +imprison, or even to strike a private citizen. A people thus +jealous of their persons, and careless of their possessions, must +have been totally destitute of industry and the arts, but +animated with a high sense of honor and independence.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians. +-- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Germans respected only those duties which they imposed on +themselves. The most obscure soldier resisted with disdain the +authority of the magistrates. "The noblest youths blushed not to +be numbered among the faithful companions of some renowned chief, +to whom they devoted their arms and service. A noble emulation +prevailed among the companions, to obtain the first place in the +esteem of their chief; amongst the chiefs, to acquire the +greatest number of valiant companions. To be ever surrounded by a +band of select youths was the pride and strength of the chiefs, +their ornament in peace, their defence in war. The glory of such +distinguished heroes diffused itself beyond the narrow limits of +their own tribe. Presents and embassies solicited their +friendship, and the fame of their arms often insured victory to +the party which they espoused. In the hour of danger it was +shameful for the chief to be surpassed in valor by his +companions; shameful for the companions not to equal the valor of +their chief. To survive his fall in battle, was indelible infamy. +To protect his person, and to adorn his glory with the trophies +of their own exploits, were the most sacred of their duties. The +chiefs combated for victory, the companions for the chief. The +noblest warriors, whenever their native country was sunk into the +laziness of peace, maintained their numerous bands in some +distant scene of action, to exercise their restless spirit, and +to acquire renown by voluntary dangers. Gifts worthy of soldiers +-- the warlike steed, the bloody and even victorious lance -- +were the rewards which the companions claimed from the liberality +of their chief. The rude plenty of his hospitable board was the +only pay that <em>he</em>could bestow, or <em>they</em> would +accept. War, rapine, and the free-will offerings of his friends, +supplied the materials of this munificence. This institution, +however it might accidentally weaken the several republics, +invigorated the general character of the Germans, and even +ripened amongst them all the virtues of which barbarians are +susceptible; the faith and valor, the hospitality and the +courtesy, so conspicuous long afterwards in the ages of chivalry. +The honorable gifts, bestowed by the chief on his brave +companions, have been supposed, by an ingenious writer, to +contain the first rudiments of the fiefs, distributed after the +conquest of the Roman provinces, by the barbarian lords among +their vassals, with a similar duty of homage and military +service. These conditions are, however, very repugnant to the +maxims of the ancient Germans, who delighted in mutual presents; +but without either imposing, or accepting, the weight of +obligations.<br> +</p> + +<p>"In the days of chivalry, or more properly of romance, all the +men were brave, and all the women were chaste;" and +notwithstanding the latter of these virtues is acquired and +preserved with much more difficulty than the former, it is +ascribed, almost without exception, to the wives of the ancient +Germans. Polygamy was not in use, except among the princes, and +among them only for the sake of multiplying their alliances. +Divorces were prohibited by manners rather than by laws. +Adulteries were punished as rare and inexpiable crimes; nor was +seduction justified by example and fashion. We may easily +discover that Tacitus indulges an honest pleasure in the contrast +of barbarian virtue with the dissolute conduct of the Roman +ladies; yet there are some striking circumstances that give an +air of truth, or at least probability, to the conjugal faith and +chastity of the Germans.<br> +</p> + +<p>Although the progress of civilization has undoubtedly +contributed to assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it +seems to have been less favorable to the virtue of chastity, +whose most dangerous enemy is the softness of the mind. The +refinements of life corrupt while they polish the intercourse of +the sexes. The gross appetite of love becomes most dangerous when +it is elevated, or rather, indeed, disguised by sentimental +passion. The elegance of dress, of motion, and of manners, gives +a lustre to beauty, and inflames the senses through the +imagination. Luxurious entertainments, midnight dances, and +licentious spectacles, present at once temptation and opportunity +to female frailty. From such dangers the unpolished wives of the +barbarians were secured by poverty, solitude, and the painful +cares of a domestic life. The German huts, open, on every side, +to the eye of indiscretion or jealousy, were a better safeguard +of conjugal fidelity, than the walls, the bolts, and the eunuchs +of a Persian haram. To this reason another may be added, of a +more honorable nature. The Germans treated their women with +esteem and confidence, consulted them on every occasion of +importance, and fondly believed, that in their breasts resided a +sanctity and wisdom more than human. Some of the interpreters of +fate, such as Velleda, in the Batavian war, governed, in the name +of the deity, the fiercest nations of Germany. The rest of the +sex, without being adored as goddesses, were respected as the +free and equal companions of soldiers; associated even by the +marriage ceremony to a life of toil, of danger, and of glory. In +their great invasions, the camps of the barbarians were filled +with a multitude of women, who remained firm and undaunted amidst +the sound of arms, the various forms of destruction, and the +honorable wounds of their sons and husbands. Fainting armies of +Germans have, more than once, been driven back upon the enemy, by +the generous despair of the women, who dreaded death much less +than servitude. If the day was irrecoverably lost, they well knew +how to deliver themselves and their children, with their own +hands, from an insulting victor. Heroines of such a cast may +claim our admiration; but they were most assuredly neither +lovely, nor very susceptible of love. Whilst they affected to +emulate the stern virtues of <em>man</em>, they must have +resigned that attractive softness, in which principally consist +the charm and weakness of <em>woman</em>. Conscious pride taught +the German females to suppress every tender emotion that stood in +competition with honor, and the first honor of the sex has ever +been that of chastity. The sentiments and conduct of these +high-spirited matrons may, at once, be considered as a cause, as +an effect, and as a proof of the general character of the nation. +Female courage, however it may be raised by fanaticism, or +confirmed by habit, can be only a faint and imperfect imitation +of the manly valor that distinguishes the age or country in which +it may be found.<br> +</p> + +<p>The religious system of the Germans (if the wild opinions of +savages can deserve that name) was dictated by their wants, their +fears, and their ignorance. They adored the great visible objects +and agents of nature, the Sun and the Moon, the Fire and the +Earth; together with those imaginary deities, who were supposed +to preside over the most important occupations of human life. +They were persuaded, that, by some ridiculous arts of divination, +they could discover the will of the superior beings, and that +human sacrifices were the most precious and acceptable offering +to their altars. Some applause has been hastily bestowed on the +sublime notion, entertained by that people, of the Deity, whom +they neither confined within the walls of the temple, nor +represented by any human figure; but when we recollect, that the +Germans were unskilled in architecture, and totally unacquainted +with the art of sculpture, we shall readily assign the true +reason of a scruple, which arose not so much from a superiority +of reason, as from a want of ingenuity. The only temples in +Germany were dark and ancient groves, consecrated by the +reverence of succeeding generations. Their secret gloom, the +imagined residence of an invisible power, by presenting no +distinct object of fear or worship, impressed the mind with a +still deeper sense of religious horror; and the priests, rude and +illiterate as they were, had been taught by experience the use of +every artifice that could preserve and fortify impressions so +well suited to their own interest.<br> +</p> + +<p>The same ignorance, which renders barbarians incapable of +conceiving or embracing the useful restraints of laws, exposes +them naked and unarmed to the blind terrors of superstition. The +German priests, improving this favorable temper of their +countrymen, had assumed a jurisdiction even in temporal concerns, +which the magistrate could not venture to exercise; and the +haughty warrior patiently submitted to the lash of correction, +when it was inflicted, not by any human power, but by the +immediate order of the god of war. The defects of civil policy +were sometimes supplied by the interposition of ecclesiastical +authority. The latter was constantly exerted to maintain silence +and decency in the popular assemblies; and was sometimes extended +to a more enlarged concern for the national welfare. A solemn +procession was occasionally celebrated in the present countries +of Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The unknown symbol of the +<em>Earth</em>, covered with a thick veil, was placed on a +carriage drawn by cows; and in this manner the goddess, whose +common residence was in the Isles of Rugen, visited several +adjacent tribes of her worshippers. During her progress the sound +of war was hushed, quarrels were suspended, arms laid aside, and +the restless Germans had an opportunity of tasting the blessings +of peace and harmony. The <em>truce of God</em>, so often and so +ineffectually proclaimed by the clergy of the eleventh century, +was an obvious imitation of this ancient custom.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the influence of religion was far more powerful to +inflame, than to moderate, the fierce passions of the Germans. +Interest and fanaticism often prompted its ministers to sanctify +the most daring and the most unjust enterprises, by the +approbation of Heaven, and full assurances of success. The +consecrated standards, long revered in the groves of +superstition, were placed in the front of the battle; and the +hostile army was devoted with dire execrations to the gods of war +and of thunder. In the faith of soldiers (and such were the +Germans) cowardice is the most unpardonable of sins. A brave man +was the worthy favorite of their martial deities; the wretch who +had lost his shield was alike banished from the religious and +civil assemblies of his countrymen. Some tribes of the north seem +to have embraced the doctrine of transmigration, others imagined +a gross paradise of immortal drunkenness. All agreed, that a life +spent in arms, and a glorious death in battle, were the best +preparations for a happy futurity, either in this or in another +world.<br> +</p> + +<p>The immortality so vainly promised by the priests, was, in +some degree, conferred by the bards. That singular order of men +has most deservedly attracted the notice of all who have +attempted to investigate the antiquities of the Celts, the +Scandinavians, and the Germans. Their genius and character, as +well as the reverence paid to that important office, have been +sufficiently illustrated. But we cannot so easily express, or +even conceive, the enthusiasm of arms and glory which they +kindled in the breast of their audience. Among a polished people, +a taste for poetry is rather an amusement of the fancy, than a +passion of the soul. And yet, when in calm retirement we peruse +the combats described by Homer or Tasso, we are insensibly +seduced by the fiction, and feel a momentary glow of martial +ardor. But how faint, how cold is the sensation which a peaceful +mind can receive from solitary study! It was in the hour of +battle, or in the feast of victory, that the bards celebrated the +glory of the heroes of ancient days, the ancestors of those +warlike chieftains, who listened with transport to their artless +but animated strains. The view of arms and of danger heightened +the effect of the military song; and the passions which it tended +to excite, the desire of fame, and the contempt of death, were +the habitual sentiments of a German mind. *<br> +</p> + +<p>Such was the situation, and such were the manners of the +ancient Germans. Their climate, their want of learning, of arts, +and of laws, their notions of honor, of gallantry, and of +religion, their sense of freedom, impatience of peace, and thirst +of enterprise, all contributed to form a people of military +heroes. And yet we find, that during more than two hundred and +fifty years that elapsed from the defeat of Varus to the reign of +Decius, these formidable barbarians made few considerable +attempts, and not any material impression on the luxurious and +enslaved provinces of the empire. Their progress was checked by +their want of arms and discipline, and their fury was diverted by +the intestine divisions of ancient Germany.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. It has been observed, with ingenuity, and not without +truth, that the command of iron soon gives a nation the command +of gold. But the rude tribes of Germany, alike destitute of both +those valuable metals, were reduced slowly to acquire, by their +unassisted strength, the possession of the one as well as the +other. The face of a German army displayed their poverty of iron. +Swords, and the longer kind of lances, they could seldom use. +Their frame (as they called them in their own language) were long +spears headed with a sharp but narrow iron point, and which, as +occasion required, they either darted from a distance, or pushed +in close onset. With this spear, and with a shield, their cavalry +was contented. A multitude of darts, scattered with incredible +force, were an additional resource of the infantry. Their +military dress, when they wore any, was nothing more than a loose +mantle. A variety of colors was the only ornament of their wooden +or osier shields. Few of the chiefs were distinguished by +cuirasses, scarcely any by helmets. Though the horses of Germany +were neither beautiful, swift, nor practised in the skilful +evolutions of the Roman manege, several of the nations obtained +renown by their cavalry; but, in general, the principal strength +of the Germans consisted in their infantry, which was drawn up in +several deep columns, according to the distinction of tribes and +families. Impatient of fatigue and delay, these half-armed +warriors rushed to battle with dissonant shouts and disordered +ranks; and sometimes, by the effort of native valor, prevailed +over the constrained and more artificial bravery of the Roman +mercenaries. But as the barbarians poured forth their whole souls +on the first onset, they knew not how to rally or to retire. A +repulse was a sure defeat; and a defeat was most commonly total +destruction. When we recollect the complete armor of the Roman +soldiers, their discipline, exercises, evolutions, fortified +camps, and military engines, it appears a just matter of +surprise, how the naked and unassisted valor of the barbarians +could dare to encounter, in the field, the strength of the +legions, and the various troops of the auxiliaries, which +seconded their operations. The contest was too unequal, till the +introduction of luxury had enervated the vigor, and a spirit of +disobedience and sedition had relaxed the discipline, of the +Roman armies. The introduction of barbarian auxiliaries into +those armies, was a measure attended with very obvious dangers, +as it might gradually instruct the Germans in the arts of war and +of policy. Although they were admitted in small numbers and with +the strictest precaution, the example of Civilis was proper to +convince the Romans, that the danger was not imaginary, and that +their precautions were not always sufficient. During the civil +wars that followed the death of Nero, that artful and intrepid +Batavian, whom his enemies condescended to compare with Hannibal +and Sertorius, formed a great design of freedom and ambition. +Eight Batavian cohorts renowned in the wars of Britain and Italy, +repaired to his standard. He introduced an army of Germans into +Gaul, prevailed on the powerful cities of Treves and Langres to +embrace his cause, defeated the legions, destroyed their +fortified camps, and employed against the Romans the military +knowledge which he had acquired in their service. When at length, +after an obstinate struggle, he yielded to the power of the +empire, Civilis secured himself and his country by an honorable +treaty. The Batavians still continued to occupy the islands of +the Rhine, the allies, not the servants, of the Roman +monarchy.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The strength of ancient Germany appears formidable, when +we consider the effects that might have been produced by its +united effort. The wide extent of country might very possibly +contain a million of warriors, as all who were of age to bear +arms were of a temper to use them. But this fierce multitude, +incapable of concerting or executing any plan of national +greatness, was agitated by various and often hostile intentions. +Germany was divided into more than forty independent states; and, +even in each state, the union of the several tribes was extremely +loose and precarious. The barbarians were easily provoked; they +knew not how to forgive an injury, much less an insult; their +resentments were bloody and implacable. The casual disputes that +so frequently happened in their tumultuous parties of hunting or +drinking, were sufficient to inflame the minds of whole nations; +the private feuds of any considerable chieftains diffused itself +among their followers and allies. To chastise the insolent, or to +plunder the defenceless, were alike causes of war. The most +formidable states of Germany affected to encompass their +territories with a wide frontier of solitude and devastation. The +awful distance preserved by their neighbors attested the terror +of their arms, and in some measure defended them from the danger +of unexpected incursions.<br> +</p> + +<p>"The Bructeri * (it is Tacitus who now speaks) were totally +exterminated by the neighboring tribes, provoked by their +insolence, allured by the hopes of spoil, and perhaps inspired by +the tutelar deities of the empire. Above sixty thousand +barbarians were destroyed; not by the Roman arms, but in our +sight, and for our entertainment. May the nations, enemies of +Rome, ever preserve this enmity to each other! We have now +attained the utmost verge of prosperity, and have nothing left to +demand of fortune, except the discord of the barbarians." -- +These sentiments, less worthy of the humanity than of the +patriotism of Tacitus, express the invariable maxims of the +policy of his countrymen. They deemed it a much safer expedient +to divide than to combat the barbarians, from whose defeat they +could derive neither honor nor advantage. The money and +negotiations of Rome insinuated themselves into the heart of +Germany; and every art of seduction was used with dignity, to +conciliate those nations whom their proximity to the Rhine or +Danube might render the most useful friends as well as the most +troublesome enemies. Chiefs of renown and power were flattered by +the most trifling presents, which they received either as marks +of distinction, or as the instruments of luxury. In civil +dissensions the weaker faction endeavored to strengthen its +interest by entering into secret connections with the governors +of the frontier provinces. Every quarrel among the Germans was +fomented by the intrigues of Rome; and every plan of union and +public good was defeated by the stronger bias of private jealousy +and interest.<br> +</p> + +<p>The general conspiracy which terrified the Romans under the +reign of Marcus Antoninus, comprehended almost all the nations of +Germany, and even Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that +of the Danube. It is impossible for us to determine whether this +hasty confederation was formed by necessity, by reason, or by +passion; but we may rest assured, that the barbarians were +neither allured by the indolence, nor provoked by the ambition, +of the Roman monarch. This dangerous invasion required all the +firmness and vigilance of Marcus. He fixed generals of ability in +the several stations of attack, and assumed in person the conduct +of the most important province on the Upper Danube. After a long +and doubtful conflict, the spirit of the barbarians was subdued. +The Quadi and the Marcomanni, who had taken the lead in the war, +were the most severely punished in its catastrophe. They were +commanded to retire five miles from their own banks of the +Danube, and to deliver up the flower of the youth, who were +immediately sent into Britain, a remote island, where they might +be secure as hostages, and useful as soldiers. On the frequent +rebellions of the Quadi and Marcomanni, the irritated emperor +resolved to reduce their country into the form of a province. His +designs were disappointed by death. This formidable league, +however, the only one that appears in the two first centuries of +the Imperial history, was entirely dissipated, without leaving +any traces behind in Germany.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the course of this introductory chapter, we have confined +ourselves to the general outlines of the manners of Germany, +without attempting to describe or to distinguish the various +tribes which filled that great country in the time of +Cæsar, of Tacitus, or of Ptolemy. As the ancient, or as new +tribes successively present themselves in the series of this +history, we shall concisely mention their origin, their +situation, and their particular character. Modern nations are +fixed and permanent societies, connected among themselves by laws +and government, bound to their native soil by arts and +agriculture. The German tribes were voluntary and fluctuating +associations of soldiers, almost of savages. The same territory +often changed its inhabitants in the tide of conquest and +emigration. The same communities, uniting in a plan of defence or +invasion, bestowed a new title on their new confederacy. The +dissolution of an ancient confederacy restored to the independent +tribes their peculiar but long-forgotten appellation. A +victorious state often communicated its own name to a vanquished +people. Sometimes crowds of volunteers flocked from all parts to +the standard of a favorite leader; his camp became their country, +and some circumstance of the enterprise soon gave a common +denomination to the mixed multitude. The distinctions of the +ferocious invaders were perpetually varied by themselves, and +confounded by the astonished subjects of the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>Wars, and the administration of public affairs, are the +principal subjects of history; but the number of persons +interested in these busy scenes is very different, according to +the different condition of mankind. In great monarchies, millions +of obedient subjects pursue their useful occupations in peace and +obscurity. The attention of the writer, as well as of the reader, +is solely confined to a court, a capital, a regular army, and the +districts which happen to be the occasional scene of military +operations. But a state of freedom and barbarism, the season of +civil commotions, or the situation of petty republics, raises +almost every member of the community into action, and +consequently into notice. The irregular divisions, and the +restless motions, of the people of Germany, dazzle our +imagination, and seem to multiply their numbers. The profuse +enumeration of kings, of warriors, of armies and nations, +inclines us to forget that the same objects are continually +repeated under a variety of appellations, and that the most +splendid appellations have been frequently lavished on the most +inconsiderable objects.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, +Valerian And Gallienus.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And +Gallienus. -- The General Irruption Of The Barbari Ans. -- The +Thirty Tyrants.<br> +</p> + +<p>From the great secular games celebrated by Philip, to the +death of the emperor Gallienus, there elapsed twenty years of +shame and misfortune. During that calamitous period, every +instant of time was marked, every province of the Roman world was +afflicted, by barbarous invaders, and military tyrants, and the +ruined empire seemed to approach the last and fatal moment of its +dissolution. The confusion of the times, and the scarcity of +authentic memorials, oppose equal difficulties to the historian, +who attempts to preserve a clear and unbroken thread of +narration. Surrounded with imperfect fragments, always concise, +often obscure, and sometimes contradictory, he is reduced to +collect, to compare, and to conjecture: and though he ought never +to place his conjectures in the rank of facts, yet the knowledge +of human nature, and of the sure operation of its fierce and +unrestrained passions, might, on some occasions, supply the want +of historical materials.<br> +</p> + +<p>There is not, for instance, any difficulty in conceiving, that +the successive murders of so many emperors had loosened all the +ties of allegiance between the prince and people; that all the +generals of Philip were disposed to imitate the example of their +master; and that the caprice of armies, long since habituated to +frequent and violent revolutions, might every day raise to the +throne the most obscure of their fellow-soldiers. History can +only add, that the rebellion against the emperor Philip broke out +in the summer of the year two hundred and forty-nine, among the +legions of Mæsia; and that a subaltern officer, named +Marinus, was the object of their seditious choice. Philip was +alarmed. He dreaded lest the treason of the Mæsian army +should prove the first spark of a general conflagration. +Distracted with the consciousness of his guilt and of his danger, +he communicated the intelligence to the senate. A gloomy silence +prevailed, the effect of fear, and perhaps of disaffection; till +at length Decius, one of the assembly, assuming a spirit worthy +of his noble extraction, ventured to discover more intrepidity +than the emperor seemed to possess. He treated the whole business +with contempt, as a hasty and inconsiderate tumult, and Philip's +rival as a phantom of royalty, who in a very few days would be +destroyed by the same inconstancy that had created him. The +speedy completion of the prophecy inspired Philip with a just +esteem for so able a counsellor; and Decius appeared to him the +only person capable of restoring peace and discipline to an army +whose tumultuous spirit did not immediately subside after the +murder of Marinus. Decius, who long resisted his own nomination, +seems to have insinuated the danger of presenting a leader of +merit to the angry and apprehensive minds of the soldiers; and +his prediction was again confirmed by the event. The legions of +Mæsia forced their judge to become their accomplice. They +left him only the alternative of death or the purple. His +subsequent conduct, after that decisive measure, was unavoidable. +He conducted, or followed, his army to the confines of Italy, +whither Philip, collecting all his force to repel the formidable +competitor whom he had raised up, advanced to meet him. The +Imperial troops were superior in number; but the rebels formed an +army of veterans, commanded by an able and experienced leader. +Philip was either killed in the battle, or put to death a few +days afterwards at Verona. His son and associate in the empire +was massacred at Rome by the Prætorian guards; and the +victorious Decius, with more favorable circumstances than the +ambition of that age can usually plead, was universally +acknowledged by the senate and provinces. It is reported, that, +immediately after his reluctant acceptance of the title of +Augustus, he had assured Philip, by a private message, of his +innocence and loyalty, solemnly protesting, that, on his arrival +on Italy, he would resign the Imperial ornaments, and return to +the condition of an obedient subject. His professions might be +sincere; but in the situation where fortune had placed him, it +was scarcely possible that he could either forgive or be +forgiven.<br> +</p> + +<p>The emperor Decius had employed a few months in the works of +peace and the administration of justice, when he was summoned to +the banks of the Danube by the invasion of the Goths. This is the +first considerable occasion in which history mentions that great +people, who afterwards broke the Roman power, sacked the Capitol, +and reigned in Gaul, Spain, and Italy. So memorable was the part +which they acted in the subversion of the Western empire, that +the name of Goths is frequently but improperly used as a general +appellation of rude and warlike barbarism.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the beginning of the sixth century, and after the conquest +of Italy, the Goths, in possession of present greatness, very +naturally indulged themselves in the prospect of past and of +future glory. They wished to preserve the memory of their +ancestors, and to transmit to posterity their own +achievements.<br> +</p> + +<p>The principal minister of the court of Ravenna, the learned +Cassiodorus, gratified the inclination of the conquerors in a +Gothic history, which consisted of twelve books, now reduced to +the imperfect abridgment of Jornandes. These writers passed with +the most artful conciseness over the misfortunes of the nation, +celebrated its successful valor, and adorned the triumph with +many Asiatic trophies, that more properly belonged to the people +of Scythia. On the faith of ancient songs, the uncertain, but the +only memorials of barbarians, they deduced the first origin of +the Goths from the vast island, or peninsula, of Scandinavia. * +That extreme country of the North was not unknown to the +conquerors of Italy: the ties of ancient consanguinity had been +strengthened by recent offices of friendship; and a Scandinavian +king had cheerfully abdicated his savage greatness, that he might +pass the remainder of his days in the peaceful and polished court +of Ravenna. Many vestiges, which cannot be ascribed to the arts +of popular vanity, attest the ancient residence of the Goths in +the countries beyond the Rhine. From the time of the geographer +Ptolemy, the southern part of Sweden seems to have continued in +the possession of the less enterprising remnant of the nation, +and a large territory is even at present divided into east and +west Gothland. During the middle ages, (from the ninth to the +twelfth century,) whilst Christianity was advancing with a slow +progress into the North, the Goths and the Swedes composed two +distinct and sometimes hostile members of the same monarchy. The +latter of these two names has prevailed without extinguishing the +former. The Swedes, who might well be satisfied with their own +fame in arms, have, in every age, claimed the kindred glory of +the Goths. In a moment of discontent against the court of Rome, +Charles the Twelfth insinuated, that his victorious troops were +not degenerated from their brave ancestors, who had already +subdued the mistress of the world.<br> +</p> + +<p>Till the end of the eleventh century, a celebrated temple +subsisted at Upsal, the most considerable town of the Swedes and +Goths. It was enriched with the gold which the Scandinavians had +acquired in their piratical adventures, and sanctified by the +uncouth representations of the three principal deities, the god +of war, the goddess of generation, and the god of thunder. In the +general festival, that was solemnized every ninth year, nine +animals of every species (without excepting the human) were +sacrificed, and their bleeding bodies suspended in the sacred +grove adjacent to the temple. The only traces that now subsist of +this barbaric superstition are contained in the Edda, * a system +of mythology, compiled in Iceland about the thirteenth century, +and studied by the learned of Denmark and Sweden, as the most +valuable remains of their ancient traditions.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the mysterious obscurity of the Edda, we can +easily distinguish two persons confounded under the name of Odin; +the god of war, and the great legislator of Scandinavia. The +latter, the Mahomet of the North, instituted a religion adapted +to the climate and to the people. Numerous tribes on either side +of the Baltic were subdued by the invincible valor of Odin, by +his persuasive eloquence, and by the fame which he acquired of a +most skilful magician. The faith that he had propagated, during a +long and prosperous life, he confirmed by a voluntary death. +Apprehensive of the ignominious approach of disease and +infirmity, he resolved to expire as became a warrior. In a solemn +assembly of the Swedes and Goths, he wounded himself in nine +mortal places, hastening away (as he asserted with his dying +voice) to prepare the feast of heroes in the palace of the God of +war.<br> +</p> + +<p>The native and proper habitation of Odin is distinguished by +the appellation of As-gard. The happy resemblance of that name +with As-burg, or As-of, words of a similar signification, has +given rise to an historical system of so pleasing a contexture, +that we could almost wish to persuade ourselves of its truth. It +is supposed that Odin was the chief of a tribe of barbarians +which dwelt on the banks of the Lake Mæotis, till the fall +of Mithridates and the arms of Pompey menaced the North with +servitude. That Odin, yielding with indignant fury to a power +which he was unable to resist, conducted his tribe from the +frontiers of the Asiatic Sarmatia into Sweden, with the great +design of forming, in that inaccessible retreat of freedom, a +religion and a people, which, in some remote age, might be +subservient to his immortal revenge; when his invincible Goths, +armed with martial fanaticism, should issue in numerous swarms +from the neighborhood of the Polar circle, to chastise the +oppressors of mankind.<br> +</p> + +<p>If so many successive generations of Goths were capable of +preserving a faint tradition of their Scandinavian origin, we +must not expect, from such unlettered barbarians, any distinct +account of the time and circumstances of their emigration. To +cross the Baltic was an easy and natural attempt. The inhabitants +of Sweden were masters of a sufficient number of large vessels, +with oars, and the distance is little more than one hundred miles +from Carlscroon to the nearest ports of Pomerania and Prussia. +Here, at length, we land on firm and historic ground. At least as +early as the Christian æra, and as late as the age of the +Antonines, the Goths were established towards the mouth of the +Vistula, and in that fertile province where the commercial cities +of Thorn, Elbing, Koningsberg, and Dantzick, were long afterwards +founded. Westward of the Goths, the numerous tribes of the +Vandals were spread along the banks of the Oder, and the +sea-coast of Pomerania and Mecklenburgh. A striking resemblance +of manners, complexion, religion, and language, seemed to +indicate that the Vandals and the Goths were originally one great +people. The latter appear to have been subdivided into +Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidæ. The distinction among +the Vandals was more strongly marked by the independent names of +Heruli, Burgundians, Lombards, and a variety of other petty +states, many of which, in a future age, expanded themselves into +powerful monarchies.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the age of the Antonines, the Goths were still seated in +Prussia. About the reign of Alexander Severus, the Roman province +of Dacia had already experienced their proximity by frequent and +destructive inroads. In this interval, therefore, of about +seventy years, we must place the second migration of about +seventy years, we must place the second migration of the Goths +from the Baltic to the Euxine; but the cause that produced it +lies concealed among the various motives which actuate the +conduct of unsettled barbarians. Either a pestilence or a famine, +a victory or a defeat, an oracle of the gods or the eloquence of +a daring leader, were sufficient to impel the Gothic arms on the +milder climates of the south. Besides the influence of a martial +religion, the numbers and spirit of the Goths were equal to the +most dangerous adventures. The use of round bucklers and short +swords rendered them formidable in a close engagement; the manly +obedience which they yielded to hereditary kings, gave uncommon +union and stability to their councils; and the renowned Amala, +the hero of that age, and the tenth ancestor of Theodoric, king +of Italy, enforced, by the ascendant of personal merit, the +prerogative of his birth, which he derived from the Anses, or +demi gods of the Gothic nation.<br> +</p> + +<p>The fame of a great enterprise excited the bravest warriors +from all the Vandalic states of Germany, many of whom are seen a +few years afterwards combating under the common standard of the +Goths. The first motions of the emigrants carried them to the +banks of the Prypec, a river universally conceived by the +ancients to be the southern branch of the Borysthenes. The +windings of that great stream through the plains of Poland and +Russia gave a direction to their line of march, and a constant +supply of fresh water and pasturage to their numerous herds of +cattle. They followed the unknown course of the river, confident +in their valor, and careless of whatever power might oppose their +progress. The Bastarnæ and the Venedi were the first who +presented themselves; and the flower of their youth, either from +choice or compulsion, increased the Gothic army. The +Bastarnæ dwelt on the northern side of the Carpathian +Mountains: the immense tract of land that separated the +Bastarnæ from the savages of Finland was possessed, or +rather wasted, by the Venedi; we have some reason to believe that +the first of these nations, which distinguished itself in the +Macedonian war, and was afterwards divided into the formidable +tribes of the Peucini, the Borani, the Carpi, &c., derived +its origin from the Germans. * With better authority, a Sarmatian +extraction may be assigned to the Venedi, who rendered themselves +so famous in the middle ages. But the confusion of blood and +manners on that doubtful frontier often perplexed the most +accurate observers. As the Goths advanced near the Euxine Sea, +they encountered a purer race of Sarmatians, the Jazyges, the +Alani, and the Roxolani; and they were probably the first Germans +who saw the mouths of the Borysthenes, and of the Tanais. If we +inquire into the characteristic marks of the people of Germany +and of Sarmatia, we shall discover that those two great portions +of human kind were principally distinguished by fixed huts or +movable tents, by a close dress or flowing garments, by the +marriage of one or of several wives, by a military force, +consisting, for the most part, either of infantry or cavalry; and +above all, by the use of the Teutonic, or of the Sclavonian +language; the last of which has been diffused by conquest, from +the confines of Italy to the neighborhood of Japan.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, +Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus. -- Part +II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Goths were now in possession of the Ukraine, a country of +considerable extent and uncommon fertility, intersected with +navigable rivers, which, from either side, discharge themselves +into the Borysthenes; and interspersed with large and leafy +forests of oaks. The plenty of game and fish, the innumerable +bee-hives deposited in the hollow of old trees, and in the +cavities of rocks, and forming, even in that rude age, a valuable +branch of commerce, the size of the cattle, the temperature of +the air, the aptness of the soil for every species of gain, and +the luxuriancy of the vegetation, all displayed the liberality of +Nature, and tempted the industry of man. But the Goths withstood +all these temptations, and still adhered to a life of idleness, +of poverty, and of rapine.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Scythian hordes, which, towards the east, bordered on the +new settlements of the Goths, presented nothing to their arms, +except the doubtful chance of an unprofitable victory. But the +prospect of the Roman territories was far more alluring; and the +fields of Dacia were covered with rich harvests, sown by the +hands of an industrious, and exposed to be gathered by those of a +warlike, people. It is probable that the conquests of Trajan, +maintained by his successors, less for any real advantage than +for ideal dignity, had contributed to weaken the empire on that +side. The new and unsettled province of Dacia was neither strong +enough to resist, nor rich enough to satiate, the rapaciousness +of the barbarians. As long as the remote banks of the Niester +were considered as the boundary of the Roman power, the +fortifications of the Lower Danube were more carelessly guarded, +and the inhabitants of Mæsia lived in supine security, +fondly conceiving themselves at an inaccessible distance from any +barbarian invaders. The irruptions of the Goths, under the reign +of Philip, fatally convinced them of their mistake. The king, or +leader, of that fierce nation, traversed with contempt the +province of Dacia, and passed both the Niester and the Danube +without encountering any opposition capable of retarding his +progress. The relaxed discipline of the Roman troops betrayed the +most important posts, where they were stationed, and the fear of +deserved punishment induced great numbers of them to enlist under +the Gothic standard. The various multitude of barbarians +appeared, at length, under the walls of Marcianopolis, a city +built by Trajan in honor of his sister, and at that time the +capital of the second Mæsia. The inhabitants consented to +ransom their lives and property by the payment of a large sum of +money, and the invaders retreated back into their deserts, +animated, rather than satisfied, with the first success of their +arms against an opulent but feeble country. Intelligence was soon +transmitted to the emperor Decius, that Cniva, king of the Goths, +had passed the Danube a second time, with more considerable +forces; that his numerous detachments scattered devastation over +the province of Mæsia, whilst the main body of the army, +consisting of seventy thousand Germans and Sarmatians, a force +equal to the most daring achievements, required the presence of +the Roman monarch, and the exertion of his military power.<br> +</p> + +<p>Decius found the Goths engaged before Nicopolis, one of the +many monuments of Trajan's victories. On his approach they raised +the siege, but with a design only of marching away to a conquest +of greater importance, the siege of Philippopolis, a city of +Thrace, founded by the father of Alexander, near the foot of +Mount Hæmus. Decius followed them through a difficult +country, and by forced marches; but when he imagined himself at a +considerable distance from the rear of the Goths, Cniva turned +with rapid fury on his pursuers. The camp of the Romans was +surprised and pillaged, and, for the first time, their emperor +fled in disorder before a troop of half-armed barbarians. After a +long resistance, Philoppopolis, destitute of succor, was taken by +storm. A hundred thousand persons are reported to have been +massacred in the sack of that great city. Many prisoners of +consequence became a valuable accession to the spoil; and +Priscus, a brother of the late emperor Philip, blushed not to +assume the purple, under the protection of the barbarous enemies +of Rome. The time, however, consumed in that tedious siege, +enabled Decius to revive the courage, restore the discipline, and +recruit the numbers of his troops. He intercepted several parties +of Carpi, and other Germans, who were hastening to share the +victory of their countrymen, intrusted the passes of the +mountains to officers of approved valor and fidelity, repaired +and strengthened the fortifications of the Danube, and exerted +his utmost vigilance to oppose either the progress or the retreat +of the Goths. Encouraged by the return of fortune, he anxiously +waited for an opportunity to retrieve, by a great and decisive +blow, his own glory, and that of the Roman arms.<br> +</p> + +<p>At the same time when Decius was struggling with the violence +of the tempest, his mind, calm and deliberate amidst the tumult +of war, investigated the more general causes, that, since the age +of the Antonines, had so impetuously urged the decline of the +Roman greatness. He soon discovered that it was impossible to +replace that greatness on a permanent basis, without restoring +public virtue, ancient principles and manners, and the oppressed +majesty of the laws. To execute this noble but arduous design, he +first resolved to revive the obsolete office of censor; an office +which, as long as it had subsisted in its pristine integrity, had +so much contributed to the perpetuity of the state, till it was +usurped and gradually neglected by the Cæsars. Conscious +that the favor of the sovereign may confer power, but that the +esteem of the people can alone bestow authority, he submitted the +choice of the censor to the unbiased voice of the senate. By +their unanimous votes, or rather acclamations, Valerian, who was +afterwards emperor, and who then served with distinction in the +army of Decius, was declared the most worthy of that exalted +honor. As soon as the decree of the senate was transmitted to the +emperor, he assembled a great council in his camp, and before the +investiture of the censor elect, he apprised him of the +difficulty and importance of his great office. "Happy Valerian," +said the prince to his distinguished subject, "happy in the +general approbation of the senate and of the Roman republic! +Accept the censorship of mankind; and judge of our manners. You +will select those who deserve to continue members of the senate; +you will restore the equestrian order to its ancient splendor; +you will improve the revenue, yet moderate the public burdens. +You will distinguish into regular classes the various and +infinite multitude of citizens, and accurately view the military +strength, the wealth, the virtue, and the resources of Rome. Your +decisions shall obtain the force of laws. The army, the palace, +the ministers of justice, and the great officers of the empire, +are all subject to your tribunal. None are exempted, excepting +only the ordinary consuls, the præfect of the city, the +king of the sacrifices, and (as long as she preserves her +chastity inviolate) the eldest of the vestal virgins. Even these +few, who may not dread the severity, will anxiously solicit the +esteem, of the Roman censor."<br> +</p> + +<p>A magistrate, invested with such extensive powers, would have +appeared not so much the minister, as the colleague of his +sovereign. Valerian justly dreaded an elevation so full of envy +and of suspicion. He modestly argued the alarming greatness of +the trust, his own insufficiency, and the incurable corruption of +the times. He artfully insinuated, that the office of censor was +inseparable from the Imperial dignity, and that the feeble hands +of a subject were unequal to the support of such an immense +weight of cares and of power. The approaching event of war soon +put an end to the prosecution of a project so specious, but so +impracticable; and whilst it preserved Valerian from the danger, +saved the emperor Decius from the disappointment, which would +most probably have attended it. A censor may maintain, he can +never restore, the morals of a state. It is impossible for such a +magistrate to exert his authority with benefit, or even with +effect, unless he is supported by a quick sense of honor and +virtue in the minds of the people, by a decent reverence for the +public opinion, and by a train of useful prejudices combating on +the side of national manners. In a period when these principles +are annihilated, the censorial jurisdiction must either sink into +empty pageantry, or be converted into a partial instrument of +vexatious oppression. It was easier to vanquish the Goths than to +eradicate the public vices; yet even in the first of these +enterprises, Decius lost his army and his life.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Goths were now, on every side, surrounded and pursued by +the Roman arms. The flower of their troops had perished in the +long siege of Philippopolis, and the exhausted country could no +longer afford subsistence for the remaining multitude of +licentious barbarians. Reduced to this extremity, the Goths would +gladly have purchased, by the surrender of all their booty and +prisoners, the permission of an undisturbed retreat. But the +emperor, confident of victory, and resolving, by the chastisement +of these invaders, to strike a salutary terror into the nations +of the North, refused to listen to any terms of accommodation. +The high-spirited barbarians preferred death to slavery. An +obscure town of Mæsia, called Forum Terebronii, was the +scene of the battle. The Gothic army was drawn up in three lines, +and either from choice or accident, the front of the third line +was covered by a morass. In the beginning of the action, the son +of Decius, a youth of the fairest hopes, and already associated +to the honors of the purple, was slain by an arrow, in the sight +of his afflicted father; who, summoning all his fortitude, +admonished the dismayed troops, that the loss of a single soldier +was of little importance to the republic. The conflict was +terrible; it was the combat of despair against grief and rage. +The first line of the Goths at length gave way in disorder; the +second, advancing to sustain it, shared its fate; and the third +only remained entire, prepared to dispute the passage of the +morass, which was imprudently attempted by the presumption of the +enemy. "Here the fortune of the day turned, and all things became +adverse to the Romans; the place deep with ooze, sinking under +those who stood, slippery to such as advanced; their armor heavy, +the waters deep; nor could they wield, in that uneasy situation, +their weighty javelins. The barbarians, on the contrary, were +inured to encounter in the bogs, their persons tall, their spears +long, such as could wound at a distance." In this morass the +Roman army, after an ineffectual struggle, was irrecoverably +lost; nor could the body of the emperor ever be found. Such was +the fate of Decius, in the fiftieth year of his age; an +accomplished prince, active in war and affable in peace; who, +together with his son, has deserved to be compared, both in life +and death, with the brightest examples of ancient virtue.<br> +</p> + +<p>This fatal blow humbled, for a very little time, she insolence +of the legions. They appeared to have patiently expected, and +submissively obeyed, the decree of the senate which regulated the +succession to the throne. From a just regard for the memory of +Decius, the Imperial title was conferred on Hostilianus, his only +surviving son; but an equal rank, with more effectual power, was +granted to Gallus, whose experience and ability seemed equal to +the great trust of guardian to the young prince and the +distressed empire. The first care of the new emperor was to +deliver the Illyrian provinces from the intolerable weight of the +victorious Goths. He consented to leave in their hands the rich +fruits of their invasion, an immense booty, and what was still +more disgraceful, a great number of prisoners of the highest +merit and quality. He plentifully supplied their camp with every +conveniency that could assuage their angry spirits or facilitate +their so much wished-for departure; and he even promised to pay +them annually a large sum of gold, on condition they should never +afterwards infest the Roman territories by their incursions.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the age of the Scipios, the most opulent kings of the +earth, who courted the protection of the victorious commonwealth, +were gratified with such trifling presents as could only derive a +value from the hand that bestowed them; an ivory chair, a coarse +garment of purple, an inconsiderable piece of plate, or a +quantity of copper coin. After the wealth of nations had centred +in Rome, the emperors displayed their greatness, and even their +policy, by the regular exercise of a steady and moderate +liberality towards the allies of the state. They relieved the +poverty of the barbarians, honored their merit, and recompensed +their fidelity. These voluntary marks of bounty were understood +to flow, not from the fears, but merely from the generosity or +the gratitude of the Romans; and whilst presents and subsidies +were liberally distributed among friends and suppliants, they +were sternly refused to such as claimed them as a debt. But this +stipulation, of an annual payment to a victorious enemy, appeared +without disguise in the light of an ignominious tribute; the +minds of the Romans were not yet accustomed to accept such +unequal laws from a tribe of barbarians; and the prince, who by a +necessary concession had probably saved his country, became the +object of the general contempt and aversion. The death of +Hostiliamus, though it happened in the midst of a raging +pestilence, was interpreted as the personal crime of Gallus; and +even the defeat of the later emperor was ascribed by the voice of +suspicion to the perfidious counsels of his hated successor. The +tranquillity which the empire enjoyed during the first year of +his administration, served rather to inflame than to appease the +public discontent; and as soon as the apprehensions of war were +removed, the infamy of the peace was more deeply and more +sensibly felt.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the Romans were irritated to a still higher degree, when +they discovered that they had not even secured their repose, +though at the expense of their honor. The dangerous secret of the +wealth and weakness of the empire had been revealed to the world. +New swarms of barbarians, encouraged by the success, and not +conceiving themselves bound by the obligation of their brethren, +spread devastation though the Illyrian provinces, and terror as +far as the gates of Rome. The defence of the monarchy, which +seemed abandoned by the pusillanimous emperor, was assumed by +Æmilianus, governor of Pannonia and Mæsia; who +rallied the scattered forces, and revived the fainting spirits of +the troops. The barbarians were unexpectedly attacked, routed, +chased, and pursued beyond the Danube. The victorious leader +distributed as a donative the money collected for the tribute, +and the acclamations of the soldiers proclaimed him emperor on +the field of battle. Gallus, who, careless of the general +welfare, indulged himself in the pleasures of Italy, was almost +in the same instant informed of the success, of the revolt, and +of the rapid approach of his aspiring lieutenant. He advanced to +meet him as far as the plains of Spoleto. When the armies came in +right of each other, the soldiers of Gallus compared the +ignominious conduct of their sovereign with the glory of his +rival. They admired the valor of Æmilianus; they were +attracted by his liberality, for he offered a considerable +increase of pay to all deserters. The murder of Gallus, and of +his son Volusianus, put an end to the civil war; and the senate +gave a legal sanction to the rights of conquest. The letters of +Æmilianus to that assembly displayed a mixture of +moderation and vanity. He assured them, that he should resign to +their wisdom the civil administration; and, contenting himself +with the quality of their general, would in a short time assert +the glory of Rome, and deliver the empire from all the barbarians +both of the North and of the East. His pride was flattered by the +applause of the senate; and medals are still extant, representing +him with the name and attributes of Hercules the Victor, and Mars +the Avenger.<br> +</p> + +<p>If the new monarch possessed the abilities, he wanted the +time, necessary to fulfil these splendid promises. Less than four +months intervened between his victory and his fall. He had +vanquished Gallus: he sunk under the weight of a competitor more +formidable than Gallus. That unfortunate prince had sent +Valerian, already distinguished by the honorable title of censor, +to bring the legions of Gaul and Germany to his aid. Valerian +executed that commission with zeal and fidelity; and as he +arrived too late to save his sovereign, he resolved to revenge +him. The troops of Æmilianus, who still lay encamped in the +plains of Spoleto, were awed by the sanctity of his character, +but much more by the superior strength of his army; and as they +were now become as incapable of personal attachment as they had +always been of constitutional principle, they readily imbrued +their hands in the blood of a prince who so lately had been the +object of their partial choice. The guilt was theirs, * but the +advantage of it was Valerian's; who obtained the possession of +the throne by the means indeed of a civil war, but with a degree +of innocence singular in that age of revolutions; since he owed +neither gratitude nor allegiance to his predecessor, whom he +dethroned.<br> +</p> + +<p>Valerian was about sixty years of age when he was invested +with the purple, not by the caprice of the populace, or the +clamors of the army, but by the unanimous voice of the Roman +world. In his gradual ascent through the honors of the state, he +had deserved the favor of virtuous princes, and had declared +himself the enemy of tyrants. His noble birth, his mild but +unblemished manners, his learning, prudence, and experience, were +revered by the senate and people; and if mankind (according to +the observation of an ancient writer) had been left at liberty to +choose a master, their choice would most assuredly have fallen on +Valerian. Perhaps the merit of this emperor was inadequate to his +reputation; perhaps his abilities, or at least his spirit, were +affected by the languor and coldness of old age. The +consciousness of his decline engaged him to share the throne with +a younger and more active associate; the emergency of the times +demanded a general no less than a prince; and the experience of +the Roman censor might have directed him where to bestow the +Imperial purple, as the reward of military merit. But instead of +making a judicious choice, which would have confirmed his reign +and endeared his memory, Valerian, consulting only the dictates +of affection or vanity, immediately invested with the supreme +honors his son Gallienus, a youth whose effeminate vices had been +hitherto concealed by the obscurity of a private station. The +joint government of the father and the son subsisted about seven, +and the sole administration of Gallien continued about eight, +years. But the whole period was one uninterrupted series of +confusion and calamity. As the Roman empire was at the same time, +and on every side, attacked by the blind fury of foreign +invaders, and the wild ambition of domestic usurpers, we shall +consult order and perspicuity, by pursuing, not so much the +doubtful arrangement of dates, as the more natural distribution +of subjects. The most dangerous enemies of Rome, during the +reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, were, 1. The Franks; 2. The +Alemanni; 3. The Goths; and, 4. The Persians. Under these general +appellations, we may comprehend the adventures of less +considerable tribes, whose obscure and uncouth names would only +serve to oppress the memory and perplex the attention of the +reader.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. As the posterity of the Franks compose one of the greatest +and most enlightened nations of Europe, the powers of learning +and ingenuity have been exhausted in the discovery of their +unlettered ancestors. To the tales of credulity have succeeded +the systems of fancy. Every passage has been sifted, every spot +has been surveyed, that might possibly reveal some faint traces +of their origin. It has been supposed that Pannonia, that Gaul, +that the northern parts of Germany, gave birth to that celebrated +colony of warriors. At length the most rational critics, +rejecting the fictitious emigrations of ideal conquerors, have +acquiesced in a sentiment whose simplicity persuades us of its +truth. They suppose, that about the year two hundred and forty, a +new confederacy was formed under the name of Franks, by the old +inhabitants of the Lower Rhine and the Weser. * The present +circle of Westphalia, the Landgraviate of Hesse, and the duchies +of Brunswick and Luneburg, were the ancient of the Chauci who, in +their inaccessible morasses, defied the Roman arms; of the +Cherusci, proud of the fame of Arminius; of the Catti, formidable +by their firm and intrepid infantry; and of several other tribes +of inferior power and renown. The love of liberty was the ruling +passion of these Germans; the enjoyment of it their best +treasure; the word that expressed that enjoyment, the most +pleasing to their ear. They deserved, they assumed, they +maintained the honorable appellation of Franks, or Freemen; which +concealed, though it did not extinguish, the peculiar names of +the several states of the confederacy. Tacit consent, and mutual +advantage, dictated the first laws of the union; it was gradually +cemented by habit and experience. The league of the Franks may +admit of some comparison with the Helvetic body; in which every +canton, retaining its independent sovereignty, consults with its +brethren in the common cause, without acknowledging the authority +of any supreme head, or representative assembly. But the +principle of the two confederacies was extremely different. A +peace of two hundred years has rewarded the wise and honest +policy of the Swiss. An inconstant spirit, the thirst of rapine, +and a disregard to the most solemn treaties, disgraced the +character of the Franks.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, +Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus. -- Part +III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Romans had long experienced the daring valor of the people +of Lower Germany. The union of their strength threatened Gaul +with a more formidable invasion, and required the presence of +Gallienus, the heir and colleague of Imperial power. Whilst that +prince, and his infant son Salonius, displayed, in the court of +Treves, the majesty of the empire its armies were ably conducted +by their general, Posthumus, who, though he afterwards betrayed +the family of Valerian, was ever faithful to the great interests +of the monarchy. The treacherous language of panegyrics and +medals darkly announces a long series of victories. Trophies and +titles attest (if such evidence can attest) the fame of +Posthumus, who is repeatedly styled the Conqueror of the Germans, +and the Savior of Gaul.<br> +</p> + +<p>But a single fact, the only one indeed of which we have any +distinct knowledge, erases, in a great measure, these monuments +of vanity and adulation. The Rhine, though dignified with the +title of Safeguard of the provinces, was an imperfect barrier +against the daring spirit of enterprise with which the Franks +were actuated. Their rapid devastations stretched from the river +to the foot of the Pyrenees; nor were they stopped by those +mountains. Spain, which had never dreaded, was unable to resist, +the inroads of the Germans. During twelve years, the greatest +part of the reign of Gallie nus, that opulent country was the +theatre of unequal and destructive hostilities. Tarragona, the +flourishing capital of a peaceful province, was sacked and almost +destroyed; and so late as the days of Orosius, who wrote in the +fifth century, wretched cottages, scattered amidst the ruins of +magnificent cities, still recorded the rage of the barbarians. +When the exhausted country no longer supplied a variety of +plunder, the Franks seized on some vessels in the ports of Spain, +and transported themselves into Mauritania. The distant province +was astonished with the fury of these barbarians, who seemed to +fall from a new world, as their name, manners, and complexion, +were equally unknown on the coast of Africa.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. In that part of Upper Saxony, beyond the Elbe, which is at +present called the Marquisate of Lusace, there existed, in +ancient times, a sacred wood, the awful seat of the superstition +of the Suevi. None were permitted to enter the holy precincts, +without confessing, by their servile bonds and suppliant posture, +the immediate presence of the sovereign Deity. Patriotism +contributed, as well as devotion, to consecrate the Sonnenwald, +or wood of the Semnones. It was universally believed, that the +nation had received its first existence on that sacred spot. At +stated periods, the numerous tribes who gloried in the Suevic +blood, resorted thither by their ambassadors; and the memory of +their common extraction was perpetrated by barbaric rites and +human sacrifices. The wide-extended name of Suevi filled the +interior countries of Germany, from the banks of the Oder to +those of the Danube. They were distinguished from the other +Germans by their peculiar mode of dressing their long hair, which +they gathered into a rude knot on the crown of the head; and they +delighted in an ornament that showed their ranks more lofty and +terrible in the eyes of the enemy. Jealous as the Germans were of +military renown, they all confessed the superior valor of the +Suevi; and the tribes of the Usipetes and Tencteri, who, with a +vast army, encountered the dictator Cæsar, declared that +they esteemed it not a disgrace to have fled before a people to +whose arms the immortal gods themselves were unequal.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the reign of the emperor Caracalla, an innumerable swarm of +Suevi appeared on the banks of the Mein, and in the neighborhood +of the Roman provinces, in quest either of food, of plunder, or +of glory. The hasty army of volunteers gradually coalesced into a +great and permanent nation, and as it was composed from so many +different tribes, assumed the name of Alemanni, * or +<em>Allmen</em>; to denote at once their various lineage and +their common bravery. The latter was soon felt by the Romans in +many a hostile inroad. The Alemanni fought chiefly on horseback; +but their cavalry was rendered still more formidable by a mixture +of light infantry, selected from the bravest and most active of +the youth, whom frequent exercise had inured to accompany the +horsemen in the longest march, the most rapid charge, or the most +precipitate retreat.<br> +</p> + +<p>This warlike people of Germans had been astonished by the +immense preparations of Alexander Severus; they were dismayed by +the arms of his successor, a barbarian equal in valor and +fierceness to themselves. But still hovering on the frontiers of +the empire, they increased the general disorder that ensued after +the death of Decius. They inflicted severe wounds on the rich +provinces of Gaul; they were the first who removed the veil that +covered the feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the +Alemanni penetrated across the Danube and through the +Rhætian Alps into the plains of Lombardy, advanced as far +as Ravenna, and displayed the victorious banners of barbarians +almost in sight of Rome.<br> +</p> + +<p>The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks +of their ancient virtue. Both the emperors were engaged in far +distant wars, Valerian in the East, and Gallienus on the Rhine. +All the hopes and resources of the Romans were in themselves. In +this emergency, the senators resumed he defence of the republic, +drew out the Prætorian guards, who had been left to +garrison the capital, and filled up their numbers, by enlisting +into the public service the stoutest and most willing of the +Plebeians. The Alemanni, astonished with the sudden appearance of +an army more numerous than their own, retired into Germany, laden +with spoil; and their retreat was esteemed as a victory by the +unwarlike Romans.<br> +</p> + +<p>When Gallienus received the intelligence that his capital was +delivered from the barbarians, he was much less delighted than +alarmed with the courage of the senate, since it might one day +prompt them to rescue the public from domestic tyranny as well as +from foreign invasion. His timid ingratitude was published to his +subjects, in an edict which prohibited the senators from +exercising any military employment, and even from approaching the +camps of the legions. But his fears were groundless. The rich and +luxurious nobles, sinking into their natural character, accepted, +as a favor, this disgraceful exemption from military service; and +as long as they were indulged in the enjoyment of their baths, +their theatres, and their villas, they cheerfully resigned the +more dangerous cares of empire to the rough hands of peasants and +soldiers.<br> +</p> + +<p>Another invasion of the Alemanni, of a more formidable aspect, +but more glorious event, is mentioned by a writer of the lower +empire. Three hundred thousand are said to have been vanquished, +in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus in person, at the head of +only ten thousand Romans. We may, however, with great +probability, ascribe this incredible victory either to the +credulity of the historian, or to some exaggerated exploits of +one of the emperor's lieutenants. It was by arms of a very +different nature, that Gallienus endeavored to protect Italy from +the fury of the Germans. He espoused Pipa, the daughter of a king +of the Marcomanni, a Suevic tribe, which was often confounded +with the Alemanni in their wars and conquests. To the father, as +the price of his alliance, he granted an ample settlement in +Pannonia. The native charms of unpolished beauty seem to have +fixed the daughter in the affections of the inconstant emperor, +and the bands of policy were more firmly connected by those of +love. But the haughty prejudice of Rome still refused the name of +marriage to the profane mixture of a citizen and a barbarian; and +has stigmatized the German princess with the opprobrious title of +concubine of Gallienus.<br> +</p> + +<p>III. We have already traced the emigration of the Goths from +Scandinavia, or at least from Prussia, to the mouth of the +Borysthenes, and have followed their victorious arms from the +Borysthenes to the Danube. Under the reigns of Valerian and +Gallienus, the frontier of the last-mentioned river was +perpetually infested by the inroads of Germans and Sarmatians; +but it was defended by the Romans with more than usual firmness +and success. The provinces that were the seat of war, recruited +the armies of Rome with an inexhaustible supply of hardy +soldiers; and more than one of these Illyrian peasants attained +the station, and displayed the abilities, of a general. Though +flying parties of the barbarians, who incessantly hovered on the +banks of the Danube, penetrated sometimes to the confines of +Italy and Macedonia, their progress was commonly checked, or +their return intercepted, by the Imperial lieutenants. But the +great stream of the Gothic hostilities was diverted into a very +different channel. The Goths, in their new settlement of the +Ukraine, soon became masters of the northern coast of the Euxine: +to the south of that inland sea were situated the soft and +wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, which possessed all that could +attract, and nothing that could resist, a barbarian +conqueror.<br> +</p> + +<p>The banks of the Borysthenes are only sixty miles distant from +the narrow entrance of the peninsula of Crim Tartary, known to +the ancients under the name of Chersonesus Taurica. On that +inhospitable shore, Euripides, embellishing with exquisite art +the tales of antiquity, has placed the scene of one of his most +affecting tragedies. The bloody sacrifices of Diana, the arrival +of Orestes and Pylades, and the triumph of virtue and religion +over savage fierceness, serve to represent an historical truth, +that the Tauri, the original inhabitants of the peninsula, were, +in some degree, reclaimed from their brutal manners by a gradual +intercourse with the Grecian colonies, which settled along the +maritime coast. The little kingdom of Bosphorus, whose capital +was situated on the Straits, through which the Mæotis +communicates itself to the Euxine, was composed of degenerate +Greeks and half-civilized barbarians. It subsisted, as an +independent state, from the time of the Peloponnesian war, was at +last swallowed up by the ambition of Mithridates, and, with the +rest of his dominions, sunk under the weight of the Roman arms. +From the reign of Augustus, the kings of Bosphorus were the +humble, but not useless, allies of the empire. By presents, by +arms, and by a slight fortification drawn across the Isthmus, +they effectually guarded against the roving plunderers of +Sarmatia, the access of a country, which, from its peculiar +situation and convenient harbors, commanded the Euxine Sea and +Asia Minor. As long as the sceptre was possessed by a lineal +succession of kings, they acquitted themselves of their important +charge with vigilance and success. Domestic factions, and the +fears, or private interest, of obscure usurpers, who seized on +the vacant throne, admitted the Goths into the heart of +Bosphorus. With the acquisition of a superfluous waste of fertile +soil, the conquerors obtained the command of a naval force, +sufficient to transport their armies to the coast of Asia. This +ships used in the navigation of the Euxine were of a very +singular construction. They were slight flat-bottomed barks +framed of timber only, without the least mixture of iron, and +occasionally covered with a shelving roof, on the appearance of a +tempest. In these floating houses, the Goths carelessly trusted +themselves to the mercy of an unknown sea, under the conduct of +sailors pressed into the service, and whose skill and fidelity +were equally suspicious. But the hopes of plunder had banished +every idea of danger, and a natural fearlessness of temper +supplied in their minds the more rational confidence, which is +the just result of knowledge and experience. Warriors of such a +daring spirit must have often murmured against the cowardice of +their guides, who required the strongest assurances of a settled +calm before they would venture to embark; and would scarcely ever +be tempted to lose sight of the land. Such, at least, is the +practice of the modern Turks; and they are probably not inferior, +in the art of navigation, to the ancient inhabitants of +Bosphorus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The fleet of the Goths, leaving the coast of Circassia on the +left hand, first appeared before Pityus, the utmost limits of the +Roman provinces; a city provided with a convenient port, and +fortified with a strong wall. Here they met with a resistance +more obstinate than they had reason to expect from the feeble +garrison of a distant fortress. They were repulsed; and their +disappointment seemed to diminish the terror of the Gothic name. +As long as Successianus, an officer of superior rank and merit, +defended that frontier, all their efforts were ineffectual; but +as soon as he was removed by Valerian to a more honorable but +less important station, they resumed the attack of Pityus; and by +the destruction of that city, obliterated the memory of their +former disgrace.<br> +</p> + +<p>Circling round the eastern extremity of the Euxine Sea, the +navigation from Pityus to Trebizond is about three hundred miles. +The course of the Goths carried them in sight of the country of +Colchis, so famous by the expedition of the Argonauts; and they +even attempted, though without success, to pillage a rich temple +at the mouth of the River Phasis. Trebizond, celebrated in the +retreat of the ten thousand as an ancient colony of Greeks, +derived its wealth and splendor from the magnificence of the +emperor Hadrian, who had constructed an artificial port on a +coast left destitute by nature of secure harbors. The city was +large and populous; a double enclosure of walls seemed to defy +the fury of the Goths, and the usual garrison had been +strengthened by a reenforcement of ten thousand men. But there +are not any advantages capable of supplying the absence of +discipline and vigilance. The numerous garrison of Trebizond, +dissolved in riot and luxury, disdained to guard their +impregnable fortifications. The Goths soon discovered the supine +negligence of the besieged, erected a lofty pile of fascines, +ascended the walls in the silence of the night, and entered the +defenceless city sword in hand. A general massacre of the people +ensued, whilst the affrighted soldiers escaped through the +opposite gates of the town. The most holy temples, and the most +splendid edifices, were involved in a common destruction. The +booty that fell into the hands of the Goths was immense: the +wealth of the adjacent countries had been deposited in Trebizond, +as in a secure place of refuge. The number of captives was +incredible, as the victorious barbarians ranged without +opposition through the extensive province of Pontus. The rich +spoils of Trebizond filled a great fleet of ships that had been +found in the port. The robust youth of the sea-coast were chained +to the oar; and the Goths, satisfied with the success of their +first naval expedition, returned in triumph to their new +establishment in the kingdom of Bosphorus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The second expedition of the Goths was undertaken with greater +powers of men and ships; but they steered a different course, +and, disdaining the exhausted provinces of Pontus, followed the +western coast of the Euxine, passed before the wide mouths of the +Borysthenes, the Niester, and the Danube, and increasing their +fleet by the capture of a great number of fishing barks, they +approached the narrow outlet through which the Euxine Sea pours +its waters into the Mediterranean, and divides the continents of +Europe and Asia. The garrison of Chalcedon was encamped near the +temple of Jupiter Urius, on a promontory that commanded the +entrance of the Strait; and so inconsiderable were the dreaded +invasions of the barbarians that this body of troops surpassed in +number the Gothic army. But it was in numbers alone that they +surpassed it. They deserted with precipitation their advantageous +post, and abandoned the town of Chalcedon, most plentifully +stored with arms and money, to the discretion of the conquerors. +Whilst they hesitated whether they should prefer the sea or land +Europe or Asia, for the scene of their hostilities, a perfidious +fugitive pointed out Nicomedia, * once the capital of the kings +of Bithynia, as a rich and easy conquest. He guided the march +which was only sixty miles from the camp of Chalcedon, directed +the resistless attack, and partook of the booty; for the Goths +had learned sufficient policy to reward the traitor whom they +detested. Nice, Prusa, Apamæa, Cius, cities that had +sometimes rivalled, or imitated, the splendor of Nicomedia, were +involved in the same calamity, which, in a few weeks, raged +without control through the whole province of Bithynia. Three +hundred years of peace, enjoyed by the soft inhabitants of Asia, +had abolished the exercise of arms, and removed the apprehension +of danger. The ancient walls were suffered to moulder away, and +all the revenue of the most opulent cities was reserved for the +construction of baths, temples, and theatres.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the city of Cyzicus withstood the utmost effort of +Mithridates, it was distinguished by wise laws, a naval power of +two hundred galleys, and three arsenals, of arms, of military +engines, and of corn. It was still the seat of wealth and luxury; +but of its ancient strength, nothing remained except the +situation, in a little island of the Propontis, connected with +the continent of Asia only by two bridges. From the recent sack +of Prusa, the Goths advanced within eighteen miles. of the city, +which they had devoted to destruction; but the ruin of Cyzicus +was delayed by a fortunate accident. The season was rainy, and +the Lake Apolloniates, the reservoir of all the springs of Mount +Olympus, rose to an uncommon height. The little river of +Rhyndacus, which issues from the lake, swelled into a broad and +rapid stream, and stopped the progress of the Goths. Their +retreat to the maritime city of Heraclea, where the fleet had +probably been stationed, was attended by a long train of wagons, +laden with the spoils of Bithynia, and was marked by the flames +of Nice and Nicomedia, which they wantonly burnt. Some obscure +hints are mentioned of a doubtful combat that secured their +retreat. But even a complete victory would have been of little +moment, as the approach of the autumnal equinox summoned them to +hasten their return. To navigate the Euxine before the month of +May, or after that of September, is esteemed by the modern Turks +the most unquestionable instance of rashness and folly.<br> +</p> + +<p>When we are informed that the third fleet, equipped by the +Goths in the ports of Bosphorus, consisted of five hundred sails +of ships, our ready imagination instantly computes and multiplies +the formidable armament; but, as we are assured by the judicious +Strabo, that the piratical vessels used by the barbarians of +Pontus and the Lesser Scythia, were not capable of containing +more than twenty-five or thirty men we may safely affirm, that +fifteen thousand warriors, at the most, embarked in this great +expedition. Impatient of the limits of the Euxine, they steered +their destructive course from the Cimmerian to the Thracian +Bosphorus. When they had almost gained the middle of the Straits, +they were suddenly driven back to the entrance of them; till a +favorable wind, springing up the next day, carried them in a few +hours into the placid sea, or rather lake, of the Propontis. +Their landing on the little island of Cyzicus was attended with +the ruin of that ancient and noble city. From thence issuing +again through the narrow passage of the Hellespont, they pursued +their winding navigation amidst the numerous islands scattered +over the Archipelago, or the Ægean Sea. The assistance of +captives and deserters must have been very necessary to pilot +their vessels, and to direct their various incursions, as well on +the coast of Greece as on that of Asia. At length the Gothic +fleet anchored in the port of Piræus, five miles distant +from Athens, which had attempted to make some preparations for a +vigorous defence. Cleodamus, one of the engineers employed by the +emperor's orders to fortify the maritime cities against the +Goths, had already begun to repair the ancient walls, fallen to +decay since the time of Scylla. The efforts of his skill were +ineffectual, and the barbarians became masters of the native seat +of the muses and the arts. But while the conquerors abandoned +themselves to the license of plunder and intemperance, their +fleet, that lay with a slender guard in the harbor of +Piræus, was unexpectedly attacked by the brave Daxippus, +who, flying with the engineer Cleodamus from the sack of Athens, +collected a hasty band of volunteers, peasants as well as +soldiers, and in some measure avenged the calamities of his +country.<br> +</p> + +<p>But this exploit, whatever lustre it might shed on the +declining age of Athens, served rather to irritate than to subdue +the undaunted spirit of the northern invaders. A general +conflagration blazed out at the same time in every district of +Greece. Thebes and Argos, Corinth and Sparta, which had formerly +waged such memorable wars against each other, were now unable to +bring an army into the field, or even to defend their ruined +fortifications. The rage of war, both by land and by sea, spread +from the eastern point of Sunium to the western coast of Epirus. +The Goths had already advanced within sight of Italy, when the +approach of such imminent danger awakened the indolent Gallienus +from his dream of pleasure. The emperor appeared in arms; and his +presence seems to have checked the ardor, and to have divided the +strength, of the enemy. Naulobatus, a chief of the Heruli, +accepted an honorable capitulation, entered with a large body of +his countrymen into the service of Rome, and was invested with +the ornaments of the consular dignity, which had never before +been profaned by the hands of a barbarian. Great numbers of the +Goths, disgusted with the perils and hardships of a tedious +voyage, broke into Mæsia, with a design of forcing their +way over the Danube to their settlements in the Ukraine. The wild +attempt would have proved inevitable destruction, if the discord +of the Roman generals had not opened to the barbarians the means +of an escape. The small remainder of this destroying host +returned on board their vessels; and measuring back their way +through the Hellespont and the Bosphorus, ravaged in their +passage the shores of Troy, whose fame, immortalized by Homer, +will probably survive the memory of the Gothic conquests. As soon +as they found themselves in safety within the basin of the +Euxine, they landed at Anchialus in Thrace, near the foot of +Mount Hæmus; and, after all their toils, indulged +themselves in the use of those pleasant and salutary hot baths. +What remained of the voyage was a short and easy navigation. Such +was the various fate of this third and greatest of their naval +enterprises. It may seem difficult to conceive how the original +body of fifteen thousand warriors could sustain the losses and +divisions of so bold an adventure. But as their numbers were +gradually wasted by the sword, by shipwrecks, and by the +influence of a warm climate, they were perpetually renewed by +troops of banditti and deserters, who flocked to the standard of +plunder, and by a crowd of fugitive slaves, often of German or +Sarmatian extraction, who eagerly seized the glorious opportunity +of freedom and revenge. In these expeditions, the Gothic nation +claimed a superior share of honor and danger; but the tribes that +fought under the Gothic banners are sometimes distinguished and +sometimes confounded in the imperfect histories of that age; and +as the barbarian fleets seemed to issue from the mouth of the +Tanais, the vague but familiar appellation of Scythians was +frequently bestowed on the mixed multitude.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, +Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus. -- Part +IV.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>In the general calamities of mankind, the death of an +individual, however exalted, the ruin of an edifice, however +famous, are passed over with careless inattention. Yet we cannot +forget that the temple of Diana at Ephesus, after having risen +with increasing splendor from seven repeated misfortunes, was +finally burnt by the Goths in their third naval invasion. The +arts of Greece, and the wealth of Asia, had conspired to erect +that sacred and magnificent structure. It was supported by a +hundred and twenty-seven marble columns of the Ionic order. They +were the gifts of devout monarchs, and each was sixty feet high. +The altar was adorned with the masterly sculptures of Praxiteles, +who had, perhaps, selected from the favorite legends of the place +the birth of the divine children of Latona, the concealment of +Apollo after the slaughter of the Cyclops, and the clemency of +Bacchus to the vanquished Amazons. Yet the length of the temple +of Ephesus was only four hundred and twenty-five feet, about two +thirds of the measure of the church of St. Peter's at Rome. In +the other dimensions, it was still more inferior to that sublime +production of modern architecture. The spreading arms of a +Christian cross require a much greater breadth than the oblong +temples of the Pagans; and the boldest artists of antiquity would +have been startled at the proposal of raising in the air a dome +of the size and proportions of the Pantheon. The temple of Diana +was, however, admired as one of the wonders of the world. +Successive empires, the Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman, +had revered its sanctity and enriched its splendor. But the rude +savages of the Baltic were destitute of a taste for the elegant +arts, and they despised the ideal terrors of a foreign +superstition.<br> +</p> + +<p>Another circumstance is related of these invasions, which +might deserve our notice, were it not justly to be suspected as +the fanciful conceit of a recent sophist. We are told, that in +the sack of Athens the Goths had collected all the libraries, and +were on the point of setting fire to this funeral pile of Grecian +learning, had not one of their chiefs, of more refined policy +than his brethren, dissuaded them from the design; by the +profound observation, that as long as the Greeks were addicted to +the study of books, they would never apply themselves to the +exercise of arms. The sagacious counsellor (should the truth of +the fact be admitted) reasoned like an ignorant barbarian. In the +most polite and powerful nations, genius of every kind has +displayed itself about the same period; and the age of science +has generally been the age of military virtue and success.<br> +</p> + +<p>IV. The new sovereign of Persia, Artaxerxes and his son Sapor, +had triumphed (as we have already seen) over the house of +Arsaces. Of the many princes of that ancient race. Chosroes, king +of Armenia, had alone preserved both his life and his +independence. He defended himself by the natural strength of his +country; by the perpetual resort of fugitives and malecontents; +by the alliance of the Romans, and above all, by his own courage. +Invincible in arms, during a thirty years' war, he was at length +assassinated by the emissaries of Sapor, king of Persia. The +patriotic satraps of Armenia, who asserted the freedom and +dignity of the crown, implored the protection of Rome in favor of +Tiridates, the lawful heir. But the son of Chosroes was an +infant, the allies were at a distance, and the Persian monarch +advanced towards the frontier at the head of an irresistible +force. Young Tiridates, the future hope of his country, was saved +by the fidelity of a servant, and Armenia continued above +twenty-seven years a reluctant province of the great monarchy of +Persia. Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the +distresses or the degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor obliged the +strong garrisons of Carrhæ and Nisibis * to surrender, and +spread devastation and terror on either side of the +Euphrates.<br> +</p> + +<p>The loss of an important frontier, the ruin of a faithful and +natural ally, and the rapid success of Sapor's ambition, affected +Rome with a deep sense of the insult as well as of the danger. +Valerian flattered himself, that the vigilance of his lieutenants +would sufficiently provide for the safety of the Rhine and of the +Danube; but he resolved, notwithstanding his advanced age, to +march in person to the defence of the Euphrates. During his +progress through Asia Minor, the naval enterprises of the Goths +were suspended, and the afflicted province enjoyed a transient +and fallacious calm. He passed the Euphrates, encountered the +Persian monarch near the walls of Edessa, was vanquished, and +taken prisoner by Sapor. The particulars of this great event are +darkly and imperfectly represented; yet, by the glimmering light +which is afforded us, we may discover a long series of +imprudence, of error, and of deserved misfortunes on the side of +the Roman emperor. He reposed an implicit confidence in +Macrianus, his Prætorian præfect. That worthless +minister rendered his master formidable only to the oppressed +subjects, and contemptible to the enemies of Rome. By his weak or +wicked counsels, the Imperial army was betrayed into a situation +where valor and military skill were equally unavailing. The +vigorous attempt of the Romans to cut their way through the +Persian host was repulsed with great slaughter; and Sapor, who +encompassed the camp with superior numbers, patiently waited till +the increasing rage of famine and pestilence had insured his +victory. The licentious murmurs of the legions soon accused +Valerian as the cause of their calamities; their seditious +clamors demanded an instant capitulation. An immense sum of gold +was offered to purchase the permission of a disgraceful retreat. +But the Persian, conscious of his superiority, refused the money +with disdain; and detaining the deputies, advanced in order of +battle to the foot of the Roman rampart, and insisted on a +personal conference with the emperor. Valerian was reduced to the +necessity of intrusting his life and dignity to the faith of an +enemy. The interview ended as it was natural to expect. The +emperor was made a prisoner, and his astonished troops laid down +their arms. In such a moment of triumph, the pride and policy of +Sapor prompted him to fill the vacant throne with a successor +entirely dependent on his pleasure. Cyriades, an obscure fugitive +of Antioch, stained with every vice, was chosen to dishonor the +Roman purple; and the will of the Persian victor could not fail +of being ratified by the acclamations, however reluctant, of the +captive army.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Imperial slave was eager to secure the favor of his master +by an act of treason to his native country. He conducted Sapor +over the Euphrates, and, by the way of Chalcis, to the metropolis +of the East. So rapid were the motions of the Persian cavalry, +that, if we may credit a very judicious historian, the city of +Antioch was surprised when the idle multitude was fondly gazing +on the amusements of the theatre. The splendid buildings of +Antioch, private as well as public, were either pillaged or +destroyed; and the numerous inhabitants were put to the sword, or +led away into captivity. The tide of devastation was stopped for +a moment by the resolution of the high priest of Emesa. Arrayed +in his sacerdotal robes, he appeared at the head of a great body +of fanatic peasants, armed only with slings, and defended his god +and his property from the sacrilegious hands of the followers of +Zoroaster. But the ruin of Tarsus, and of many other cities, +furnishes a melancholy proof that, except in this singular +instance, the conquest of Syria and Cilicia scarcely interrupted +the progress of the Persian arms. The advantages of the narrow +passes of Mount Taurus were abandoned, in which an invader, whose +principal force consisted in his cavalry, would have been engaged +in a very unequal combat: and Sapor was permitted to form the +siege of Cæsarea, the capital of Cappadocia; a city, though +of the second rank, which was supposed to contain four hundred +thousand inhabitants. Demosthenes commanded in the place, not so +much by the commission of the emperor, as in the voluntary +defence of his country. For a long time he deferred its fate; and +when at last Cæsarea was betrayed by the perfidy of a +physician, he cut his way through the Persians, who had been +ordered to exert their utmost diligence to take him alive. This +heroic chief escaped the power of a foe who might either have +honored or punished his obstinate valor; but many thousands of +his fellow-citizens were involved in a general massacre, and +Sapor is accused of treating his prisoners with wanton and +unrelenting cruelty. Much should undoubtedly be allowed for +national animosity, much for humbled pride and impotent revenge; +yet, upon the whole, it is certain, that the same prince, who, in +Armenia, had displayed the mild aspect of a legislator, showed +himself to the Romans under the stern features of a conqueror. He +despaired of making any permanent establishment in the empire, +and sought only to leave behind him a wasted desert, whilst he +transported into Persia the people and the treasures of the +provinces.<br> +</p> + +<p>At the time when the East trembled at the name of Sapor, he +received a present not unworthy of the greatest kings; a long +train of camels, laden with the most rare and valuable +merchandises. The rich offering was accompanied with an epistle, +respectful, but not servile, from Odenathus, one of the noblest +and most opulent senators of Palmyra. "Who is this Odenathus," +(said the haughty victor, and he commanded that the present +should be cast into the Euphrates,) "that he thus insolently +presumes to write to his lord? If he entertains a hope of +mitigating his punishment, let him fall prostrate before the foot +of our throne, with his hands bound behind his back. Should he +hesitate, swift destruction shall be poured on his head, on his +whole race, and on his country." The desperate extremity to which +the Palmyrenian was reduced, called into action all the latent +powers of his soul. He met Sapor; but he met him in arms. +Infusing his own spirit into a little army collected from the +villages of Syria and the tents of the desert, he hovered round +the Persian host, harassed their retreat, carried off part of the +treasure, and, what was dearer than any treasure, several of the +women of the great king; who was at last obliged to repass the +Euphrates with some marks of haste and confusion. By this +exploit, Odenathus laid the foundations of his future fame and +fortunes. The majesty of Rome, oppressed by a Persian, was +protected by a Syrian or Arab of Palmyra.<br> +</p> + +<p>The voice of history, which is often little more than the +organ of hatred or flattery, reproaches Sapor with a proud abuse +of the rights of conquest. We are told that Valerian, in chains, +but invested with the Imperial purple, was exposed to the +multitude, a constant spectacle of fallen greatness; and that +whenever the Persian monarch mounted on horseback, he placed his +foot on the neck of a Roman emperor. Notwithstanding all the +remonstrances of his allies, who repeatedly advised him to +remember the vicissitudes of fortune, to dread the returning +power of Rome, and to make his illustrious captive the pledge of +peace, not the object of insult, Sapor still remained inflexible. +When Valerian sunk under the weight of shame and grief, his skin, +stuffed with straw, and formed into the likeness of a human +figure, was preserved for ages in the most celebrated temple of +Persia; a more real monument of triumph, than the fancied +trophies of brass and marble so often erected by Roman vanity. +The tale is moral and pathetic, but the truth of it may very +fairly be called in question. The letters still extant from the +princes of the East to Sapor are manifest forgeries; nor is it +natural to suppose that a jealous monarch should, even in the +person of a rival, thus publicly degrade the majesty of kings. +Whatever treatment the unfortunate Valerian might experience in +Persia, it is at least certain that the only emperor of Rome who +had ever fallen into the hands of the enemy, languished away his +life in hopeless captivity.<br> +</p> + +<p>The emperor Gallienus, who had long supported with impatience +the censorial severity of his father and colleague, received the +intelligence of his misfortunes with secret pleasure and avowed +indifference. "I knew that my father was a mortal," said he; "and +since he has acted as it becomes a brave man, I am satisfied." +Whilst Rome lamented the fate of her sovereign, the savage +coldness of his son was extolled by the servile courtiers as the +perfect firmness of a hero and a stoic. It is difficult to paint +the light, the various, the inconstant character of Gallienus, +which he displayed without constraint, as soon as he became sole +possessor of the empire. In every art that he attempted, his +lively genius enabled him to succeed; and as his genius was +destitute of judgment, he attempted every art, except the +important ones of war and government. He was a master of several +curious, but useless sciences, a ready orator, an elegant poet, a +skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible +prince. When the great emergencies of the state required his +presence and attention, he was engaged in conversation with the +philosopher Plotinus, wasting his time in trifling or licentious +pleasures, preparing his initiation to the Grecian mysteries, or +soliciting a place in the Arcopagus of Athens. His profuse +magnificence insulted the general poverty; the solemn ridicule of +his triumphs impressed a deeper sense of the public disgrace. The +repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and rebellions, he +received with a careless smile; and singling out, with affected +contempt, some particular production of the lost province, he +carelessly asked, whether Rome must be ruined, unless it was +supplied with linen from Egypt, and arras cloth from Gaul. There +were, however, a few short moments in the life of Gallienus, +when, exasperated by some recent injury, he suddenly appeared the +intrepid soldier and the cruel tyrant; till, satiated with blood, +or fatigued by resistance, he insensibly sunk into the natural +mildness and indolence of his character.<br> +</p> + +<p>At the time when the reins of government were held with so +loose a hand, it is not surprising, that a crowd of usurpers +should start up in every province of the empire against the son +of Valerian. It was probably some ingenious fancy, of comparing +the thirty tyrants of Rome with the thirty tyrants of Athens, +that induced the writers of the Augustan History to select that +celebrated number, which has been gradually received into a +popular appellation. But in every light the parallel is idle and +defective. What resemblance can we discover between a council of +thirty persons, the united oppressors of a single city, and an +uncertain list of independent rivals, who rose and fell in +irregular succession through the extent of a vast empire? Nor can +the number of thirty be completed, unless we include in the +account the women and children who were honored with the Imperial +title. The reign of Gallienus, distracted as it was, produced +only nineteen pretenders to the throne: Cyriades, Macrianus, +Balista, Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; in Gaul, and the +western provinces, Posthumus, Lollianus, Victorinus, and his +mother Victoria, Marius, and Tetricus; in Illyricum and the +confines of the Danube, Ingenuus, Regillianus, and Aureolus; in +Pontus, Saturninus; in Isauria, Trebellianus; Piso in Thessaly; +Valens in Achaia; Æmilianus in Egypt; and Celsus in Africa. +* To illustrate the obscure monuments of the life and death of +each individual, would prove a laborious task, alike barren of +instruction and of amusement. We may content ourselves with +investigating some general characters, that most strongly mark +the condition of the times, and the manners of the men, their +pretensions, their motives, their fate, and their destructive +consequences of their usurpation.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is sufficiently known, that the odious appellation of +<em>Tyrant</em> was often employed by the ancients to express the +illegal seizure of supreme power, without any reference to the +abuse of it. Several of the pretenders, who raised the standard +of rebellion against the emperor Gallienus, were shining models +of virtue, and almost all possessed a considerable share of vigor +and ability. Their merit had recommended them to the favor of +Valerian, and gradually promoted them to the most important +commands of the empire. The generals, who assumed the title of +Augustus, were either respected by their troops for their able +conduct and severe discipline, or admired for valor and success +in war, or beloved for frankness and generosity. The field of +victory was often the scene of their election; and even the +armorer Marius, the most contemptible of all the candidates for +the purple, was distinguished, however by intrepid courage, +matchless strength, and blunt honesty. His mean and recent trade +cast, indeed, an air of ridicule on his elevation; * but his +birth could not be more obscure than was that of the greater part +of his rivals, who were born of peasants, and enlisted in the +army as private soldiers. In times of confusion, every active +genius finds the place assigned him by nature: in a general state +of war, military merit is the road to glory and to greatness. Of +the nineteen tyrants Tetricus only was a senator; Piso alone was +a noble. The blood of Numa, through twenty-eight successive +generations, ran in the veins of Calphurnius Piso, who, by female +alliances, claimed a right of exhibiting, in his house, the +images of Crassus and of the great Pompey. His ancestors had been +repeatedly dignified with all the honors which the commonwealth +could bestow; and of all the ancient families of Rome, the +Calphurnian alone had survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. +The personal qualities of Piso added new lustre to his race. The +usurper Valens, by whose order he was killed, confessed, with +deep remorse, that even an enemy ought to have respected the +sanctity of Piso; and although he died in arms against Gallienus, +the senate, with the emperor's generous permission, decreed the +triumphal ornaments to the memory of so virtuous a rebel.<br> +</p> + +<p>[See Roman Coins: From The British Museum. Number four depicts +Crassus.]<br> +</p> + +<p>The lieutenants of Valerian were grateful to the father, whom +they esteemed. They disdained to serve the luxurious indolence of +his unworthy son. The throne of the Roman world was unsupported +by any principle of loyalty; and treason against such a prince +might easily be considered as patriotism to the state. Yet if we +examine with candor the conduct of these usurpers, it will +appear, that they were much oftener driven into rebellion by +their fears, than urged to it by their ambition. They dreaded the +cruel suspicions of Gallienus; they equally dreaded the +capricious violence of their troops. If the dangerous favor of +the army had imprudently declared them deserving of the purple, +they were marked for sure destruction; and even prudence would +counsel them to secure a short enjoyment of empire, and rather to +try the fortune of war than to expect the hand of an executioner. +When the clamor of the soldiers invested the reluctant victims +with the ensigns of sovereign authority, they sometimes mourned +in secret their approaching fate. "You have lost," said +Saturninus, on the day of his elevation, "you have lost a useful +commander, and you have made a very wretched emperor."<br> +</p> + +<p>The apprehensions of Saturninus were justified by the repeated +experience of revolutions. Of the nineteen tyrants who started up +under the reign of Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a +life of peace, or a natural death. As soon as they were invested +with the bloody purple, they inspired their adherents with the +same fears and ambition which had occasioned their own revolt. +Encompassed with domestic conspiracy, military sedition, and +civil war, they trembled on the edge of precipices, in which, +after a longer or shorter term of anxiety, they were inevitably +lost. These precarious monarchs received, however, such honors as +the flattery of their respective armies and provinces could +bestow; but their claim, founded on rebellion, could never obtain +the sanction of law or history. Italy, Rome, and the senate, +constantly adhered to the cause of Gallienus, and he alone was +considered as the sovereign of the empire. That prince +condescended, indeed, to acknowledge the victorious arms of +Odenathus, who deserved the honorable distinction, by the +respectful conduct which he always maintained towards the son of +Valerian. With the general applause of the Romans, and the +consent of Gallienus, the senate conferred the title of Augustus +on the brave Palmyrenian; and seemed to intrust him with the +government of the East, which he already possessed, in so +independent a manner, that, like a private succession, he +bequeathed it to his illustrious widow, Zenobia.<br> +</p> + +<p>The rapid and perpetual transitions from the cottage to the +throne, and from the throne to the grave, might have amused an +indifferent philosopher; were it possible for a philosopher to +remain indifferent amidst the general calamities of human kind. +The election of these precarious emperors, their power and their +death, were equally destructive to their subjects and adherents. +The price of their fatal elevation was instantly discharged to +the troops by an immense donative, drawn from the bowels of the +exhausted people. However virtuous was their character, however +pure their intentions, they found themselves reduced to the hard +necessity of supporting their usurpation by frequent acts of +rapine and cruelty. When they fell, they involved armies and +provinces in their fall. There is still extant a most savage +mandate from Gallienus to one of his ministers, after the +suppression of Ingenuus, who had assumed the purple in Illyricum. +"It is not enough," says that soft but inhuman prince, "that you +exterminate such as have appeared in arms; the chance of battle +might have served me as effectually. The male sex of every age +must be extirpated; provided that, in the execution of the +children and old men, you can contrive means to save our +reputation. Let every one die who has dropped an expression, who +has entertained a thought against me, against me, the son of +Valerian, the father and brother of so many princes. Remember +that Ingenuus was made emperor: tear, kill, hew in pieces. I +write to you with my own hand, and would inspire you with my own +feelings." Whilst the public forces of the state were dissipated +in private quarrels, the defenceless provinces lay exposed to +every invader. The bravest usurpers were compelled, by the +perplexity of their situation, to conclude ignominious treaties +with the common enemy, to purchase with oppressive tributes the +neutrality or services of the Barbarians, and to introduce +hostile and independent nations into the heart of the Roman +monarchy.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such were the barbarians, and such the tyrants, who, under the +reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, dismembered the provinces, and +reduced the empire to the lowest pitch of disgrace and ruin, from +whence it seemed impossible that it should ever emerge. As far as +the barrenness of materials would permit, we have attempted to +trace, with order and perspicuity, the general events of that +calamitous period. There still remain some particular facts; I. +The disorders of Sicily; II. The tumults of Alexandria; and, III. +The rebellion of the Isaurians, which may serve to reflect a +strong light on the horrid picture.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by success +and impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding the justice of +their country, we may safely infer, that the excessive weakness +of the government is felt and abused by the lowest ranks of the +community. The situation of Sicily preserved it from the +Barbarians; nor could the disarmed province have supported a +usurper. The sufferings of that once flourishing and still +fertile island were inflicted by baser hands. A licentious crowd +of slaves and peasants reigned for a while over the plundered +country, and renewed the memory of the servile wars of more +ancient times. Devastations, of which the husbandman was either +the victim or the accomplice, must have ruined the agriculture of +Sicily; and as the principal estates were the property of the +opulent senators of Rome, who often enclosed within a farm the +territory of an old republic, it is not improbable, that this +private injury might affect the capital more deeply, than all the +conquests of the Goths or the Persians.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The foundation of Alexandria was a noble design, at once +conceived and executed by the son of Philip. The beautiful and +regular form of that great city, second only to Rome itself, +comprehended a circumference of fifteen miles; it was peopled by +three hundred thousand free inhabitants, besides at least an +equal number of slaves. The lucrative trade of Arabia and India +flowed through the port of Alexandria, to the capital and +provinces of the empire. * Idleness was unknown. Some were +employed in blowing of glass, others in weaving of linen, others +again manufacturing the papyrus. Either sex, and every age, was +engaged in the pursuits of industry, nor did even the blind or +the lame want occupations suited to their condition. But the +people of Alexandria, a various mixture of nations, united the +vanity and inconstancy of the Greeks with the superstition and +obstinacy of the Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a +transient scarcity of flesh or lentils, the neglect of an +accustomed salutation, a mistake of precedency in the public +baths, or even a religious dispute, were at any time sufficient +to kindle a sedition among that vast multitude, whose resentments +were furious and implacable. After the captivity of Valerian and +the insolence of his son had relaxed the authority of the laws, +the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to the ungoverned rage of +their passions, and their unhappy country was the theatre of a +civil war, which continued (with a few short and suspicious +truces) above twelve years. All intercourse was cut off between +the several quarters of the afflicted city, every street was +polluted with blood, every building of strength converted into a +citadel; nor did the tumults subside till a considerable part of +Alexandria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious and magnificent +district of Bruchion, * with its palaces and musæum, the +residence of the kings and philosophers of Egypt, is described +above a century afterwards, as already reduced to its present +state of dreary solitude.<br> +</p> + +<p>III. The obscure rebellion of Trebellianus, who assumed the +purple in Isauria, a petty province of Asia Minor, was attended +with strange and memorable consequences. The pageant of royalty +was soon destroyed by an officer of Gallienus; but his followers, +despairing of mercy, resolved to shake off their allegiance, not +only to the emperor, but to the empire, and suddenly returned to +the savage manners from which they had never perfectly been +reclaimed. Their craggy rocks, a branch of the wide-extended +Taurus, protected their inaccessible retreat. The tillage of some +fertile valleys supplied them with necessaries, and a habit of +rapine with the luxuries of life. In the heart of the Roman +monarchy, the Isaurians long continued a nation of wild +barbarians. Succeeding princes, unable to reduce them to +obedience, either by arms or policy, were compelled to +acknowledge their weakness, by surrounding the hostile and +independent spot with a strong chain of fortifications, which +often proved insufficient to restrain the incursions of these +domestic foes. The Isaurians, gradually extending their territory +to the sea-coast, subdued the western and mountainous part of +Cilicia, formerly the nest of those daring pirates, against whom +the republic had once been obliged to exert its utmost force, +under the conduct of the great Pompey.<br> +</p> + +<p>Our habits of thinking so fondly connect the order of the +universe with the fate of man, that this gloomy period of history +has been decorated with inundations, earthquakes, uncommon +meteors, preternatural darkness, and a crowd of prodigies +fictitious or exaggerated. But a long and general famine was a +calamity of a more serious kind. It was the inevitable +consequence of rapine and oppression, which extirpated the +produce of the present, and the hope of future harvests. Famine +is almost always followed by epidemical diseases, the effect of +scanty and unwholesome food. Other causes must, however, have +contributed to the furious plague, which, from the year two +hundred and fifty to the year two hundred and sixty-five, raged +without interruption in every province, every city, and almost +every family, of the Roman empire. During some time five thousand +persons died daily in Rome; and many towns, that had escaped the +hands of the Barbarians, were entirely depopulated.<br> +</p> + +<p>We have the knowledge of a very curious circumstance, of some +use perhaps in the melancholy calculation of human calamities. An +exact register was kept at Alexandria of all the citizens +entitled to receive the distribution of corn. It was found, that +the ancient number of those comprised between the ages of forty +and seventy, had been equal to the whole sum of claimants, from +fourteen to fourscore years of age, who remained alive after the +reign of Gallienus. Applying this authentic fact to the most +correct tables of mortality, it evidently proves, that above half +the people of Alexandria had perished; and could we venture to +extend the analogy to the other provinces, we might suspect, that +war, pestilence, and famine, had consumed, in a few years, the +moiety of the human species.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The +Goths.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Reign Of Claudius. -- Defeat Of The Goths. -- Victories, +Triumph, And Death Of Aurelian.<br> +</p> + +<p>Under the deplorable reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the +empire was oppressed and almost destroyed by the soldiers, the +tyrants, and the barbarians. It was saved by a series of great +princes, who derived their obscure origin from the martial +provinces of Illyricum. Within a period of about thirty years, +Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and his colleagues, +triumphed over the foreign and domestic enemies of the state, +reestablished, with the military discipline, the strength of the +frontiers, and deserved the glorious title of Restorers of the +Roman world.<br> +</p> + +<p>The removal of an effeminate tyrant made way for a succession +of heroes. The indignation of the people imputed all their +calamities to Gallienus, and the far greater part were indeed, +the consequence of his dissolute manners and careless +administration. He was even destitute of a sense of honor, which +so frequently supplies the absence of public virtue; and as long +as he was permitted to enjoy the possession of Italy, a victory +of the barbarians, the loss of a province, or the rebellion of a +general, seldom disturbed the tranquil course of his pleasures. +At length, a considerable army, stationed on the Upper Danube, +invested with the Imperial purple their leader Aureolus; who, +disdaining a confined and barren reign over the mountains of +Rhætia, passed the Alps, occupied Milan, threatened Rome, +and challenged Gallienus to dispute in the field the sovereignty +of Italy. The emperor, provoked by the insult, and alarmed by the +instant danger, suddenly exerted that latent vigor which +sometimes broke through the indolence of his temper. Forcing +himself from the luxury of the palace, he appeared in arms at the +head of his legions, and advanced beyond the Po to encounter his +competitor. The corrupted name of Pontirolo still preserves the +memory of a bridge over the Adda, which, during the action, must +have proved an object of the utmost importance to both armies. +The Rhætian usurper, after receiving a total defeat and a +dangerous wound, retired into Milan. The siege of that great city +was immediately formed; the walls were battered with every engine +in use among the ancients; and Aureolus, doubtful of his internal +strength, and hopeless of foreign succors already anticipated the +fatal consequences of unsuccessful rebellion.<br> +</p> + +<p>His last resource was an attempt to seduce the loyalty of the +besiegers. He scattered libels through the camp, inviting the +troops to desert an unworthy master, who sacrificed the public +happiness to his luxury, and the lives of his most valuable +subjects to the slightest suspicions. The arts of Aureolus +diffused fears and discontent among the principal officers of his +rival. A conspiracy was formed by Heraclianus the Prætorian +præfect, by Marcian, a general of rank and reputation, and +by Cecrops, who commanded a numerous body of Dalmatian guards. +The death of Gallienus was resolved; and notwithstanding their +desire of first terminating the siege of Milan, the extreme +danger which accompanied every moment's delay obliged them to +hasten the execution of their daring purpose. At a late hour of +the night, but while the emperor still protracted the pleasures +of the table, an alarm was suddenly given, that Aureolus, at the +head of all his forces, had made a desperate sally from the town; +Gallienus, who was never deficient in personal bravery, started +from his silken couch, and without allowing himself time either +to put on his armor, or to assemble his guards, he mounted on +horseback, and rode full speed towards the supposed place of the +attack. Encompassed by his declared or concealed enemies, he +soon, amidst the nocturnal tumult, received a mortal dart from an +uncertain hand. Before he expired, a patriotic sentiment using in +the mind of Gallienus, induced him to name a deserving successor; +and it was his last request, that the Imperial ornaments should +be delivered to Claudius, who then commanded a detached army in +the neighborhood of Pavia. The report at least was diligently +propagated, and the order cheerfully obeyed by the conspirators, +who had already agreed to place Claudius on the throne. On the +first news of the emperor's death, the troops expressed some +suspicion and resentment, till the one was removed, and the other +assuaged, by a donative of twenty pieces of gold to each soldier. +They then ratified the election, and acknowledged the merit of +their new sovereign.<br> +</p> + +<p>The obscurity which covered the origin of Claudius, though it +was afterwards embellished by some flattering fictions, +sufficiently betrays the meanness of his birth. We can only +discover that he was a native of one of the provinces bordering +on the Danube; that his youth was spent in arms, and that his +modest valor attracted the favor and confidence of Decius. The +senate and people already considered him as an excellent officer, +equal to the most important trusts; and censured the inattention +of Valerian, who suffered him to remain in the subordinate +station of a tribune. But it was not long before that emperor +distinguished the merit of Claudius, by declaring him general and +chief of the Illyrian frontier, with the command of all the +troops in Thrace, Mæsia, Dacia, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, the +appointments of the præfect of Egypt, the establishment of +the proconsul of Africa, and the sure prospect of the consulship. +By his victories over the Goths, he deserved from the senate the +honor of a statue, and excited the jealous apprehensions of +Gallienus. It was impossible that a soldier could esteem so +dissolute a sovereign, nor is it easy to conceal a just contempt. +Some unguarded expressions which dropped from Claudius were +officiously transmitted to the royal ear. The emperor's answer to +an officer of confidence describes in very lively colors his own +character, and that of the times. "There is not any thing capable +of giving me more serious concern, than the intelligence +contained in your last despatch; that some malicious suggestions +have indisposed towards us the mind of our friend and parent +Claudius. As you regard your allegiance, use every means to +appease his resentment, but conduct your negotiation with +secrecy; let it not reach the knowledge of the Dacian troops; +they are already provoked, and it might inflame their fury. I +myself have sent him some presents: be it your care that he +accept them with pleasure. Above all, let him not suspect that I +am made acquainted with his imprudence. The fear of my anger +might urge him to desperate counsels." The presents which +accompanied this humble epistle, in which the monarch solicited a +reconciliation with his discontented subject, consisted of a +considerable sum of money, a splendid wardrobe, and a valuable +service of silver and gold plate. By such arts Gallienus softened +the indignation and dispelled the fears of his Illyrian general; +and during the remainder of that reign, the formidable sword of +Claudius was always drawn in the cause of a master whom he +despised. At last, indeed, he received from the conspirators the +bloody purple of Gallienus: but he had been absent from their +camp and counsels; and however he might applaud the deed, we may +candidly presume that he was innocent of the knowledge of it. +When Claudius ascended the throne, he was about fifty-four years +of age.<br> +</p> + +<p>The siege of Milan was still continued, and Aureolus soon +discovered that the success of his artifices had only raised up a +more determined adversary. He attempted to negotiate with +Claudius a treaty of alliance and partition. "Tell him," replied +the intrepid emperor, "that such proposals should have been made +to Gallienus; <em>he</em>, perhaps, might have listened to them +with patience, and accepted a colleague as despicable as +himself." This stern refusal, and a last unsuccessful effort, +obliged Aureolus to yield the city and himself to the discretion +of the conqueror. The judgment of the army pronounced him worthy +of death; and Claudius, after a feeble resistance, consented to +the execution of the sentence. Nor was the zeal of the senate +less ardent in the cause of their new sovereign. They ratified, +perhaps with a sincere transport of zeal, the election of +Claudius; and, as his predecessor had shown himself the personal +enemy of their order, they exercised, under the name of justice, +a severe revenge against his friends and family. The senate was +permitted to discharge the ungrateful office of punishment, and +the emperor reserved for himself the pleasure and merit of +obtaining by his intercession a general act of indemnity.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such ostentatious clemency discovers less of the real +character of Claudius, than a trifling circumstance in which he +seems to have consulted only the dictates of his heart. The +frequent rebellions of the provinces had involved almost every +person in the guilt of treason, almost every estate in the case +of confiscation; and Gallienus often displayed his liberality by +distributing among his officers the property of his subjects. On +the accession of Claudius, an old woman threw herself at his +feet, and complained that a general of the late emperor had +obtained an arbitrary grant of her patrimony. This general was +Claudius himself, who had not entirely escaped the contagion of +the times. The emperor blushed at the reproach, but deserved the +confidence which she had reposed in his equity. The confession of +his fault was accompanied with immediate and ample +restitution.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the arduous task which Claudius had undertaken, of +restoring the empire to its ancient splendor, it was first +necessary to revive among his troops a sense of order and +obedience. With the authority of a veteran commander, he +represented to them that the relaxation of discipline had +introduced a long train of disorders, the effects of which were +at length experienced by the soldiers themselves; that a people +ruined by oppression, and indolent from despair, could no longer +supply a numerous army with the means of luxury, or even of +subsistence; that the danger of each individual had increased +with the despotism of the military order, since princes who +tremble on the throne will guard their safety by the instant +sacrifice of every obnoxious subject. The emperor expiated on the +mischiefs of a lawless caprice, which the soldiers could only +gratify at the expense of their own blood; as their seditious +elections had so frequently been followed by civil wars, which +consumed the flower of the legions either in the field of battle, +or in the cruel abuse of victory. He painted in the most lively +colors the exhausted state of the treasury, the desolation of the +provinces, the disgrace of the Roman name, and the insolent +triumph of rapacious barbarians. It was against those barbarians, +he declared, that he intended to point the first effort of their +arms. Tetricus might reign for a while over the West, and even +Zenobia might preserve the dominion of the East. These usurpers +were his personal adversaries; nor could he think of indulging +any private resentment till he had saved an empire, whose +impending ruin would, unless it was timely prevented, crush both +the army and the people.<br> +</p> + +<p>The various nations of Germany and Sarmatia, who fought under +the Gothic standard, had already collected an armament more +formidable than any which had yet issued from the Euxine. On the +banks of the Niester, one of the great rivers that discharge +themselves into that sea, they constructed a fleet of two +thousand, or even of six thousand vessels; numbers which, however +incredible they may seem, would have been insufficient to +transport their pretended army of three hundred and twenty +thousand barbarians. Whatever might be the real strength of the +Goths, the vigor and success of the expedition were not adequate +to the greatness of the preparations. In their passage through +the Bosphorus, the unskilful pilots were overpowered by the +violence of the current; and while the multitude of their ships +were crowded in a narrow channel, many were dashed against each +other, or against the shore. The barbarians made several descents +on the coasts both of Europe and Asia; but the open country was +already plundered, and they were repulsed with shame and loss +from the fortified cities which they assaulted. A spirit of +discouragement and division arose in the fleet, and some of their +chiefs sailed away towards the islands of Crete and Cyprus; but +the main body, pursuing a more steady course, anchored at length +near the foot of Mount Athos, and assaulted the city of +Thessalonica, the wealthy capital of all the Macedonian +provinces. Their attacks, in which they displayed a fierce but +artless bravery, were soon interrupted by the rapid approach of +Claudius, hastening to a scene of action that deserved the +presence of a warlike prince at the head of the remaining powers +of the empire. Impatient for battle, the Goths immediately broke +up their camp, relinquished the siege of Thessalonica, left their +navy at the foot of Mount Athos, traversed the hills of +Macedonia, and pressed forwards to engage the last defence of +Italy.<br> +</p> + +<p>We still posses an original letter addressed by Claudius to +the senate and people on this memorable occasion. "Conscript +fathers," says the emperor, "know that three hundred and twenty +thousand Goths have invaded the Roman territory. If I vanquish +them, your gratitude will reward my services. Should I fall, +remember that I am the successor of Gallienus. The whole republic +is fatigued and exhausted. We shall fight after Valerian, after +Ingenuus, Regillianus, Lollianus, Posthumus, Celsus, and a +thousand others, whom a just contempt for Gallienus provoked into +rebellion. We are in want of darts, of spears, and of shields. +The strength of the empire, Gaul, and Spain, are usurped by +Tetricus, and we blush to acknowledge that the archers of the +East serve under the banners of Zenobia. Whatever we shall +perform will be sufficiently great." The melancholy firmness of +this epistle announces a hero careless of his fate, conscious of +his danger, but still deriving a well-grounded hope from the +resources of his own mind.<br> +</p> + +<p>The event surpassed his own expectations and those of the +world. By the most signal victories he delivered the empire from +this host of barbarians, and was distinguished by posterity under +the glorious appellation of the Gothic Claudius. The imperfect +historians of an irregular war do not enable as to describe the +order and circumstances of his exploits; but, if we could be +indulged in the allusion, we might distribute into three acts +this memorable tragedy. I. The decisive battle was fought near +Naissus, a city of Dardania. The legions at first gave way, +oppressed by numbers, and dismayed by misfortunes. Their ruin was +inevitable, had not the abilities of their emperor prepared a +seasonable relief. A large detachment, rising out of the secret +and difficult passes of the mountains, which, by his order, they +had occupied, suddenly assailed the rear of the victorious Goths. +The favorable instant was improved by the activity of Claudius. +He revived the courage of his troops, restored their ranks, and +pressed the barbarians on every side. Fifty thousand men are +reported to have been slain in the battle of Naissus. Several +large bodies of barbarians, covering their retreat with a movable +fortification of wagons, retired, or rather escaped, from the +field of slaughter. II. We may presume that some insurmountable +difficulty, the fatigue, perhaps, or the disobedience, of the +conquerors, prevented Claudius from completing in one day the +destruction of the Goths. The war was diffused over the province +of Mæsia, Thrace, and Macedonia, and its operations drawn +out into a variety of marches, surprises, and tumultuary +engagements, as well by sea as by land. When the Romans suffered +any loss, it was commonly occasioned by their own cowardice or +rashness; but the superior talents of the emperor, his perfect +knowledge of the country, and his judicious choice of measures as +well as officers, assured on most occasions the success of his +arms. The immense booty, the fruit of so many victories, +consisted for the greater part of cattle and slaves. A select +body of the Gothic youth was received among the Imperial troops; +the remainder was sold into servitude; and so considerable was +the number of female captives, that every soldier obtained to his +share two or three women. A circumstance from which we may +conclude, that the invaders entertained some designs of +settlement as well as of plunder; since even in a naval +expedition, they were accompanied by their families. III. The +loss of their fleet, which was either taken or sunk, had +intercepted the retreat of the Goths. A vast circle of Roman +posts, distributed with skill, supported with firmness, and +gradually closing towards a common centre, forced the barbarians +into the most inaccessible parts of Mount Hæmus, where they +found a safe refuge, but a very scanty subsistence. During the +course of a rigorous winter in which they were besieged by the +emperor's troops, famine and pestilence, desertion and the sword, +continually diminished the imprisoned multitude. On the return of +spring, nothing appeared in arms except a hardy and desperate +band, the remnant of that mighty host which had embarked at the +mouth of the Niester.<br> +</p> + +<p>The pestilence which swept away such numbers of the +barbarians, at length proved fatal to their conqueror. After a +short but glorious reign of two years, Claudius expired at +Sirmium, amidst the tears and acclamations of his subjects. In +his last illness, he convened the principal officers of the state +and army, and in their presence recommended Aurelian, one of his +generals, as the most deserving of the throne, and the best +qualified to execute the great design which he himself had been +permitted only to undertake. The virtues of Claudius, his valor, +affability, justice, and temperance, his love of fame and of his +country, place him in that short list of emperors who added +lustre to the Roman purple. Those virtues, however, were +celebrated with peculiar zeal and complacency by the courtly +writers of the age of Constantine, who was the great grandson of +Crispus, the elder brother of Claudius. The voice of flattery was +soon taught to repeat, that gods, who so hastily had snatched +Claudius from the earth, rewarded his merit and piety by the +perpetual establishment of the empire in his family.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding these oracles, the greatness of the Flavian +family (a name which it had pleased them to assume) was deferred +above twenty years, and the elevation of Claudius occasioned the +immediate ruin of his brother Quintilius, who possessed not +sufficient moderation or courage to descend into the private +station to which the patriotism of the late emperor had condemned +him. Without delay or reflection, he assumed the purple at +Aquileia, where he commanded a considerable force; and though his +reign lasted only seventeen days, * he had time to obtain the +sanction of the senate, and to experience a mutiny of the troops. +As soon as he was informed that the great army of the Danube had +invested the well-known valor of Aurelian with Imperial power, he +sunk under the fame and merit of his rival; and ordering his +veins to be opened, prudently withdrew himself from the unequal +contest.<br> +</p> + +<p>The general design of this work will not permit us minutely to +relate the actions of every emperor after he ascended the throne, +much less to deduce the various fortunes of his private life. We +shall only observe, that the father of Aurelian was a peasant of +the territory of Sirmium, who occupied a small farm, the property +of Aurelius, a rich senator. His warlike son enlisted in the +troops as a common soldier, successively rose to the rank of a +centurion, a tribune, the præfect of a legion, the +inspector of the camp, the general, or, as it was then called, +the duke, of a frontier; and at length, during the Gothic war, +exercised the important office of commander-in-chief of the +cavalry. In every station he distinguished himself by matchless +valor, rigid discipline, and successful conduct. He was invested +with the consulship by the emperor Valerian, who styles him, in +the pompous language of that age, the deliverer of Illyricum, the +restorer of Gaul, and the rival of the Scipios. At the +recommendation of Valerian, a senator of the highest rank and +merit, Ulpius Crinitus, whose blood was derived from the same +source as that of Trajan, adopted the Pannonian peasant, gave him +his daughter in marriage, and relieved with his ample fortune the +honorable poverty which Aurelian had preserved inviolate.<br> +</p> + +<p>The reign of Aurelian lasted only four years and about nine +months; but every instant of that short period was filled by some +memorable achievement. He put an end to the Gothic war, chastised +the Germans who invaded Italy, recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain +out of the hands of Tetricus, and destroyed the proud monarchy +which Zenobia had erected in the East on the ruins of the +afflicted empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was the rigid attention of Aurelian, even to the minutest +articles of discipline, which bestowed such uninterrupted success +on his arms. His military regulations are contained in a very +concise epistle to one of his inferior officers, who is commanded +to enforce them, as he wishes to become a tribune, or as he is +desirous to live. Gaming, drinking, and the arts of divination, +were severely prohibited. Aurelian expected that his soldiers +should be modest, frugal, and laborous; that their armor should +be constantly kept bright, their weapons sharp, their clothing +and horses ready for immediate service; that they should live in +their quarters with chastity and sobriety, without damaging the +cornfields, without stealing even a sheep, a fowl, or a bunch of +grapes, without exacting from their landlords, either salt, or +oil, or wood. "The public allowance," continues the emperor, "is +sufficient for their support; their wealth should be collected +from the spoils of the enemy, not from the tears of the +provincials." A single instance will serve to display the rigor, +and even cruelty, of Aurelian. One of the soldiers had seduced +the wife of his host. The guilty wretch was fastened to two trees +forcibly drawn towards each other, and his limbs were torn +asunder by their sudden separation. A few such examples impressed +a salutary consternation. The punishments of Aurelian were +terrible; but he had seldom occasion to punish more than once the +same offence. His own conduct gave a sanction to his laws, and +the seditious legions dreaded a chief who had learned to obey, +and who was worthy to command.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The +Goths. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The death of Claudius had revived the fainting spirit of the +Goths. The troops which guarded the passes of Mount Hæmus, +and the banks of the Danube, had been drawn away by the +apprehension of a civil war; and it seems probable that the +remaining body of the Gothic and Vandalic tribes embraced the +favorable opportunity, abandoned their settlements of the +Ukraine, traversed the rivers, and swelled with new multitudes +the destroying host of their countrymen. Their united numbers +were at length encountered by Aurelian, and the bloody and +doubtful conflict ended only with the approach of night. +Exhausted by so many calamities, which they had mutually endured +and inflicted during a twenty years' war, the Goths and the +Romans consented to a lasting and beneficial treaty. It was +earnestly solicited by the barbarians, and cheerfully ratified by +the legions, to whose suffrage the prudence of Aurelian referred +the decision of that important question. The Gothic nation +engaged to supply the armies of Rome with a body of two thousand +auxiliaries, consisting entirely of cavalry, and stipulated in +return an undisturbed retreat, with a regular market as far as +the Danube, provided by the emperor's care, but at their own +expense. The treaty was observed with such religious fidelity, +that when a party of five hundred men straggled from the camp in +quest of plunder, the king or general of the barbarians commanded +that the guilty leader should be apprehended and shot to death +with darts, as a victim devoted to the sanctity of their +engagements. * It is, however, not unlikely, that the precaution +of Aurelian, who had exacted as hostages the sons and daughters +of the Gothic chiefs, contributed something to this pacific +temper. The youths he trained in the exercise of arms, and near +his own person: to the damsels he gave a liberal and Roman +education, and by bestowing them in marriage on some of his +principal officers, gradually introduced between the two nations +the closest and most endearing connections.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the most important condition of peace was understood +rather than expressed in the treaty. Aurelian withdrew the Roman +forces from Dacia, and tacitly relinquished that great province +to the Goths and Vandals. His manly judgment convinced him of the +solid advantages, and taught him to despise the seeming disgrace, +of thus contracting the frontiers of the monarchy. The Dacian +subjects, removed from those distant possessions which they were +unable to cultivate or defend, added strength and populousness to +the southern side of the Danube. A fertile territory, which the +repetition of barbarous inroads had changed into a desert, was +yielded to their industry, and a new province of Dacia still +preserved the memory of Trajan's conquests. The old country of +that name detained, however, a considerable number of its +inhabitants, who dreaded exile more than a Gothic master. These +degenerate Romans continued to serve the empire, whose allegiance +they had renounced, by introducing among their conquerors the +first notions of agriculture, the useful arts, and the +conveniences of civilized life. An intercourse of commerce and +language was gradually established between the opposite banks of +the Danube; and after Dacia became an independent state, it often +proved the firmest barrier of the empire against the invasions of +the savages of the North. A sense of interest attached these more +settled barbarians to the alliance of Rome, and a permanent +interest very frequently ripens into sincere and useful +friendship. This various colony, which filled the ancient +province, and was insensibly blended into one great people, still +acknowledged the superior renown and authority of the Gothic +tribe, and claimed the fancied honor of a Scandinavian origin. At +the same time, the lucky though accidental resemblance of the +name of Getæ, * infused among the credulous Goths a vain +persuasion, that in a remote age, their own ancestors, already +seated in the Dacian provinces, had received the instructions of +Zamolxis, and checked the victorious arms of Sesostris and +Darius.<br> +</p> + +<p>While the vigorous and moderate conduct of Aurelian restored +the Illyrian frontier, the nation of the Alemanni violated the +conditions of peace, which either Gallienus had purchased, or +Claudius had imposed, and, inflamed by their impatient youth, +suddenly flew to arms. Forty thousand horse appeared in the +field, and the numbers of the infantry doubled those of the +cavalry. The first objects of their avarice were a few cities of +the Rhætian frontier; but their hopes soon rising with +success, the rapid march of the Alemanni traced a line of +devastation from the Danube to the Po.<br> +</p> + +<p>The emperor was almost at the same time informed of the +irruption, and of the retreat, of the barbarians. Collecting an +active body of troops, he marched with silence and celerity along +the skirts of the Hercynian forest; and the Alemanni, laden with +the spoils of Italy, arrived at the Danube, without suspecting, +that on the opposite bank, and in an advantageous post, a Roman +army lay concealed and prepared to intercept their return. +Aurelian indulged the fatal security of the barbarians, and +permitted about half their forces to pass the river without +disturbance and without precaution. Their situation and +astonishment gave him an easy victory; his skilful conduct +improved the advantage. Disposing the legions in a semicircular +form, he advanced the two horns of the crescent across the +Danube, and wheeling them on a sudden towards the centre, +enclosed the rear of the German host. The dismayed barbarians, on +whatsoever side they cast their eyes, beheld, with despair, a +wasted country, a deep and rapid stream, a victorious and +implacable enemy.<br> +</p> + +<p>Reduced to this distressed condition, the Alemanni no longer +disdained to sue for peace. Aurelian received their ambassadors +at the head of his camp, and with every circumstance of martial +pomp that could display the greatness and discipline of Rome. The +legions stood to their arms in well-ordered ranks and awful +silence. The principal commanders, distinguished by the ensigns +of their rank, appeared on horseback on either side of the +Imperial throne. Behind the throne the consecrated images of the +emperor, and his predecessors, the golden eagles, and the various +titles of the legions, engraved in letters of gold, were exalted +in the air on lofty pikes covered with silver. When Aurelian +assumed his seat, his manly grace and majestic figure taught the +barbarians to revere the person as well as the purple of their +conqueror. The ambassadors fell prostrate on the ground in +silence. They were commanded to rise, and permitted to speak. By +the assistance of interpreters they extenuated their perfidy, +magnified their exploits, expatiated on the vicissitudes of +fortune and the advantages of peace, and, with an ill-timed +confidence, demanded a large subsidy, as the price of the +alliance which they offered to the Romans. The answer of the +emperor was stern and imperious. He treated their offer with +contempt, and their demand with indignation, reproached the +barbarians, that they were as ignorant of the arts of war as of +the laws of peace, and finally dismissed them with the choice +only of submitting to this unconditional mercy, or awaiting the +utmost severity of his resentment. Aurelian had resigned a +distant province to the Goths; but it was dangerous to trust or +to pardon these perfidious barbarians, whose formidable power +kept Italy itself in perpetual alarms.<br> +</p> + +<p>Immediately after this conference, it should seem that some +unexpected emergency required the emperor's presence in Pannonia. +He devolved on his lieutenants the care of finishing the +destruction of the Alemanni, either by the sword, or by the surer +operation of famine. But an active despair has often triumphed +over the indolent assurance of success. The barbarians, finding +it impossible to traverse the Danube and the Roman camp, broke +through the posts in their rear, which were more feebly or less +carefully guarded; and with incredible diligence, but by a +different road, returned towards the mountains of Italy. +Aurelian, who considered the war as totally extinguished, +received the mortifying intelligence of the escape of the +Alemanni, and of the ravage which they already committed in the +territory of Milan. The legions were commanded to follow, with as +much expedition as those heavy bodies were capable of exerting, +the rapid flight of an enemy whose infantry and cavalry moved +with almost equal swiftness. A few days afterwards, the emperor +himself marched to the relief of Italy, at the head of a chosen +body of auxiliaries, (among whom were the hostages and cavalry of +the Vandals,) and of all the Prætorian guards who had +served in the wars on the Danube.<br> +</p> + +<p>As the light troops of the Alemanni had spread themselves from +the Alps to the Apennine, the incessant vigilance of Aurelian and +his officers was exercised in the discovery, the attack, and the +pursuit of the numerous detachments. Notwithstanding this +desultory war, three considerable battles are mentioned, in which +the principal force of both armies was obstinately engaged. The +success was various. In the first, fought near Placentia, the +Romans received so severe a blow, that, according to the +expression of a writer extremely partial to Aurelian, the +immediate dissolution of the empire was apprehended. The crafty +barbarians, who had lined the woods, suddenly attacked the +legions in the dusk of the evening, and, it is most probable, +after the fatigue and disorder of a long march. The fury of their +charge was irresistible; but, at length, after a dreadful +slaughter, the patient firmness of the emperor rallied his +troops, and restored, in some degree, the honor of his arms. The +second battle was fought near Fano in Umbria; on the spot which, +five hundred years before, had been fatal to the brother of +Hannibal. Thus far the successful Germans had advanced along the +Æmilian and Flaminian way, with a design of sacking the +defenceless mistress of the world. But Aurelian, who, watchful +for the safety of Rome, still hung on their rear, found in this +place the decisive moment of giving them a total and +irretrievable defeat. The flying remnant of their host was +exterminated in a third and last battle near Pavia; and Italy was +delivered from the inroads of the Alemanni.<br> +</p> + +<p>Fear has been the original parent of superstition, and every +new calamity urges trembling mortals to deprecate the wrath of +their invisible enemies. Though the best hope of the republic was +in the valor and conduct of Aurelian, yet such was the public +consternation, when the barbarians were hourly expected at the +gates of Rome, that, by a decree of the senate the Sibylline +books were consulted. Even the emperor himself from a motive +either of religion or of policy, recommended this salutary +measure, chided the tardiness of the senate, and offered to +supply whatever expense, whatever animals, whatever captives of +any nation, the gods should require. Notwithstanding this liberal +offer, it does not appear, that any human victims expiated with +their blood the sins of the Roman people. The Sibylline books +enjoined ceremonies of a more harmless nature, processions of +priests in white robes, attended by a chorus of youths and +virgins; lustrations of the city and adjacent country; and +sacrifices, whose powerful influence disabled the barbarians from +passing the mystic ground on which they had been celebrated. +However puerile in themselves, these superstitious arts were +subservient to the success of the war; and if, in the decisive +battle of Fano, the Alemanni fancied they saw an army of spectres +combating on the side of Aurelian, he received a real and +effectual aid from this imaginary reenforcement.<br> +</p> + +<p>But whatever confidence might be placed in ideal ramparts, the +experience of the past, and the dread of the future, induced the +Romans to construct fortifications of a grosser and more +substantial kind. The seven hills of Rome had been surrounded, by +the successors of Romulus, with an ancient wall of more than +thirteen miles. The vast enclosure may seem disproportioned to +the strength and numbers of the infant state. But it was +necessary to secure an ample extent of pasture and arable land, +against the frequent and sudden incursions of the tribes of +Latium, the perpetual enemies of the republic. With the progress +of Roman greatness, the city and its inhabitants gradually +increased, filled up the vacant space, pierced through the +useless walls, covered the field of Mars, and, on every side, +followed the public highways in long and beautiful suburbs. The +extent of the new walls, erected by Aurelian, and finished in the +reign of Probus, was magnified by popular estimation to near +fifty, but is reduced by accurate measurement to about twenty-one +miles. It was a great but a melancholy labor, since the defence +of the capital betrayed the decline of the monarchy. The Romans +of a more prosperous age, who trusted to the arms of the legions +the safety of the frontier camps, were very far from entertaining +a suspicion, that it would ever become necessary to fortify the +seat of empire against the inroads of the barbarians.<br> +</p> + +<p>The victory of Claudius over the Goths, and the success of +Aurelian against the Alemanni, had already restored to the arms +of Rome their ancient superiority over the barbarous nations of +the North. To chastise domestic tyrants, and to reunite the +dismembered parts of the empire, was a task reserved for the +second of those warlike emperors. Though he was acknowledged by +the senate and people, the frontiers of Italy, Africa, Illyricum, +and Thrace, confined the limits of his reign. Gaul, Spain, and +Britain, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, were still possessed by +two rebels, who alone, out of so numerous a list, had hitherto +escaped the dangers of their situation; and to complete the +ignominy of Rome, these rival thrones had been usurped by +women.<br> +</p> + +<p>A rapid succession of monarchs had arisen and fallen in the +provinces of Gaul. The rigid virtues of Posthumus served only to +hasten his destruction. After suppressing a competitor, who had +assumed the purple at Mentz, he refused to gratify his troops +with the plunder of the rebellious city; and in the seventh year +of his reign, became the victim of their disappointed avarice. +The death of Victorinus, his friend and associate, was occasioned +by a less worthy cause. The shining accomplishments of that +prince were stained by a licentious passion, which he indulged in +acts of violence, with too little regard to the laws of society, +or even to those of love. He was slain at Cologne, by a +conspiracy of jealous husbands, whose revenge would have appeared +more justifiable, had they spared the innocence of his son. After +the murder of so many valiant princes, it is somewhat remarkable, +that a female for a long time controlled the fierce legions of +Gaul, and still more singular, that she was the mother of the +unfortunate Victorinus. The arts and treasures of Victoria +enabled her successively to place Marius and Tetricus on the +throne, and to reign with a manly vigor under the name of those +dependent emperors. Money of copper, of silver, and of gold, was +coined in her name; she assumed the titles of Augusta and Mother +of the Camps: her power ended only with her life; but her life +was perhaps shortened by the ingratitude of Tetricus.<br> +</p> + +<p>When, at the instigation of his ambitious patroness, Tetricus +assumed the ensigns of royalty, he was governor of the peaceful +province of Aquitaine, an employment suited to his character and +education. He reigned four or five years over Gaul, Spain, and +Britain, the slave and sovereign of a licentious army, whom he +dreaded, and by whom he was despised. The valor and fortune of +Aurelian at length opened the prospect of a deliverance. He +ventured to disclose his melancholy situation, and conjured the +emperor to hasten to the relief of his unhappy rival. Had this +secret correspondence reached the ears of the soldiers, it would +most probably have cost Tetricus his life; nor could he resign +the sceptre of the West without committing an act of treason +against himself. He affected the appearances of a civil war, led +his forces into the field, against Aurelian, posted them in the +most disadvantageous manner, betrayed his own counsels to his +enemy, and with a few chosen friends deserted in the beginning of +the action. The rebel legions, though disordered and dismayed by +the unexpected treachery of their chief, defended themselves with +desperate valor, till they were cut in pieces almost to a man, in +this bloody and memorable battle, which was fought near Chalons +in Champagne. The retreat of the irregular auxiliaries, Franks +and Batavians, whom the conqueror soon compelled or persuaded to +repass the Rhine, restored the general tranquillity, and the +power of Aurelian was acknowledged from the wall of Antoninus to +the columns of Hercules.<br> +</p> + +<p>As early as the reign of Claudius, the city of Autun, alone +and unassisted, had ventured to declare against the legions of +Gaul. After a siege of seven months, they stormed and plundered +that unfortunate city, already wasted by famine. Lyons, on the +contrary, had resisted with obstinate disaffection the arms of +Aurelian. We read of the punishment of Lyons, but there is not +any mention of the rewards of Autun. Such, indeed, is the policy +of civil war; severely to remember injuries, and to forget the +most important services. Revenge is profitable, gratitude is +expensive.<br> +</p> + +<p>Aurelian had no sooner secured the person and provinces of +Tetricus, than he turned his arms against Zenobia, the celebrated +queen of Palmyra and the East. Modern Europe has produced several +illustrious women who have sustained with glory the weight of +empire; nor is our own age destitute of such distinguished +characters. But if we except the doubtful achievements of +Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female whose superior +genius broke through the servile indolence imposed on her sex by +the climate and manners of Asia. She claimed her descent from the +Macedonian kings of Egypt, * equalled in beauty her ancestor +Cleopatra, and far surpassed that princess in chastity and valor. +Zenobia was esteemed the most lovely as well as the most heroic +of her sex. She was of a dark complexion, (for in speaking of a +lady these trifles become important.) Her teeth were of a pearly +whiteness, and her large black eyes sparkled with uncommon fire, +tempered by the most attractive sweetness. Her voice was strong +and harmonious. Her manly understanding was strengthened and +adorned by study. She was not ignorant of the Latin tongue, but +possessed in equal perfection the Greek, the Syriac, and the +Egyptian languages. She had drawn up for her own use an epitome +of oriental history, and familiarly compared the beauties of +Homer and Plato under the tuition of the sublime Longinus.<br> +</p> + +<p>This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, who, from +a private station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. +She soon became the friend and companion of a hero. In the +intervals of war, Odenathus passionately delighted in the +exercise of hunting; he pursued with ardor the wild beasts of the +desert, lions, panthers, and bears; and the ardor of Zenobia in +that dangerous amusement was not inferior to his own. She had +inured her constitution to fatigue, disdained the use of a +covered carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a military +habit, and sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head of +the troops. The success of Odenathus was in a great measure +ascribed to her incomparable prudence and fortitude. Their +splendid victories over the Great King, whom they twice pursued +as far as the gates of Ctesiphon, laid the foundations of their +united fame and power. The armies which they commanded, and the +provinces which they had saved, acknowledged not any other +sovereigns than their invincible chiefs. The senate and people of +Rome revered a stranger who had avenged their captive emperor, +and even the insensible son of Valerian accepted Odenathus for +his legitimate colleague.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The +Goths. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of +Asia, the Palmyrenian prince returned to the city of Emesa in +Syria. Invincible in war, he was there cut off by domestic +treason, and his favorite amusement of hunting was the cause, or +at least the occasion, of his death. His nephew Mæonius +presumed to dart his javelin before that of his uncle; and though +admonished of his error, repeated the same insolence. As a +monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked, took away +his horse, a mark of ignominy among the barbarians, and chastised +the rash youth by a short confinement. The offence was soon +forgot, but the punishment was remembered; and Mæonius, +with a few daring associates, assassinated his uncle in the midst +of a great entertainment. Herod, the son of Odenathus, though not +of Zenobia, a young man of a soft and effeminate temper, was +killed with his father. But Mæonius obtained only the +pleasure of revenge by this bloody deed. He had scarcely time to +assume the title of Augustus, before he was sacrificed by Zenobia +to the memory of her husband.<br> +</p> + +<p>With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she +immediately filled the vacant throne, and governed with manly +counsels Palmyra, Syria, and the East, above five years. By the +death of Odenathus, that authority was at an end which the senate +had granted him only as a personal distinction; but his martial +widow, disdaining both the senate and Gallienus, obliged one of +the Roman generals, who was sent against her, to retreat into +Europe, with the loss of his army and his reputation. Instead of +the little passions which so frequently perplex a female reign, +the steady administration of Zenobia was guided by the most +judicious maxims of policy. If it was expedient to pardon, she +could calm her resentment; if it was necessary to punish, she +could impose silence on the voice of pity. Her strict economy was +accused of avarice; yet on every proper occasion she appeared +magnificent and liberal. The neighboring states of Arabia, +Armenia, and Persia, dreaded her enmity, and solicited her +alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which extended from the +Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia, his widow added the +inheritance of her ancestors, the populous and fertile kingdom of +Egypt. * The emperor Claudius acknowledged her merit, and was +content, that, while <em>he</em> pursued the Gothic war, +<em>she</em>should assert the dignity of the empire in the East. +^61? The conduct, however, of Zenobia, was attended with some +ambiguity; not is it unlikely that she had conceived the design +of erecting an independent and hostile monarchy. She blended with +the popular manners of Roman princes the stately pomp of the +courts of Asia, and exacted from her subjects the same adoration +that was paid to the successor of Cyrus. She bestowed on her +three sons a Latin education, and often showed them to the troops +adorned with the Imperial purple. For herself she reserved the +diadem, with the splendid but doubtful title of Queen of the +East.<br> +</p> + +<p>When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary +whose sex alone could render her an object of contempt, his +presence restored obedience to the province of Bithynia, already +shaken by the arms and intrigues of Zenobia. Advancing at the +head of his legions, he accepted the submission of Ancyra, and +was admitted into Tyana, after an obstinate siege, by the help of +a perfidious citizen. The generous though fierce temper of +Aurelian abandoned the traitor to the rage of the soldiers; a +superstitious reverence induced him to treat with lenity the +countrymen of Apollonius the philosopher. Antioch was deserted on +his approach, till the emperor, by his salutary edicts, recalled +the fugitives, and granted a general pardon to all, who, from +necessity rather than choice, had been engaged in the service of +the Palmyrenian Queen. The unexpected mildness of such a conduct +reconciled the minds of the Syrians, and as far as the gates of +Emesa, the wishes of the people seconded the terror of his +arms.<br> +</p> + +<p>Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she +indolently permitted the emperor of the West to approach within a +hundred miles of her capital. The fate of the East was decided in +two great battles; so similar in almost every circumstance, that +we can scarcely distinguish them from each other, except by +observing that the first was fought near Antioch, and the second +near Emesa. In both the queen of Palmyra animated the armies by +her presence, and devolved the execution of her orders on Zabdas, +who had already signalized his military talents by the conquest +of Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted for the most +part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in complete +steel. The Moorish and Illyrian horse of Aurelian were unable to +sustain the ponderous charge of their antagonists. They fled in +real or affected disorder, engaged the Palmyrenians in a +laborious pursuit, harassed them by a desultory combat, and at +length discomfited this impenetrable but unwieldy body of +cavalry. The light infantry, in the mean time, when they had +exhausted their quivers, remaining without protection against a +closer onset, exposed their naked sides to the swords of the +legions. Aurelian had chosen these veteran troops, who were +usually stationed on the Upper Danube, and whose valor had been +severely tried in the Alemannic war. After the defeat of Emesa, +Zenobia found it impossible to collect a third army. As far as +the frontier of Egypt, the nations subject to her empire had +joined the standard of the conqueror, who detached Probus, the +bravest of his generals, to possess himself of the Egyptian +provinces. Palmyra was the last resource of the widow of +Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capital, made +every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and declared, with +the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her reign +and of her life should be the same.<br> +</p> + +<p>Amid the barren deserts of Arabia, a few cultivated spots rise +like islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or +Palmyra, by its signification in the Syriac as well as in the +Latin language, denoted the multitude of palm-trees which +afforded shade and verdure to that temperate region. The air was +pure, and the soil, watered by some invaluable springs, was +capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A place possessed of +such singular advantages, and situated at a convenient distance +between the Gulf of Persia and the Mediterranean, was soon +frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the nations of +Europe a considerable part of the rich commodities of India. +Palmyra insensibly increased into an opulent and independent +city, and connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by the +mutual benefits of commerce, was suffered to observe an humble +neutrality, till at length, after the victories of Trajan, the +little republic sunk into the bosom of Rome, and flourished more +than one hundred and fifty years in the subordinate though +honorable rank of a colony. It was during that peaceful period, +if we may judge from a few remaining inscriptions, that the +wealthy Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and +porticos of Grecian architecture, whose ruins, scattered over an +extent of several miles, have deserved the curiosity of our +travellers. The elevation of Odenathus and Zenobia appeared to +reflect new splendor on their country, and Palmyra, for a while, +stood forth the rival of Rome: but the competition was fatal, and +ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a moment of glory.<br> +</p> + +<p>In his march over the sandy desert between Emesa and Palmyra, +the emperor Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor +could he always defend his army, and especially his baggage, from +those flying troops of active and daring robbers, who watched the +moment of surprise, and eluded the slow pursuit of the legions. +The siege of Palmyra was an object far more difficult and +important, and the emperor, who, with incessant vigor, pressed +the attacks in person, was himself wounded with a dart. "The +Roman people," says Aurelian, in an original letter, "speak with +contempt of the war which I am waging against a woman. They are +ignorant both of the character and of the power of Zenobia. It is +impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations, of stones, of +arrows, and of every species of missile weapons. Every part of +the walls is provided with two or three <em>balist</em> and +artificial fires are thrown from her military engines. The fear +of punishment has armed her with a desperate courage. Yet still I +trust in the protecting deities of Rome, who have hitherto been +favorable to all my undertakings." Doubtful, however, of the +protection of the gods, and of the event of the siege, Aurelian +judged it more prudent to offer terms of an advantageous +capitulation; to the queen, a splendid retreat; to the citizens, +their ancient privileges. His proposals were obstinately +rejected, and the refusal was accompanied with insult.<br> +</p> + +<p>The firmness of Zenobia was supported by the hope, that in a +very short time famine would compel the Roman army to repass the +desert; and by the reasonable expectation that the kings of the +East, and particularly the Persian monarch, would arm in the +defence of their most natural ally. But fortune, and the +perseverance of Aurelian, overcame every obstacle. The death of +Sapor, which happened about this time, distracted the councils of +Persia, and the inconsiderable succors that attempted to relieve +Palmyra, were easily intercepted either by the arms or the +liberality of the emperor. From every part of Syria, a regular +succession of convoys safely arrived in the camp, which was +increased by the return of Probus with his victorious troops from +the conquest of Egypt. It was then that Zenobia resolved to fly. +She mounted the fleetest of her dromedaries, and had already +reached the banks of the Euphrates, about sixty miles from +Palmyra, when she was overtaken by the pursuit of Aurelian's +light horse, seized, and brought back a captive to the feet of +the emperor. Her capital soon afterwards surrendered, and was +treated with unexpected lenity. The arms, horses, and camels, +with an immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and precious +stones, were all delivered to the conqueror, who, leaving only a +garrison of six hundred archers, returned to Emesa, and employed +some time in the distribution of rewards and punishments at the +end of so memorable a war, which restored to the obedience of +Rome those provinces that had renounced their allegiance since +the captivity of Valerian.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the Syrian queen was brought into the presence of +Aurelian, he sternly asked her, How she had presumed to rise in +arms against the emperors of Rome! The answer of Zenobia was a +prudent mixture of respect and firmness. "Because I disdained to +consider as Roman emperors an Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone +I acknowledge as my conqueror and my sovereign." But as female +fortitude is commonly artificial, so it is seldom steady or +consistent. The courage of Zenobia deserted her in the hour of +trial; she trembled at the angry clamors of the soldiers, who +called aloud for her immediate execution, forgot the generous +despair of Cleopatra, which she had proposed as her model, and +ignominiously purchased life by the sacrifice of her fame and her +friends. It was to their counsels, which governed the weakness of +her sex, that she imputed the guilt of her obstinate resistance; +it was on their heads that she directed the vengeance of the +cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, who was included among the +numerous and perhaps innocent victims of her fear, will survive +that of the queen who betrayed, or the tyrant who condemned him. +Genius and learning were incapable of moving a fierce unlettered +soldier, but they had served to elevate and harmonize the soul of +Longinus. Without uttering a complaint, he calmly followed the +executioner, pitying his unhappy mistress, and bestowing comfort +on his afflicted friends.<br> +</p> + +<p>Returning from the conquest of the East, Aurelian had already +crossed the Straits which divided Europe from Asia, when he was +provoked by the intelligence that the Palmyrenians had massacred +the governor and garrison which he had left among them, and again +erected the standard of revolt. Without a moment's deliberation, +he once more turned his face towards Syria. Antioch was alarmed +by his rapid approach, and the helpless city of Palmyra felt the +irresistible weight of his resentment. We have a letter of +Aurelian himself, in which he acknowledges, that old men, women, +children, and peasants, had been involved in that dreadful +execution, which should have been confined to armed rebellion; +and although his principal concern seems directed to the +reestablishment of a temple of the Sun, he discovers some pity +for the remnant of the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the +permission of rebuilding and inhabiting their city. But it is +easier to destroy than to restore. The seat of commerce, of arts, +and of Zenobia, gradually sunk into an obscure town, a trifling +fortress, and at length a miserable village. The present citizens +of Palmyra, consisting of thirty or forty families, have erected +their mud cottages within the spacious court of a magnificent +temple.<br> +</p> + +<p>Another and a last labor still awaited the indefatigable +Aurelian; to suppress a dangerous though obscure rebel, who, +during the revolt of Palmyra, had arisen on the banks of the +Nile. Firmus, the friend and ally, as he proudly styled himself, +of Odenathus and Zenobia, was no more than a wealthy merchant of +Egypt. In the course of his trade to India, he had formed very +intimate connections with the Saracens and the Blemmyes, whose +situation on either coast of the Red Sea gave them an easy +introduction into the Upper Egypt. The Egyptians he inflamed with +the hope of freedom, and, at the head of their furious multitude, +broke into the city of Alexandria, where he assumed the Imperial +purple, coined money, published edicts, and raised an army, +which, as he vainly boasted, he was capable of maintaining from +the sole profits of his paper trade. Such troops were a feeble +defence against the approach of Aurelian; and it seems almost +unnecessary to relate, that Firmus was routed, taken, tortured, +and put to death. Aurelian might now congratulate the senate, the +people, and himself, that in little more than three years, he had +restored universal peace and order to the Roman world.<br> +</p> + +<p>Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly +deserved a triumph than Aurelian; nor was a triumph ever +celebrated with superior pride and magnificence. The pomp was +opened by twenty elephants, four royal tigers, and above two +hundred of the most curious animals from every climate of the +North, the East, and the South. They were followed by sixteen +hundred gladiators, devoted to the cruel amusement of the +amphitheatre. The wealth of Asia, the arms and ensigns of so many +conquered nations, and the magnificent plate and wardrobe of the +Syrian queen, were disposed in exact symmetry or artful disorder. +The ambassadors of the most remote parts of the earth, of +Æthiopia, Arabia, Persia, Bactriana, India, and China, all +remarkable by their rich or singular dresses, displayed the fame +and power of the Roman emperor, who exposed likewise to the +public view the presents that he had received, and particularly a +great number of crowns of gold, the offerings of grateful cities. +The victories of Aurelian were attested by the long train of +captives who reluctantly attended his triumph, Goths, Vandals, +Sarmatians, Alemanni, Franks, Gauls, Syrians, and Egyptians. Each +people was distinguished by its peculiar inscription, and the +title of Amazons was bestowed on ten martial heroines of the +Gothie nation who had been taken in arms. But every eye, +disregarding the crowd of captives, was fixed on the emperor +Tetricus and the queen of the East. The former, as well as his +son, whom he had created Augustus, was dressed in Gallic +trousers, a saffron tunic, and a robe of purple. The beauteous +figure of Zenobia was confined by fetters of gold; a slave +supported the gold chain which encircled her neck, and she almost +fainted under the intolerable weight of jewels. She preceded on +foot the magnificent chariot, in which she once hoped to enter +the gates of Rome. It was followed by two other chariots, still +more sumptuous, of Odenathus and of the Persian monarch. The +triumphal car of Aurelian (it had formerly been used by a Gothic +king) was drawn, on this memorable occasion, either by four stags +or by four elephants. The most illustrious of the senate, the +people, and the army closed the solemn procession. Unfeigned joy, +wonder, and gratitude, swelled the acclamations of the multitude; +but the satisfaction of the senate was clouded by the appearance +of Tetricus; nor could they suppress a rising murmur, that the +haughty emperor should thus expose to public ignominy the person +of a Roman and a magistrate.<br> +</p> + +<p>But however, in the treatment of his unfortunate rivals, +Aurelian might indulge his pride, he behaved towards them with a +generous clemency, which was seldom exercised by the ancient +conquerors. Princes who, without success, had defended their +throne or freedom, were frequently strangled in prison, as soon +as the triumphal pomp ascended the Capitol. These usurpers, whom +their defeat had convicted of the crime of treason, were +permitted to spend their lives in affluence and honorable repose. +The emperor presented Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur, or +Tivoli, about twenty miles from the capital; the Syrian queen +insensibly sunk into a Roman matron, her daughters married into +noble families, and her race was not yet extinct in the fifth +century. Tetricus and his son were reinstated in their rank and +fortunes. They erected on the Cælian hill a magnificent +palace, and as soon as it was finished, invited Aurelian to +supper. On his entrance, he was agreeably surprised with a +picture which represented their singular history. They were +delineated offering to the emperor a civic crown and the sceptre +of Gaul, and again receiving at his hands the ornaments of the +senatorial dignity. The father was afterwards invested with the +government of Lucania, and Aurelian, who soon admitted the +abdicated monarch to his friendship and conversation, familiarly +asked him, Whether it were not more desirable to administer a +province of Italy, than to reign beyond the Alps. The son long +continued a respectable member of the senate; nor was there any +one of the Roman nobility more esteemed by Aurelian, as well as +by his successors.<br> +</p> + +<p>So long and so various was the pomp of Aurelian's triumph, +that although it opened with the dawn of day, the slow majesty of +the procession ascended not the Capitol before the ninth hour; +and it was already dark when the emperor returned to the palace. +The festival was protracted by theatrical representations, the +games of the circus, the hunting of wild beasts, combats of +gladiators, and naval engagements. Liberal donatives were +distributed to the army and people, and several institutions, +agreeable or beneficial to the city, contributed to perpetuate +the glory of Aurelian. A considerable portion of his oriental +spoils was consecrated to the gods of Rome; the Capitol, and +every other temple, glittered with the offerings of his +ostentatious piety; and the temple of the Sun alone received +above fifteen thousand pounds of gold. This last was a +magnificent structure, erected by the emperor on the side of the +Quirinal hill, and dedicated, soon after the triumph, to that +deity whom Aurelian adored as the parent of his life and +fortunes. His mother had been an inferior priestess in a chapel +of the Sun; a peculiar devotion to the god of Light was a +sentiment which the fortunate peasant imbibed in his infancy; and +every step of his elevation, every victory of his reign, +fortified superstition by gratitude.<br> +</p> + +<p>The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic +foes of the republic. We are assured, that, by his salutary +rigor, crimes and factions, mischievous arts and pernicious +connivance, the luxurious growth of a feeble and oppressive +government, were eradicated throughout the Roman world. But if we +attentively reflect how much swifter is the progress of +corruption than its cure, and if we remember that the years +abandoned to public disorders exceeded the months allotted to the +martial reign of Aurelian, we must confess that a few short +intervals of peace were insufficient for the arduous work of +reformation. Even his attempt to restore the integrity of the +coin was opposed by a formidable insurrection. The emperor's +vexation breaks out in one of his private letters. "Surely," says +he, "the gods have decreed that my life should be a perpetual +warfare. A sedition within the walls has just now given birth to +a very serious civil war. The workmen of the mint, at the +instigation of Felicissimus, a slave to whom I had intrusted an +employment in the finances, have risen in rebellion. They are at +length suppressed; but seven thousand of my soldiers have been +slain in the contest, of those troops whose ordinary station is +in Dacia, and the camps along the Danube." Other writers, who +confirm the same fact, add likewise, that it happened soon after +Aurelian's triumph; that the decisive engagement was fought on +the Cælian hill; that the workmen of the mint had +adulterated the coin; and that the emperor restored the public +credit, by delivering out good money in exchange for the bad, +which the people was commanded to bring into the treasury.<br> +</p> + +<p>We might content ourselves with relating this extraordinary +transaction, but we cannot dissemble how much in its present form +it appears to us inconsistent and incredible. The debasement of +the coin is indeed well suited to the administration of +Gallienus; nor is it unlikely that the instruments of the +corruption might dread the inflexible justice of Aurelian. But +the guilt, as well as the profit, must have been confined to a +very few; nor is it easy to conceive by what arts they could arm +a people whom they had injured, against a monarch whom they had +betrayed. We might naturally expect that such miscreants should +have shared the public detestation with the informers and the +other ministers of oppression; and that the reformation of the +coin should have been an action equally popular with the +destruction of those obsolete accounts, which by the emperor's +order were burnt in the forum of Trajan. In an age when the +principles of commerce were so imperfectly understood, the most +desirable end might perhaps be effected by harsh and injudicious +means; but a temporary grievance of such a nature can scarcely +excite and support a serious civil war. The repetition of +intolerable taxes, imposed either on the land or on the +necessaries of life, may at last provoke those who will not, or +who cannot, relinquish their country. But the case is far +otherwise in every operation which, by whatsoever expedients, +restores the just value of money. The transient evil is soon +obliterated by the permanent benefit, the loss is divided among +multitudes; and if a few wealthy individuals experience a +sensible diminution of treasure, with their riches, they at the +same time lose the degree of weight and importance which they +derived from the possession of them. However Aurelian might +choose to disguise the real cause of the insurrection, his +reformation of the coin could furnish only a faint pretence to a +party already powerful and discontented. Rome, though deprived of +freedom, was distracted by faction. The people, towards whom the +emperor, himself a plebeian, always expressed a peculiar +fondness, lived in perpetual dissension with the senate, the +equestrian order, and the Prætorian guards. Nothing less +than the firm though secret conspiracy of those orders, of the +authority of the first, the wealth of the second, and the arms of +the third, could have displayed a strength capable of contending +in battle with the veteran legions of the Danube, which, under +the conduct of a martial sovereign, had achieved the conquest of +the West and of the East.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whatever was the cause or the object of this rebellion, +imputed with so little probability to the workmen of the mint, +Aurelian used his victory with unrelenting rigor. He was +naturally of a severe disposition. A peasant and a soldier, his +nerves yielded not easily to the impressions of sympathy, and he +could sustain without emotion the sight of tortures and death. +Trained from his earliest youth in the exercise of arms, he set +too small a value on the life of a citizen, chastised by military +execution the slightest offences, and transferred the stern +discipline of the camp into the civil administration of the laws. +His love of justice often became a blind and furious passion and +whenever he deemed his own or the public safety endangered, he +disregarded the rules of evidence, and the proportion of +punishments. The unprovoked rebellion with which the Romans +rewarded his services, exasperated his haughty spirit. The +noblest families of the capital were involved in the guilt or +suspicion of this dark conspiracy. A nasty spirit of revenge +urged the bloody prosecution, and it proved fatal to one of the +nephews of the emperor. The executioners (if we may use the +expression of a contemporary poet) were fatigued, the prisons +were crowded, and the unhappy senate lamented the death or +absence of its most illustrious members. Nor was the pride of +Aurelian less offensive to that assembly than his cruelty. +Ignorant or impatient of the restraints of civil institutions, he +disdained to hold his power by any other title than that of the +sword, and governed by right of conquest an empire which he had +saved and subdued.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was observed by one of the most sagacious of the Roman +princes, that the talents of his predecessor Aurelian were better +suited to the command of an army, than to the government of an +empire. Conscious of the character in which nature and experience +had enabled him to excel, he again took the field a few months +after his triumph. It was expedient to exercise the restless +temper of the legions in some foreign war, and the Persian +monarch, exulting in the shame of Valerian, still braved with +impunity the offended majesty of Rome. At the head of an army, +less formidable by its numbers than by its discipline and valor, +the emperor advanced as far as the Straits which divide Europe +from Asia. He there experienced that the most absolute power is a +weak defence against the effects of despair. He had threatened +one of his secretaries who was accused of extortion; and it was +known that he seldom threatened in vain. The last hope which +remained for the criminal, was to involve some of the principal +officers of the army in his danger, or at least in his fears. +Artfully counterfeiting his master's hand, he showed them, in a +long and bloody list, their own names devoted to death. Without +suspecting or examining the fraud, they resolved to secure their +lives by the murder of the emperor. On his march, between +Byzanthium and Heraclea, Aurelian was suddenly attacked by the +conspirators, whose stations gave them a right to surround his +person, and after a short resistance, fell by the hand of +Mucapor, a general whom he had always loved and trusted. He died +regretted by the army, detested by the senate, but universally +acknowledged as a warlike and fortunate prince, the useful, +though severe reformer of a degenerate state.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His +Sons.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian. -- +Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such was the unhappy condition of the Roman emperors, that, +whatever might be their conduct, their fate was commonly the +same. A life of pleasure or virtue, of severity or mildness, of +indolence or glory, alike led to an untimely grave; and almost +every reign is closed by the same disgusting repetition of +treason and murder. The death of Aurelian, however, is remarkable +by its extraordinary consequences. The legions admired, lamented, +and revenged their victorious chief. The artifice of his +perfidious secretary was discovered and punished. The deluded +conspirators attended the funeral of their injured sovereign, +with sincere or well-feigned contrition, and submitted to the +unanimous resolution of the military order, which was signified +by the following epistle: "The brave and fortunate armies to the +senate and people of Rome. -- The crime of one man, and the error +of many, have deprived us of the late emperor Aurelian. May it +please you, venerable lords and fathers! to place him in the +number of the gods, and to appoint a successor whom your judgment +shall declare worthy of the Imperial purple! None of those whose +guilt or misfortune have contributed to our loss, shall ever +reign over us." The Roman senators heard, without surprise, that +another emperor had been assassinated in his camp; they secretly +rejoiced in the fall of Aurelian; and, besides the recent +notoriety of the facts, constantly draws his materials from the +Journals of the Senate, and the but the modest and dutiful +address of the legions, when it was communicated in full assembly +by the consul, diffused the most pleasing astonishment. Such +honors as fear and perhaps esteem could extort, they liberally +poured forth on the memory of their deceased sovereign. Such +acknowledgments as gratitude could inspire, they returned to the +faithful armies of the republic, who entertained so just a sense +of the legal authority of the senate in the choice of an emperor. +Yet, notwithstanding this flattering appeal, the most prudent of +the assembly declined exposing their safety and dignity to the +caprice of an armed multitude. The strength of the legions was, +indeed, a pledge of their sincerity, since those who may command +are seldom reduced to the necessity of dissembling; but could it +naturally be expected, that a hasty repentance would correct the +inveterate habits of fourscore years? Should the soldiers relapse +into their accustomed seditions, their insolence might disgrace +the majesty of the senate, and prove fatal to the object of its +choice. Motives like these dictated a decree, by which the +election of a new emperor was referred to the suffrage of the +military order.<br> +</p> + +<p>The contention that ensued is one of the best attested, but +most improbable events in the history of mankind. The troops, as +if satiated with the exercise of power, again conjured the senate +to invest one of its own body with the Imperial purple. The +senate still persisted in its refusal; the army in its request. +The reciprocal offer was pressed and rejected at least three +times, and, whilst the obstinate modesty of either party was +resolved to receive a master from the hands of the other, eight +months insensibly elapsed; an amazing period of tranquil anarchy, +during which the Roman world remained without a sovereign, +without a usurper, and without a sedition. * The generals and +magistrates appointed by Aurelian continued to execute their +ordinary functions; and it is observed, that a proconsul of Asia +was the only considerable person removed from his office in the +whole course of the interregnum.<br> +</p> + +<p>An event somewhat similar, but much less authentic, is +supposed to have happened after the death of Romulus, who, in his +life and character, bore some affinity with Aurelian. The throne +was vacant during twelve months, till the election of a Sabine +philosopher, and the public peace was guarded in the same manner, +by the union of the several orders of the state. But, in the time +of Numa and Romulus, the arms of the people were controlled by +the authority of the Patricians; and the balance of freedom was +easily preserved in a small and virtuous community. The decline +of the Roman state, far different from its infancy, was attended +with every circumstance that could banish from an interregnum the +prospect of obedience and harmony: an immense and tumultuous +capital, a wide extent of empire, the servile equality of +despotism, an army of four hundred thousand mercenaries, and the +experience of frequent revolutions. Yet, notwithstanding all +these temptations, the discipline and memory of Aurelian still +restrained the seditious temper of the troops, as well as the +fatal ambition of their leaders. The flower of the legions +maintained their stations on the banks of the Bosphorus, and the +Imperial standard awed the less powerful camps of Rome and of the +provinces. A generous though transient enthusiasm seemed to +animate the military order; and we may hope that a few real +patriots cultivated the returning friendship of the army and the +senate, as the only expedient capable of restoring the republic +to its ancient beauty and vigor.<br> +</p> + +<p>On the twenty-fifth of September, near eight months after the +murder of Aurelian, the consul convoked an assembly of the +senate, and reported the doubtful and dangerous situation of the +empire. He slightly insinuated, that the precarious loyalty of +the soldiers depended on the chance of every hour, and of every +accident; but he represented, with the most convincing eloquence, +the various dangers that might attend any further delay in the +choice of an emperor. Intelligence, he said, was already +received, that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and occupied +some of the strongest and most opulent cities of Gaul. The +ambition of the Persian king kept the East in perpetual alarms; +Egypt, Africa, and Illyricum, were exposed to foreign and +domestic arms, and the levity of Syria would prefer even a female +sceptre to the sanctity of the Roman laws. The consul, then +addressing himself to Tacitus, the first of the senators, +required his opinion on the important subject of a proper +candidate for the vacant throne.<br> +</p> + +<p>If we can prefer personal merit to accidental greatness, we +shall esteem the birth of Tacitus more truly noble than that of +kings. He claimed his descent from the philosophic historian, +whose writings will instruct the last generations of mankind. The +senator Tacitus was then seventy-five years of age. The long +period of his innocent life was adorned with wealth and honors. +He had twice been invested with the consular dignity, and enjoyed +with elegance and sobriety his ample patrimony of between two and +three millions sterling. The experience of so many princes, whom +he had esteemed or endured, from the vain follies of Elagabalus +to the useful rigor of Aurelian, taught him to form a just +estimate of the duties, the dangers, and the temptations of their +sublime station. From the assiduous study of his immortal +ancestor, he derived the knowledge of the Roman constitution, and +of human nature. The voice of the people had already named +Tacitus as the citizen the most worthy of empire. The ungrateful +rumor reached his ears, and induced him to seek the retirement of +one of his villas in Campania. He had passed two months in the +delightful privacy of Baiæ, when he reluctantly obeyed the +summons of the consul to resume his honorable place in the +senate, and to assist the republic with his counsels on this +important occasion.<br> +</p> + +<p>He arose to speak, when from every quarter of the house, he +was saluted with the names of Augustus and emperor. "Tacitus +Augustus, the gods preserve thee! we choose thee for our +sovereign; to thy care we intrust the republic and the world. +Accept the empire from the authority of the senate. It is due to +thy rank, to thy conduct, to thy manners." As soon as the tumult +of acclamations subsided, Tacitus attempted to decline the +dangerous honor, and to express his wonder, that they should +elect his age and infirmities to succeed the martial vigor of +Aurelian. "Are these limbs, conscript fathers! fitted to sustain +the weight of armor, or to practise the exercises of the camp? +The variety of climates, and the hardships of a military life, +would soon oppress a feeble constitution, which subsists only by +the most tender management. My exhausted strength scarcely +enables me to discharge the duty of a senator; how insufficient +would it prove to the arduous labors of war and government! Can +you hope, that the legions will respect a weak old man, whose +days have been spent in the shade of peace and retirement? Can +you desire that I should ever find reason to regret the favorable +opinion of the senate?"<br> +</p> + +<p>The reluctance of Tacitus (and it might possibly be sincere) +was encountered by the affectionate obstinacy of the senate. Five +hundred voices repeated at once, in eloquent confusion, that the +greatest of the Roman princes, Numa, Trajan, Hadrian, and the +Antonines, had ascended the throne in a very advanced season of +life; that the mind, not the body, a sovereign, not a soldier, +was the object of their choice; and that they expected from him +no more than to guide by his wisdom the valor of the legions. +These pressing though tumultuary instances were seconded by a +more regular oration of Metius Falconius, the next on the +consular bench to Tacitus himself. He reminded the assembly of +the evils which Rome had endured from the vices of headstrong and +capricious youths, congratulated them on the election of a +virtuous and experienced senator, and, with a manly, though +perhaps a selfish, freedom, exhorted Tacitus to remember the +reasons of his elevation, and to seek a successor, not in his own +family, but in the republic. The speech of Falconius was enforced +by a general acclamation. The emperor elect submitted to the +authority of his country, and received the voluntary homage of +his equals. The judgment of the senate was confirmed by the +consent of the Roman people, and of the Prætorian +guards.<br> +</p> + +<p>The administration of Tacitus was not unworthy of his life and +principles. A grateful servant of the senate, he considered that +national council as the author, and himself as the subject, of +the laws. He studied to heal the wounds which Imperial pride, +civil discord, and military violence, had inflicted on the +constitution, and to restore, at least, the image of the ancient +republic, as it had been preserved by the policy of Augustus, and +the virtues of Trajan and the Antonines. It may not be useless to +recapitulate some of the most important prerogatives which the +senate appeared to have regained by the election of Tacitus. 1. +To invest one of their body, under the title of emperor, with the +general command of the armies, and the government of the frontier +provinces. 2. To determine the list, or, as it was then styled, +the College of Consuls. They were twelve in number, who, in +successive pairs, each, during the space of two months, filled +the year, and represented the dignity of that ancient office. The +authority of the senate, in the nomination of the consuls, was +exercised with such independent freedom, that no regard was paid +to an irregular request of the emperor in favor of his brother +Florianus. "The senate," exclaimed Tacitus, with the honest +transport of a patriot, "understand the character of a prince +whom they have chosen." 3. To appoint the proconsuls and +presidents of the provinces, and to confer on all the magistrates +their civil jurisdiction. 4. To receive appeals through the +intermediate office of the præfect of the city from all the +tribunals of the empire. 5. To give force and validity, by their +decrees, to such as they should approve of the emperor's edicts. +6. To these several branches of authority we may add some +inspection over the finances, since, even in the stern reign of +Aurelian, it was in their power to divert a part of the revenue +from the public service.<br> +</p> + +<p>Circular epistles were sent, without delay, to all the +principal cities of the empire, Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Thessalo +nica, Corinth, Athens, Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage, to +claim their obedience, and to inform them of the happy +revolution, which had restored the Roman senate to its ancient +dignity. Two of these epistles are still extant. We likewise +possess two very singular fragments of the private correspondence +of the senators on this occasion. They discover the most +excessive joy, and the most unbounded hopes. "Cast away your +indolence," it is thus that one of the senators addresses his +friend, "emerge from your retirements of Baiæ and Puteoli. +Give yourself to the city, to the senate. Rome flourishes, the +whole republic flourishes. Thanks to the Roman army, to an army +truly Roman; at length we have recovered our just authority, the +end of all our desires. We hear appeals, we appoint proconsuls, +we create emperors; perhaps too we may restrain them -- to the +wise a word is sufficient." These lofty expectations were, +however, soon disappointed; nor, indeed, was it possible that the +armies and the provinces should long obey the luxurious and +unwarlike nobles of Rome. On the slightest touch, the unsupported +fabric of their pride and power fell to the ground. The expiring +senate displayed a sudden lustre, blazed for a moment and was +extinguished forever.<br> +</p> + +<p>All that had yet passed at Rome was no more than a theatrical +representation, unless it was ratified by the more substantial +power of the legions. Leaving the senators to enjoy their dream +of freedom and ambition, Tacitus proceeded to the Thracian camp, +and was there, by the Prætorian præfect, presented to +the assembled troops, as the prince whom they themselves had +demanded, and whom the senate had bestowed. As soon as the +præfect was silent, the emperor addressed himself to the +soldiers with eloquence and propriety. He gratified their avarice +by a liberal distribution of treasure, under the names of pay and +donative. He engaged their esteem by a spirited declaration, that +although his age might disable him from the performance of +military exploits, his counsels should never be unworthy of a +Roman general, the successor of the brave Aurelian.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whilst the deceased emperor was making preparations for a +second expedition into the East, he had negotiated with the +Alani, * a Scythian people, who pitched their tents in the +neighborhood of the Lake Moeotis. Those barbarians, allured by +presents and subsidies, had promised to invade Persia with a +numerous body of light cavalry. They were faithful to their +engagements; but when they arrived on the Roman frontier, +Aurelian was already dead, the design of the Persian war was at +least suspended, and the generals, who, during the interregnum, +exercised a doubtful authority, were unprepared either to receive +or to oppose them. Provoked by such treatment, which they +considered as trifling and perfidious, the Alani had recourse to +their own valor for their payment and revenge; and as they moved +with the usual swiftness of Tartars, they had soon spread +themselves over the provinces of Pontus, Cappadocia, Cilicia, and +Galatia. The legions, who from the opposite shores of the +Bosphorus could almost distinguish the flames of the cities and +villages, impatiently urged their general to lead them against +the invaders. The conduct of Tacitus was suitable to his age and +station. He convinced the barbarians of the faith, as well as the +power, of the empire. Great numbers of the Alani, appeased by the +punctual discharge of the engagements which Aurelian had +contracted with them, relinquished their booty and captives, and +quietly retreated to their own deserts, beyond the Phasis. +Against the remainder, who refused peace, the Roman emperor +waged, in person, a successful war. Seconded by an army of brave +and experienced veterans, in a few weeks he delivered the +provinces of Asia from the terror of the Scythian invasion.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the glory and life of Tacitus were of short duration. +Transported, in the depth of winter, from the soft retirement of +Campania to the foot of Mount Caucasus, he sunk under the +unaccustomed hardships of a military life. The fatigues of the +body were aggravated by the cares of the mind. For a while, the +angry and selfish passions of the soldiers had been suspended by +the enthusiasm of public virtue. They soon broke out with +redoubled violence, and raged in the camp, and even in the tent +of the aged emperor. His mild and amiable character served only +to inspire contempt, and he was incessantly tormented with +factions which he could not assuage, and by demands which it was +impossible to satisfy. Whatever flattering expectations he had +conceived of reconciling the public disorders, Tacitus soon was +convinced that the licentiousness of the army disdained the +feeble restraint of laws, and his last hour was hastened by +anguish and disappointment. It may be doubtful whether the +soldiers imbrued their hands in the blood of this innocent +prince. It is certain that their insolences was the cause of his +death. He expired at Tyana in Cappadocia, after a reign of only +six months and about twenty days.<br> +</p> + +<p>The eyes of Tacitus were scarcely closed, before his brother +Florianus showed himself unworthy to reign, by the hasty +usurpation of the purple, without expecting the approbation of +the senate. The reverence for the Roman constitution, which yet +influenced the camp and the provinces, was sufficiently strong to +dispose them to censure, but not to provoke them to oppose, the +precipitate ambition of Florianus. The discontent would have +evaporated in idle murmurs, had not the general of the East, the +heroic Probus, boldly declared himself the avenger of the senate. +The contest, however, was still unequal; nor could the most able +leader, at the head of the effeminate troops of Egypt and Syria, +encounter, with any hopes of victory, the legions of Europe, +whose irresistible strength appeared to support the brother of +Tacitus. But the fortune and activity of Probus triumphed over +every obstacle. The hardy veterans of his rival, accustomed to +cold climates, sickened and consumed away in the sultry heats of +Cilicia, where the summer proved remarkably unwholesome. Their +numbers were diminished by frequent desertion; the passes of the +mountains were feebly defended; Tarsus opened its gates; and the +soldiers of Florianus, when they had permitted him to enjoy the +Imperial title about three months, delivered the empire from +civil war by the easy sacrifice of a prince whom they +despised.<br> +</p> + +<p>The perpetual revolutions of the throne had so perfectly +erased every notion of hereditary title, that the family of an +unfortunate emperor was incapable of exciting the jealousy of his +successors. The children of Tacitus and Florianus were permitted +to descend into a private station, and to mingle with the general +mass of the people. Their poverty indeed became an additional +safeguard to their innocence. When Tacitus was elected by the +senate, he resigned his ample patrimony to the public service; an +act of generosity specious in appearance, but which evidently +disclosed his intention of transmitting the empire to his +descendants. The only consolation of their fallen state was the +remembrance of transient greatness, and a distant hope, the child +of a flattering prophecy, that at the end of a thousand years, a +monarch of the race of Tacitus should arise, the protector of the +senate, the restorer of Rome, and the conqueror of the whole +earth.<br> +</p> + +<p>The peasants of Illyricum, who had already given Claudius and +Aurelian to the sinking empire, had an equal right to glory in +the elevation of Probus. Above twenty years before, the emperor +Valerian, with his usual penetration, had discovered the rising +merit of the young soldier, on whom he conferred the rank of +tribune, long before the age prescribed by the military +regulations. The tribune soon justified his choice, by a victory +over a great body of Sarmatians, in which he saved the life of a +near relation of Valerian; and deserved to receive from the +emperor's hand the collars, bracelets, spears, and banners, the +mural and the civic crown, and all the honorable rewards reserved +by ancient Rome for successful valor. The third, and afterwards +the tenth, legion were intrusted to the command of Probus, who, +in every step of his promotion, showed himself superior to the +station which he filled. Africa and Pontus, the Rhine, the +Danube, the Euphrates, and the Nile, by turns afforded him the +most splendid occasions of displaying his personal prowess and +his conduct in war. Aurelian was indebted for the honest courage +with which he often checked the cruelty of his master. Tacitus, +who desired by the abilities of his generals to supply his own +deficiency of military talents, named him commander-in-chief of +all the eastern provinces, with five times the usual salary, the +promise of the consulship, and the hope of a triumph. When Probus +ascended the Imperial throne, he was about forty-four years of +age; in the full possession of his fame, of the love of the army, +and of a mature vigor of mind and body.<br> +</p> + +<p>His acknowledge merit, and the success of his arms against +Florianus, left him without an enemy or a competitor. Yet, if we +may credit his own professions, very far from being desirous of +the empire, he had accepted it with the most sincere reluctance. +"But it is no longer in my power," says Probus, in a private +letter, "to lay down a title so full of envy and of danger. I +must continue to personate the character which the soldiers have +imposed upon me." His dutiful address to the senate displayed the +sentiments, or at least the language, of a Roman patriot: "When +you elected one of your order, conscript fathers! to succeed the +emperor Aurelian, you acted in a manner suitable to your justice +and wisdom. For you are the legal sovereigns of the world, and +the power which you derive from your ancestors will descend to +your posterity. Happy would it have been, if Florianus, instead +of usurping the purple of his brother, like a private +inheritance, had expected what your majesty might determine, +either in his favor, or in that of other person. The prudent +soldiers have punished his rashness. To me they have offered the +title of Augustus. But I submit to your clemency my pretensions +and my merits." When this respectful epistle was read by the +consul, the senators were unable to disguise their satisfaction, +that Probus should condescend thus numbly to solicit a sceptre +which he already possessed. They celebrated with the warmest +gratitude his virtues, his exploits, and above all his +moderation. A decree immediately passed, without a dissenting +voice, to ratify the election of the eastern armies, and to +confer on their chief all the several branches of the Imperial +dignity: the names of Cæsar and Augustus, the title of +Father of his country, the right of making in the same day three +motions in the senate, the office of Pontifex, Maximus, the +tribunitian power, and the proconsular command; a mode of +investiture, which, though it seemed to multiply the authority of +the emperor, expressed the constitution of the ancient republic. +The reign of Probus corresponded with this fair beginning. The +senate was permitted to direct the civil administration of the +empire. Their faithful general asserted the honor of the Roman +arms, and often laid at their feet crowns of gold and barbaric +trophies, the fruits of his numerous victories. Yet, whilst he +gratified their vanity, he must secretly have despised their +indolence and weakness. Though it was every moment in their power +to repeal the disgraceful edict of Gallienus, the proud +successors of the Scipios patiently acquiesced in their exclusion +from all military employments. They soon experienced, that those +who refuse the sword must renounce the sceptre.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And +His Sons. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The strength of Aurelian had crushed on every side the enemies +of Rome. After his death they seemed to revive with an increase +of fury and of numbers. They were again vanquished by the active +vigor of Probus, who, in a short reign of about six years, +equalled the fame of ancient heroes, and restored peace and order +to every province of the Roman world. The dangerous frontier of +Rhætia he so firmly secured, that he left it without the +suspicion of an enemy. He broke the wandering power of the +Sarmatian tribes, and by the terror of his arms compelled those +barbarians to relinquish their spoil. The Gothic nation courted +the alliance of so warlike an emperor. He attacked the Isaurians +in their mountains, besieged and took several of their strongest +castles, and flattered himself that he had forever suppressed a +domestic foe, whose independence so deeply wounded the majesty of +the empire. The troubles excited by the usurper Firmus in the +Upper Egypt had never been perfectly appeased, and the cities of +Ptolemais and Coptos, fortified by the alliance of the Blemmyes, +still maintained an obscure rebellion. The chastisement of those +cities, and of their auxiliaries the savages of the South, is +said to have alarmed the court of Persia, and the Great King sued +in vain for the friendship of Probus. Most of the exploits which +distinguished his reign were achieved by the personal valor and +conduct of the emperor, insomuch that the writer of his life +expresses some amazement how, in so short a time, a single man +could be present in so many distant wars. The remaining actions +he intrusted to the care of his lieutenants, the judicious choice +of whom forms no inconsiderable part of his glory. Carus, +Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, Galerius, Asclepiodatus, +Annibalianus, and a crowd of other chiefs, who afterwards +ascended or supported the throne, were trained to arms in the +severe school of Aurelian and Probus.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the most important service which Probus rendered to the +republic was the deliverance of Gaul, and the recovery of seventy +flourishing cities oppressed by the barbarians of Germany, who, +since the death of Aurelian, had ravaged that great province with +impunity. Among the various multitude of those fierce invaders we +may distinguish, with some degree of clearness, three great +armies, or rather nations, successively vanquished by the valor +of Probus. He drove back the Franks into their morasses; a +descriptive circumstance from whence we may infer, that the +confederacy known by the manly appellation of <em>Free</em>, +already occupied the flat maritime country, intersected and +almost overflown by the stagnating waters of the Rhine, and that +several tribes of the Frisians and Batavians had acceded to their +alliance. He vanquished the Burgundians, a considerable people of +the Vandalic race. * They had wandered in quest of booty from the +banks of the Oder to those of the Seine. They esteemed themselves +sufficiently fortunate to purchase, by the restitution of all +their booty, the permission of an undisturbed retreat. They +attempted to elude that article of the treaty. Their punishment +was immediate and terrible. But of all the invaders of Gaul, the +most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people, who reigned +over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. In the +Lygian nation, the Arii held the first rank by their numbers and +fierceness. "The Arii" (it is thus that they are described by the +energy of Tacitus) "study to improve by art and circumstances the +innate terrors of their barbarism. Their shields are black, their +bodies are painted black. They choose for the combat the darkest +hour of the night. Their host advances, covered as it were with a +funeral shade; nor do they often find an enemy capable of +sustaining so strange and infernal an aspect. Of all our senses, +the eyes are the first vanquished in battle." Yet the arms and +discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these horrid +phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general engagement, and +Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, fell alive into the +hands of Probus. That prudent emperor, unwilling to reduce a +brave people to despair, granted them an honorable capitulation, +and permitted them to return in safety to their native country. +But the losses which they suffered in the march, the battle, and +the retreat, broke the power of the nation: nor is the Lygian +name ever repeated in the history either of Germany or of the +empire. The deliverance of Gaul is reported to have cost the +lives of four hundred thousand of the invaders; a work of labor +to the Romans, and of expense to the emperor, who gave a piece of +gold for the head of every barbarian. But as the fame of warriors +is built on the destruction of human kind, we may naturally +suspect, that the sanguinary account was multiplied by the +avarice of the soldiers, and accepted without any very severe +examination by the liberal vanity of Probus.<br> +</p> + +<p>Since the expedition of Maximin, the Roman generals had +confined their ambition to a defensive war against the nations of +Germany, who perpetually pressed on the frontiers of the empire. +The more daring Probus pursued his Gallic victories, passed the +Rhine, and displayed his invincible eagles on the banks of the +Elbe and the Necker. He was fully convinced that nothing could +reconcile the minds of the barbarians to peace, unless they +experienced, in their own country, the calamities of war. +Germany, exhausted by the ill success of the last emigration, was +astonished by his presence. Nine of the most considerable princes +repaired to his camp, and fell prostrate at his feet. Such a +treaty was humbly received by the Germans, as it pleased the +conqueror to dictate. He exacted a strict restitution of the +effects and captives which they had carried away from the +provinces; and obliged their own magistrates to punish the more +obstinate robbers who presumed to detain any part of the spoil. A +considerable tribute of corn, cattle, and horses, the only wealth +of barbarians, was reserved for the use of the garrisons which +Probus established on the limits of their territory. He even +entertained some thoughts of compelling the Germans to relinquish +the exercise of arms, and to trust their differences to the +justice, their safety to the power, of Rome. To accomplish these +salutary ends, the constant residence of an Imperial governor, +supported by a numerous army, was indispensably requisite. Probus +therefore judged it more expedient to defer the execution of so +great a design; which was indeed rather of specious than solid +utility. Had Germany been reduced into the state of a province, +the Romans, with immense labor and expense, would have acquired +only a more extensive boundary to defend against the fiercer and +more active barbarians of Scythia.<br> +</p> + +<p>Instead of reducing the warlike natives of Germany to the +condition of subjects, Probus contented himself with the humble +expedient of raising a bulwark against their inroads. The country +which now forms the circle of Swabia had been left desert in the +age of Augustus by the emigration of its ancient inhabitants. The +fertility of the soil soon attracted a new colony from the +adjacent provinces of Gaul. Crowds of adventurers, of a roving +temper and of desperate fortunes, occupied the doubtful +possession, and acknowledged, by the payment of tithes the +majesty of the empire. To protect these new subjects, a line of +frontier garrisons was gradually extended from the Rhine to the +Danube. About the reign of Hadrian, when that mode of defence +began to be practised, these garrisons were connected and covered +by a strong intrenchment of trees and palisades. In the place of +so rude a bulwark, the emperor Probus constructed a stone wall of +a considerable height, and strengthened it by towers at +convenient distances. From the neighborhood of Newstadt and +Ratisbon on the Danube, it stretched across hills, valleys, +rivers, and morasses, as far as Wimpfen on the Necker, and at +length terminated on the banks of the Rhine, after a winding +course of near two hundred miles. This important barrier, uniting +the two mighty streams that protected the provinces of Europe, +seemed to fill up the vacant space through which the barbarians, +and particularly the Alemanni, could penetrate with the greatest +facility into the heart of the empire. But the experience of the +world, from China to Britain, has exposed the vain attempt of +fortifying any extensive tract of country. An active enemy, who +can select and vary his points of attack, must, in the end, +discover some feeble spot, on some unguarded moment. The +strength, as well as the attention, of the defenders is divided; +and such are the blind effects of terror on the firmest troops, +that a line broken in a single place is almost instantly +deserted. The fate of the wall which Probus erected may confirm +the general observation. Within a few years after his death, it +was overthrown by the Alemanni. Its scattered ruins, universally +ascribed to the power of the Dæmon, now serve only to +excite the wonder of the Swabian peasant.<br> +</p> + +<p>Among the useful conditions of peace imposed by Probus on the +vanquished nations of Germany, was the obligation of supplying +the Roman army with sixteen thousand recruits, the bravest and +most robust of their youth. The emperor dispersed them through +all the provinces, and distributed this dangerous reenforcement, +in small bands of fifty or sixty each, among the national troops; +judiciously observing, that the aid which the republic derived +from the barbarians should be felt but not seen. Their aid was +now become necessary. The feeble elegance of Italy and the +internal provinces could no longer support the weight of arms. +The hardy frontiers of the Rhine and Danube still produced minds +and bodies equal to the labors of the camp; but a perpetual +series of wars had gradually diminished their numbers. The +infrequency of marriage, and the ruin of agriculture, affected +the principles of population, and not only destroyed the strength +of the present, but intercepted the hope of future, generations. +The wisdom of Probus embraced a great and beneficial plan of +replenishing the exhausted frontiers, by new colonies of captive +or fugitive barbarians, on whom he bestowed lands, cattle, +instruments of husbandry, and every encouragement that might +engage them to educate a race of soldiers for the service of the +republic. Into Britain, and most probably into Cambridgeshire, he +transported a considerable body of Vandals. The impossibility of +an escape reconciled them to their situation, and in the +subsequent troubles of that island, they approved themselves the +most faithful servants of the state. Great numbers of Franks and +Gepidæ were settled on the banks of the Danube and the +Rhine. A hundred thousand Bastarnæ, expelled from their own +country, cheerfully accepted an establishment in Thrace, and soon +imbibed the manners and sentiments of Roman subjects. But the +expectations of Probus were too often disappointed. The +impatience and idleness of the barbarians could ill brook the +slow labors of agriculture. Their unconquerable love of freedom, +rising against despotism, provoked them into hasty rebellions, +alike fatal to themselves and to the provinces; nor could these +artificial supplies, however repeated by succeeding emperors, +restore the important limit of Gaul and Illyricum to its ancient +and native vigor.<br> +</p> + +<p>Of all the barbarians who abandoned their new settlements, and +disturbed the public tranquillity, a very small number returned +to their own country. For a short season they might wander in +arms through the empire; but in the end they were surely +destroyed by the power of a warlike emperor. The successful +rashness of a party of Franks was attended, however, with such +memorable consequences, that it ought not to be passed unnoticed. +They had been established by Probus, on the sea-coast of Pontus, +with a view of strengthening the frontier against the inroads of +the Alani. A fleet stationed in one of the harbors of the Euxine +fell into the hands of the Franks; and they resolved, through +unknown seas, to explore their way from the mouth of the Phasis +to that of the Rhine. They easily escaped through the Bosphorus +and the Hellespont, and cruising along the Mediterranean, +indulged their appetite for revenge and plunder by frequent +descents on the unsuspecting shores of Asia, Greece, and Africa. +The opulent city of Syracuse, in whose port the natives of Athens +and Carthage had formerly been sunk, was sacked by a handful of +barbarians, who massacred the greatest part of the trembling +inhabitants. From the Island of Sicily, the Franks proceeded to +the columns of Hercules, trusted themselves to the ocean, coasted +round Spain and Gaul, and steering their triumphant course +through the British Channel, at length finished their surprising +voyage, by landing in safety on the Batavian or Frisian shores. +The example of their success, instructing their countrymen to +conceive the advantages and to despise the dangers of the sea, +pointed out to their enterprising spirit a new road to wealth and +glory.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the vigilance and activity of Probus, it was +almost impossible that he could at once contain in obedience +every part of his wide-extended dominions. The barbarians, who +broke their chains, had seized the favorable opportunity of a +domestic war. When the emperor marched to the relief of Gaul, he +devolved the command of the East on Saturninus. That general, a +man of merit and experience, was driven into rebellion by the +absence of his sovereign, the levity of the Alexandrian people, +the pressing instances of his friends, and his own fears; but +from the moment of his elevation, he never entertained a hope of +empire, or even of life. "Alas!" he said, "the republic has lost +a useful servant, and the rashness of an hour has destroyed the +services of many years. You know not," continued he, "the misery +of sovereign power; a sword is perpetually suspended over our +head. We dread our very guards, we distrust our companions. The +choice of action or of repose is no longer in our disposition, +nor is there any age, or character, or conduct, that can protect +us from the censure of envy. In thus exalting me to the throne, +you have doomed me to a life of cares, and to an untimely fate. +The only consolation which remains is, the assurance that I shall +not fall alone." But as the former part of his prediction was +verified by the victory, so the latter was disappointed by the +clemency of Probus. That amiable prince attempted even to save +the unhappy Saturninus from the fury of the soldiers. He had more +than once solicited the usurper himself to place some confidence +in the mercy of a sovereign who so highly esteemed his character, +that he had punished, as a malicious informer, the first who +related the improbable news of his disaffection. Saturninus +might, perhaps, have embraced the generous offer, had he not been +restrained by the obstinate distrust of his adherents. Their +guilt was deeper, and their hopes more sanguine, than those of +their experienced leader.<br> +</p> + +<p>The revolt of Saturninus was scarcely extinguished in the +East, before new troubles were excited in the West, by the +rebellion of Bonosus and Proculus, in Gaul. The most +distinguished merit of those two officers was their respective +prowess, of the one in the combats of Bacchus, of the other in +those of Venus, yet neither of them was destitute of courage and +capacity, and both sustained, with honor, the august character +which the fear of punishment had engaged them to assume, till +they sunk at length beneath the superior genius of Probus. He +used the victory with his accustomed moderation, and spared the +fortune, as well as the lives of their innocent families.<br> +</p> + +<p>The arms of Probus had now suppressed all the foreign and +domestic enemies of the state. His mild but steady administration +confirmed the reestablishment of the public tranquillity; nor was +there left in the provinces a hostile barbarian, a tyrant, or +even a robber, to revive the memory of past disorders. It was +time that the emperor should revisit Rome, and celebrate his own +glory and the general happiness. The triumph due to the valor of +Probus was conducted with a magnificence suitable to his fortune, +and the people who had so lately admired the trophies of +Aurelian, gazed with equal pleasure on those of his heroic +successor. We cannot, on this occasion, forget the desperate +courage of about fourscore gladiators, reserved, with near six +hundred others, for the inhuman sports of the amphitheatre. +Disdaining to shed their blood for the amusement of the populace, +they killed their keepers, broke from the place of their +confinement, and filled the streets of Rome with blood and +confusion. After an obstinate resistance, they were overpowered +and cut in pieces by the regular forces; but they obtained at +least an honorable death, and the satisfaction of a just +revenge.<br> +</p> + +<p>The military discipline which reigned in the camps of Probus +was less cruel than that of Aurelian, but it was equally rigid +and exact. The latter had punished the irregularities of the +soldiers with unrelenting severity, the former prevented them by +employing the legions in constant and useful labors. When Probus +commanded in Egypt, he executed many considerable works for the +splendor and benefit of that rich country. The navigation of the +Nile, so important to Rome itself, was improved; and temples, +buildings, porticos, and palaces were constructed by the hands of +the soldiers, who acted by turns as architects, as engineers, and +as husbandmen. It was reported of Hannibal, that in order to +preserve his troops from the dangerous temptations of idleness, +he had obliged them to form large plantations of olive-trees +along the coast of Africa. From a similar principle, Probus +exercised his legions in covering with rich vineyards the hills +of Gaul and Pannonia, and two considerable spots are described, +which were entirely dug and planted by military labor. One of +these, known under the name of Mount Almo, was situated near +Sirmium, the country where Probus was born, for which he ever +retained a partial affection, and whose gratitude he endeavored +to secure, by converting into tillage a large and unhealthy tract +of marshy ground. An army thus employed constituted perhaps the +most useful, as well as the bravest, portion of Roman +subjects.<br> +</p> + +<p>But in the prosecution of a favorite scheme, the best of men, +satisfied with the rectitude of their intentions, are subject to +forget the bounds of moderation; nor did Probus himself +sufficiently consult the patience and disposition of his fierce +legionaries. The dangers of the military profession seem only to +be compensated by a life of pleasure and idleness; but if the +duties of the soldier are incessantly aggravated by the labors of +the peasant, he will at last sink under the intolerable burden, +or shake it off with indignation. The imprudence of Probus is +said to have inflamed the discontent of his troops. More +attentive to the interests of mankind than to those of the army, +he expressed the vain hope, that, by the establishment of +universal peace, he should soon abolish the necessity of a +standing and mercenary force. The unguarded expression proved +fatal to him. In one of the hottest days of summer, as he +severely urged the unwholesome labor of draining the marshes of +Sirmium, the soldiers, impatient of fatigue, on a sudden threw +down their tools, grasped their arms, and broke out into a +furious mutiny. The emperor, conscious of his danger, took refuge +in a lofty tower, constructed for the purpose of surveying the +progress of the work. The tower was instantly forced, and a +thousand swords were plunged at once into the bosom of the +unfortunate Probus. The rage of the troops subsided as soon as it +had been gratified. They then lamented their fatal rashness, +forgot the severity of the emperor, whom they had massacred, and +hastened to perpetuate, by an honorable monument, the memory of +his virtues and victories.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the legions had indulged their grief and repentance for +the death of Probus, their unanimous consent declared Carus, his +Prætorian præfect, the most deserving of the Imperial +throne. Every circumstance that relates to this prince appears of +a mixed and doubtful nature. He gloried in the title of Roman +Citizen; and affected to compare the purity of his blood with the +foreign and even barbarous origin of the preceding emperors; yet +the most inquisitive of his contemporaries, very far from +admitting his claim, have variously deduced his own birth, or +that of his parents, from Illyricum, from Gaul, or from Africa. +Though a soldier, he had received a learned education; though a +senator, he was invested with the first dignity of the army; and +in an age when the civil and military professions began to be +irrecoverably separated from each other, they were united in the +person of Carus. Notwithstanding the severe justice which he +exercised against the assassins of Probus, to whose favor and +esteem he was highly indebted, he could not escape the suspicion +of being accessory to a deed from whence he derived the principal +advantage. He enjoyed, at least, before his elevation, an +acknowledged character of virtue and abilities; but his austere +temper insensibly degenerated into moroseness and cruelty; and +the imperfect writers of his life almost hesitate whether they +shall not rank him in the number of Roman tyrants. When Carus +assumed the purple, he was about sixty years of age, and his two +sons, Carinus and Numerian had already attained the season of +manhood.<br> +</p> + +<p>The authority of the senate expired with Probus; nor was the +repentance of the soldiers displayed by the same dutiful regard +for the civil power, which they had testified after the +unfortunate death of Aurelian. The election of Carus was decided +without expecting the approbation of the senate, and the new +emperor contented himself with announcing, in a cold and stately +epistle, that he had ascended the vacant throne. A behavior so +very opposite to that of his amiable predecessor afforded no +favorable presage of the new reign: and the Romans, deprived of +power and freedom, asserted their privilege of licentious +murmurs. The voice of congratulation and flattery was not, +however, silent; and we may still peruse, with pleasure and +contempt, an eclogue, which was composed on the accession of the +emperor Carus. Two shepherds, avoiding the noontide heat, retire +into the cave of Faunus. On a spreading beech they discover some +recent characters. The rural deity had described, in prophetic +verses, the felicity promised to the empire under the reign of so +great a prince. Faunus hails the approach of that hero, who, +receiving on his shoulders the sinking weight of the Roman world, +shall extinguish war and faction, and once again restore the +innocence and security of the golden age.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is more than probable, that these elegant trifles never +reached the ears of a veteran general, who, with the consent of +the legions, was preparing to execute the long-suspended design +of the Persian war. Before his departure for this distant +expedition, Carus conferred on his two sons, Carinus and +Numerian, the title of Cæsar, and investing the former with +almost an equal share of the Imperial power, directed the young +prince, first to suppress some troubles which had arisen in Gaul, +and afterwards to fix the seat of his residence at Rome, and to +assume the government of the Western provinces. The safety of +Illyricum was confirmed by a memorable defeat of the Sarmatians; +sixteen thousand of those barbarians remained on the field of +battle, and the number of captives amounted to twenty thousand. +The old emperor, animated with the fame and prospect of victory, +pursued his march, in the midst of winter, through the countries +of Thrace and Asia Minor, and at length, with his younger son, +Numerian, arrived on the confines of the Persian monarchy. There, +encamping on the summit of a lofty mountain, he pointed out to +his troops the opulence and luxury of the enemy whom they were +about to invade.<br> +</p> + +<p>The successor of Artaxerxes, * Varanes, or Bahram, though he +had subdued the Segestans, one of the most warlike nations of +Upper Asia, was alarmed at the approach of the Romans, and +endeavored to retard their progress by a negotiation of peace. +His ambassadors entered the camp about sunset, at the time when +the troops were satisfying their hunger with a frugal repast. The +Persians expressed their desire of being introduced to the +presence of the Roman emperor. They were at length conducted to a +soldier, who was seated on the grass. A piece of stale bacon and +a few hard peas composed his supper. A coarse woollen garment of +purple was the only circumstance that announced his dignity. The +conference was conducted with the same disregard of courtly +elegance. Carus, taking off a cap which he wore to conceal his +baldness, assured the ambassadors, that, unless their master +acknowledged the superiority of Rome, he would speedily render +Persia as naked of trees as his own head was destitute of hair. +Notwithstanding some traces of art and preparation, we may +discover in this scene the manners of Carus, and the severe +simplicity which the martial princes, who succeeded Gallienus, +had already restored in the Roman camps. The ministers of the +Great King trembled and retired.<br> +</p> + +<p>The threats of Carus were not without effect. He ravaged +Mesopotamia, cut in pieces whatever opposed his passage, made +himself master of the great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, +(which seemed to have surrendered without resistance,) and +carried his victorious arms beyond the Tigris. He had seized the +favorable moment for an invasion. The Persian councils were +distracted by domestic factions, and the greater part of their +forces were detained on the frontiers of India. Rome and the East +received with transports the news of such important advantages. +Flattery and hope painted, in the most lively colors, the fall of +Persia, the conquest of Arabia, the submission of Egypt, and a +lasting deliverance from the inroads of the Scythian nations. But +the reign of Carus was destined to expose the vanity of +predictions. They were scarcely uttered before they were +contradicted by his death; an event attended with such ambiguous +circumstances, that it may be related in a letter from his own +secretary to the præfect of the city. "Carus," says he, +"our dearest emperor, was confined by sickness to his bed, when a +furious tempest arose in the camp. The darkness which overspread +the sky was so thick, that we could no longer distinguish each +other; and the incessant flashes of lightning took from us the +knowledge of all that passed in the general confusion. +Immediately after the most violent clap of thunder, we heard a +sudden cry that the emperor was dead; and it soon appeared, that +his chamberlains, in a rage of grief, had set fire to the royal +pavilion; a circumstance which gave rise to the report that Carus +was killed by lightning. But, as far as we have been able to +investigate the truth, his death was the natural effect of his +disorder."<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And +His Sons. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The vacancy of the throne was not productive of any +disturbance. The ambition of the aspiring generals was checked by +their natural fears, and young Numerian, with his absent brother +Carinus, were unanimously acknowledged as Roman emperors. The +public expected that the successor of Carus would pursue his +father's footsteps, and, without allowing the Persians to recover +from their consternation, would advance sword in hand to the +palaces of Susa and Ecbatana. But the legions, however strong in +numbers and discipline, were dismayed by the most abject +superstition. Notwithstanding all the arts that were practised to +disguise the manner of the late emperor's death, it was found +impossible to remove the opinion of the multitude, and the power +of opinion is irresistible. Places or persons struck with +lightning were considered by the ancients with pious horror, as +singularly devoted to the wrath of Heaven. An oracle was +remembered, which marked the River Tigris as the fatal boundary +of the Roman arms. The troops, terrified with the fate of Carus +and with their own danger, called aloud on young Numerian to obey +the will of the gods, and to lead them away from this +inauspicious scene of war. The feeble emperor was unable to +subdue their obstinate prejudice, and the Persians wondered at +the unexpected retreat of a victorious enemy.<br> +</p> + +<p>The intelligence of the mysterious fate of the late emperor +was soon carried from the frontiers of Persia to Rome; and the +senate, as well as the provinces, congratulated the accession of +the sons of Carus. These fortunate youths were strangers, +however, to that conscious superiority, either of birth or of +merit, which can alone render the possession of a throne easy, +and as it were natural. Born and educated in a private station, +the election of their father raised them at once to the rank of +princes; and his death, which happened about sixteen months +afterwards, left them the unexpected legacy of a vast empire. To +sustain with temper this rapid elevation, an uncommon share of +virtue and prudence was requisite; and Carinus, the elder of the +brothers, was more than commonly deficient in those qualities. In +the Gallic war he discovered some degree of personal courage; but +from the moment of his arrival at Rome, he abandoned himself to +the luxury of the capital, and to the abuse of his fortune. He +was soft, yet cruel; devoted to pleasure, but destitute of taste; +and though exquisitely susceptible of vanity, indifferent to the +public esteem. In the course of a few months, he successively +married and divorced nine wives, most of whom he left pregnant; +and notwithstanding this legal inconstancy, found time to indulge +such a variety of irregular appetites, as brought dishonor on +himself and on the noblest houses of Rome. He beheld with +inveterate hatred all those who might remember his former +obscurity, or censure his present conduct. He banished, or put to +death, the friends and counsellors whom his father had placed +about him, to guide his inexperienced youth; and he persecuted +with the meanest revenge his school-fellows and companions who +had not sufficiently respected the latent majesty of the emperor. +With the senators, Carinus affected a lofty and regal demeanor, +frequently declaring, that he designed to distribute their +estates among the populace of Rome. From the dregs of that +populace he selected his favorites, and even his ministers. The +palace, and even the Imperial table, were filled with singers, +dancers, prostitutes, and all the various retinue of vice and +folly. One of his doorkeepers he intrusted with the government of +the city. In the room of the Prætorian præfect, whom +he put to death, Carinus substituted one of the ministers of his +looser pleasures. Another, who possessed the same, or even a more +infamous, title to favor, was invested with the consulship. A +confidential secretary, who had acquired uncommon skill in the +art of forgery, delivered the indolent emperor, with his own +consent from the irksome duty of signing his name.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the emperor Carus undertook the Persian war, he was +induced, by motives of affection as well as policy, to secure the +fortunes of his family, by leaving in the hands of his eldest son +the armies and provinces of the West. The intelligence which he +soon received of the conduct of Carinus filled him with shame and +regret; nor had he concealed his resolution of satisfying the +republic by a severe act of justice, and of adopting, in the +place of an unworthy son, the brave and virtuous Constantius, who +at that time was governor of Dalmatia. But the elevation of +Constantius was for a while deferred; and as soon as the father's +death had released Carinus from the control of fear or decency, +he displayed to the Romans the extravagancies of Elagabalus, +aggravated by the cruelty of Domitian.<br> +</p> + +<p>The only merit of the administration of Carinus that history +could record, or poetry celebrate, was the uncommon splendor with +which, in his own and his brother's name, he exhibited the Roman +games of the theatre, the circus, and the amphitheatre. More than +twenty years afterwards, when the courtiers of Diocletian +represented to their frugal sovereign the fame and popularity of +his munificent predecessor, he acknowledged that the reign of +Carinus had indeed been a reign of pleasure. But this vain +prodigality, which the prudence of Diocletian might justly +despise, was enjoyed with surprise and transport by the Roman +people. The oldest of the citizens, recollecting the spectacles +of former days, the triumphal pomp of Probus or Aurelian, and the +secular games of the emperor Philip, acknowledged that they were +all surpassed by the superior magnificence of Carinus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The spectacles of Carinus may therefore be best illustrated by +the observation of some particulars, which history has +condescended to relate concerning those of his predecessors. If +we confine ourselves solely to the hunting of wild beasts, +however we may censure the vanity of the design or the cruelty of +the execution, we are obliged to confess that neither before nor +since the time of the Romans so much art and expense have ever +been lavished for the amusement of the people. By the order of +Probus, a great quantity of large trees, torn up by the roots, +were transplanted into the midst of the circus. The spacious and +shady forest was immediately filled with a thousand ostriches, a +thousand stags, a thousand fallow deer, and a thousand wild +boars; and all this variety of game was abandoned to the riotous +impetuosity of the multitude. The tragedy of the succeeding day +consisted in the massacre of a hundred lions, an equal number of +lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three hundred bears. The +collection prepared by the younger Gordian for his triumph, and +which his successor exhibited in the secular games, was less +remarkable by the number than by the singularity of the animals. +Twenty zebras displayed their elegant forms and variegated beauty +to the eyes of the Roman people. Ten elks, and as many +camelopards, the loftiest and most harmless creatures that wander +over the plains of Sarmatia and Æthiopia, were contrasted +with thirty African hyænas and ten Indian tigers, the most +implacable savages of the torrid zone. The unoffending strength +with which Nature has endowed the greater quadrupeds was admired +in the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus of the Nile, and a majestic +troop of thirty-two elephants. While the populace gazed with +stupid wonder on the splendid show, the naturalist might indeed +observe the figure and properties of so many different species, +transported from every part of the ancient world into the +amphitheatre of Rome. But this accidental benefit, which science +might derive from folly, is surely insufficient to justify such a +wanton abuse of the public riches. There occurs, however, a +single instance in the first Punic war, in which the senate +wisely connected this amusement of the multitude with the +interest of the state. A considerable number of elephants, taken +in the defeat of the Carthaginian army, were driven through the +circus by a few slaves, armed only with blunt javelins. The +useful spectacle served to impress the Roman soldier with a just +contempt for those unwieldy animals; and he no longer dreaded to +encounter them in the ranks of war.<br> +</p> + +<p>The hunting or exhibition of wild beasts was conducted with a +magnificence suitable to a people who styled themselves the +masters of the world; nor was the edifice appropriated to that +entertainment less expressive of Roman greatness. Posterity +admires, and will long admire, the awful remains of the +amphitheatre of Titus, which so well deserved the epithet of +Colossal. It was a building of an elliptic figure, five hundred +and sixty-four feet in length, and four hundred and sixty-seven +in breadth, founded on fourscore arches, and rising, with four +successive orders of architecture, to the height of one hundred +and forty feet. The outside of the edifice was encrusted with +marble, and decorated with statues. The slopes of the vast +concave, which formed the inside, were filled and surrounded with +sixty or eighty rows of seats of marble likewise, covered with +cushions, and capable of receiving with ease about fourscore +thousand spectators. Sixty-four vomitories (for by that name the +doors were very aptly distinguished) poured forth the immense +multitude; and the entrances, passages, and staircases were +contrived with such exquisite skill, that each person, whether of +the senatorial, the equestrian, or the plebeian order, arrived at +his destined place without trouble or confusion. Nothing was +omitted, which, in any respect, could be subservient to the +convenience and pleasure of the spectators. They were protected +from the sun and rain by an ample canopy, occasionally drawn over +their heads. The air was continally refreshed by the playing of +fountains, and profusely impregnated by the grateful scent of +aromatics. In the centre of the edifice, the arena, or stage, was +strewed with the finest sand, and successively assumed the most +different forms. At one moment it seemed to rise out of the +earth, like the garden of the Hesperides, and was afterwards +broken into the rocks and caverns of Thrace. The subterraneous +pipes conveyed an inexhaustible supply of water; and what had +just before appeared a level plain, might be suddenly converted +into a wide lake, covered with armed vessels, and replenished +with the monsters of the deep. In the decoration of these scenes, +the Roman emperors displayed their wealth and liberality; and we +read on various occasions that the whole furniture of the +amphitheatre consisted either of silver, or of gold, or of amber. +The poet who describes the games of Carinus, in the character of +a shepherd, attracted to the capital by the fame of their +magnificence, affirms that the nets designed as a defence against +the wild beasts, were of gold wire; that the porticos were +gilded; and that the belt or circle which divided the several +ranks of spectators from each other was studded with a precious +mosaic of beautiful stones.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the midst of this glittering pageantry, the emperor +Carinus, secure of his fortune, enjoyed the acclamations of the +people, the flattery of his courtiers, and the songs of the +poets, who, for want of a more essential merit, were reduced to +celebrate the divine graces of his person. In the same hour, but +at the distance of nine hundred miles from Rome, his brother +expired; and a sudden revolution transferred into the hands of a +stranger the sceptre of the house of Carus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The sons of Carus never saw each other after their father's +death. The arrangements which their new situation required were +probably deferred till the return of the younger brother to Rome, +where a triumph was decreed to the young emperors for the +glorious success of the Persian war. It is uncertain whether they +intended to divide between them the administration, or the +provinces, of the empire; but it is very unlikely that their +union would have proved of any long duration. The jealousy of +power must have been inflamed by the opposition of characters. In +the most corrupt of times, Carinus was unworthy to live: Numerian +deserved to reign in a happier period. His affable manners and +gentle virtues secured him, as soon as they became known, the +regard and affections of the public. He possessed the elegant +accomplishments of a poet and orator, which dignify as well as +adorn the humblest and the most exalted station. His eloquence, +however it was applauded by the senate, was formed not so much on +the model of Cicero, as on that of the modern declaimers; but in +an age very far from being destitute of poetical merit, he +contended for the prize with the most celebrated of his +contemporaries, and still remained the friend of his rivals; a +circumstance which evinces either the goodness of his heart, or +the superiority of his genius. But the talents of Numerian were +rather of the contemplative than of the active kind. When his +father's elevation reluctantly forced him from the shade of +retirement, neither his temper nor his pursuits had qualified him +for the command of armies. His constitution was destroyed by the +hardships of the Persian war; and he had contracted, from the +heat of the climate, such a weakness in his eyes, as obliged him, +in the course of a long retreat, to confine himself to the +solitude and darkness of a tent or litter. The administration of +all affairs, civil as well as military, was devolved on Arrius +Aper, the Prætorian præfect, who to the power of his +important office added the honor of being father-in-law to +Numerian. The Imperial pavilion was strictly guarded by his most +trusty adherents; and during many days, Aper delivered to the +army the supposed mandates of their invisible sovereign.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was not till eight months after the death of Carus, that +the Roman army, returning by slow marches from the banks of the +Tigris, arrived on those of the Thracian Bosphorus. The legions +halted at Chalcedon in Asia, while the court passed over to +Heraclea, on the European side of the Propontis. But a report +soon circulated through the camp, at first in secret whispers, +and at length in loud clamors, of the emperor's death, and of the +presumption of his ambitious minister, who still exercised the +sovereign power in the name of a prince who was no more. The +impatience of the soldiers could not long support a state of +suspense. With rude curiosity they broke into the Imperial tent, +and discovered only the corpse of Numerian. The gradual decline +of his health might have induced them to believe that his death +was natural; but the concealment was interpreted as an evidence +of guilt, and the measures which Aper had taken to secure his +election became the immediate occasion of his ruin Yet, even in +the transport of their rage and grief, the troops observed a +regular proceeding, which proves how firmly discipline had been +reestablished by the martial successors of Gallienus. A general +assembly of the army was appointed to be held at Chalcedon, +whither Aper was transported in chains, as a prisoner and a +criminal. A vacant tribunal was erected in the midst of the camp, +and the generals and tribunes formed a great military council. +They soon announced to the multitude that their choice had fallen +on Diocletian, commander of the domestics or body-guards, as the +person the most capable of revenging and succeeding their beloved +emperor. The future fortunes of the candidate depended on the +chance or conduct of the present hour. Conscious that the station +which he had filled exposed him to some suspicions, Diocletian +ascended the tribunal, and raising his eyes towards the Sun, made +a solemn profession of his own innocence, in the presence of that +all-seeing Deity. Then, assuming the tone of a sovereign and a +judge, he commanded that Aper should be brought in chains to the +foot of the tribunal. "This man," said he, "is the murderer of +Numerian;" and without giving him time to enter on a dangerous +justification, drew his sword, and buried it in the breast of the +unfortunate præfect. A charge supported by such decisive +proof was admitted without contradiction, and the legions, with +repeated acclamations, acknowledged the justice and authority of +the emperor Diocletian.<br> +</p> + +<p>Before we enter upon the memorable reign of that prince, it +will be proper to punish and dismiss the unworthy brother of +Numerian. Carinus possessed arms and treasures sufficient to +support his legal title to the empire. But his personal vices +overbalanced every advantage of birth and situation. The most +faithful servants of the father despised the incapacity, and +dreaded the cruel arrogance, of the son. The hearts of the people +were engaged in favor of his rival, and even the senate was +inclined to prefer a usurper to a tyrant. The arts of Diocletian +inflamed the general discontent; and the winter was employed in +secret intrigues, and open preparations for a civil war. In the +spring, the forces of the East and of the West encountered each +other in the plains of Margus, a small city of Mæsia, in +the neighborhood of the Danube. The troops, so lately returned +from the Persian war, had acquired their glory at the expense of +health and numbers; nor were they in a condition to contend with +the unexhausted strength of the legions of Europe. Their ranks +were broken, and, for a moment, Diocletian despaired of the +purple and of life. But the advantage which Carinus had obtained +by the valor of his soldiers, he quickly lost by the infidelity +of his officers. A tribune, whose wife he had seduced, seized the +opportunity of revenge, and, by a single blow, extinguished civil +discord in the blood of the adulterer.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And This Three +Associates.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, +Galerius, And Constantius. -- General Reestablishment Of Order +And Tranquillity. -- The Persian War, Victory, And Triumph. -- +The New Form Of Administration. -- Abdication And Retirement Of +Diocletian And Maximian.<br> +</p> + +<p>As the reign of Diocletian was more illustrious than that of +any of his predecessors, so was his birth more abject and +obscure. The strong claims of merit and of violence had +frequently superseded the ideal prerogatives of nobility; but a +distinct line of separation was hitherto preserved between the +free and the servile part of mankind. The parents of Diocletian +had been slaves in the house of Anulinus, a Roman senator; nor +was he himself distinguished by any other name than that which he +derived from a small town in Dalmatia, from whence his mother +deduced her origin. It is, however, probable that his father +obtained the freedom of the family, and that he soon acquired an +office of scribe, which was commonly exercised by persons of his +condition. Favorable oracles, or rather the consciousness of +superior merit, prompted his aspiring son to pursue the +profession of arms and the hopes of fortune; and it would be +extremely curious to observe the gradation of arts and accidents +which enabled him in the end to fulfil those oracles, and to +display that merit to the world. Diocletian was successively +promoted to the government of Mæsia, the honors of the +consulship, and the important command of the guards of the +palace. He distinguished his abilities in the Persian war; and +after the death of Numerian, the slave, by the confession and +judgment of his rivals, was declared the most worthy of the +Imperial throne. The malice of religious zeal, whilst it arraigns +the savage fierceness of his colleague Maximian, has affected to +cast suspicions on the personal courage of the emperor +Diocletian. It would not be easy to persuade us of the cowardice +of a soldier of fortune, who acquired and preserved the esteem of +the legions as well as the favor of so many warlike princes. Yet +even calumny is sagacious enough to discover and to attack the +most vulnerable part. The valor of Diocletian was never found +inadequate to his duty, or to the occasion; but he appears not to +have possessed the daring and generous spirit of a hero, who +courts danger and fame, disdains artifice, and boldly challenges +the allegiance of his equals. His abilities were useful rather +than splendid; a vigorous mind, improved by the experience and +study of mankind; dexterity and application in business; a +judicious mixture of liberality and economy, of mildness and +rigor; profound dissimulation, under the disguise of military +frankness; steadiness to pursue his ends; flexibility to vary his +means; and, above all, the great art of submitting his own +passions, as well as those of others, to the interest of his +ambition, and of coloring his ambition with the most specious +pretences of justice and public utility. Like Augustus, +Diocletian may be considered as the founder of a new empire. Like +the adopted son of Cæsar, he was distinguished as a +statesman rather than as a warrior; nor did either of those +princes employ force, whenever their purpose could be effected by +policy.<br> +</p> + +<p>The victory of Diocletian was remarkable for its singular +mildness. A people accustomed to applaud the clemency of the +conqueror, if the usual punishments of death, exile, and +confiscation, were inflicted with any degree of temper and +equity, beheld, with the most pleasing astonishment, a civil war, +the flames of which were extinguished in the field of battle. +Diocletian received into his confidence Aristobulus, the +principal minister of the house of Carus, respected the lives, +the fortunes, and the dignity, of his adversaries, and even +continued in their respective stations the greater number of the +servants of Carinus. It is not improbable that motives of +prudence might assist the humanity of the artful Dalmatian; of +these servants, many had purchased his favor by secret treachery; +in others, he esteemed their grateful fidelity to an unfortunate +master. The discerning judgment of Aurelian, of Probus, and of +Carus, had filled the several departments of the state and army +with officers of approved merit, whose removal would have injured +the public service, without promoting the interest of his +successor. Such a conduct, however, displayed to the Roman world +the fairest prospect of the new reign, and the emperor affected +to confirm this favorable prepossession, by declaring, that, +among all the virtues of his predecessors, he was the most +ambitious of imitating the humane philosophy of Marcus +Antoninus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The first considerable action of his reign seemed to evince +his sincerity as well as his moderation. After the example of +Marcus, he gave himself a colleague in the person of Maximian, on +whom he bestowed at first the title of Cæsar, and +afterwards that of Augustus. But the motives of his conduct, as +well as the object of his choice, were of a very different nature +from those of his admired predecessor. By investing a luxurious +youth with the honors of the purple, Marcus had discharged a debt +of private gratitude, at the expense, indeed, of the happiness of +the state. By associating a friend and a fellow-soldier to the +labors of government, Diocletian, in a time of public danger, +provided for the defence both of the East and of the West. +Maximian was born a peasant, and, like Aurelian, in the territory +of Sirmium. Ignorant of letters, careless of laws, the rusticity +of his appearance and manners still betrayed in the most elevated +fortune the meanness of his extraction. War was the only art +which he professed. In a long course of service, he had +distinguished himself on every frontier of the empire; and though +his military talents were formed to obey rather than to command, +though, perhaps, he never attained the skill of a consummate +general, he was capable, by his valor, constancy, and experience, +of executing the most arduous undertakings. Nor were the vices of +Maximian less useful to his benefactor. Insensible to pity, and +fearless of consequences, he was the ready instrument of every +act of cruelty which the policy of that artful prince might at +once suggest and disclaim. As soon as a bloody sacrifice had been +offered to prudence or to revenge, Diocletian, by his seasonable +intercession, saved the remaining few whom he had never designed +to punish, gently censured the severity of his stern colleague, +and enjoyed the comparison of a golden and an iron age, which was +universally applied to their opposite maxims of government. +Notwithstanding the difference of their characters, the two +emperors maintained, on the throne, that friendship which they +had contracted in a private station. The haughty, turbulent +spirit of Maximian, so fatal, afterwards, to himself and to the +public peace, was accustomed to respect the genius of Diocletian, +and confessed the ascendant of reason over brutal violence. From +a motive either of pride or superstition, the two emperors +assumed the titles, the one of Jovius, the other of Herculius. +Whilst the motion of the world (such was the language of their +venal orators) was maintained by the all-seeing wisdom of +Jupiter, the invincible arm of Hercules purged the earth from +monsters and tyrants.<br> +</p> + +<p>But even the omnipotence of Jovius and Herculius was +insufficient to sustain the weight of the public administration. +The prudence of Diocletian discovered that the empire, assailed +on every side by the barbarians, required on every side the +presence of a great army, and of an emperor. With this view, he +resolved once more to divide his unwieldy power, and with the +inferior title of Cæsars, * to confer on two generals of +approved merit an unequal share of the sovereign authority. +Galerius, surnamed Armentarius, from his original profession of a +herdsman, and Constantius, who from his pale complexion had +acquired the denomination of Chlorus, were the two persons +invested with the second honors of the Imperial purple. In +describing the country, extraction, and manners of Herculius, we +have already delineated those of Galerius, who was often, and not +improperly, styled the younger Maximian, though, in many +instances both of virtue and ability, he appears to have +possessed a manifest superiority over the elder. The birth of +Constantius was less obscure than that of his colleagues. +Eutropius, his father, was one of the most considerable nobles of +Dardania, and his mother was the niece of the emperor Claudius. +Although the youth of Constantius had been spent in arms, he was +endowed with a mild and amiable disposition, and the popular +voice had long since acknowledged him worthy of the rank which he +at last attained. To strengthen the bonds of political, by those +of domestic, union, each of the emperors assumed the character of +a father to one of the Cæsars, Diocletian to Galerius, and +Maximian to Constantius; and each, obliging them to repudiate +their former wives, bestowed his daughter in marriage or his +adopted son. These four princes distributed among themselves the +wide extent of the Roman empire. The defence of Gaul, Spain, and +Britain, was intrusted to Constantius: Galerius was stationed on +the banks of the Danube, as the safeguard of the Illyrian +provinces. Italy and Africa were considered as the department of +Maximian; and for his peculiar portion, Diocletian reserved +Thrace, Egypt, and the rich countries of Asia. Every one was +sovereign with his own jurisdiction; but their united authority +extended over the whole monarchy, and each of them was prepared +to assist his colleagues with his counsels or presence. The +Cæsars, in their exalted rank, revered the majesty of the +emperors, and the three younger princes invariably acknowledged, +by their gratitude and obedience, the common parent of their +fortunes. The suspicious jealousy of power found not any place +among them; and the singular happiness of their union has been +compared to a chorus of music, whose harmony was regulated and +maintained by the skilful hand of the first artist.<br> +</p> + +<p>This important measure was not carried into execution till +about six years after the association of Maximian, and that +interval of time had not been destitute of memorable incidents. +But we have preferred, for the sake of perspicuity, first to +describe the more perfect form of Diocletian's government, and +afterwards to relate the actions of his reign, following rather +the natural order of the events, than the dates of a very +doubtful chronology.<br> +</p> + +<p>The first exploit of Maximian, though it is mentioned in a few +words by our imperfect writers, deserves, from its singularity, +to be recorded in a history of human manners. He suppressed the +peasants of Gaul, who, under the appellation of Bagaudæ, +had risen in a general insurrection; very similar to those which +in the fourteenth century successively afflicted both France and +England. It should seem that very many of those institutions, +referred by an easy solution to the feudal system, are derived +from the Celtic barbarians. When Cæsar subdued the Gauls, +that great nation was already divided into three orders of men; +the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. The first +governed by superstition, the second by arms, but the third and +last was not of any weight or account in their public councils. +It was very natural for the plebeians, oppressed by debt, or +apprehensive of injuries, to implore the protection of some +powerful chief, who acquired over their persons and property the +same absolute right as, among the Greeks and Romans, a master +exercised over his slaves. The greatest part of the nation was +gradually reduced into a state of servitude; compelled to +perpetual labor on the estates of the Gallic nobles, and confined +to the soil, either by the real weight of fetters, or by the no +less cruel and forcible restraints of the laws. During the long +series of troubles which agitated Gaul, from the reign of +Gallienus to that of Diocletian, the condition of these servile +peasants was peculiarly miserable; and they experienced at once +the complicated tyranny of their masters, of the barbarians, of +the soldiers, and of the officers of the revenue.<br> +</p> + +<p>Their patience was at last provoked into despair. On every +side they rose in multitudes, armed with rustic weapons, and with +irresistible fury. The ploughman became a foot soldier, the +shepherd mounted on horseback, the deserted villages and open +towns were abandoned to the flames, and the ravages of the +peasants equalled those of the fiercest barbarians. They asserted +the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with +the most savage cruelty. The Gallic nobles, justly dreading their +revenge, either took refuge in the fortified cities, or fled from +the wild scene of anarchy. The peasants reigned without control; +and two of their most daring leaders had the folly and rashness +to assume the Imperial ornaments. Their power soon expired at the +approach of the legions. The strength of union and discipline +obtained an easy victory over a licentious and divided multitude. +A severe retaliation was inflicted on the peasants who were found +in arms; the affrighted remnant returned to their respective +habitations, and their unsuccessful effort for freedom served +only to confirm their slavery. So strong and uniform is the +current of popular passions, that we might almost venture, from +very scanty materials, to relate the particulars of this war; but +we are not disposed to believe that the principal leaders, +Ælianus and Amandus, were Christians, or to insinuate, that +the rebellion, as it happened in the time of Luther, was +occasioned by the abuse of those benevolent principles of +Christianity, which inculcate the natural freedom of mankind.<br> +</p> + +<p>Maximian had no sooner recovered Gaul from the hands of the +peasants, than he lost Britain by the usurpation of Carausius. +Ever since the rash but successful enterprise of the Franks under +the reign of Probus, their daring countrymen had constructed +squadrons of light brigantines, in which they incessantly ravaged +the provinces adjacent to the ocean. To repel their desultory +incursions, it was found necessary to create a naval power; and +the judicious measure was prosecuted with prudence and vigor. +Gessoriacum, or Boulogne, in the straits of the British Channel, +was chosen by the emperor for the station of the Roman fleet; and +the command of it was intrusted to Carausius, a Menapian of the +meanest origin, but who had long signalized his skill as a pilot, +and his valor as a soldier. The integrity of the new admiral +corresponded not with his abilities. When the German pirates +sailed from their own harbors, he connived at their passage, but +he diligently intercepted their return, and appropriated to his +own use an ample share of the spoil which they had acquired. The +wealth of Carausius was, on this occasion, very justly considered +as an evidence of his guilt; and Maximian had already given +orders for his death. But the crafty Menapian foresaw and +prevented the severity of the emperor. By his liberality he had +attached to his fortunes the fleet which he commanded, and +secured the barbarians in his interest. From the port of Boulogne +he sailed over to Britain, persuaded the legion, and the +auxiliaries which guarded that island, to embrace his party, and +boldly assuming, with the Imperial purple, the title of Augustus +defied the justice and the arms of his injured sovereign.<br> +</p> + +<p>When Britain was thus dismembered from the empire, its +importance was sensibly felt, and its loss sincerely lamented. +The Romans celebrated, and perhaps magnified, the extent of that +noble island, provided on every side with convenient harbors; the +temperature of the climate, and the fertility of the soil, alike +adapted for the production of corn or of vines; the valuable +minerals with which it abounded; its rich pastures covered with +innumerable flocks, and its woods free from wild beasts or +venomous serpents. Above all, they regretted the large amount of +the revenue of Britain, whilst they confessed, that such a +province well deserved to become the seat of an independent +monarchy. During the space of seven years it was possessed by +Carausius; and fortune continued propitious to a rebellion +supported with courage and ability. The British emperor defended +the frontiers of his dominions against the Caledonians of the +North, invited, from the continent, a great number of skilful +artists, and displayed, on a variety of coins that are still +extant, his taste and opulence. Born on the confines of the +Franks, he courted the friendship of that formidable people, by +the flattering imitation of their dress and manners. The bravest +of their youth he enlisted among his land or sea forces; and, in +return for their useful alliance, he communicated to the +barbarians the dangerous knowledge of military and naval arts. +Carausius still preserved the possession of Boulogne and the +adjacent country. His fleets rode triumphant in the channel, +commanded the mouths of the Seine and of the Rhine, ravaged the +coasts of the ocean, and diffused beyond the columns of Hercules +the terror of his name. Under his command, Britain, destined in a +future age to obtain the empire of the sea, already assumed its +natural and respectable station of a maritime power.<br> +</p> + +<p>By seizing the fleet of Boulogne, Carausius had deprived his +master of the means of pursuit and revenge. And when, after a +vast expense of time and labor, a new armament was launched into +the water, the Imperial troops, unaccustomed to that element, +were easily baffled and defeated by the veteran sailors of the +usurper. This disappointed effort was soon productive of a treaty +of peace. Diocletian and his colleague, who justly dreaded the +enterprising spirit of Carausius, resigned to him the sovereignty +of Britain, and reluctantly admitted their perfidious servant to +a participation of the Imperial honors. But the adoption of the +two Cæsars restored new vigor to the Romans arms; and while +the Rhine was guarded by the presence of Maximian, his brave +associate Constantius assumed the conduct of the British war. His +first enterprise was against the important place of Boulogne. A +stupendous mole, raised across the entrance of the harbor, +intercepted all hopes of relief. The town surrendered after an +obstinate defence; and a considerable part of the naval strength +of Carausius fell into the hands of the besiegers. During the +three years which Constantius employed in preparing a fleet +adequate to the conquest of Britain, he secured the coast of +Gaul, invaded the country of the Franks, and deprived the usurper +of the assistance of those powerful allies.<br> +</p> + +<p>Before the preparations were finished, Constantius received +the intelligence of the tyrant's death, and it was considered as +a sure presage of the approaching victory. The servants of +Carausius imitated the example of treason which he had given. He +was murdered by his first minister, Allectus, and the assassin +succeeded to his power and to his danger. But he possessed not +equal abilities either to exercise the one or to repel the other. +He beheld, with anxious terror, the opposite shores of the +continent already filled with arms, with troops, and with +vessels; for Constantius had very prudently divided his forces, +that he might likewise divide the attention and resistance of the +enemy. The attack was at length made by the principal squadron, +which, under the command of the præfect Asclepiodatus, an +officer of distinguished merit, had been assembled in the north +of the Seine. So imperfect in those times was the art of +navigation, that orators have celebrated the daring courage of +the Romans, who ventured to set sail with a side-wind, and on a +stormy day. The weather proved favorable to their enterprise. +Under the cover of a thick fog, they escaped the fleet of +Allectus, which had been stationed off the Isle of Wight to +receive them, landed in safety on some part of the western coast, +and convinced the Britons, that a superiority of naval strength +will not always protect their country from a foreign invasion. +Asclepiodatus had no sooner disembarked the imperial troops, then +he set fire to his ships; and, as the expedition proved +fortunate, his heroic conduct was universally admired. The +usurper had posted himself near London, to expect the formidable +attack of Constantius, who commanded in person the fleet of +Boulogne; but the descent of a new enemy required his immediate +presence in the West. He performed this long march in so +precipitate a manner, that he encountered the whole force of the +præfect with a small body of harassed and disheartened +troops. The engagement was soon terminated by the total defeat +and death of Allectus; a single battle, as it has often happened, +decided the fate of this great island; and when Constantius +landed on the shores of Kent, he found them covered with obedient +subjects. Their acclamations were loud and unanimous; and the +virtues of the conqueror may induce us to believe, that they +sincerely rejoiced in a revolution, which, after a separation of +ten years, restored Britain to the body of the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And This Three +Associates. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Britain had none but domestic enemies to dread; and as long as +the governors preserved their fidelity, and the troops their +discipline, the incursions of the naked savages of Scotland or +Ireland could never materially affect the safety of the province. +The peace of the continent, and the defence of the principal +rivers which bounded the empire, were objects of far greater +difficulty and importance. The policy of Diocletian, which +inspired the councils of his associates, provided for the public +tranquility, by encouraging a spirit of dissension among the +barbarians, and by strengthening the fortifications of the Roman +limit. In the East he fixed a line of camps from Egypt to the +Persian dominions, and for every camp, he instituted an adequate +number of stationary troops, commanded by their respective +officers, and supplied with every kind of arms, from the new +arsenals which he had formed at Antioch, Emesa, and Damascus. Nor +was the precaution of the emperor less watchful against the +well-known valor of the barbarians of Europe. From the mouth of +the Rhine to that of the Danube, the ancient camps, towns, and +citidels, were diligently reestablished, and, in the most exposed +places, new ones were skilfully constructed: the strictest +vigilance was introduced among the garrisons of the frontier, and +every expedient was practised that could render the long chain of +fortifications firm and impenetrable. A barrier so respectable +was seldom violated, and the barbarians often turned against each +other their disappointed rage. The Goths, the Vandals, the +Gepidæ, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, wasted each other's +strength by destructive hostilities: and whosoever vanquished, +they vanquished the enemies of Rome. The subjects of Diocletian +enjoyed the bloody spectacle, and congratulated each other, that +the mischiefs of civil war were now experienced only by the +barbarians.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the policy of Diocletian, it was impossible to +maintain an equal and undisturbed tranquillity during a reign of +twenty years, and along a frontier of many hundred miles. +Sometimes the barbarians suspended their domestic animosities, +and the relaxed vigilance of the garrisons sometimes gave a +passage to their strength or dexterity. Whenever the provinces +were invaded, Diocletian conducted himself with that calm dignity +which he always affected or possessed; reserved his presence for +such occasions as were worthy of his interposition, never exposed +his person or reputation to any unnecessary danger, insured his +success by every means that prudence could suggest, and +displayed, with ostentation, the consequences of his victory. In +wars of a more difficult nature, and more doubtful event, he +employed the rough valor of Maximian; and that faithful soldier +was content to ascribe his own victories to the wise counsels and +auspicious influence of his benefactor. But after the adoption of +the two Cæsars, the emperors themselves, retiring to a less +laborious scene of action, devolved on their adopted sons the +defence of the Danube and of the Rhine. The vigilant Galerius was +never reduced to the necessity of vanquishing an army of +barbarians on the Roman territory. The brave and active +Contsantius delivered Gaul from a very furious inroad of the +Alemanni; and his victories of Langres and Vindonissa appear to +have been actions of considerable danger and merit. As he +traversed the open country with a feeble guard, he was +encompassed on a sudden by the superior multitude of the enemy. +He retreated with difficulty towards Langres; but, in the general +consternation, the citizens refused to open their gates, and the +wounded prince was drawn up the wall by the means of a rope. But, +on the news of his distress, the Roman troops hastened from all +sides to his relief, and before the evening he had satisfied his +honor and revenge by the slaughter of six thousand Alemanni. From +the monuments of those times, the obscure traces of several other +victories over the barbarians of Sarmatia and Germany might +possibly be collected; but the tedious search would not be +rewarded either with amusement or with instruction.<br> +</p> + +<p>The conduct which the emperor Probus had adopted in the +disposal of the vanquished, was imitated by Diocletian and his +associates. The captive barbarians, exchanging death for slavery, +were distributed among the provincials, and assigned to those +districts (in Gaul, the territories of Amiens, Beauvais, Cambray, +Treves, Langres, and Troyes, are particularly specified ) which +had been depopulated by the calamities of war. They were usefully +employed as shepherds and husbandmen, but were denied the +exercise of arms, except when it was found expedient to enroll +them in the military service. Nor did the emperors refuse the +property of lands, with a less servile tenure, to such of the +barbarians as solicited the protection of Rome. They granted a +settlement to several colonies of the Carpi, the Bastarnæ, +and the Sarmatians; and, by a dangerous indulgence, permitted +them in some measure to retain their national manners and +independence. Among the provincials, it was a subject of +flattering exultation, that the barbarian, so lately an object of +terror, now cultivated their lands, drove their cattle to the +neighboring fair, and contributed by his labor to the public +plenty. They congratulated their masters on the powerful +accession of subjects and soldiers; but they forgot to observe, +that multitudes of secret enemies, insolent from favor, or +desperate from oppression, were introduced into the heart of the +empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>While the Cæsars exercised their valor on the banks of +the Rhine and Danube, the presence of the emperors was required +on the southern confines of the Roman world. From the Nile to +Mount Atlas Africa was in arms. A confederacy of five Moorish +nations issued from their deserts to invade the peaceful +provinces. Julian had assumed the purple at Carthage. Achilleus +at Alexandria, and even the Blemmyes, renewed, or rather +continued, their incursions into the Upper Egypt. Scarcely any +circumstances have been preserved of the exploits of Maximian in +the western parts of Africa; but it appears, by the event, that +the progress of his arms was rapid and decisive, that he +vanquished the fiercest barbarians of Mauritania, and that he +removed them from the mountains, whose inaccessible strength had +inspired their inhabitants with a lawless confidence, and +habituated them to a life of rapine and violence. Diocletian, on +his side, opened the campaign in Egypt by the siege of +Alexandria, cut off the aqueducts which conveyed the waters of +the Nile into every quarter of that immense city, and rendering +his camp impregnable to the sallies of the besieged multitude, he +pushed his reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a +siege of eight months, Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by +fire, implored the clemency of the conqueror, but it experienced +the full extent of his severity. Many thousands of the citizens +perished in a promiscuous slaughter, and there were few obnoxious +persons in Egypt who escaped a sentence either of death or at +least of exile. The fate of Busiris and of Coptos was still more +melancholy than that of Alexandria: those proud cities, the +former distinguished by its antiquity, the latter enriched by the +passage of the Indian trade, were utterly destroyed by the arms +and by the severe order of Diocletian. The character of the +Egyptian nation, insensible to kindness, but extremely +susceptible of fear, could alone justify this excessive rigor. +The seditions of Alexandria had often affected the tranquillity +and subsistence of Rome itself. Since the usurpation of Firmus, +the province of Upper Egypt, incessantly relapsing into +rebellion, had embraced the alliance of the savages of +Æthiopia. The number of the Blemmyes, scattered between the +Island of Meroe and the Red Sea, was very inconsiderable, their +disposition was unwarlike, their weapons rude and inoffensive. +Yet in the public disorders, these barbarians, whom antiquity, +shocked with the deformity of their figure, had almost excluded +from the human species, presumed to rank themselves among the +enemies of Rome. Such had been the unworthy allies of the +Egyptians; and while the attention of the state was engaged in +more serious wars, their vexations inroads might again harass the +repose of the province. With a view of opposing to the Blemmyes a +suitable adversary, Diocletian persuaded the Nobatæ, or +people of Nubia, to remove from their ancient habitations in the +deserts of Libya, and resigned to them an extensive but +unprofitable territory above Syene and the cataracts of the Nile, +with the stipulation, that they should ever respect and guard the +frontier of the empire. The treaty long subsisted; and till the +establishment of Christianity introduced stricter notions of +religious worship, it was annually ratified by a solemn sacrifice +in the Isle of Elephantine, in which the Romans, as well as the +barbarians, adored the same visible or invisible powers of the +universe.<br> +</p> + +<p>At the same time that Diocletian chastised the past crimes of +the Egyptians, he provided for their future safety and happiness +by many wise regulations, which were confirmed and enforced under +the succeeding reigns. One very remarkable edict which he +published, instead of being condemned as the effect of jealous +tyranny, deserves to be applauded as an act of prudence and +humanity. He caused a diligent inquiry to be made "for all the +ancient books which treated of the admirable art of making gold +and silver, and without pity, committed them to the flames; +apprehensive, as we are assumed, lest the opulence of the +Egyptians should inspire them with confidence to rebel against +the empire." But if Diocletian had been convinced of the reality +of that valuable art, far from extinguishing the memory, he would +have converted the operation of it to the benefit of the public +revenue. It is much more likely, that his good sense discovered +to him the folly of such magnificent pretensions, and that he was +desirous of preserving the reason and fortunes of his subjects +from the mischievous pursuit. It may be remarked, that these +ancient books, so liberally ascribed to Pythagoras, to Solomon, +or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of more recent adepts. The +Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to the abuse of +chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has deposited +the discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind, there is +not the least mention of the transmutation of metals; and the +persecution of Diocletian is the first authentic event in the +history of alchemy. The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused +that vain science over the globe. Congenial to the avarice of the +human heart, it was studied in China as in Europe, with equal +eagerness, and with equal success. The darkness of the middle +ages insured a favorable reception to every tale of wonder, and +the revival of learning gave new vigor to hope, and suggested +more specious arts of deception. Philosophy, with the aid of +experience, has at length banished the study of alchemy; and the +present age, however desirous of riches, is content to seek them +by the humbler means of commerce and industry.<br> +</p> + +<p>The reduction of Egypt was immediately followed by the Persian +war. It was reserved for the reign of Diocletian to vanquish that +powerful nation, and to extort a confession from the successors +of Artaxerxes, of the superior majesty of the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>We have observed, under the reign of Valerian, that Armenia +was subdued by the perfidy and the arms of the Persians, and +that, after the assassination of Chosroes, his son Tiridates, the +infant heir of the monarchy, was saved by the fidelity of his +friends, and educated under the protection of the emperors. +Tiridates derived from his exile such advantages as he could +never have obtained on the throne of Armenia; the early knowledge +of adversity, of mankind, and of the Roman discipline. He +signalized his youth by deeds of valor, and displayed a matchless +dexterity, as well as strength, in every martial exercise, and +even in the less honorable contests of the Olympian games. Those +qualities were more nobly exerted in the defence of his +benefactor Licinius. That officer, in the sedition which +occasioned the death of Probus, was exposed to the most imminent +danger, and the enraged soldiers were forcing their way into his +tent, when they were checked by the single arm of the Armenian +prince. The gratitude of Tiridates contributed soon afterwards to +his restoration. Licinius was in every station the friend and +companion of Galerius, and the merit of Galerius, long before he +was raised to the dignity of Cæsar, had been known and +esteemed by Diocletian. In the third year of that emperor's reign +Tiridates was invested with the kingdom of Armenia. The justice +of the measure was not less evident than its expediency. It was +time to rescue from the usurpation of the Persian monarch an +important territory, which, since the reign of Nero, had been +always granted under the protection of the empire to a younger +branch of the house of Arsaces.<br> +</p> + +<p>When Tiridates appeared on the frontiers of Armenia, he was +received with an unfeigned transport of joy and loyalty. During +twenty-six years, the country had experienced the real and +imaginary hardships of a foreign yoke. The Persian monarchs +adorned their new conquest with magnificent buildings; but those +monuments had been erected at the expense of the people, and were +abhorred as badges of slavery. The apprehension of a revolt had +inspired the most rigorous precautions: oppression had been +aggravated by insult, and the consciousness of the public hatred +had been productive of every measure that could render it still +more implacable. We have already remarked the intolerant spirit +of the Magian religion. The statues of the deified kings of +Armenia, and the sacred images of the sun and moon, were broke in +pieces by the zeal of the conqueror; and the perpetual fire of +Ormuzd was kindled and preserved upon an altar erected on the +summit of Mount Bagavan. It was natural, that a people +exasperated by so many injuries, should arm with zeal in the +cause of their independence, their religion, and their hereditary +sovereign. The torrent bore down every obstacle, and the Persian +garrisons retreated before its fury. The nobles of Armenia flew +to the standard of Tiridates, all alleging their past merit, +offering their future service, and soliciting from the new king +those honors and rewards from which they had been excluded with +disdain under the foreign government. The command of the army was +bestowed on Artavasdes, whose father had saved the infancy of +Tiridates, and whose family had been massacred for that generous +action. The brother of Artavasdes obtained the government of a +province. One of the first military dignities was conferred on +the satrap Otas, a man of singular temperance and fortitude, who +presented to the king his sister and a considerable treasure, +both of which, in a sequestered fortress, Otas had preserved from +violation. Among the Armenian nobles appeared an ally, whose +fortunes are too remarkable to pass unnoticed. His name was +Mamgo, his origin was Scythian, and the horde which acknowledge +his authority had encamped a very few years before on the skirts +of the Chinese empire, which at that time extended as far as the +neighborhood of Sogdiana. Having incurred the displeasure of his +master, Mamgo, with his followers, retired to the banks of the +Oxus, and implored the protection of Sapor. The emperor of China +claimed the fugitive, and alleged the rights of sovereignty. The +Persian monarch pleaded the laws of hospitality, and with some +difficulty avoided a war, by the promise that he would banish +Mamgo to the uttermost parts of the West, a punishment, as he +described it, not less dreadful than death itself. Armenia was +chosen for the place of exile, and a large district was assigned +to the Scythian horde, on which they might feed their flocks and +herds, and remove their encampment from one place to another, +according to the different seasons of the year. They were +employed to repel the invasion of Tiridates; but their leader, +after weighing the obligations and injuries which he had received +from the Persian monarch, resolved to abandon his party. The +Armenian prince, who was well acquainted with this merit as well +as power of Mamgo, treated him with distinguished respect; and, +by admitting him into his confidence, acquired a brave and +faithful servant, who contributed very effectually to his +restoration.<br> +</p> + +<p>For a while, fortune appeared to favor the enterprising valor +of Tiridates. He not only expelled the enemies of his family and +country from the whole extent of Armenia, but in the prosecution +of his revenge he carried his arms, or at least his incursions, +into the heart of Assyria. The historian, who has preserved the +name of Tiridates from oblivion, celebrates, with a degree of +national enthusiasm, his personal prowess: and, in the true +spirit of eastern romance, describes the giants and the elephants +that fell beneath his invincible arm. It is from other +information that we discover the distracted state of the Persian +monarchy, to which the king of Armenia was indebted for some part +of his advantages. The throne was disputed by the ambition of +contending brothers; and Hormuz, after exerting without success +the strength of his own party, had recourse to the dangerous +assistance of the barbarians who inhabited the banks of the +Caspian Sea. The civil war was, however, soon terminated, either +by a victor or by a reconciliation; and Narses, who was +universally acknowledged as king of Persia, directed his whole +force against the foreign enemy. The contest then became too +unequal; nor was the valor of the hero able to withstand the +power of the monarch, Tiridates, a second time expelled from the +throne of Armenia, once more took refuge in the court of the +emperors. * Narses soon reestablished his authority over the +revolted province; and loudly complaining of the protection +afforded by the Romans to rebels and fugitives, aspired to the +conquest of the East.<br> +</p> + +<p>Neither prudence nor honor could permit the emperors to +forsake the cause of the Armenian king, and it was resolved to +exert the force of the empire in the Persian war. Diocletian, +with the calm dignity which he constantly assumed, fixed his own +station in the city of Antioch, from whence he prepared and +directed the military operations. The conduct of the legions was +intrusted to the intrepid valor of Galerius, who, for that +important purpose, was removed from the banks of the Danube to +those of the Euphrates. The armies soon encountered each other in +the plains of Mesopotamia, and two battles were fought with +various and doubtful success; but the third engagement was of a +more decisive nature; and the Roman army received a total +overthrow, which is attributed to the rashness of Galerius, who, +with an inconsiderable body of troops, attacked the innumerable +host of the Persians. But the consideration of the country that +was the scene of action, may suggest another reason for his +defeat. The same ground on which Galerius was vanquished, had +been rendered memorable by the death of Crassus, and the +slaughter of ten legions. It was a plain of more than sixty +miles, which extended from the hills of Carrhæ to the +Euphrates; a smooth and barren surface of sandy desert, without a +hillock, without a tree, and without a spring of fresh water. The +steady infantry of the Romans, fainting with heat and thirst, +could neither hope for victory if they preserved their ranks, nor +break their ranks without exposing themselves to the most +imminent danger. In this situation they were gradually +encompassed by the superior numbers, harassed by the rapid +evolutions, and destroyed by the arrows of the barbarian cavalry. +The king of Armenia had signalized his valor in the battle, and +acquired personal glory by the public misfortune. He was pursued +as far as the Euphrates; his horse was wounded, and it appeared +impossible for him to escape the victorious enemy. In this +extremity Tiridates embraced the only refuge which appeared +before him: he dismounted and plunged into the stream. His armor +was heavy, the river very deep, and at those parts at least half +a mile in breadth; yet such was his strength and dexterity, that +he reached in safety the opposite bank. With regard to the Roman +general, we are ignorant of the circumstances of his escape; but +when he returned to Antioch, Diocletian received him, not with +the tenderness of a friend and colleague, but with the +indignation of an offended sovereign. The haughtiest of men, +clothed in his purple, but humbled by the sense of his fault and +misfortune, was obliged to follow the emperor's chariot above a +mile on foot, and to exhibit, before the whole court, the +spectacle of his disgrace.<br> +</p> + +<p>As soon as Diocletian had indulged his private resentment, and +asserted the majesty of supreme power, he yielded to the +submissive entreaties of the Cæsar, and permitted him to +retrieve his own honor, as well as that of the Roman arms. In the +room of the unwarlike troops of Asia, which had most probably +served in the first expedition, a second army was drawn from the +veterans and new levies of the Illyrian frontier, and a +considerable body of Gothic auxiliaries were taken into the +Imperial pay. At the head of a chosen army of twenty-five +thousand men, Galerius again passed the Euphrates; but, instead +of exposing his legions in the open plains of Mesopotamia he +advanced through the mountains of Armenia, where he found the +inhabitants devoted to his cause, and the country as favorable to +the operations of infantry as it was inconvenient for the motions +of cavalry. Adversity had confirmed the Roman discipline, while +the barbarians, elated by success, were become so negligent and +remiss, that in the moment when they least expected it, they were +surprised by the active conduct of Galerius, who, attended only +by two horsemen, had with his own eyes secretly examined the +state and position of their camp. A surprise, especially in the +night time, was for the most part fatal to a Persian army. "Their +horses were tied, and generally shackled, to prevent their +running away; and if an alarm happened, a Persian had his housing +to fix, his horse to bridle, and his corselet to put on, before +he could mount." On this occasion, the impetuous attack of +Galerius spread disorder and dismay over the camp of the +barbarians. A slight resistance was followed by a dreadful +carnage, and, in the general confusion, the wounded monarch (for +Narses commanded his armies in person) fled towards the deserts +of Media. His sumptuous tents, and those of his satraps, afforded +an immense booty to the conqueror; and an incident is mentioned, +which proves the rustic but martial ignorance of the legions in +the elegant superfluities of life. A bag of shining leather, +filled with pearls, fell into the hands of a private soldier; he +carefully preserved the bag, but he threw away its contents, +judging that whatever was of no use could not possibly be of any +value. The principal loss of Narses was of a much more affecting +nature. Several of his wives, his sisters, and children, who had +attended the army, were made captives in the defeat. But though +the character of Galerius had in general very little affinity +with that of Alexander, he imitated, after his victory, the +amiable behavior of the Macedonian towards the family of Darius. +The wives and children of Narses were protected from violence and +rapine, conveyed to a place of safety, and treated with every +mark of respect and tenderness, that was due from a generous +enemy to their age, their sex, and their royal dignity.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And This Three +Associates. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>While the East anxiously expected the decision of this great +contest, the emperor Diocletian, having assembled in Syria a +strong army of observation, displayed from a distance the +resources of the Roman power, and reserved himself for any future +emergency of the war. On the intelligence of the victory he +condescended to advance towards the frontier, with a view of +moderating, by his presence and counsels, the pride of Galerius. +The interview of the Roman princes at Nisibis was accompanied +with every expression of respect on one side, and of esteem on +the other. It was in that city that they soon afterwards gave +audience to the ambassador of the Great King. The power, or at +least the spirit, of Narses, had been broken by his last defeat; +and he considered an immediate peace as the only means that could +stop the progress of the Roman arms. He despatched Apharban, a +servant who possessed his favor and confidence, with a commission +to negotiate a treaty, or rather to receive whatever conditions +the conqueror should impose. Apharban opened the conference by +expressing his master's gratitude for the generous treatment of +his family, and by soliciting the liberty of those illustrious +captives. He celebrated the valor of Galerius, without degrading +the reputation of Narses, and thought it no dishonor to confess +the superiority of the victorious Cæsar, over a monarch who +had surpassed in glory all the princes of his race. +Notwithstanding the justice of the Persian cause, he was +empowered to submit the present differences to the decision of +the emperors themselves; convinced as he was, that, in the midst +of prosperity, they would not be unmindful of the vicissitudes of +fortune. Apharban concluded his discourse in the style of eastern +allegory, by observing that the Roman and Persian monarchies were +the two eyes of the world, which would remain imperfect and +mutilated if either of them should be put out.<br> +</p> + +<p>"It well becomes the Persians," replied Galerius, with a +transport of fury, which seemed to convulse his whole frame, "it +well becomes the Persians to expatiate on the vicissitudes of +fortune, and calmly to read us lectures on the virtues of +moderation. Let them remember their own <em>moderation</em>, +towards the unhappy Valerian. They vanquished him by fraud, they +treated him with indignity. They detained him till the last +moment of his life in shameful captivity, and after his death +they exposed his body to perpetual ignominy." Softening, however, +his tone, Galerius insinuated to the ambassador, that it had +never been the practice of the Romans to trample on a prostrate +enemy; and that, on this occasion, they should consult their own +dignity rather than the Persian merit. He dismissed Apharban with +a hope that Narses would soon be informed on what conditions he +might obtain, from the clemency of the emperors, a lasting peace, +and the restoration of his wives and children. In this conference +we may discover the fierce passions of Galerius, as well as his +deference to the superior wisdom and authority of Diocletian. The +ambition of the former grasped at the conquest of the East, and +had proposed to reduce Persia into the state of a province. The +prudence of the latter, who adhered to the moderate policy of +Augustus and the Antonines, embraced the favorable opportunity of +terminating a successful war by an honorable and advantageous +peace.<br> +</p> + +<p>In pursuance of their promise, the emperors soon afterwards +appointed Sicorius Probus, one of their secretaries, to acquaint +the Persian court with their final resolution. As the minister of +peace, he was received with every mark of politeness and +friendship; but, under the pretence of allowing him the necessary +repose after so long a journey, the audience of Probus was +deferred from day to day; and he attended the slow motions of the +king, till at length he was admitted to his presence, near the +River Asprudus in Media. The secret motive of Narses, in this +delay, had been to collect such a military force as might enable +him, though sincerely desirous of peace, to negotiate with the +greater weight and dignity. Three persons only assisted at this +important conference, the minister Apharban, the præfect of +the guards, and an officer who had commanded on the Armenian +frontier. The first condition proposed by the ambassador is not +at present of a very intelligible nature; that the city of +Nisibis might be established for the place of mutual exchange, +or, as we should formerly have termed it, for the staple of +trade, between the two empires. There is no difficulty in +conceiving the intention of the Roman princes to improve their +revenue by some restraints upon commerce; but as Nisibis was +situated within their own dominions, and as they were masters +both of the imports and exports, it should seem that such +restraints were the objects of an internal law, rather than of a +foreign treaty. To render them more effectual, some stipulations +were probably required on the side of the king of Persia, which +appeared so very repugnant either to his interest or to his +dignity, that Narses could not be persuaded to subscribe them. As +this was the only article to which he refused his consent, it was +no longer insisted on; and the emperors either suffered the trade +to flow in its natural channels, or contented themselves with +such restrictions, as it depended on their own authority to +establish.<br> +</p> + +<p>As soon as this difficulty was removed, a solemn peace was +concluded and ratified between the two nations. The conditions of +a treaty so glorious to the empire, and so necessary to Persia +Persian, may deserve a more peculiar attention, as the history of +Rome presents very few transactions of a similar nature; most of +her wars having either been terminated by absolute conquest, or +waged against barbarians ignorant of the use of letters. I. The +Aboras, or, as it is called by Xenophon, the Araxes, was fixed as +the boundary between the two monarchies. That river, which rose +near the Tigris, was increased, a few miles below Nisibis, by the +little stream of the Mygdonius, passed under the walls of +Singara, and fell into the Euphrates at Circesium, a frontier +town, which, by the care of Diocletian, was very strongly +fortified. Mesopotomia, the object of so many wars, was ceded to +the empire; and the Persians, by this treaty, renounced all +pretensions to that great province. II. They relinquished to the +Romans five provinces beyond the Tigris. Their situation formed a +very useful barrier, and their natural strength was soon improved +by art and military skill. Four of these, to the north of the +river, were districts of obscure fame and inconsiderable extent; +Intiline, Zabdicene, Arzanene, and Moxoene; but on the east of +the Tigris, the empire acquired the large and mountainous +territory of Carduene, the ancient seat of the Carduchians, who +preserved for many ages their manly freedom in the heart of the +despotic monarchies of Asia. The ten thousand Greeks traversed +their country, after a painful march, or rather engagement, of +seven days; and it is confessed by their leader, in his +incomparable relation of the retreat, that they suffered more +from the arrows of the Carduchians, than from the power of the +Great King. Their posterity, the Curds, with very little +alteration either of name or manners, * acknowledged the nominal +sovereignty of the Turkish sultan. III. It is almost needless to +observe, that Tiridates, the faithful ally of Rome, was restored +to the throne of his fathers, and that the rights of the Imperial +supremacy were fully asserted and secured. The limits of Armenia +were extended as far as the fortress of Sintha in Media, and this +increase of dominion was not so much an act of liberality as of +justice. Of the provinces already mentioned beyond the Tigris, +the four first had been dismembered by the Parthians from the +crown of Armenia; and when the Romans acquired the possession of +them, they stipulated, at the expense of the usurpers, an ample +compensation, which invested their ally with the extensive and +fertile country of Atropatene. Its principal city, in the same +situation perhaps as the modern Tauris, was frequently honored by +the residence of Tiridates; and as it sometimes bore the name of +Ecbatana, he imitated, in the buildings and fortifications, the +splendid capital of the Medes. IV. The country of Iberia was +barren, its inhabitants rude and savage. But they were accustomed +to the use of arms, and they separated from the empire barbarians +much fiercer and more formidable than themselves. The narrow +defiles of Mount Caucasus were in their hands, and it was in +their choice, either to admit or to exclude the wandering tribes +of Sarmatia, whenever a rapacious spirit urged them to penetrate +into the richer climes of the South. The nomination of the kings +of Iberia, which was resigned by the Persian monarch to the +emperors, contributed to the strength and security of the Roman +power in Asia. The East enjoyed a profound tranquillity during +forty years; and the treaty between the rival monarchies was +strictly observed till the death of Tiridates; when a new +generation, animated with different views and different passions, +succeeded to the government of the world; and the grandson of +Narses undertook a long and memorable war against the princes of +the house of Constantine.<br> +</p> + +<p>The arduous work of rescuing the distressed empire from +tyrants and barbarians had now been completely achieved by a +succession of Illyrian peasants. As soon as Diocletian entered +into the twentieth year of his reign, he celebrated that +memorable æra, as well as the success of his arms, by the +pomp of a Roman triumph. Maximian, the equal partner of his +power, was his only companion in the glory of that day. The two +Cæsars had fought and conquered, but the merit of their +exploits was ascribed, according to the rigor of ancient maxims, +to the auspicious influence of their fathers and emperors. The +triumph of Diocletian and Maximian was less magnificent, perhaps, +than those of Aurelian and Probus, but it was dignified by +several circumstances of superior fame and good fortune. Africa +and Britain, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Nile, furnished their +respective trophies; but the most distinguished ornament was of a +more singular nature, a Persian victory followed by an important +conquest. The representations of rivers, mountains, and +provinces, were carried before the Imperial car. The images of +the captive wives, the sisters, and the children of the Great +King, afforded a new and grateful spectacle to the vanity of the +people. In the eyes of posterity, this triumph is remarkable, by +a distinction of a less honorable kind. It was the last that Rome +ever beheld. Soon after this period, the emperors ceased to +vanquish, and Rome ceased to be the capital of the empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>The spot on which Rome was founded had been consecrated by +ancient ceremonies and imaginary miracles. The presence of some +god, or the memory of some hero, seemed to animate every part of +the city, and the empire of the world had been promised to the +Capitol. The native Romans felt and confessed the power of this +agreeable illusion. It was derived from their ancestors, had +grown up with their earliest habits of life, and was protected, +in some measure, by the opinion of political utility. The form +and the seat of government were intimately blended together, nor +was it esteemed possible to transport the one without destroying +the other. But the sovereignty of the capital was gradually +annihilated in the extent of conquest; the provinces rose to the +same level, and the vanquished nations acquired the name and +privileges, without imbibing the partial affections, of Romans. +During a long period, however, the remains of the ancient +constitution, and the influence of custom, preserved the dignity +of Rome. The emperors, though perhaps of African or Illyrian +extraction, respected their adopted country, as the seat of their +power, and the centre of their extensive dominions. The +emergencies of war very frequently required their presence on the +frontiers; but Diocletian and Maximian were the first Roman +princes who fixed, in time of peace, their ordinary residence in +the provinces; and their conduct, however it might be suggested +by private motives, was justified by very specious considerations +of policy. The court of the emperor of the West was, for the most +part, established at Milan, whose situation, at the foot of the +Alps, appeared far more convenient than that of Rome, for the +important purpose of watching the motions of the barbarians of +Germany. Milan soon assumed the splendor of an Imperial city. The +houses are described as numerous and well built; the manners of +the people as polished and liberal. A circus, a theatre, a mint, +a palace, baths, which bore the name of their founder Maximian; +porticos adorned with statues, and a double circumference of +walls, contributed to the beauty of the new capital; nor did it +seem oppressed even by the proximity of Rome. To rival the +majesty of Rome was the ambition likewise of Diocletian, who +employed his leisure, and the wealth of the East, in the +embellishment of Nicomedia, a city placed on the verge of Europe +and Asia, almost at an equal distance between the Danube and the +Euphrates. By the taste of the monarch, and at the expense of the +people, Nicomedia acquired, in the space of a few years, a degree +of magnificence which might appear to have required the labor of +ages, and became inferior only to Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, +in extent of populousness. The life of Diocletian and Maximian +was a life of action, and a considerable portion of it was spent +in camps, or in the long and frequent marches; but whenever the +public business allowed them any relaxation, they seemed to have +retired with pleasure to their favorite residences of Nicomedia +and Milan. Till Diocletian, in the twentieth year of his reign, +celebrated his Roman triumph, it is extremely doubtful whether he +ever visited the ancient capital of the empire. Even on that +memorable occasion his stay did not exceed two months. Disgusted +with the licentious familiarity of the people, he quitted Rome +with precipitation thirteen days before it was expected that he +should have appeared in the senate, invested with the ensigns of +the consular dignity.<br> +</p> + +<p>The dislike expressed by Diocletian towards Rome and Roman +freedom, was not the effect of momentary caprice, but the result +of the most artful policy. That crafty prince had framed a new +system of Imperial government, which was afterwards completed by +the family of Constantine; and as the image of the old +constitution was religiously preserved in the senate, he resolved +to deprive that order of its small remains of power and +consideration. We may recollect, about eight years before the +elevation, of Diocletian the transient greatness, and the +ambitious hopes, of the Roman senate. As long as that enthusiasm +prevailed, many of the nobles imprudently displayed their zeal in +the cause of freedom; and after the successes of Probus had +withdrawn their countenance from the republican party, the +senators were unable to disguise their impotent resentment. As +the sovereign of Italy, Maximian was intrusted with the care of +extinguishing this troublesome, rather than dangerous spirit, and +the task was perfectly suited to his cruel temper. The most +illustrious members of the senate, whom Diocletian always +affected to esteem, were involved, by his colleague, in the +accusation of imaginary plots; and the possession of an elegant +villa, or a well-cultivated estate, was interpreted as a +convincing evidence of guilt. The camp of the Prætorians, +which had so long oppressed, began to protect, the majesty of +Rome; and as those haughty troops were conscious of the decline +of their power, they were naturally disposed to unite their +strength with the authority of the senate. By the prudent +measures of Diocletian, the numbers of the Prætorians were +insensibly reduced, their privileges abolished, and their place +supplied by two faithful legions of Illyricum, who, under the new +titles of Jovians and Herculians, were appointed to perform the +service of the Imperial guards. But the most fatal though secret +wound, which the senate received from the hands of Diocletian and +Maximian, was inflicted by the inevitable operation of their +absence. As long as the emperors resided at Rome, that assembly +might be oppressed, but it could scarcely be neglected. The +successors of Augustus exercised the power of dictating whatever +laws their wisdom or caprice might suggest; but those laws were +ratified by the sanction of the senate. The model of ancient +freedom was preserved in its deliberations and decrees; and wise +princes, who respected the prejudices of the Roman people, were +in some measure obliged to assume the language and behavior +suitable to the general and first magistrate of the republic. In +the armies and in the provinces, they displayed the dignity of +monarchs; and when they fixed their residence at a distance from +the capital, they forever laid aside the dissimulation which +Augustus had recommended to his successors. In the exercise of +the legislative as well as the executive power, the sovereign +advised with his ministers, instead of consulting the great +council of the nation. The name of the senate was mentioned with +honor till the last period of the empire; the vanity of its +members was still flattered with honorary distinctions; but the +assembly which had so long been the source, and so long the +instrument of power, was respectfully suffered to sink into +oblivion. The senate of Rome, losing all connection with the +Imperial court and the actual constitution, was left a venerable +but useless monument of antiquity on the Capitoline hill.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And This Three +Associates. -- Part IV.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of +their ancient capital, they easily forgot the origin and nature +of their legal power. The civil offices of consul, of proconsul, +of censor, and of tribune, by the union of which it had been +formed, betrayed to the people its republican extraction. Those +modest titles were laid aside; and if they still distinguished +their high station by the appellation of Emperor, or Imperator, +that word was understood in a new and more dignified sense, and +no longer denoted the general of the Roman armies, but the +sovereign of the Roman world. The name of Emperor, which was at +first of a military nature, was associated with another of a more +servile kind. The epithet of Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive +signification, was expressive, not of the authority of a prince +over his subjects, or of a commander over his soldiers, but of +the despotic power of a master over his domestic slaves. Viewing +it in that odious light, it had been rejected with abhorrence by +the first Cæsars. Their resistance insensibly became more +feeble, and the name less odious; till at length the style of +<strong><em>our Lord and Emperor</em></strong> was not only +bestowed by flattery, but was regularly admitted into the laws +and public monuments. Such lofty epithets were sufficient to +elate and satisfy the most excessive vanity; and if the +successors of Diocletian still declined the title of King, it +seems to have been the effect not so much of their moderation as +of their delicacy. Wherever the Latin tongue was in use, (and it +was the language of government throughout the empire,) the +Imperial title, as it was peculiar to themselves, conveyed a more +respectable idea than the name of king, which they must have +shared with a hundred barbarian chieftains; or which, at the +best, they could derive only from Romulus, or from Tarquin. But +the sentiments of the East were very different from those of the +West. From the earliest period of history, the sovereigns of Asia +had been celebrated in the Greek language by the title of +Basileus, or King; and since it was considered as the first +distinction among men, it was soon employed by the servile +provincials of the East, in their humble addresses to the Roman +throne. Even the attributes, or at least the titles, of the +Divinity, were usurped by Diocletian and Maximian, who +transmitted them to a succession of Christian emperors. Such +extravagant compliments, however, soon lose their impiety by +losing their meaning; and when the ear is once accustomed to the +sound, they are heard with indifference, as vague though +excessive professions of respect.<br> +</p> + +<p>From the time of Augustus to that of Diocletian, the Roman +princes, conversing in a familiar manner among their +fellow-citizens, were saluted only with the same respect that was +usually paid to senators and magistrates. Their principal +distinction was the Imperial or military robe of purple; whilst +the senatorial garment was marked by a broad, and the equestrian +by a narrow, band or stripe of the same honorable color. The +pride, or rather the policy, of Diocletian, engaged that artful +prince to introduce the stately magnificence of the court of +Persia. He ventured to assume the diadem, an ornament detested by +the Romans as the odious ensign of royalty, and the use of which +had been considered as the most desperate act of the madness of +Caligula. It was no more than a broad white fillet set with +pearls, which encircled the emperor's head. The sumptuous robes +of Diocletian and his successors were of silk and gold; and it is +remarked with indignation, that even their shoes were studded +with the most precious gems. The access to their sacred person +was every day rendered more difficult by the institution of new +forms and ceremonies. The avenues of the palace were strictly +guarded by the various <strong><em>schools</em></strong>, as they +began to be called, of domestic officers. The interior apartments +were intrusted to the jealous vigilance of the eunuchs, the +increase of whose numbers and influence was the most infallible +symptom of the progress of despotism. When a subject was at +length admitted to the Imperial presence, he was obliged, +whatever might be his rank, to fall prostrate on the ground, and +to adore, according to the eastern fashion, the divinity of his +lord and master. Diocletian was a man of sense, who, in the +course of private as well as public life, had formed a just +estimate both of himself and of mankind: nor is it easy to +conceive, that in substituting the manners of Persia to those of +Rome, he was seriously actuated by so mean a principle as that of +vanity. He flattered himself, that an ostentation of splendor and +luxury would subdue the imagination of the multitude; that the +monarch would be less exposed to the rude license of the people +and the soldiers, as his person was secluded from the public +view; and that habits of submission would insensibly be +productive of sentiments of veneration. Like the modesty affected +by Augustus, the state maintained by Diocletian was a theatrical +representation; but it must be confessed, that of the two +comedies, the former was of a much more liberal and manly +character than the latter. It was the aim of the one to disguise, +and the object of the other to display, the unbounded power which +the emperors possessed over the Roman world.<br> +</p> + +<p>Ostentation was the first principle of the new system +instituted by Diocletian. The second was division. He divided the +empire, the provinces, and every branch of the civil as well as +military administration. He multiplied the wheels of the machine +of government, and rendered its operations less rapid, but more +secure. Whatever advantages and whatever defects might attend +these innovations, they must be ascribed in a very great degree +to the first inventor; but as the new frame of policy was +gradually improved and completed by succeeding princes, it will +be more satisfactory to delay the consideration of it till the +season of its full maturity and perfection. Reserving, therefore, +for the reign of Constantine a more exact picture of the new +empire, we shall content ourselves with describing the principal +and decisive outline, as it was traced by the hand of Diocletian. +He had associated three colleagues in the exercise of the supreme +power; and as he was convinced that the abilities of a single man +were inadequate to the public defence, he considered the joint +administration of four princes not as a temporary expedient, but +as a fundamental law of the constitution. It was his intention, +that the two elder princes should be distinguished by the use of +the diadem, and the title of <strong><em>Augusti</em></strong>; +that, as affection or esteem might direct their choice, they +should regularly call to their assistance two subordinate +colleagues; and that the <strong><em>Csars</em></strong>, rising +in their turn to the first rank, should supply an uninterrupted +succession of emperors. The empire was divided into four parts. +The East and Italy were the most honorable, the Danube and the +Rhine the most laborious stations. The former claimed the +presence of the <strong><em>Augusti</em></strong>, the latter +were intrusted to the administration of the +<strong><em>Csars</em></strong>. The strength of the legions was +in the hands of the four partners of sovereignty, and the despair +of successively vanquishing four formidable rivals might +intimidate the ambition of an aspiring general. In their civil +government, the emperors were supposed to exercise the undivided +power of the monarch, and their edicts, inscribed with their +joint names, were received in all the provinces, as promulgated +by their mutual councils and authority. Notwithstanding these +precautions, the political union of the Roman world was gradually +dissolved, and a principle of division was introduced, which, in +the course of a few years, occasioned the perpetual separation of +the Eastern and Western Empires.<br> +</p> + +<p>The system of Diocletian was accompanied with another very +material disadvantage, which cannot even at present be totally +overlooked; a more expensive establishment, and consequently an +increase of taxes, and the oppression of the people. Instead of a +modest family of slaves and freedmen, such as had contented the +simple greatness of Augustus and Trajan, three or four +magnificent courts were established in the various parts of the +empire, and as many Roman <strong><em>kings</em></strong> +contended with each other and with the Persian monarch for the +vain superiority of pomp and luxury. The number of ministers, of +magistrates, of officers, and of servants, who filled the +different departments of the state, was multiplied beyond the +example of former times; and (if we may borrow the warm +expression of a contemporary) "when the proportion of those who +received, exceeded the proportion of those who contributed, the +provinces were oppressed by the weight of tributes." From this +period to the extinction of the empire, it would be easy to +deduce an uninterrupted series of clamors and complaints. +According to his religion and situation, each writer chooses +either Diocletian, or Constantine, or Valens, or Theodosius, for +the object of his invectives; but they unanimously agree in +representing the burden of the public impositions, and +particularly the land tax and capitation, as the intolerable and +increasing grievance of their own times. From such a concurrence, +an impartial historian, who is obliged to extract truth from +satire, as well as from panegyric, will be inclined to divide the +blame among the princes whom they accuse, and to ascribe their +exactions much less to their personal vices, than to the uniform +system of their administration. * The emperor Diocletian was +indeed the author of that system; but during his reign, the +growing evil was confined within the bounds of modesty and +discretion, and he deserves the reproach of establishing +pernicious precedents, rather than of exercising actual +oppression. It may be added, that his revenues were managed with +prudent economy; and that after all the current expenses were +discharged, there still remained in the Imperial treasury an +ample provision either for judicious liberality or for any +emergency of the state.<br> +</p> + +<p>It was in the twenty first year of his reign that Diocletian +executed his memorable resolution of abdicating the empire; an +action more naturally to have been expected from the elder or the +younger Antoninus, than from a prince who had never practised the +lessons of philosophy either in the attainment or in the use of +supreme power. Diocletian acquired the glory of giving to the +world the first example of a resignation, which has not been very +frequently imitated by succeeding monarchs. The parallel of +Charles the Fifth, however, will naturally offer itself to our +mind, not only since the eloquence of a modern historian has +rendered that name so familiar to an English reader, but from the +very striking resemblance between the characters of the two +emperors, whose political abilities were superior to their +military genius, and whose specious virtues were much less the +effect of nature than of art. The abdication of Charles appears +to have been hastened by the vicissitude of fortune; and the +disappointment of his favorite schemes urged him to relinquish a +power which he found inadequate to his ambition. But the reign of +Diocletian had flowed with a tide of uninterrupted success; nor +was it till after he had vanquished all his enemies, and +accomplished all his designs, that he seems to have entertained +any serious thoughts of resigning the empire. Neither Charles nor +Diocletian were arrived at a very advanced period of life; since +the one was only fifty-five, and the other was no more than +fifty-nine years of age; but the active life of those princes, +their wars and journeys, the cares of royalty, and their +application to business, had already impaired their constitution, +and brought on the infirmities of a premature old age.<br> +</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the severity of a very cold and rainy winter, +Diocletian left Italy soon after the ceremony of his triumph, and +began his progress towards the East round the circuit of the +Illyrian provinces. From the inclemency of the weather, and the +fatigue of the journey, he soon contracted a slow illness; and +though he made easy marches, and was generally carried in a close +litter, his disorder, before he arrived at Nicomedia, about the +end of the summer, was become very serious and alarming. During +the whole winter he was confined to his palace: his danger +inspired a general and unaffected concern; but the people could +only judge of the various alterations of his health, from the joy +or consternation which they discovered in the countenances and +behavior of his attendants. The rumor of his death was for some +time universally believed, and it was supposed to be concealed +with a view to prevent the troubles that might have happened +during the absence of the Cæsar Galerius. At length, +however, on the first of March, Diocletian once more appeared in +public, but so pale and emaciated, that he could scarcely have +been recognized by those to whom his person was the most +familiar. It was time to put an end to the painful struggle, +which he had sustained during more than a year, between the care +of his health and that of his dignity. The former required +indulgence and relaxation, the latter compelled him to direct, +from the bed of sickness, the administration of a great empire. +He resolved to pass the remainder of his days in honorable +repose, to place his glory beyond the reach of fortune, and to +relinquish the theatre of the world to his younger and more +active associates.<br> +</p> + +<p>The ceremony of his abdication was performed in a spacious +plain, about three miles from Nicomedia. The emperor ascended a +lofty throne, and in a speech, full of reason and dignity, +declared his intention, both to the people and to the soldiers +who were assembled on this extraordinary occasion. As soon as he +had divested himself of his purple, he withdrew from the gazing +multitude; and traversing the city in a covered chariot, +proceeded, without delay, to the favorite retirement which he had +chosen in his native country of Dalmatia. On the same day, which +was the first of May, Maximian, as it had been previously +concerted, made his resignation of the Imperial dignity at Milan. +Even in the splendor of the Roman triumph, Diocletian had +meditated his design of abdicating the government. As he wished +to secure the obedience of Maximian, he exacted from him either a +general assurance that he would submit his actions to the +authority of his benefactor, or a particular promise that he +would descend from the throne, whenever he should receive the +advice and the example. This engagement, though it was confirmed +by the solemnity of an oath before the altar of the Capitoline +Jupiter, would have proved a feeble restraint on the fierce +temper of Maximian, whose passion was the love of power, and who +neither desired present tranquility nor future reputation. But he +yielded, however reluctantly, to the ascendant which his wiser +colleague had acquired over him, and retired, immediately after +his abdication, to a villa in Lucania, where it was almost +impossible that such an impatient spirit could find any lasting +tranquility.<br> +</p> + +<p>Diocletian, who, from a servile origin, had raised himself to +the throne, passed the nine last years of his life in a private +condition. Reason had dictated, and content seems to have +accompanied, his retreat, in which he enjoyed, for a long time, +the respect of those princes to whom he had resigned the +possession of the world. It is seldom that minds long exercised +in business have formed the habits of conversing with themselves, +and in the loss of power they principally regret the want of +occupation. The amusements of letters and of devotion, which +afford so many resources in solitude, were incapable of fixing +the attention of Diocletian; but he had preserved, or at least he +soon recovered, a taste for the most innocent as well as natural +pleasures, and his leisure hours were sufficiently employed in +building, planting, and gardening. His answer to Maximian is +deservedly celebrated. He was solicited by that restless old man +to reassume the reins of government, and the Imperial purple. He +rejected the temptation with a smile of pity, calmly observing, +that if he could show Maximian the cabbages which he had planted +with his own hands at Salona, he should no longer be urged to +relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power. +In his conversations with his friends, he frequently +acknowledged, that of all arts, the most difficult was the art of +reigning; and he expressed himself on that favorite topic with a +degree of warmth which could be the result only of experience. +"How often," was he accustomed to say, "is it the interest of +four or five ministers to combine together to deceive their +sovereign! Secluded from mankind by his exalted dignity, the +truth is concealed from his knowledge; he can see only with their +eyes, he hears nothing but their misrepresentations. He confers +the most important offices upon vice and weakness, and disgraces +the most virtuous and deserving among his subjects. By such +infamous arts," added Diocletian, "the best and wisest princes +are sold to the venal corruption of their courtiers." A just +estimate of greatness, and the assurance of immortal fame, +improve our relish for the pleasures of retirement; but the Roman +emperor had filled too important a character in the world, to +enjoy without alloy the comforts and security of a private +condition. It was impossible that he could remain ignorant of the +troubles which afflicted the empire after his abdication. It was +impossible that he could be indifferent to their consequences. +Fear, sorrow, and discontent, sometimes pursued him into the +solitude of Salona. His tenderness, or at least his pride, was +deeply wounded by the misfortunes of his wife and daughter; and +the last moments of Diocletian were imbittered by some affronts, +which Licinius and Constantine might have spared the father of so +many emperors, and the first author of their own fortune. A +report, though of a very doubtful nature, has reached our times, +that he prudently withdrew himself from their power by a +voluntary death.<br> +</p> + +<p>Before we dismiss the consideration of the life and character +of Diocletian, we may, for a moment, direct our view to the place +of his retirement. Salona, a principal city of his native +province of Dalmatia, was near two hundred Roman miles (according +to the measurement of the public highways) from Aquileia and the +confines of Italy, and about two hundred and seventy from +Sirmium, the usual residence of the emperors whenever they +visited the Illyrian frontier. A miserable village still +preserves the name of Salona; but so late as the sixteenth +century, the remains of a theatre, and a confused prospect of +broken arches and marble columns, continued to attest its ancient +splendor. About six or seven miles from the city, Diocletian +constructed a magnificent palace, and we may infer, from the +greatness of the work, how long he had meditated his design of +abdicating the empire. The choice of a spot which united all that +could contribute either to health or to luxury, did not require +the partiality of a native. "The soil was dry and fertile, the +air is pure and wholesome, and though extremely hot during the +summer months, this country seldom feels those sultry and noxious +winds, to which the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are +exposed. The views from the palace are no less beautiful than the +soil and climate were inviting. Towards the west lies the fertile +shore that stretches along the Adriatic, in which a number of +small islands are scattered in such a manner, as to give this +part of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the north side +lies the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona; and the +country beyond it, appearing in sight, forms a proper contrast to +that more extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic +presents both to the south and to the east. Towards the north, +the view is terminated by high and irregular mountains, situated +at a proper distance, and in many places covered with villages, +woods, and vineyards."<br> +</p> + +<p>Though Constantine, from a very obvious prejudice, affects to +mention the palace of Diocletian with contempt, yet one of their +successors, who could only see it in a neglected and mutilated +state, celebrates its magnificence in terms of the highest +admiration. It covered an extent of ground consisting of between +nine and ten English acres. The form was quadrangular, flanked +with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were near six hundred, and +the other two near seven hundred feet in length. The whole was +constructed of a beautiful freestone, extracted from the +neighboring quarries of Trau, or Tragutium, and very little +inferior to marble itself. Four streets, intersecting each other +at right angles, divided the several parts of this great edifice, +and the approach to the principal apartment was from a very +stately entrance, which is still denominated the Golden Gate. The +approach was terminated by a peristylium of granite columns, on +one side of which we discover the square temple of +Æsculapius, on the other the octagon temple of Jupiter. The +latter of those deities Diocletian revered as the patron of his +fortunes, the former as the protector of his health. By comparing +the present remains with the precepts of Vitruvius, the several +parts of the building, the baths, bed-chamber, the atrium, the +basilica, and the Cyzicene, Corinthian, and Egyptian halls have +been described with some degree of precision, or at least of +probability. Their forms were various, their proportions just; +but they all were attended with two imperfections, very repugnant +to our modern notions of taste and conveniency. These stately +rooms had neither windows nor chimneys. They were lighted from +the top, (for the building seems to have consisted of no more +than one story,) and they received their heat by the help of +pipes that were conveyed along the walls. The range of principal +apartments was protected towards the south-west by a portico five +hundred and seventeen feet long, which must have formed a very +noble and delightful walk, when the beauties of painting and +sculpture were added to those of the prospect.<br> +</p> + +<p>Had this magnificent edifice remained in a solitary country, +it would have been exposed to the ravages of time; but it might, +perhaps, have escaped the rapacious industry of man. The village +of Aspalathus, and, long afterwards, the provincial town of +Spalatro, have grown out of its ruins. The Golden Gate now opens +into the market-place. St. John the Baptist has usurped the +honors of Æsculapius; and the temple of Jupiter, under the +protection of the Virgin, is converted into the cathedral church. +For this account of Diocletian's palace we are principally +indebted to an ingenious artist of our own time and country, whom +a very liberal curiosity carried into the heart of Dalmatia. But +there is room to suspect that the elegance of his designs and +engraving has somewhat flattered the objects which it was their +purpose to represent. We are informed by a more recent and very +judicious traveller, that the awful ruins of Spalatro are not +less expressive of the decline of the art than of the greatness +of the Roman empire in the time of Diocletian. If such was indeed +the state of architecture, we must naturally believe that +painting and sculpture had experienced a still more sensible +decay. The practice of architecture is directed by a few general +and even mechanical rules. But sculpture, and above all, +painting, propose to themselves the imitation not only of the +forms of nature, but of the characters and passions of the human +soul. In those sublime arts, the dexterity of the hand is of +little avail, unless it is animated by fancy, and guided by the +most correct taste and observation.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is almost unnecessary to remark, that the civil +distractions of the empire, the license of the soldiers, the +inroads of the barbarians, and the progress of despotism, had +proved very unfavorable to genius, and even to learning. The +succession of Illyrian princes restored the empire without +restoring the sciences. Their military education was not +calculated to inspire them with the love of letters; and even the +mind of Diocletian, however active and capacious in business, was +totally uninformed by study or speculation. The professions of +law and physic are of such common use and certain profit, that +they will always secure a sufficient number of practitioners, +endowed with a reasonable degree of abilities and knowledge; but +it does not appear that the students in those two faculties +appeal to any celebrated masters who have flourished within that +period. The voice of poetry was silent. History was reduced to +dry and confused abridgments, alike destitute of amusement and +instruction. A languid and affected eloquence was still retained +in the pay and service of the emperors, who encouraged not any +arts except those which contributed to the gratification of their +pride, or the defence of their power.<br> +</p> + +<p>The declining age of learning and of mankind is marked, +however, by the rise and rapid progress of the new Platonists. +The school of Alexandria silenced those of Athens; and the +ancient sects enrolled themselves under the banners of the more +fashionable teachers, who recommended their system by the novelty +of their method, and the austerity of their manners. Several of +these masters, Ammonius, Plotinus, Amelius, and Porphyry, were +men of profound thought and intense application; but by mistaking +the true object of philosophy, their labors contributed much less +to improve than to corrupt the human understanding. The knowledge +that is suited to our situation and powers, the whole compass of +moral, natural, and mathematical science, was neglected by the +new Platonists; whilst they exhausted their strength in the +verbal disputes of metaphysics, attempted to explore the secrets +of the invisible world, and studied to reconcile Aristotle with +Plato, on subjects of which both these philosophers were as +ignorant as the rest of mankind. Consuming their reason in these +deep but unsubstantial meditations, their minds were exposed to +illusions of fancy. They flattered themselves that they possessed +the secret of disengaging the soul from its corporal prison; +claimed a familiar intercourse with demons and spirits; and, by a +very singular revolution, converted the study of philosophy into +that of magic. The ancient sages had derided the popular +superstition; after disguising its extravagance by the thin +pretence of allegory, the disciples of Plotinus and Porphyry +became its most zealous defenders. As they agreed with the +Christians in a few mysterious points of faith, they attacked the +remainder of their theological system with all the fury of civil +war. The new Platonists would scarcely deserve a place in the +history of science, but in that of the church the mention of them +will very frequently occur.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of +The Empire.</strong></p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian. -- Death Of +Constantius. -- Elevation Of Constantine And Maxen Tius. ­ +Six Emperors At The Same Time. -- Death Of Maximian And Galerius. +-- Victories Of Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus. -- +Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority Of Constantine.<br> +</p> + +<p>The balance of power established by Diocletian subsisted no +longer than while it was sustained by the firm and dexterous hand +of the founder. It required such a fortunate mixture of different +tempers and abilities, as could scarcely be found or even +expected a second time; two emperors without jealousy, two +Cæsars without ambition, and the same general interest +invariably pursued by four independent princes. The abdication of +Diocletian and Maximian was succeeded by eighteen years of +discord and confusion. The empire was afflicted by five civil +wars; and the remainder of the time was not so much a state of +tranquillity as a suspension of arms between several hostile +monarchs, who, viewing each other with an eye of fear and hatred, +strove to increase their respective forces at the expense of +their subjects.<br> +</p> + +<p>As soon as Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple, +their station, according to the rules of the new constitution, +was filled by the two Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, who +immediately assumed the title of Augustus.<br> +</p> + +<p>The honors of seniority and precedence were allowed to the +former of those princes, and he continued under a new appellation +to administer his ancient department of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. +The government of those ample provinces was sufficient to +exercise his talents and to satisfy his ambition. Clemency, +temperance, and moderation, distinguished the amiable character +of Constantius, and his fortunate subjects had frequently +occasion to compare the virtues of their sovereign with the +passions of Maximian, and even with the arts of Diocletian. +Instead of imitating their eastern pride and magnificence, +Constantius preserved the modesty of a Roman prince. He declared, +with unaffected sincerity, that his most valued treasure was in +the hearts of his people, and that, whenever the dignity of the +throne, or the danger of the state, required any extraordinary +supply, he could depend with confidence on their gratitude and +liberality. The provincials of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, sensible +of his worth, and of their own happiness, reflected with anxiety +on the declining health of the emperor Constantius, and the +tender age of his numerous family, the issue of his second +marriage with the daughter of Maximian.<br> +</p> + +<p>The stern temper of Galerius was cast in a very different +mould; and while he commanded the esteem of his subjects, he +seldom condescended to solicit their affections. His fame in +arms, and, above all, the success of the Persian war, had elated +his haughty mind, which was naturally impatient of a superior, or +even of an equal. If it were possible to rely on the partial +testimony of an injudicious writer, we might ascribe the +abdication of Diocletian to the menaces of Galerius, and relate +the particulars of a <strong><em>private</em></strong> +conversation between the two princes, in which the former +discovered as much pusillanimity as the latter displayed +ingratitude and arrogance. But these obscure anecdotes are +sufficiently refuted by an impartia view of the character and +conduct of Diocletian. Whatever might otherwise have been his +intentions, if he had apprehended any danger from the violence of +Galerius, his good sense would have instructed him to prevent the +ignominious contest; and as he had held the sceptre with glory, +he would have resigned it without disgrace.<br> +</p> + +<p>After the elevation of Constantius and Galerius to the rank of +<strong><em>Augusti</em></strong>, two new +<strong><em>Csars</em></strong> were required to supply their +place, and to complete the system of the Imperial government. +Diocletian, was sincerely desirous of withdrawing himself from +the world; he considered Galerius, who had married his daughter, +as the firmest support of his family and of the empire; and he +consented, without reluctance, that his successor should assume +the merit as well as the envy of the important nomination. It was +fixed without consulting the interest or inclination of the +princes of the West. Each of them had a son who was arrived at +the age of manhood, and who might have been deemed the most +natural candidates for the vacant honor. But the impotent +resentment of Maximian was no longer to be dreaded; and the +moderate Constantius, though he might despise the dangers, was +humanely apprehensive of the calamities, of civil war. The two +persons whom Galerius promoted to the rank of Cæsar, were +much better suited to serve the views of his ambition; and their +principal recommendation seems to have consisted in the want of +merit or personal consequence. The first of these was Daza, or, +as he was afterwards called, Maximin, whose mother was the sister +of Galerius. The unexperienced youth still betrayed, by his +manners and language, his rustic education, when, to his own +astonishment, as well as that of the world, he was invested by +Diocletian with the purple, exalted to the dignity of +Cæsar, and intrusted with the sovereign command of Egypt +and Syria. At the same time, Severus, a faithful servant, +addicted to pleasure, but not incapable of business, was sent to +Milan, to receive, from the reluctant hands of Maximian, the +Cæsarian ornaments, and the possession of Italy and Africa. +According to the forms of the constitution, Severus acknowledged +the supremacy of the western emperor; but he was absolutely +devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, who, +reserving to himself the intermediate countries from the confines +of Italy to those of Syria, firmly established his power over +three fourths of the monarchy. In the full confidence that the +approaching death of Constantius would leave him sole master of +the Roman world, we are assured that he had arranged in his mind +a long succession of future princes, and that he meditated his +own retreat from public life, after he should have accomplished a +glorious reign of about twenty years.<br> +</p> + +<p>But within less than eighteen months, two unexpected +revolutions overturned the ambitious schemes of Galerius. The +hopes of uniting the western provinces to his empire were +disappointed by the elevation of Constantine, whilst Italy and +Africa were lost by the successful revolt of Maxentius.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. The fame of Constantine has rendered posterity attentive to +the most minute circumstances of his life and actions. The place +of his birth, as well as the condition of his mother Helena, have +been the subject, not only of literary, but of national disputes. +Notwithstanding the recent tradition, which assigns for her +father a British king, we are obliged to confess, that Helena was +the daughter of an innkeeper; but at the same time, we may defend +the legality of her marriage, against those who have represented +her as the concubine of Constantius. The great Constantine was +most probably born at Naissus, in Dacia; and it is not surprising +that, in a family and province distinguished only by the +profession of arms, the youth should discover very little +inclination to improve his mind by the acquisition of knowledge. +He was about eighteen years of age when his father was promoted +to the rank of Cæsar; but that fortunate event was attended +with his mother's divorce; and the splendor of an Imperial +alliance reduced the son of Helena to a state of disgrace and +humiliation. Instead of following Constantius in the West, he +remained in the service of Diocletian, signalized his valor in +the wars of Egypt and Persia, and gradually rose to the honorable +station of a tribune of the first order. The figure of +Constantine was tall and majestic; he was dexterous in all his +exercises, intrepid in war, affable in peace; in his whole +conduct, the active spirit of youth was tempered by habitual +prudence; and while his mind was engrossed by ambition, he +appeared cold and insensible to the allurements of pleasure. The +favor of the people and soldiers, who had named him as a worthy +candidate for the rank of Cæsar, served only to exasperate +the jealousy of Galerius; and though prudence might restrain him +from exercising any open violence, an absolute monarch is seldom +at a loss now to execute a sure and secret evenge. Every hour +increased the danger of Constantine, and the anxiety of his +father, who, by repeated letters, expressed the warmest desire of +embracing his son. For some time the policy of Galerius supplied +him with delays and excuses; but it was impossible long to refuse +so natural a request of his associate, without maintaining his +refusal by arms. The permission of the journey was reluctantly +granted, and whatever precautions the emperor might have taken to +intercept a return, the consequences of which he, with so much +reason, apprehended, they were effectually disappointed by the +incredible diligence of Constantine. Leaving the palace of +Nicomedia in the night, he travelled post through Bithynia, +Thrace, Dacia, Pannonia, Italy, and Gaul, and, amidst the joyful +acclamations of the people, reached the port of Boulogne in the +very moment when his father was preparing to embark for +Britain.<br> +</p> + +<p>The British expedition, and an easy victory over the +barbarians of Caledonia, were the last exploits of the reign of +Constantius. He ended his life in the Imperial palace of York, +fifteen months after he had received the title of Augustus, and +almost fourteen years and a half after he had been promoted to +the rank of Cæsar. His death was immediately succeeded by +the elevation of Constantine. The ideas of inheritance and +succession are so very familiar, that the generality of mankind +consider them as founded, not only in reason, but in nature +itself. Our imagination readily transfers the same principles +from private property to public dominion: and whenever a virtuous +father leaves behind him a son whose merit seems to justify the +esteem, or even the hopes, of the people, the joint influence of +prejudice and of affection operates with irresistible weight. The +flower of the western armies had followed Constantius into +Britain, and the national troops were reenforced by a numerous +body of Alemanni, who obeyed the orders of Crocus, one of their +hereditary chieftains. The opinion of their own importance, and +the assurance that Britain, Gaul, and Spain would acquiesce in +their nomination, were diligently inculcated to the legions by +the adherents of Constantine. The soldiers were asked, whether +they could hesitate a moment between the honor of placing at +their head the worthy son of their beloved emperor, and the +ignominy of tamely expecting the arrival of some obscure +stranger, on whom it might please the sovereign of Asia to bestow +the armies and provinces of the West. It was insinuated to them, +that gratitude and liberality held a distinguished place among +the virtues of Constantine; nor did that artful prince show +himself to the troops, till they were prepared to salute him with +the names of Augustus and Emperor. The throne was the object of +his desires; and had he been less actuated by ambition, it was +his only means of safety. He was well acquainted with the +character and sentiments of Galerius, and sufficiently apprised, +that if he wished to live he must determine to reign. The decent +and even obstinate resistance which he chose to affect, was +contrived to justify his usurpation; nor did he yield to the +acclamations of the army, till he had provided the proper +materials for a letter, which he immediately despatched to the +emperor of the East. Constantine informed him of the melancholy +event of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural claim +to the succession, and respectfully lamented, that the +affectionate violence of his troops had not permitted him to +solicit the Imperial purple in the regular and constitutional +manner. The first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, +disappointment, and rage; and as he could seldom restrain his +passions, he loudly threatened, that he would commit to the +flames both the letter and the messenger. But his resentment +insensibly subsided; and when he recollected the doubtful chance +of war, when he had weighed the character and strength of his +adversary, he consented to embrace the honorable accommodation +which the prudence of Constantine had left open to him. Without +either condemning or ratifying the choice of the British army, +Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the +sovereign of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only +the title of Cæsar, and the fourth rank among the Roman +princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his +favorite Severus. The apparent harmony of the empire was still +preserved, and Constantine, who already possessed the substance, +expected, without impatience, an opportunity of obtaining the +honors, of supreme power.<br> +</p> + +<p>The children of Constantius by his second marriage were six in +number, three of either sex, and whose Imperial descent might +have solicited a preference over the meaner extraction of the son +of Helena. But Constantine was in the thirty-second year of his +age, in the full vigor both of mind and body, at the time when +the eldest of his brothers could not possibly be more than +thirteen years old. His claim of superior merit had been allowed +and ratified by the dying emperor. In his last moments +Constantius bequeathed to his eldest son the care of the safety +as well as greatness of the family; conjuring him to assume both +the authority and the sentiments of a father with regard to the +children of Theodora. Their liberal education, advantageous +marriages, the secure dignity of their lives, and the first +honors of the state with which they were invested, attest the +fraternal affection of Constantine; and as those princes +possessed a mild and grateful disposition, they submitted without +reluctance to the superiority of his genius and fortune.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The ambitious spirit of Galerius was scarcely reconciled +to the disappointment of his views upon the Gallic provinces, +before the unexpected loss of Italy wounded his pride as well as +power in a still more sensible part. The long absence of the +emperors had filled Rome with discontent and indignation; and the +people gradually discovered, that the preference given to +Nicomedia and Milan was not to be ascribed to the particular +inclination of Diocletian, but to the permanent form of +government which he had instituted. It was in vain that, a few +months after his abdication, his successors dedicated, under his +name, those magnificent baths, whose ruins still supply the +ground as well as the materials for so many churches and +convents. The tranquility of those elegant recesses of ease and +luxury was disturbed by the impatient murmurs of the Romans, and +a report was insensibly circulated, that the sums expended in +erecting those buildings would soon be required at their hands. +About that time the avarice of Galerius, or perhaps the +exigencies of the state, had induced him to make a very strict +and rigorous inquisition into the property of his subjects, for +the purpose of a general taxation, both on their lands and on +their persons. A very minute survey appears to have been taken of +their real estates; and wherever there was the slightest +suspicion of concealment, torture was very freely employed to +obtain a sincere declaration of their personal wealth. The +privileges which had exalted Italy above the rank of the +provinces were no longer regarded: * and the officers of the +revenue already began to number the Roman people, and to settle +the proportion of the new taxes. Even when the spirit of freedom +had been utterly extinguished, the tamest subjects have sometimes +ventured to resist an unprecedented invasion of their property; +but on this occasion the injury was aggravated by the insult, and +the sense of private interest was quickened by that of national +honor. The conquest of Macedonia, as we have already observed, +had delivered the Roman people from the weight of personal taxes. +Though they had experienced every form of despotism, they had now +enjoyed that exemption near five hundred years; nor could they +patiently brook the insolence of an Illyrian peasant, who, from +his distant residence in Asia, presumed to number Rome among the +tributary cities of his empire. The rising fury of the people was +encouraged by the authority, or at least the connivance, of the +senate; and the feeble remains of the Prætorian guards, who +had reason to apprehend their own dissolution, embraced so +honorable a pretence, and declared their readiness to draw their +swords in the service of their oppressed country. It was the +wish, and it soon became the hope, of every citizen, that after +expelling from Italy their foreign tyrants, they should elect a +prince who, by the place of his residence, and by his maxims of +government, might once more deserve the title of Roman emperor. +The name, as well as the situation, of Maxentius determined in +his favor the popular enthusiasm.<br> +</p> + +<p>Maxentius was the son of the emperor Maximian, and he had +married the daughter of Galerius. His birth and alliance seemed +to offer him the fairest promise of succeeding to the empire; but +his vices and incapacity procured him the same exclusion from the +dignity of Cæsar, which Constantine had deserved by a +dangerous superiority of merit. The policy of Galerius preferred +such associates as would never disgrace the choice, nor dispute +the commands, of their benefactor. An obscure stranger was +therefore raised to the throne of Italy, and the son of the late +emperor of the West was left to enjoy the luxury of a private +fortune in a villa a few miles distant from the capital. The +gloomy passions of his soul, shame, vexation, and rage, were +inflamed by envy on the news of Constantine's success; but the +hopes of Maxentius revived with the public discontent, and he was +easily persuaded to unite his personal injury and pretensions +with the cause of the Roman people. Two Prætorian tribunes +and a commissary of provisions undertook the management of the +conspiracy; and as every order of men was actuated by the same +spirit, the immediate event was neither doubtful nor difficult. +The præfect of the city, and a few magistrates, who +maintained their fidelity to Severus, were massacred by the +guards; and Maxentius, invested with the Imperial ornaments, was +acknowledged by the applauding senate and people as the protector +of the Roman freedom and dignity. It is uncertain whether +Maximian was previously acquainted with the conspiracy; but as +soon as the standard of rebellion was erected at Rome, the old +emperor broke from the retirement where the authority of +Diocletian had condemned him to pass a life of melancholy and +solitude, and concealed his returning ambition under the disguise +of paternal tenderness. At the request of his son and of the +senate, he condescended to reassume the purple. His ancient +dignity, his experience, and his fame in arms, added strength as +well as reputation to the party of Maxentius.<br> +</p> + +<p>According to the advice, or rather the orders, of his +colleague, the emperor Severus immediately hastened to Rome, in +the full confidence, that, by his unexpected celerity, he should +easily suppress the tumult of an unwarlike populace, commanded by +a licentious youth. But he found on his arrival the gates of the +city shut against him, the walls filled with men and arms, an +experienced general at the head of the rebels, and his own troops +without spirit or affection. A large body of Moors deserted to +the enemy, allured by the promise of a large donative; and, if it +be true that they had been levied by Maximian in his African war, +preferring the natural feelings of gratitude to the artificial +ties of allegiance. Anulinus, the Prætorian præfect, +declared himself in favor of Maxentius, and drew after him the +most considerable part of the troops, accustomed to obey his +commands. Rome, according to the expression of an orator, +recalled her armies; and the unfortunate Severus, destitute of +force and of counsel, retired, or rather fled, with +precipitation, to Ravenna. Here he might for some time have been +safe. The fortifications of Ravenna were able to resist the +attempts, and the morasses that surrounded the town, were +sufficient to prevent the approach, of the Italian army. The sea, +which Severus commanded with a powerful fleet, secured him an +inexhaustible supply of provisions, and gave a free entrance to +the legions, which, on the return of spring, would advance to his +assistance from Illyricum and the East. Maximian, who conducted +the siege in person, was soon convinced that he might waste his +time and his army in the fruitless enterprise, and that he had +nothing to hope either from force or famine. With an art more +suitable to the character of Diocletian than to his own, he +directed his attack, not so much against the walls of Ravenna, as +against the mind of Severus. The treachery which he had +experienced disposed that unhappy prince to distrust the most +sincere of his friends and adherents. The emissaries of Maximian +easily persuaded his credulity, that a conspiracy was formed to +betray the town, and prevailed upon his fears not to expose +himself to the discretion of an irritated conqueror, but to +accept the faith of an honorable capitulation. He was at first +received with humanity and treated with respect. Maximian +conducted the captive emperor to Rome, and gave him the most +solemn assurances that he had secured his life by the resignation +of the purple. But Severus, could obtain only an easy death and +an Imperial funeral. When the sentence was signified to him, the +manner of executing it was left to his own choice; he preferred +the favorite mode of the ancients, that of opening his veins; and +as soon as he expired, his body was carried to the sepulchre +which had been constructed for the family of Gallienus.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, +Reunion Of The Empire. -- Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>Though the characters of Constantine and Maxentius had very +little affinity with each other, their situation and interest +were the same; and prudence seemed to require that they should +unite their forces against the common enemy. Notwithstanding the +superiority of his age and dignity, the indefatigable Maximian +passed the Alps, and, courting a personal interview with the +sovereign of Gaul, carried with him his daughter Fausta as the +pledge of the new alliance. The marriage was celebrated at Arles +with every circumstance of magnificence; and the ancient +colleague of Diocletian, who again asserted his claim to the +Western empire, conferred on his son-in-law and ally the title of +Augustus. By consenting to receive that honor from Maximian, +Constantine seemed to embrace the cause of Rome and of the +senate; but his professions were ambiguous, and his assistance +slow and ineffectual. He considered with attention the +approaching contest between the masters of Italy and the emperor +of the East, and was prepared to consult his own safety or +ambition in the event of the war.<br> +</p> + +<p>The importance of the occasion called for the presence and +abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army, collected +from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy, resolved to +revenge the death of Severus, and to chastise the rebellions +Romans; or, as he expressed his intentions, in the furious +language of a barbarian, to extirpate the senate, and to destroy +the people by the sword. But the skill of Maximian had concerted +a prudent system of defence. The invader found every place +hostile, fortified, and inaccessible; and though he forced his +way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, his dominion in +Italy was confined to the narrow limits of his camp. Sensible of +the increasing difficulties of his enterprise, the haughty +Galerius made the first advances towards a reconciliation, and +despatched two of his most considerable officers to tempt the +Roman princes by the offer of a conference, and the declaration +of his paternal regard for Maxentius, who might obtain much more +from his liberality than he could hope from the doubtful chance +of war. The offers of Galerius were rejected with firmness, his +perfidious friendship refused with contempt, and it was not long +before he discovered, that, unless he provided for his safety by +a timely retreat, he had some reason to apprehend the fate of +Severus. The wealth which the Romans defended against his +rapacious tyranny, they freely contributed for his destruction. +The name of Maximian, the popular arts of his son, the secret +distribution of large sums, and the promise of still more liberal +rewards, checked the ardor and corrupted the fidelity of the +Illyrian legions; and when Galerius at length gave the signal of +the retreat, it was with some difficulty that he could prevail on +his veterans not to desert a banner which had so often conducted +them to victory and honor. A contemporary writer assigns two +other causes for the failure of the expedition; but they are both +of such a nature, that a cautious historian will scarcely venture +to adopt them. We are told that Galerius, who had formed a very +imperfect notion of the greatness of Rome by the cities of the +East with which he was acquainted, found his forces inadequate to +the siege of that immense capital. But the extent of a city +serves only to render it more accessible to the enemy: Rome had +long since been accustomed to submit on the approach of a +conqueror; nor could the temporary enthusiasm of the people have +long contended against the discipline and valor of the legions. +We are likewise informed that the legions themselves were struck +with horror and remorse, and that those pious sons of the +republic refused to violate the sanctity of their venerable +parent. But when we recollect with how much ease, in the more +ancient civil wars, the zeal of party and the habits of military +obedience had converted the native citizens of Rome into her most +implacable enemies, we shall be inclined to distrust this extreme +delicacy of strangers and barbarians, who had never beheld Italy +till they entered it in a hostile manner. Had they not been +restrained by motives of a more interested nature, they would +probably have answered Galerius in the words of Cæsar's +veterans: "If our general wishes to lead us to the banks of the +Tyber, we are prepared to trace out his camp. Whatsoever walls he +has determined to level with the ground, our hands are ready to +work the engines: nor shall we hesitate, should the name of the +devoted city be Rome itself." These are indeed the expressions of +a poet; but of a poet who has been distinguished, and even +censured, for his strict adherence to the truth of history.<br> +</p> + +<p>The legions of Galerius exhibited a very melancholy proof of +their disposition, by the ravages which they committed in their +retreat. They murdered, they ravished, they plundered, they drove +away the flocks and herds of the Italians; they burnt the +villages through which they passed, and they endeavored to +destroy the country which it had not been in their power to +subdue. During the whole march, Maxentius hung on their rear, but +he very prudently declined a general engagement with those brave +and desperate veterans. His father had undertaken a second +journey into Gaul, with the hope of persuading Constantine, who +had assembled an army on the frontier, to join in the pursuit, +and to complete the victory. But the actions of Constantine were +guided by reason, and not by resentment. He persisted in the wise +resolution of maintaining a balance of power in the divided +empire, and he no longer hated Galerius, when that aspiring +prince had ceased to be an object of terror.<br> +</p> + +<p>The mind of Galerius was the most susceptible of the sterner +passions, but it was not, however, incapable of a sincere and +lasting friendship. Licinius, whose manners as well as character, +were not unlike his own, seems to have engaged both his affection +and esteem. Their intimacy had commenced in the happier period +perhaps of their youth and obscurity. It had been cemented by the +freedom and dangers of a military life; they had advanced almost +by equal steps through the successive honors of the service; and +as soon as Galerius was invested with the Imperial dignity, he +seems to have conceived the design of raising his companion to +the same rank with himself. During the short period of his +prosperity, he considered the rank of Cæsar as unworthy of +the age and merit of Licinius, and rather chose to reserve for +him the place of Constantius, and the empire of the West. While +the emperor was employed in the Italian war, he intrusted his +friend with the defence of the Danube; and immediately after his +return from that unfortunate expedition, he invested Licinius +with the vacant purple of Severus, resigning to his immediate +command the provinces of Illyricum. The news of his promotion was +no sooner carried into the East, than Maximin, who governed, or +rather oppressed, the countries of Egypt and Syria, betrayed his +envy and discontent, disdained the inferior name of Cæsar, +and, notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of +Galerius, exacted, almost by violence, the equal title of +Augustus. For the first, and indeed for the last time, the Roman +world was administered by six emperors. In the West, Constantine +and Maxentius affected to reverence their father Maximian. In the +East, Licinius and Maximin honored with more real consideration +their benefactor Galerius. The opposition of interest, and the +memory of a recent war, divided the empire into two great hostile +powers; but their mutual fears produced an apparent tranquillity, +and even a feigned reconciliation, till the death of the elder +princes, of Maximian, and more particularly of Galerius, gave a +new direction to the views and passions of their surviving +associates.<br> +</p> + +<p>When Maximian had reluctantly abdicated the empire, the venal +orators of the times applauded his philosophic moderation. When +his ambition excited, or at least encouraged, a civil war, they +returned thanks to his generous patriotism, and gently censured +that love of ease and retirement which had withdrawn him from the +public service. But it was impossible that minds like those of +Maximian and his son could long possess in harmony an undivided +power. Maxentius considered himself as the legal sovereign of +Italy, elected by the Roman senate and people; nor would he +endure the control of his father, who arrogantly declared that by +his name and abilities the rash youth had been established on the +throne. The cause was solemnly pleaded before the Prætorian +guards; and those troops, who dreaded the severity of the old +emperor, espoused the party of Maxentius. The life and freedom of +Maximian were, however, respected, and he retired from Italy into +Illyricum, affecting to lament his past conduct, and secretly +contriving new mischiefs. But Galerius, who was well acquainted +with his character, soon obliged him to leave his dominions, and +the last refuge of the disappointed Maximian was the court of his +son-in-law Constantine. He was received with respect by that +artful prince, and with the appearance of filial tenderness by +the empress Fausta. That he might remove every suspicion, he +resigned the Imperial purple a second time, professing himself at +length convinced of the vanity of greatness and ambition. Had he +persevered in this resolution, he might have ended his life with +less dignity, indeed, than in his first retirement, yet, however, +with comfort and reputation. But the near prospect of a throne +brought back to his remembrance the state from whence he was +fallen, and he resolved, by a desperate effort either to reign or +to perish. An incursion of the Franks had summoned Constantine, +with a part of his army, to the banks of the Rhine; the remainder +of the troops were stationed in the southern provinces of Gaul, +which lay exposed to the enterprises of the Italian emperor, and +a considerable treasure was deposited in the city of Arles. +Maximian either craftily invented, or easily credited, a vain +report of the death of Constantine. Without hesitation he +ascended the throne, seized the treasure, and scattering it with +his accustomed profusion among the soldiers, endeavored to awake +in their minds the memory of his ancient dignity and exploits. +Before he could establish his authority, or finish the +negotiation which he appears to have entered into with his son +Maxentius, the celerity of Constantine defeated all his hopes. On +the first news of his perfidy and ingratitude, that prince +returned by rapid marches from the Rhine to the Saone, embarked +on the last mentioned river at Chalons, and at Lyons trusting +himself to the rapidity of the Rhone, arrived at the gates of +Arles, with a military force which it was impossible for Maximian +to resist, and which scarcely permitted him to take refuge in the +neighboring city of Marseilles. The narrow neck of land which +joined that place to the continent was fortified against the +besiegers, whilst the sea was open, either for the escape of +Maximian, or for the succor of Maxentius, if the latter should +choose to disguise his invasion of Gaul under the honorable +pretence of defending a distressed, or, as he might allege, an +injured father. Apprehensive of the fatal consequences of delay, +Constantine gave orders for an immediate assault; but the +scaling-ladders were found too short for the height of the walls, +and Marseilles might have sustained as long a siege as it +formerly did against the arms of Cæsar, if the garrison, +conscious either of their fault or of their danger, had not +purchased their pardon by delivering up the city and the person +of Maximian. A secret but irrevocable sentence of death was +pronounced against the usurper; he obtained only the same favor +which he had indulged to Severus, and it was published to the +world, that, oppressed by the remorse of his repeated crimes, he +strangled himself with his own hands. After he had lost the +assistance, and disdained the moderate counsels of Diocletian, +the second period of his active life was a series of public +calamities and personal mortifications, which were terminated, in +about three years, by an ignominious death. He deserved his fate; +but we should find more reason to applaud the humanity of +Constantine, if he had spared an old man, the benefactor of his +father, and the father of his wife. During the whole of this +melancholy transaction, it appears that Fausta sacrificed the +sentiments of nature to her conjugal duties.<br> +</p> + +<p>The last years of Galerius were less shameful and unfortunate; +and though he had filled with more glory the subordinate station +of Cæsar than the superior rank of Augustus, he preserved, +till the moment of his death, the first place among the princes +of the Roman world. He survived his retreat from Italy about four +years; and wisely relinquishing his views of universal empire, he +devoted the remainder of his life to the enjoyment of pleasure, +and to the execution of some works of public utility, among which +we may distinguish the discharging into the Danube the +superfluous waters of the Lake Pelso, and the cutting down the +immense forests that encompassed it; an operation worthy of a +monarch, since it gave an extensive country to the agriculture of +his Pannonian subjects. His death was occasioned by a very +painful and lingering disorder. His body, swelled by an +intemperate course of life to an unwieldy corpulence, was covered +with ulcers, and devoured by innumerable swarms of those insects +which have given their name to a most loathsome disease; but as +Galerius had offended a very zealous and powerful party among his +subjects, his sufferings, instead of exciting their compassion, +have been celebrated as the visible effects of divine justice. He +had no sooner expired in his palace of Nicomedia, than the two +emperors who were indebted for their purple to his favors, began +to collect their forces, with the intention either of disputing, +or of dividing, the dominions which he had left without a master. +They were persuaded, however, to desist from the former design, +and to agree in the latter. The provinces of Asia fell to the +share of Maximin, and those of Europe augmented the portion of +Licinius. The Hellespont and the Thracian Bosphorus formed their +mutual boundary, and the banks of those narrow seas, which flowed +in the midst of the Roman world, were covered with soldiers, with +arms, and with fortifications. The deaths of Maximian and of +Galerius reduced the number of emperors to four. The sense of +their true interest soon connected Licinius and Constantine; a +secret alliance was concluded between Maximin and Maxentius, and +their unhappy subjects expected with terror the bloody +consequences of their inevitable dissensions, which were no +longer restrained by the fear or the respect which they had +entertained for Galerius.<br> +</p> + +<p>Among so many crimes and misfortunes, occasioned by the +passions of the Roman princes, there is some pleasure in +discovering a single action which may be ascribed to their +virtue. In the sixth year of his reign, Constantine visited the +city of Autun, and generously remitted the arrears of tribute, +reducing at the same time the proportion of their assessment from +twenty-five to eighteen thousand heads, subject to the real and +personal capitation. Yet even this indulgence affords the most +unquestionable proof of the public misery. This tax was so +extremely oppressive, either in itself or in the mode of +collecting it, that whilst the revenue was increased by +extortion, it was diminished by despair: a considerable part of +the territory of Autun was left uncultivated; and great numbers +of the provincials rather chose to live as exiles and outlaws, +than to support the weight of civil society. It is but too +probable, that the bountiful emperor relieved, by a partial act +of liberality, one among the many evils which he had caused by +his general maxims of administration. But even those maxims were +less the effect of choice than of necessity. And if we except the +death of Maximian, the reign of Constantine in Gaul seems to have +been the most innocent and even virtuous period of his life. The +provinces were protected by his presence from the inroads of the +barbarians, who either dreaded or experienced his active valor. +After a signal victory over the Franks and Alemanni, several of +their princes were exposed by his order to the wild beasts in the +amphitheatre of Treves, and the people seem to have enjoyed the +spectacle, without discovering, in such a treatment of royal +captives, any thing that was repugnant to the laws of nations or +of humanity. *<br> +</p> + +<p>The virtues of Constantine were rendered more illustrious by +the vices of Maxentius. Whilst the Gallic provinces enjoyed as +much happiness as the condition of the times was capable of +receiving, Italy and Africa groaned under the dominion of a +tyrant, as contemptible as he was odious. The zeal of flattery +and faction has indeed too frequently sacrificed the reputation +of the vanquished to the glory of their successful rivals; but +even those writers who have revealed, with the most freedom and +pleasure, the faults of Constantine, unanimously confess that +Maxentius was cruel, rapacious, and profligate. He had the good +fortune to suppress a slight rebellion in Africa. The governor +and a few adherents had been guilty; the province suffered for +their crime. The flourishing cities of Cirtha and Carthage, and +the whole extent of that fertile country, were wasted by fire and +sword. The abuse of victory was followed by the abuse of law and +justice. A formidable army of sycophants and delators invaded +Africa; the rich and the noble were easily convicted of a +connection with the rebels; and those among them who experienced +the emperor's clemency, were only punished by the confiscation of +their estates. So signal a victory was celebrated by a +magnificent triumph, and Maxentius exposed to the eyes of the +people the spoils and captives of a Roman province. The state of +the capital was no less deserving of compassion than that of +Africa. The wealth of Rome supplied an inexhaustible fund for his +vain and prodigal expenses, and the ministers of his revenue were +skilled in the arts of rapine. It was under his reign that the +method of exacting a <strong><em>free gift</em></strong> from the +senators was first invented; and as the sum was insensibly +increased, the pretences of levying it, a victory, a birth, a +marriage, or an imperial consulship, were proportionably +multiplied. Maxentius had imbibed the same implacable aversion to +the senate, which had characterized most of the former tyrants of +Rome; nor was it possible for his ungrateful temper to forgive +the generous fidelity which had raised him to the throne, and +supported him against all his enemies. The lives of the senators +were exposed to his jealous suspicions, the dishonor of their +wives and daughters heightened the gratification of his sensual +passions. It may be presumed, that an Imperial lover was seldom +reduced to sigh in vain; but whenever persuasion proved +ineffectual, he had recourse to violence; and there remains +<strong><em>one</em></strong> memorable example of a noble +matron, who preserved her chastity by a voluntary death. The +soldiers were the only order of men whom he appeared to respect, +or studied to please. He filled Rome and Italy with armed troops, +connived at their tumults, suffered them with impunity to +plunder, and even to massacre, the defenceless people; and +indulging them in the same licentiousness which their emperor +enjoyed, Maxentius often bestowed on his military favorites the +splendid villa, or the beautiful wife, of a senator. A prince of +such a character, alike incapable of governing, either in peace +or in war, might purchase the support, but he could never obtain +the esteem, of the army. Yet his pride was equal to his other +vices. Whilst he passed his indolent life either within the walls +of his palace, or in the neighboring gardens of Sallust, he was +repeatedly heard to declare, that <strong><em>he</em></strong> +<strong><em>alone</em></strong> was emperor, and that the other +princes were no more than his lieutenants, on whom he had +devolved the defence of the frontier provinces, that he might +enjoy without interruption the elegant luxury of the capital. +Rome, which had so long regretted the absence, lamented, during +the six years of his reign, the presence of her sovereign.<br> +</p> + +<p>Though Constantine might view the conduct of Maxentius with +abhorrence, and the situation of the Romans with compassion, we +have no reason to presume that he would have taken up arms to +punish the one or to relieve the other. But the tyrant of Italy +rashly ventured to provoke a formidable enemy, whose ambition had +been hitherto restrained by considerations of prudence, rather +than by principles of justice. After the death of Maximian, his +titles, according to the established custom, had been erased, and +his statues thrown down with ignominy. His son, who had +persecuted and deserted him when alive, effected to display the +most pious regard for his memory, and gave orders that a similar +treatment should be immediately inflicted on all the statues that +had been erected in Italy and Africa to the honor of Constantine. +That wise prince, who sincerely wished to decline a war, with the +difficulty and importance of which he was sufficiently +acquainted, at first dissembled the insult, and sought for +redress by the milder expedient of negotiation, till he was +convinced that the hostile and ambitious designs of the Italian +emperor made it necessary for him to arm in his own defence. +Maxentius, who openly avowed his pretensions to the whole +monarchy of the West, had already prepared a very considerable +force to invade the Gallic provinces on the side of Rhætia; +and though he could not expect any assistance from Licinius, he +was flattered with the hope that the legions of Illyricum, +allured by his presents and promises, would desert the standard +of that prince, and unanimously declare themselves his soldiers +and subjects. Constantine no longer hesitated. He had deliberated +with caution, he acted with vigor. He gave a private audience to +the ambassadors, who, in the name of the senate and people, +conjured him to deliver Rome from a detested tyrant; and without +regarding the timid remonstrances of his council, he resolved to +prevent the enemy, and to carry the war into the heart of +Italy.<br> +</p> + +<p>The enterprise was as full of danger as of glory; and the +unsuccessful event of two former invasions was sufficient to +inspire the most serious apprehensions. The veteran troops, who +revered the name of Maximian, had embraced in both those wars the +party of his son, and were now restrained by a sense of honor, as +well as of interest, from entertaining an idea of a second +desertion. Maxentius, who considered the Prætorian guards +as the firmest defence of his throne, had increased them to their +ancient establishment; and they composed, including the rest of +the Italians who were enlisted into his service, a formidable +body of fourscore thousand men. Forty thousand Moors and +Carthaginians had been raised since the reduction of Africa. Even +Sicily furnished its proportion of troops; and the armies of +Maxentius amounted to one hundred and seventy thousand foot and +eighteen thousand horse. The wealth of Italy supplied the +expenses of the war; and the adjacent provinces were exhausted, +to form immense magazines of corn and every other kind of +provisions.<br> +</p> + +<p>The whole force of Constantine consisted of ninety thousand +foot and eight thousand horse; and as the defence of the Rhine +required an extraordinary attention during the absence of the +emperor, it was not in his power to employ above half his troops +in the Italian expedition, unless he sacrificed the public safety +to his private quarrel. At the head of about forty thousand +soldiers he marched to encounter an enemy whose numbers were at +least four times superior to his own. But the armies of Rome, +placed at a secure distance from danger, were enervated by +indulgence and luxury. Habituated to the baths and theatres of +Rome, they took the field with reluctance, and were chiefly +composed of veterans who had almost forgotten, or of new levies +who had never acquired, the use of arms and the practice of war. +The hardy legions of Gaul had long defended the frontiers of the +empire against the barbarians of the North; and in the +performance of that laborious service, their valor was exercised +and their discipline confirmed. There appeared the same +difference between the leaders as between the armies. Caprice or +flattery had tempted Maxentius with the hopes of conquest; but +these aspiring hopes soon gave way to the habits of pleasure and +the consciousness of his inexperience. The intrepid mind of +Constantine had been trained from his earliest youth to war, to +action, and to military command.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, +Reunion Of The Empire. -- Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>When Hannibal marched from Gaul into Italy, he was obliged, +first to discover, and then to open, a way over mountains, and +through savage nations, that had never yielded a passage to a +regular army. The Alps were then guarded by nature, they are now +fortified by art. Citadels, constructed with no less skill than +labor and expense, command every avenue into the plain, and on +that side render Italy almost inaccessible to the enemies of the +king of Sardinia. But in the course of the intermediate period, +the generals, who have attempted the passage, have seldom +experienced any difficulty or resistance. In the age of +Constantine, the peasants of the mountains were civilized and +obedient subjects; the country was plentifully stocked with +provisions, and the stupendous highways, which the Romans had +carried over the Alps, opened several communications between Gaul +and Italy. Constantine preferred the road of the Cottian Alps, +or, as it is now called, of Mount Cenis, and led his troops with +such active diligence, that he descended into the plain of +Piedmont before the court of Maxentius had received any certain +intelligence of his departure from the banks of the Rhine. The +city of Susa, however, which is situated at the foot of Mount +Cenis, was surrounded with walls, and provided with a garrison +sufficiently numerous to check the progress of an invader; but +the impatience of Constantine's troops disdained the tedious +forms of a siege. The same day that they appeared before Susa, +they applied fire to the gates, and ladders to the walls; and +mounting to the assault amidst a shower of stones and arrows, +they entered the place sword in hand, and cut in pieces the +greatest part of the garrison. The flames were extinguished by +the care of Constantine, and the remains of Susa preserved from +total destruction. About forty miles from thence, a more severe +contest awaited him. A numerous army of Italians was assembled +under the lieutenants of Maxentius, in the plains of Turin. Its +principal strength consisted in a species of heavy cavalry, which +the Romans, since the decline of their discipline, had borrowed +from the nations of the East. The horses, as well as the men, +were clothed in complete armor, the joints of which were artfully +adapted to the motions of their bodies. The aspect of this +cavalry was formidable, their weight almost irresistible; and as, +on this occasion, their generals had drawn them up in a compact +column or wedge, with a sharp point, and with spreading flanks, +they flattered themselves that they could easily break and +trample down the army of Constantine. They might, perhaps, have +succeeded in their design, had not their experienced adversary +embraced the same method of defence, which in similar +circumstances had been practised by Aurelian. The skilful +evolutions of Constantine divided and baffled this massy column +of cavalry. The troops of Maxentius fled in confusion towards +Turin; and as the gates of the city were shut against them, very +few escaped the sword of the victorious pursuers. By this +important service, Turin deserved to experience the clemency and +even favor of the conqueror. He made his entry into the Imperial +palace of Milan, and almost all the cities of Italy between the +Alps and the Po not only acknowledged the power, but embraced +with zeal the party, of Constantine.<br> +</p> + +<p>From Milan to Rome, the Æmilian and Flaminian highways +offered an easy march of about four hundred miles; but though +Constantine was impatient to encounter the tyrant, he prudently +directed his operations against another army of Italians, who, by +their strength and position, might either oppose his progress, +or, in case of a misfortune, might intercept his retreat. +Ruricius Pompeianus, a general distinguished by his valor and +ability, had under his command the city of Verona, and all the +troops that were stationed in the province of Venetia. As soon as +he was informed that Constantine was advancing towards him, he +detached a large body of cavalry which was defeated in an +engagement near Brescia, and pursued by the Gallic legions as far +as the gates of Verona. The necessity, the importance, and the +difficulties of the siege of Verona, immediately presented +themselves to the sagacious mind of Constantine. The city was +accessible only by a narrow peninsula towards the west, as the +other three sides were surrounded by the Adige, a rapid river, +which covered the province of Venetia, from whence the besieged +derived an inexhaustible supply of men and provisions. It was not +without great difficulty, and after several fruitless attempts, +that Constantine found means to pass the river at some distance +above the city, and in a place where the torrent was less +violent. He then encompassed Verona with strong lines, pushed his +attacks with prudent vigor, and repelled a desperate sally of +Pompeianus. That intrepid general, when he had used every means +of defence that the strength of the place or that of the garrison +could afford, secretly escaped from Verona, anxious not for his +own, but for the public safety. With indefatigable diligence he +soon collected an army sufficient either to meet Constantine in +the field, or to attack him if he obstinately remained within his +lines. The emperor, attentive to the motions, and informed of the +approach of so formidable an enemy, left a part of his legions to +continue the operations of the siege, whilst, at the head of +those troops on whose valor and fidelity he more particularly +depended, he advanced in person to engage the general of +Maxentius. The army of Gaul was drawn up in two lines, according +to the usual practice of war; but their experienced leader, +perceiving that the numbers of the Italians far exceeded his own, +suddenly changed his disposition, and, reducing the second, +extended the front of his first line to a just proportion with +that of the enemy. Such evolutions, which only veteran troops can +execute without confusion in a moment of danger, commonly prove +decisive; but as this engagement began towards the close of the +day, and was contested with great obstinacy during the whole +night, there was less room for the conduct of the generals than +for the courage of the soldiers. The return of light displayed +the victory of Constantine, and a field of carnage covered with +many thousands of the vanquished Italians. Their general, +Pompeianus, was found among the slain; Verona immediately +surrendered at discretion, and the garrison was made prisoners of +war. When the officers of the victorious army congratulated their +master on this important success, they ventured to add some +respectful complaints, of such a nature, however, as the most +jealous monarchs will listen to without displeasure. They +represented to Constantine, that, not contented with all the +duties of a commander, he had exposed his own person with an +excess of valor which almost degenerated into rashness; and they +conjured him for the future to pay more regard to the +preservation of a life in which the safety of Rome and of the +empire was involved.<br> +</p> + +<p>While Constantine signalized his conduct and valor in the +field, the sovereign of Italy appeared insensible of the +calamities and danger of a civil war which reigned in the heart +of his dominions. Pleasure was still the only business of +Maxentius. Concealing, or at least attempting to conceal, from +the public knowledge the misfortunes of his arms, he indulged +himself in a vain confidence which deferred the remedies of the +approaching evil, without deferring the evil itself. The rapid +progress of Constantine was scarcely sufficient to awaken him +from his fatal security; he flattered himself, that his +well-known liberality, and the majesty of the Roman name, which +had already delivered him from two invasions, would dissipate +with the same facility the rebellious army of Gaul. The officers +of experience and ability, who had served under the banners of +Maximian, were at length compelled to inform his effeminate son +of the imminent danger to which he was reduced; and, with a +freedom that at once surprised and convinced him, to urge the +necessity of preventing his ruin, by a vigorous exertion of his +remaining power. The resources of Maxentius, both of men and +money, were still considerable. The Prætorian guards felt +how strongly their own interest and safety were connected with +his cause; and a third army was soon collected, more numerous +than those which had been lost in the battles of Turin and +Verona. It was far from the intention of the emperor to lead his +troops in person. A stranger to the exercises of war, he trembled +at the apprehension of so dangerous a contest; and as fear is +commonly superstitious, he listened with melancholy attention to +the rumors of omens and presages which seemed to menace his life +and empire. Shame at length supplied the place of courage, and +forced him to take the field. He was unable to sustain the +contempt of the Roman people. The circus resounded with their +indignant clamors, and they tumultuously besieged the gates of +the palace, reproaching the pusillanimity of their indolent +sovereign, and celebrating the heroic spirit of Constantine. +Before Maxentius left Rome, he consulted the Sibylline books. The +guardians of these ancient oracles were as well versed in the +arts of this world as they were ignorant of the secrets of fate; +and they returned him a very prudent answer, which might adapt +itself to the event, and secure their reputation, whatever should +be the chance of arms.<br> +</p> + +<p>The celerity of Constantine's march has been compared to the +rapid conquest of Italy by the first of the Cæsars; nor is +the flattering parallel repugnant to the truth of history, since +no more than fifty-eight days elapsed between the surrender of +Verona and the final decision of the war. Constantine had always +apprehended that the tyrant would consult the dictates of fear, +and perhaps of prudence; and that, instead of risking his last +hopes in a general engagement, he would shut himself up within +the walls of Rome. His ample magazines secured him against the +danger of famine; and as the situation of Constantine admitted +not of delay, he might have been reduced to the sad necessity of +destroying with fire and sword the Imperial city, the noblest +reward of his victory, and the deliverance of which had been the +motive, or rather indeed the pretence, of the civil war. It was +with equal surprise and pleasure, that on his arrival at a place +called Saxa Rubra, about nine miles from Rome, he discovered the +army of Maxentius prepared to give him battle. Their long front +filled a very spacious plain, and their deep array reached to the +banks of the Tyber, which covered their rear, and forbade their +retreat. We are informed, and we may believe, that Constantine +disposed his troops with consummate skill, and that he chose for +himself the post of honor and danger. Distinguished by the +splendor of his arms, he charged in person the cavalry of his +rival; and his irresistible attack determined the fortune of the +day. The cavalry of Maxentius was principally composed either of +unwieldy cuirassiers, or of light Moors and Numidians. They +yielded to the vigor of the Gallic horse, which possessed more +activity than the one, more firmness than the other. The defeat +of the two wings left the infantry without any protection on its +flanks, and the undisciplined Italians fled without reluctance +from the standard of a tyrant whom they had always hated, and +whom they no longer feared. The Prætorians, conscious that +their offences were beyond the reach of mercy, were animated by +revenge and despair. Notwithstanding their repeated efforts, +those brave veterans were unable to recover the victory: they +obtained, however, an honorable death; and it was observed that +their bodies covered the same ground which had been occupied by +their ranks. The confusion then became general, and the dismayed +troops of Maxentius, pursued by an implacable enemy, rushed by +thousands into the deep and rapid stream of the Tyber. The +emperor himself attempted to escape back into the city over the +Milvian bridge; but the crowds which pressed together through +that narrow passage forced him into the river, where he was +immediately drowned by the weight of his armor. His body, which +had sunk very deep into the mud, was found with some difficulty +the next day. The sight of his head, when it was exposed to the +eyes of the people, convinced them of their deliverance, and +admonished them to receive with acclamations of loyalty and +gratitude the fortunate Constantine, who thus achieved by his +valor and ability the most splendid enterprise of his life.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the use of victory, Constantine neither deserved the praise +of clemency, nor incurred the censure of immoderate rigor. He +inflicted the same treatment to which a defeat would have exposed +his own person and family, put to death the two sons of the +tyrant, and carefully extirpated his whole race. The most +distinguished adherents of Maxentius must have expected to share +his fate, as they had shared his prosperity and his crimes; but +when the Roman people loudly demanded a greater number of +victims, the conqueror resisted with firmness and humanity, those +servile clamors, which were dictated by flattery as well as by +resentment. Informers were punished and discouraged; the +innocent, who had suffered under the late tyranny, were recalled +from exile, and restored to their estates. A general act of +oblivion quieted the minds and settled the property of the +people, both in Italy and in Africa. The first time that +Constantine honored the senate with his presence, he +recapitulated his own services and exploits in a modest oration, +assured that illustrious order of his sincere regard, and +promised to reestablish its ancient dignity and privileges. The +grateful senate repaid these unmeaning professions by the empty +titles of honor, which it was yet in their power to bestow; and +without presuming to ratify the authority of Constantine, they +passed a decree to assign him the first rank among the three +<strong><em>Augusti</em></strong> who governed the Roman world. +Games and festivals were instituted to preserve the fame of his +victory, and several edifices, raised at the expense of +Maxentius, were dedicated to the honor of his successful rival. +The triumphal arch of Constantine still remains a melancholy +proof of the decline of the arts, and a singular testimony of the +meanest vanity. As it was not possible to find in the capital of +the empire a sculptor who was capable of adorning that public +monument, the arch of Trajan, without any respect either for his +memory or for the rules of propriety, was stripped of its most +elegant figures. The difference of times and persons, of actions +and characters, was totally disregarded. The Parthian captives +appear prostrate at the feet of a prince who never carried his +arms beyond the Euphrates; and curious antiquarians can still +discover the head of Trajan on the trophies of Constantine. The +new ornaments which it was necessary to introduce between the +vacancies of ancient sculpture are executed in the rudest and +most unskillful manner.<br> +</p> + +<p>The final abolition of the Prætorian guards was a +measure of prudence as well as of revenge. Those haughty troops, +whose numbers and privileges had been restored, and even +augmented, by Maxentius, were forever suppressed by Constantine. +Their fortified camp was destroyed, and the few Prætorians +who had escaped the fury of the sword were dispersed among the +legions, and banished to the frontiers of the empire, where they +might be serviceable without again becoming dangerous. By +suppressing the troops which were usually stationed in Rome, +Constantine gave the fatal blow to the dignity of the senate and +people, and the disarmed capital was exposed without protection +to the insults or neglect of its distant master. We may observe, +that in this last effort to preserve their expiring freedom, the +Romans, from the apprehension of a tribute, had raised Maxentius +to the throne. He exacted that tribute from the senate under the +name of a free gift. They implored the assistance of Constantine. +He vanquished the tyrant, and converted the free gift into a +perpetual tax. The senators, according to the declaration which +was required of their property, were divided into several +classes. The most opulent paid annually eight pounds of gold, the +next class paid four, the last two, and those whose poverty might +have claimed an exemption, were assessed, however, at seven +pieces of gold. Besides the regular members of the senate, their +sons, their descendants, and even their relations, enjoyed the +vain privileges, and supported the heavy burdens, of the +senatorial order; nor will it any longer excite our surprise, +that Constantine should be attentive to increase the number of +persons who were included under so useful a description. After +the defeat of Maxentius, the victorious emperor passed no more +than two or three months in Rome, which he visited twice during +the remainder of his life, to celebrate the solemn festivals of +the tenth and of the twentieth years of his reign. Constantine +was almost perpetually in motion, to exercise the legions, or to +inspect the state of the provinces. Treves, Milan, Aquileia, +Sirmium, Naissus, and Thessalonica, were the occasional places of +his residence, till he founded a new Rome on the confines of +Europe and Asia.<br> +</p> + +<p>Before Constantine marched into Italy, he had secured the +friendship, or at least the neutrality, of Licinius, the Illyrian +emperor. He had promised his sister Constantia in marriage to +that prince; but the celebration of the nuptials was deferred +till after the conclusion of the war, and the interview of the +two emperors at Milan, which was appointed for that purpose, +appeared to cement the union of their families and interests. In +the midst of the public festivity they were suddenly obliged to +take leave of each other. An inroad of the Franks summoned +Constantine to the Rhime, and the hostile approach of the +sovereign of Asia demanded the immediate presence of Licinius. +Maximin had been the secret ally of Maxentius, and without being +discouraged by his fate, he resolved to try the fortune of a +civil war. He moved out of Syria, towards the frontiers of +Bithynia, in the depth of winter. The season was severe and +tempestuous; great numbers of men as well as horses perished in +the snow; and as the roads were broken up by incessant rains, he +was obliged to leave behind him a considerable part of the heavy +baggage, which was unable to follow the rapidity of his forced +marches. By this extraordinary effort of diligence, he arrived +with a harassed but formidable army, on the banks of the Thracian +Bosphorus before the lieutenants of Licinius were apprised of his +hostile intentions. Byzantium surrendered to the power of +Maximin, after a siege of eleven days. He was detained some days +under the walls of Heraclea; and he had no sooner taken +possession of that city, than he was alarmed by the intelligence, +that Licinius had pitched his camp at the distance of only +eighteen miles. After a fruitless negotiation, in which the two +princes attempted to seduce the fidelity of each other's +adherents, they had recourse to arms. The emperor of the East +commanded a disciplined and veteran army of above seventy +thousand men; and Licinius, who had collected about thirty +thousand Illyrians, was at first oppressed by the superiority of +numbers. His military skill, and the firmness of his troops, +restored the day, and obtained a decisive victory. The incredible +speed which Maximin exerted in his flight is much more celebrated +than his prowess in the battle. Twenty-four hours afterwards he +was seen, pale, trembling, and without his Imperial ornaments, at +Nicomedia, one hundred and sixty miles from the place of his +defeat. The wealth of Asia was yet unexhausted; and though the +flower of his veterans had fallen in the late action, he had +still power, if he could obtain time, to draw very numerous +levies from Syria and Egypt. But he survived his misfortune only +three or four months. His death, which happened at Tarsus, was +variously ascribed to despair, to poison, and to the divine +justice. As Maximin was alike destitute of abilities and of +virtue, he was lamented neither by the people nor by the +soldiers. The provinces of the East, delivered from the terrors +of civil war, cheerfully acknowledged the authority of +Licinius.<br> +</p> + +<p>The vanquished emperor left behind him two children, a boy of +about eight, and a girl of about seven, years old. Their +inoffensive age might have excited compassion; but the compassion +of Licinius was a very feeble resource, nor did it restrain him +from <strong><em>extinguishing</em></strong>the name and memory +of his adversary. The death of Severianus will admit of less +excuse, as it was dictated neither by revenge nor by policy. The +conqueror had never received any injury from the father of that +unhappy youth, and the short and obscure reign of Severus, in a +distant part of the empire, was already forgotten. But the +execution of Candidianus was an act of the blackest cruelty and +ingratitude. He was the natural son of Galerius, the friend and +benefactor of Licinius. The prudent father had judged him too +young to sustain the weight of a diadem; but he hoped that, under +the protection of princes who were indebted to his favor for the +Imperial purple, Candidianus might pass a secure and honorable +life. He was now advancing towards the twentieth year of his age, +and the royalty of his birth, though unsupported either by merit +or ambition, was sufficient to exasperate the jealous mind of +Licinius. To these innocent and illustrious victims of his +tyranny, we must add the wife and daughter of the emperor +Diocletian. When that prince conferred on Galerius the title of +Cæsar, he had given him in marriage his daughter Valeria, +whose melancholy adventures might furnish a very singular subject +for tragedy. She had fulfilled and even surpassed the duties of a +wife. As she had not any children herself, she condescended to +adopt the illegitimate son of her husband, and invariably +displayed towards the unhappy Candidianus the tenderness and +anxiety of a real mother. After the death of Galerius, her ample +possessions provoked the avarice, and her personal attractions +excited the desires, of his successor, Maximin. He had a wife +still alive; but divorce was permitted by the Roman law, and the +fierce passions of the tyrant demanded an immediate +gratification. The answer of Valeria was such as became the +daughter and widow of emperors; but it was tempered by the +prudence which her defenceless condition compelled her to +observe. She represented to the persons whom Maximin had employed +on this occasion, "that even if honor could permit a woman of her +character and dignity to entertain a thought of second nuptials, +decency at least must forbid her to listen to his addresses at a +time when the ashes of her husband, and his benefactor were still +warm, and while the sorrows of her mind were still expressed by +her mourning garments. She ventured to declare, that she could +place very little confidence in the professions of a man whose +cruel inconstancy was capable of repudiating a faithful and +affectionate wife." On this repulse, the love of Maximin was +converted into fury; and as witnesses and judges were always at +his disposal, it was easy for him to cover his fury with an +appearance of legal proceedings, and to assault the reputation as +well as the happiness of Valeria. Her estates were confiscated, +her eunuchs and domestics devoted to the most inhuman tortures; +and several innocent and respectable matrons, who were honored +with her friendship, suffered death, on a false accusation of +adultery. The empress herself, together with her mother Prisca, +was condemned to exile; and as they were ignominiously hurried +from place to place before they were confined to a sequestered +village in the deserts of Syria, they exposed their shame and +distress to the provinces of the East, which, during thirty +years, had respected their august dignity. Diocletian made +several ineffectual efforts to alleviate the misfortunes of his +daughter; and, as the last return that he expected for the +Imperial purple, which he had conferred upon Maximin, he +entreated that Valeria might be permitted to share his retirement +of Salona, and to close the eyes of her afflicted father. He +entreated; but as he could no longer threaten, his prayers were +received with coldness and disdain; and the pride of Maximin was +gratified, in treating Diocletian as a suppliant, and his +daughter as a criminal. The death of Maximin seemed to assure the +empresses of a favorable alteration in their fortune. The public +disorders relaxed the vigilance of their guard, and they easily +found means to escape from the place of their exile, and to +repair, though with some precaution, and in disguise, to the +court of Licinius. His behavior, in the first days of his reign, +and the honorable reception which he gave to young Candidianus, +inspired Valeria with a secret satisfaction, both on her own +account and on that of her adopted son. But these grateful +prospects were soon succeeded by horror and astonishment; and the +bloody executions which stained the palace of Nicomedia +sufficiently convinced her that the throne of Maximin was filled +by a tyrant more inhuman than himself. Valeria consulted her +safety by a hasty flight, and, still accompanied by her mother +Prisca, they wandered above fifteen months through the provinces, +concealed in the disguise of plebeian habits. They were at length +discovered at Thessalonica; and as the sentence of their death +was already pronounced, they were immediately beheaded, and their +bodies thrown into the sea. The people gazed on the melancholy +spectacle; but their grief and indignation were suppressed by the +terrors of a military guard. Such was the unworthy fate of the +wife and daughter of Diocletian. We lament their misfortunes, we +cannot discover their crimes; and whatever idea we may justly +entertain of the cruelty of Licinius, it remains a matter of +surprise that he was not contented with some more secret and +decent method of revenge.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Roman world was now divided between Constantine and +Licinius, the former of whom was master of the West, and the +latter of the East. It might perhaps have been expected that the +conquerors, fatigued with civil war, and connected by a private +as well as public alliance, would have renounced, or at least +would have suspended, any further designs of ambition. And yet a +year had scarcely elapsed after the death of Maximin, before the +victorious emperors turned their arms against each other. The +genius, the success, and the aspiring temper of Constantine, may +seem to mark him out as the aggressor; but the perfidious +character of Licinius justifies the most unfavorable suspicions, +and by the faint light which history reflects on this +transaction, we may discover a conspiracy fomented by his arts +against the authority of his colleague. Constantine had lately +given his sister Anastasia in marriage to Bassianus, a man of a +considerable family and fortune, and had elevated his new kinsman +to the rank of Cæsar. According to the system of government +instituted by Diocletian, Italy, and perhaps Africa, were +designed for his department in the empire. But the performance of +the promised favor was either attended with so much delay, or +accompanied with so many unequal conditions, that the fidelity of +Bassianus was alienated rather than secured by the honorable +distinction which he had obtained. His nomination had been +ratified by the consent of Licinius; and that artful prince, by +the means of his emissaries, soon contrived to enter into a +secret and dangerous correspondence with the new Cæsar, to +irritate his discontents, and to urge him to the rash enterprise +of extorting by violence what he might in vain solicit from the +justice of Constantine. But the vigilant emperor discovered the +conspiracy before it was ripe for execution; and after solemnly +renouncing the alliance of Bassianus, despoiled him of the +purple, and inflicted the deserved punishment on his treason and +ingratitude. The haughty refusal of Licinius, when he was +required to deliver up the criminals who had taken refuge in his +dominions, confirmed the suspicions already entertained of his +perfidy; and the indignities offered at Æmona, on the +frontiers of Italy, to the statues of Constantine, became the +signal of discord between the two princes.<br> +</p> + +<p>The first battle was fought near Cibalis, a city of Pannonia, +situated on the River Save, about fifty miles above Sirmium. From +the inconsiderable forces which in this important contest two +such powerful monarchs brought into the field, it may be inferred +that the one was suddenly provoked, and that the other was +unexpectedly surprised. The emperor of the West had only twenty +thousand, and the sovereign of the East no more than five and +thirty thousand, men. The inferiority of number was, however, +compensated by the advantage of the ground. Constantine had taken +post in a defile about half a mile in breadth, between a steep +hill and a deep morass, and in that situation he steadily +expected and repulsed the first attack of the enemy. He pursued +his success, and advanced into the plain. But the veteran legions +of Illyricum rallied under the standard of a leader who had been +trained to arms in the school of Probus and Diocletian. The +missile weapons on both sides were soon exhausted; the two +armies, with equal valor, rushed to a closer engagement of swords +and spears, and the doubtful contest had already lasted from the +dawn of the day to a late hour of the evening, when the right +wing, which Constantine led in person, made a vigorous and +decisive charge. The judicious retreat of Licinius saved the +remainder of his troops from a total defeat; but when he computed +his loss, which amounted to more than twenty thousand men, he +thought it unsafe to pass the night in the presence of an active +and victorious enemy. Abandoning his camp and magazines, he +marched away with secrecy and diligence at the head of the +greatest part of his cavalry, and was soon removed beyond the +danger of a pursuit. His diligence preserved his wife, his son, +and his treasures, which he had deposited at Sirmium. Licinius +passed through that city, and breaking down the bridge on the +Save, hastened to collect a new army in Dacia and Thrace. In his +flight he bestowed the precarious title of Cæsar on Valens, +his general of the Illyrian frontier.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, +Reunion Of The Empire.</em> --</strong> Part IV.<br> +</p> + +<p>The plain of Mardia in Thrace was the theatre of a second +battle no less obstinate and bloody than the former. The troops +on both sides displayed the same valor and discipline; and the +victory was once more decided by the superior abilities of +Constantine, who directed a body of five thousand men to gain an +advantageous height, from whence, during the heat of the action, +they attacked the rear of the enemy, and made a very considerable +slaughter. The troops of Licinius, however, presenting a double +front, still maintained their ground, till the approach of night +put an end to the combat, and secured their retreat towards the +mountains of Macedonia. The loss of two battles, and of his +bravest veterans, reduced the fierce spirit of Licinius to sue +for peace. His ambassador Mistrianus was admitted to the audience +of Constantine: he expatiated on the common topics of moderation +and humanity, which are so familiar to the eloquence of the +vanquished; represented in the most insinuating language, that +the event of the war was still doubtful, whilst its inevitable +calamities were alike pernicious to both the contending parties; +and declared that he was authorized to propose a lasting and +honorable peace in the name of the <strong><em>two</em></strong> +emperors his masters. Constantine received the mention of Valens +with indignation and contempt. "It was not for such a purpose," +he sternly replied, "that we have advanced from the shores of the +western ocean in an uninterrupted course of combats and +victories, that, after rejecting an ungrateful kinsman, we should +accept for our colleague a contemptible slave. The abdication of +Valens is the first article of the treaty." It was necessary to +accept this humiliating condition; and the unhappy Valens, after +a reign of a few days, was deprived of the purple and of his +life. As soon as this obstacle was removed, the tranquillity of +the Roman world was easily restored. The successive defeats of +Licinius had ruined his forces, but they had displayed his +courage and abilities. His situation was almost desperate, but +the efforts of despair are sometimes formidable, and the good +sense of Constantine preferred a great and certain advantage to a +third trial of the chance of arms. He consented to leave his +rival, or, as he again styled Licinius, his friend and brother, +in the possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; but +the provinces of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Macedonia, and +Greece, were yielded to the Western empire, and the dominions of +Constantine now extended from the confines of Caledonia to the +extremity of Peloponnesus. It was stipulated by the same treaty, +that three royal youths, the sons of emperors, should be called +to the hopes of the succession. Crispus and the young Constantine +were soon afterwards declared Cæsars in the West, while the +younger Licinius was invested with the same dignity in the East. +In this double proportion of honors, the conqueror asserted the +superiority of his arms and power.<br> +</p> + +<p>The reconciliation of Constantine and Licinius, though it was +imbittered by resentment and jealousy, by the remembrance of +recent injuries, and by the apprehension of future dangers, +maintained, however, above eight years, the tranquility of the +Roman world. As a very regular series of the Imperial laws +commences about this period, it would not be difficult to +transcribe the civil regulations which employed the leisure of +Constantine. But the most important of his institutions are +intimately connected with the new system of policy and religion, +which was not perfectly established till the last and peaceful +years of his reign. There are many of his laws, which, as far as +they concern the rights and property of individuals, and the +practice of the bar, are more properly referred to the private +than to the public jurisprudence of the empire; and he published +many edicts of so local and temporary a nature, that they would +ill deserve the notice of a general history. Two laws, however, +may be selected from the crowd; the one for its importance, the +other for its singularity; the former for its remarkable +benevolence, the latter for its excessive severity. 1. The horrid +practice, so familiar to the ancients, of exposing or murdering +their new-born infants, was become every day more frequent in the +provinces, and especially in Italy. It was the effect of +distress; and the distress was principally occasioned by the +intolerant burden of taxes, and by the vexatious as well as cruel +prosecutions of the officers of the revenue against their +insolvent debtors. The less opulent or less industrious part of +mankind, instead of rejoicing in an increase of family, deemed it +an act of paternal tenderness to release their children from the +impending miseries of a life which they themselves were unable to +support. The humanity of Constantine; moved, perhaps, by some +recent and extraordinary instances of despair, * engaged him to +address an edict to all the cities of Italy, and afterwards of +Africa, directing immediate and sufficient relief to be given to +those parents who should produce before the magistrates the +children whom their own poverty would not allow them to educate. +But the promise was too liberal, and the provision too vague, to +effect any general or permanent benefit. The law, though it may +merit some praise, served rather to display than to alleviate the +public distress. It still remains an authentic monument to +contradict and confound those venal orators, who were too well +satisfied with their own situation to discover either vice or +misery under the government of a generous sovereign. 2. The laws +of Constantine against rapes were dictated with very little +indulgence for the most amiable weaknesses of human nature; since +the description of that crime was applied not only to the brutal +violence which compelled, but even to the gentle seduction which +might persuade, an unmarried woman, under the age of twenty-five, +to leave the house of her parents. "The successful ravisher was +punished with death; and as if simple death was inadequate to the +enormity of his guilt, he was either burnt alive, or torn in +pieces by wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The virgin's +declaration, that she had been carried away with her own consent, +instead of saving her lover, exposed her to share his fate. The +duty of a public prosecution was intrusted to the parents of the +guilty or unfortunate maid; and if the sentiments of nature +prevailed on them to dissemble the injury, and to repair by a +subsequent marriage the honor of their family, they were +themselves punished by exile and confiscation. The slaves, +whether male or female, who were convicted of having been +accessory to rape or seduction, were burnt alive, or put to death +by the ingenious torture of pouring down their throats a quantity +of melted lead. As the crime was of a public kind, the accusation +was permitted even to strangers. The commencement of the action +was not limited to any term of years, and the consequences of the +sentence were extended to the innocent offspring of such an +irregular union." But whenever the offence inspires less horror +than the punishment, the rigor of penal law is obliged to give +way to the common feelings of mankind. The most odious parts of +this edict were softened or repealed in the subsequent reigns; +and even Constantine himself very frequently alleviated, by +partial acts of mercy, the stern temper of his general +institutions. Such, indeed, was the singular humor of that +emperor, who showed himself as indulgent, and even remiss, in the +execution of his laws, as he was severe, and even cruel, in the +enacting of them. It is scarcely possible to observe a more +decisive symptom of weakness, either in the character of the +prince, or in the constitution of the government.<br> +</p> + +<p>The civil administration was sometimes interrupted by the +military defence of the empire. Crispus, a youth of the most +amiable character, who had received with the title of Cæsar +the command of the Rhine, distinguished his conduct, as well as +valor, in several victories over the Franks and Alemanni, and +taught the barbarians of that frontier to dread the eldest son of +Constantine, and the grandson of Constantius. The emperor himself +had assumed the more difficult and important province of the +Danube. The Goths, who in the time of Claudius and Aurelian had +felt the weight of the Roman arms, respected the power of the +empire, even in the midst of its intestine divisions. But the +strength of that warlike nation was now restored by a peace of +near fifty years; a new generation had arisen, who no longer +remembered the misfortunes of ancient days; the Sarmatians of the +Lake Mæotis followed the Gothic standard either as subjects +or as allies, and their united force was poured upon the +countries of Illyricum. Campona, Margus, and Benonia, appear to +have been the scenes of several memorable sieges and battles; and +though Constantine encountered a very obstinate resistance, he +prevailed at length in the contest, and the Goths were compelled +to purchased an ignominious retreat, by restoring the booty and +prisoners which they had taken. Nor was this advantage sufficient +to satisfy the indignation of the emperor. He resolved to +chastise as well as to repulse the insolent barbarians who had +dared to invade the territories of Rome. At the head of his +legions he passed the Danube after repairing the bridge which had +been constructed by Trajan, penetrated into the strongest +recesses of Dacia, and when he had inflicted a severe revenge, +condescended to give peace to the suppliant Goths, on condition +that, as often as they were required, they should supply his +armies with a body of forty thousand soldiers. Exploits like +these were no doubt honorable to Constantine, and beneficial to +the state; but it may surely be questioned, whether they can +justify the exaggerated assertion of Eusebius, that all Scythia, +as far as the extremity of the North, divided as it was into so +many names and nations of the most various and savage manners, +had been added by his victorious arms to the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>In this exalted state of glory, it was impossible that +Constantine should any longer endure a partner in the empire. +Confiding in the superiority of his genius and military power, he +determined, without any previous injury, to exert them for the +destruction of Licinius, whose advanced age and unpopular vices +seemed to offer a very easy conquest. But the old emperor, +awakened by the approaching danger, deceived the expectations of +his friends, as well as of his enemies. Calling forth that spirit +and those abilities by which he had deserved the friendship of +Galerius and the Imperial purple, he prepared himself for the +contest, collected the forces of the East, and soon filled the +plains of Hadrianople with his troops, and the Straits of the +Hellespont with his fleet. The army consisted of one hundred and +fifty thousand foot, and fifteen thousand horse; and as the +cavalry was drawn, for the most part, from Phrygia and +Cappadocia, we may conceive a more favorable opinion of the +beauty of the horses, than of the courage and dexterity of their +riders. The fleet was composed of three hundred and fifty galleys +of three ranks of oars. A hundred and thirty of these were +furnished by Egypt and the adjacent coast of Africa. A hundred +and ten sailed from the ports of Phoenicia and the Isle of +Cyprus; and the maritime countries of Bithynia, Ionia, and Caria, +were likewise obliged to provide a hundred and ten galleys. The +troops of Constantine were ordered to a rendezvous at +Thessalonica; they amounted to above a hundred and twenty +thousand horse and foot. Their emperor was satisfied with their +martial appearance, and his army contained more soldiers, though +fewer men, than that of his eastern competitor. The legions of +Constantine were levied in the warlike provinces of Europe; +action had confirmed their discipline, victory had elevated their +hopes, and there were among them a great number of veterans, who, +after seventeen glorious campaigns under the same leader, +prepared themselves to deserve an honorable dismission by a last +effort of their valor. But the naval preparations of Constantine +were in every respect much inferior to those of Licinius. The +maritime cities of Greece sent their respective quotas of men and +ships to the celebrated harbor of Piræus, and their united +forces consisted of no more than two hundred small vessels -- a +very feeble armament, if it is compared with those formidable +fleets which were equipped and maintained by the republic of +Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Since Italy was no longer +the seat of government, the naval establishments of Misenum and +Ravenna had been gradually neglected; and as the shipping and +mariners of the empire were supported by commerce rather than by +war, it was natural that they should the most abound in the +industrious provinces of Egypt and Asia. It is only surprising +that the eastern emperor, who possessed so great a superiority at +sea, should have neglected the opportunity of carrying an +offensive war into the centre of his rival's dominions.<br> +</p> + +<p>Instead of embracing such an active resolution, which might +have changed the whole face of the war, the prudent Licinius +expected the approach of his rival in a camp near Hadrianople, +which he had fortified with an anxious care, that betrayed his +apprehension of the event. Constantine directed his march from +Thessalonica towards that part of Thrace, till he found himself +stopped by the broad and rapid stream of the Hebrus, and +discovered the numerous army of Licinius, which filled the steep +ascent of the hill, from the river to the city of Hadrianople. +Many days were spent in doubtful and distant skirmishes; but at +length the obstacles of the passage and of the attack were +removed by the intrepid conduct of Constantine. In this place we +might relate a wonderful exploit of Constantine, which, though it +can scarcely be paralleled either in poetry or romance, is +celebrated, not by a venal orator devoted to his fortune, but by +an historian, the partial enemy of his fame. We are assured that +the valiant emperor threw himself into the River Hebrus, +accompanied only by twelve horsemen, and that by the effort or +terror of his invincible arm, he broke, slaughtered, and put to +flight a host of a hundred and fifty thousand men. The credulity +of Zosimus prevailed so strongly over his passion, that among the +events of the memorable battle of Hadrianople, he seems to have +selected and embellished, not the most important, but the most +marvellous. The valor and danger of Constantine are attested by a +slight wound which he received in the thigh; but it may be +discovered even from an imperfect narration, and perhaps a +corrupted text, that the victory was obtained no less by the +conduct of the general than by the courage of the hero; that a +body of five thousand archers marched round to occupy a thick +wood in the rear of the enemy, whose attention was diverted by +the construction of a bridge, and that Licinius, perplexed by so +many artful evolutions, was reluctantly drawn from his +advantageous post to combat on equal ground on the plain. The +contest was no longer equal. His confused multitude of new levies +was easily vanquished by the experienced veterans of the West. +Thirty-four thousand men are reported to have been slain. The +fortified camp of Licinius was taken by assault the evening of +the battle; the greater part of the fugitives, who had retired to +the mountains, surrendered themselves the next day to the +discretion of the conqueror; and his rival, who could no longer +keep the field, confined himself within the walls of +Byzantium.<br> +</p> + +<p>The siege of Byzantium, which was immediately undertaken by +Constantine, was attended with great labor and uncertainty. In +the late civil wars, the fortifications of that place, so justly +considered as the key of Europe and Asia, had been repaired and +strengthened; and as long as Licinius remained master of the sea, +the garrison was much less exposed to the danger of famine than +the army of the besiegers. The naval commanders of Constantine +were summoned to his camp, and received his positive orders to +force the passage of the Hellespont, as the fleet of Licinius, +instead of seeking and destroying their feeble enemy, continued +inactive in those narrow straits, where its superiority of +numbers was of little use or advantage. Crispus, the emperor's +eldest son, was intrusted with the execution of this daring +enterprise, which he performed with so much courage and success, +that he deserved the esteem, and most probably excited the +jealousy, of his father. The engagement lasted two days; and in +the evening of the first, the contending fleets, after a +considerable and mutual loss, retired into their respective +harbors of Europe and Asia. The second day, about noon, a strong +south wind sprang up, which carried the vessels of Crispus +against the enemy; and as the casual advantage was improved by +his skilful intrepidity, he soon obtained a complete victory. A +hundred and thirty vessels were destroyed, five thousand men were +slain, and Amandus, the admiral of the Asiatic fleet, escaped +with the utmost difficulty to the shores of Chalcedon. As soon as +the Hellespont was open, a plentiful convoy of provisions flowed +into the camp of Constantine, who had already advanced the +operations of the siege. He constructed artificial mounds of +earth of an equal height with the ramparts of Byzantium. The +lofty towers which were erected on that foundation galled the +besieged with large stones and darts from the military engines, +and the battering rams had shaken the walls in several places. If +Licinius persisted much longer in the defence, he exposed himself +to be involved in the ruin of the place. Before he was +surrounded, he prudently removed his person and treasures to +Chalcedon in Asia; and as he was always desirous of associating +companions to the hopes and dangers of his fortune, he now +bestowed the title of Cæsar on Martinianus, who exercised +one of the most important offices of the empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such were still the resources, and such the abilities, of +Licinius, that, after so many successive defeats, he collected in +Bithynia a new army of fifty or sixty thousand men, while the +activity of Constantine was employed in the siege of Byzantium. +The vigilant emperor did not, however, neglect the last struggles +of his antagonist. A considerable part of his victorious army was +transported over the Bosphorus in small vessels, and the decisive +engagement was fought soon after their landing on the heights of +Chrysopolis, or, as it is now called, of Scutari. The troops of +Licinius, though they were lately raised, ill armed, and worse +disciplined, made head against their conquerors with fruitless +but desperate valor, till a total defeat, and a slaughter of five +and twenty thousand men, irretrievably determined the fate of +their leader. He retired to Nicomedia, rather with the view of +gaining some time for negotiation, than with the hope of any +effectual defence. Constantia, his wife, and the sister of +Constantine, interceded with her brother in favor of her husband, +and obtained from his policy, rather than from his compassion, a +solemn promise, confirmed by an oath, that after the sacrifice of +Martinianus, and the resignation of the purple, Licinius himself +should be permitted to pass the remainder of this life in peace +and affluence. The behavior of Constantia, and her relation to +the contending parties, naturally recalls the remembrance of that +virtuous matron who was the sister of Augustus, and the wife of +Antony. But the temper of mankind was altered, and it was no +longer esteemed infamous for a Roman to survive his honor and +independence. Licinius solicited and accepted the pardon of his +offences, laid himself and his purple at the feet of his lord and +master, was raised from the ground with insulting pity, was +admitted the same day to the Imperial banquet, and soon +afterwards was sent away to Thessalonica, which had been chosen +for the place of his confinement. His confinement was soon +terminated by death, and it is doubtful whether a tumult of the +soldiers, or a decree of the senate, was suggested as the motive +for his execution. According to the rules of tyranny, he was +accused of forming a conspiracy, and of holding a treasonable +correspondence with the barbarians; but as he was never +convicted, either by his own conduct or by any legal evidence, we +may perhaps be allowed, from his weakness, to presume his +innocence. The memory of Licinius was branded with infamy, his +statues were thrown down, and by a hasty edict, of such +mischievous tendency that it was almost immediately corrected, +all his laws, and all the judicial proceedings of his reign, were +at once abolished. By this victory of Constantine, the Roman +world was again united under the authority of one emperor, +thirty-seven years after Diocletian had divided his power and +provinces with his associate Maximian.<br> +</p> + +<p>The successive steps of the elevation of Constantine, from his +first assuming the purple at York, to the resignation of +Licinius, at Nicomedia, have been related with some minuteness +and precision, not only as the events are in themselves both +interesting and important, but still more, as they contributed to +the decline of the empire by the expense of blood and treasure, +and by the perpetual increase, as well of the taxes, as of the +military establishment. The foundation of Constantinople, and the +establishment of the Christian religion, were the immediate and +memorable consequences of this revolution.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian +Religion.</strong><br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Part I.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, +Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. +*<br> +</p> + +<p>A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and +establishment of Christianity may be considered as a very +essential part of the history of the Roman empire. While that +great body was invaded by open violence, or undermined by slow +decay, a pure and humble religion gently insinuated itself into +the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived new +vigor from opposition, and finally erected the triumphant banner +of the Cross on the ruins of the Capitol. Nor was the influence +of Christianity confined to the period or to the limits of the +Roman empire. After a revolution of thirteen or fourteen +centuries, that religion is still professed by the nations of +Europe, the most distinguished portion of human kind in arts and +learning as well as in arms. By the industry and zeal of the +Europeans, it has been widely diffused to the most distant shores +of Asia and Africa; and by the means of their colonies has been +firmly established from Canada to Chili, in a world unknown to +the ancients.<br> +</p> + +<p>But this inquiry, however useful or entertaining, is attended +with two peculiar difficulties. The scanty and suspicious +materials of ecclesiastical history seldom enable us to dispel +the dark cloud that hangs over the first age of the church. The +great law of impartiality too often obliges us to reveal the +imperfections of the uninspired teachers and believers of the +gospel; and, to a careless observer, their +<strong><em>faults</em></strong> may seem to cast a shade on the +faith which they professed. But the scandal of the pious +Christian, and the fallacious triumph of the Infidel, should +cease as soon as they recollect not only <strong><em>by +whom</em></strong>, but likewise <strong><em>to +whom</em></strong>, the Divine Revelation was given. The +theologian may indulge the pleasing task of describing Religion +as she descended from Heaven, arrayed in her native purity. A +more melancholy duty is imposed on the historian. He must +discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption, which +she contracted in a long residence upon earth, among a weak and +degenerate race of beings. *<br> +</p> + +<p>Our curiosity is naturally prompted to inquire by what means +the Christian faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the +established religions of the earth. To this inquiry, an obvious +but satisfactory answer may be returned; that it was owing to the +convincing evidence of the doctrine itself, and to the ruling +providence of its great Author. But as truth and reason seldom +find so favorable a reception in the world, and as the wisdom of +Providence frequently condescends to use the passions of the +human heart, and the general circumstances of mankind, as +instruments to execute its purpose, we may still be permitted, +though with becoming submission, to ask, not indeed what were the +first, but what were the secondary causes of the rapid growth of +the Christian church. It will, perhaps, appear, that it was most +effectually favored and assisted by the five following causes: I. +The inflexible, and if we may use the expression, the intolerant +zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the Jewish +religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial spirit, +which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles from +embracing the law of Moses. II. The doctrine of a future life, +improved by every additional circumstance which could give weight +and efficacy to that important truth. III. The miraculous powers +ascribed to the primitive church. IV. The pure and austere morals +of the Christians. V. The union and discipline of the Christian +republic, which gradually formed an independent and increasing +state in the heart of the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p>I. We have already described the religious harmony of the +ancient world, and the facility * with which the most different +and even hostile nations embraced, or at least respected, each +other's superstitions. A single people refused to join in the +common intercourse of mankind. The Jews, who, under the Assyrian +and Persian monarchies, had languished for many ages the most +despised portion of their slaves, emerged from obscurity under +the successors of Alexander; and as they multiplied to a +surprising degree in the East, and afterwards in the West, they +soon excited the curiosity and wonder of other nations. The +sullen obstinacy with which they maintained their peculiar rites +and unsocial manners, seemed to mark them out as a distinct +species of men, who boldly professed, or who faintly disguised, +their implacable habits to the rest of human kind. Neither the +violence of Antiochus, nor the arts of Herod, nor the example of +the circumjacent nations, could ever persuade the Jews to +associate with the institutions of Moses the elegant mythology of +the Greeks. According to the maxims of universal toleration, the +Romans protected a superstition which they despised. The polite +Augustus condescended to give orders, that sacrifices should be +offered for his prosperity in the temple of Jerusalem; whilst the +meanest of the posterity of Abraham, who should have paid the +same homage to the Jupiter of the Capitol, would have been an +object of abhorrence to himself and to his brethren. But the +moderation of the conquerors was insufficient to appease the +jealous prejudices of their subjects, who were alarmed and +scandalized at the ensigns of paganism, which necessarily +introduced themselves into a Roman province. The mad attempt of +Caligula to place his own statue in the temple of Jerusalem was +defeated by the unanimous resolution of a people who dreaded +death much less than such an idolatrous profanation. Their +attachment to the law of Moses was equal to their detestation of +foreign religions. The current of zeal and devotion, as it was +contracted into a narrow channel, ran with the strength, and +sometimes with the fury, of a torrent.<br> +</p> + +<p>This inflexible perseverance, which appeared so odious or so +ridiculous to the ancient world, assumes a more awful character, +since Providence has deigned to reveal to us the mysterious +history of the chosen people. But the devout and even scrupulous +attachment to the Mosaic religion, so conspicuous among the Jews +who lived under the second temple, becomes still more surprising, +if it is compared with the stubborn incredulity of their +forefathers. When the law was given in thunder from Mount Sinai, +when the tides of the ocean and the course of the planets were +suspended for the convenience of the Israelites, and when +temporal rewards and punishments were the immediate consequences +of their piety or disobedience, they perpetually relapsed into +rebellion against the visible majesty of their Divine King, +placed the idols of the nations in the sanctuary of Jehovah, and +imitated every fantastic ceremony that was practised in the tents +of the Arabs, or in the cities of Phoenicia. As the protection of +Heaven was deservedly withdrawn from the ungrateful race, their +faith acquired a proportionable degree of vigor and purity. The +contemporaries of Moses and Joshua had beheld with careless +indifference the most amazing miracles. Under the pressure of +every calamity, the belief of those miracles has preserved the +Jews of a later period from the universal contagion of idolatry; +and in contradiction to every known principle of the human mind, +that singular people seems to have yielded a stronger and more +ready assent to the traditions of their remote ancestors, than to +the evidence of their own senses.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Jewish religion was admirably fitted for defence, but it +was never designed for conquest; and it seems probable that the +number of proselytes was never much superior to that of +apostates. The divine promises were originally made, and the +distinguishing rite of circumcision was enjoined, to a single +family. When the posterity of Abraham had multiplied like the +sands of the sea, the Deity, from whose mouth they received a +system of laws and ceremonies, declared himself the proper and as +it were the national God of Israel and with the most jealous care +separated his favorite people from the rest of mankind. The +conquest of the land of Canaan was accompanied with so many +wonderful and with so many bloody circumstances, that the +victorious Jews were left in a state of irreconcilable hostility +with all their neighbors. They had been commanded to extirpate +some of the most idolatrous tribes, and the execution of the +divine will had seldom been retarded by the weakness of humanity. +With the other nations they were forbidden to contract any +marriages or alliances; and the prohibition of receiving them +into the congregation, which in some cases was perpetual, almost +always extended to the third, to the seventh, or even to the +tenth generation. The obligation of preaching to the Gentiles the +faith of Moses had never been inculcated as a precept of the law, +nor were the Jews inclined to impose it on themselves as a +voluntary duty.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the admission of new citizens, that unsocial people was +actuated by the selfish vanity of the Greeks, rather than by the +generous policy of Rome. The descendants of Abraham were +flattered by the opinion that they alone were the heirs of the +covenant, and they were apprehensive of diminishing the value of +their inheritance by sharing it too easily with the strangers of +the earth. A larger acquaintance with mankind extended their +knowledge without correcting their prejudices; and whenever the +God of Israel acquired any new votaries, he was much more +indebted to the inconstant humor of polytheism than to the active +zeal of his own missionaries. The religion of Moses seems to be +instituted for a particular country as well as for a single +nation; and if a strict obedience had been paid to the order, +that every male, three times in the year, should present himself +before the Lord Jehovah, it would have been impossible that the +Jews could ever have spread themselves beyond the narrow limits +of the promised land. That obstacle was indeed removed by the +destruction of the temple of Jerusalem; but the most considerable +part of the Jewish religion was involved in its destruction; and +the Pagans, who had long wondered at the strange report of an +empty sanctuary, were at a loss to discover what could be the +object, or what could be the instruments, of a worship which was +destitute of temples and of altars, of priests and of sacrifices. +Yet even in their fallen state, the Jews, still asserting their +lofty and exclusive privileges, shunned, instead of courting, the +society of strangers. They still insisted with inflexible rigor +on those parts of the law which it was in their power to +practise. Their peculiar distinctions of days, of meats, and a +variety of trivial though burdensome observances, were so many +objects of disgust and aversion for the other nations, to whose +habits and prejudices they were diametrically opposite. The +painful and even dangerous rite of circumcision was alone capable +of repelling a willing proselyte from the door of the +synagogue.<br> +</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, Christianity offered itself to the +world, armed with the strength of the Mosaic law, and delivered +from the weight of its fetters. An exclusive zeal for the truth +of religion, and the unity of God, was as carefully inculcated in +the new as in the ancient system: and whatever was now revealed +to mankind concerning the nature and designs of the Supreme +Being, was fitted to increase their reverence for that mysterious +doctrine. The divine authority of Moses and the prophets was +admitted, and even established, as the firmest basis of +Christianity. From the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted +series of predictions had announced and prepared the +long-expected coming of the Messiah, who, in compliance with the +gross apprehensions of the Jews, had been more frequently +represented under the character of a King and Conqueror, than +under that of a Prophet, a Martyr, and the Son of God. By his +expiatory sacrifice, the imperfect sacrifices of the temple were +at once consummated and abolished. The ceremonial law, which +consisted only of types and figures, was succeeded by a pure and +spiritual worship, equally adapted to all climates, as well as to +every condition of mankind; and to the initiation of blood was +substituted a more harmless initiation of water. The promise of +divine favor, instead of being partially confined to the +posterity of Abraham, was universally proposed to the freeman and +the slave, to the Greek and to the barbarian, to the Jew and to +the Gentile. Every privilege that could raise the proselyte from +earth to heaven, that could exalt his devotion, secure his +happiness, or even gratify that secret pride which, under the +semblance of devotion, insinuates itself into the human heart, +was still reserved for the members of the Christian church; but +at the same time all mankind was permitted, and even solicited, +to accept the glorious distinction, which was not only proffered +as a favor, but imposed as an obligation. It became the most +sacred duty of a new convert to diffuse among his friends and +relations the inestimable blessing which he had received, and to +warn them against a refusal that would be severely punished as a +criminal disobedience to the will of a benevolent but +all-powerful Deity.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part II.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The enfranchisement of the church from the bonds of the +synagogue was a work, however, of some time and of some +difficulty. The Jewish converts, who acknowledged Jesus in the +character of the Messiah foretold by their ancient oracles, +respected him as a prophetic teacher of virtue and religion; but +they obstinately adhered to the ceremonies of their ancestors, +and were desirous of imposing them on the Gentiles, who +continually augmented the number of believers. These Judaizing +Christians seem to have argued with some degree of plausibility +from the divine origin of the Mosaic law, and from the immutable +perfections of its great Author. They affirmed, +<strong><em>that</em></strong> if the Being, who is the same +through all eternity, had designed to abolish those sacred rites +which had served to distinguish his chosen people, the repeal of +them would have been no less clear and solemn than their first +promulgation: <strong><em>that</em></strong>, instead of those +frequent declarations, which either suppose or assert the +perpetuity of the Mosaic religion, it would have been represented +as a provisionary scheme intended to last only to the coming of +the Messiah, who should instruct mankind in a more perfect mode +of faith and of worship: that the Messiah himself, and his +disciples who conversed with him on earth, instead of authorizing +by their example the most minute observances of the Mosaic law, +would have published to the world the abolition of those useless +and obsolete ceremonies, without suffering Christianity to remain +during so many years obscurely confounded among the sects of the +Jewish church. Arguments like these appear to have been used in +the defence of the expiring cause of the Mosaic law; but the +industry of our learned divines has abundantly explained the +ambiguous language of the Old Testament, and the ambiguous +conduct of the apostolic teachers. It was proper gradually to +unfold the system of the gospel, and to pronounce, with the +utmost caution and tenderness, a sentence of condemnation so +repugnant to the inclination and prejudices of the believing +Jews.<br> +</p> + +<p>The history of the church of Jerusalem affords a lively proof +of the necessity of those precautions, and of the deep impression +which the Jewish religion had made on the minds of its sectaries. +The first fifteen bishops of Jerusalem were all circumcised Jews; +and the congregation over which they presided united the law of +Moses with the doctrine of Christ. It was natural that the +primitive tradition of a church which was founded only forty days +after the death of Christ, and was governed almost as many years +under the immediate inspection of his apostle, should be received +as the standard of orthodoxy. The distant churches very +frequently appealed to the authority of their venerable Parent, +and relieved her distresses by a liberal contribution of alms. +But when numerous and opulent societies were established in the +great cities of the empire, in Antioch, Alexandria, Ephesus, +Corinth, and Rome, the reverence which Jerusalem had inspired to +all the Christian colonies insensibly diminished. The Jewish +converts, or, as they were afterwards called, the Nazarenes, who +had laid the foundations of the church, soon found themselves +overwhelmed by the increasing multitudes, that from all the +various religions of polytheism enlisted under the banner of +Christ: and the Gentiles, who, with the approbation of their +peculiar apostle, had rejected the intolerable weight of the +Mosaic ceremonies, at length refused to their more scrupulous +brethren the same toleration which at first they had humbly +solicited for their own practice. The ruin of the temple of the +city, and of the public religion of the Jews, was severely felt +by the Nazarenes; as in their manners, though not in their faith, +they maintained so intimate a connection with their impious +countrymen, whose misfortunes were attributed by the Pagans to +the contempt, and more justly ascribed by the Christians to the +wrath, of the Supreme Deity. The Nazarenes retired from the ruins +of Jerusalem * to the little town of Pella beyond the Jordan, +where that ancient church languished above sixty years in +solitude and obscurity. They still enjoyed the comfort of making +frequent and devout visits to the <strong><em>Holy +City</em></strong>, and the hope of being one day restored to +those seats which both nature and religion taught them to love as +well as to revere. But at length, under the reign of Hadrian, the +desperate fanaticism of the Jews filled up the measure of their +calamities; and the Romans, exasperated by their repeated +rebellions, exercised the rights of victory with unusual rigor. +The emperor founded, under the name of Ælia Capitolina, a +new city on Mount Sion, to which he gave the privileges of a +colony; and denouncing the severest penalties against any of the +Jewish people who should dare to approach its precincts, he fixed +a vigilant garrison of a Roman cohort to enforce the execution of +his orders. The Nazarenes had only one way left to escape the +common proscription, and the force of truth was on this occasion +assisted by the influence of temporal advantages. They elected +Marcus for their bishop, a prelate of the race of the Gentiles, +and most probably a native either of Italy or of some of the +Latin provinces. At his persuasion, the most considerable part of +the congregation renounced the Mosaic law, in the practice of +which they had persevered above a century. By this sacrifice of +their habits and prejudices, they purchased a free admission into +the colony of Hadrian, and more firmly cemented their union with +the Catholic church.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the name and honors of the church of Jerusalem had been +restored to Mount Sion, the crimes of heresy and schism were +imputed to the obscure remnant of the Nazarenes, which refused to +accompany their Latin bishop. They still preserved their former +habitation of Pella, spread themselves into the villages adjacent +to Damascus, and formed an inconsiderable church in the city of +Beroea, or, as it is now called, of Aleppo, in Syria. The name of +Nazarenes was deemed too honorable for those Christian Jews, and +they soon received, from the supposed poverty of their +understanding, as well as of their condition, the contemptuous +epithet of Ebionites. In a few years after the return of the +church of Jerusalem, it became a matter of doubt and controversy, +whether a man who sincerely acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah, +but who still continued to observe the law of Moses, could +possibly hope for salvation. The humane temper of Justin Martyr +inclined him to answer this question in the affirmative; and +though he expressed himself with the most guarded diffidence, he +ventured to determine in favor of such an imperfect Christian, if +he were content to practise the Mosaic ceremonies, without +pretending to assert their general use or necessity. But when +Justin was pressed to declare the sentiment of the church, he +confessed that there were very many among the orthodox +Christians, who not only excluded their Judaizing brethren from +the hope of salvation, but who declined any intercourse with them +in the common offices of friendship, hospitality, and social +life. The more rigorous opinion prevailed, as it was natural to +expect, over the milder; and an eternal bar of separation was +fixed between the disciples of Moses and those of Christ. The +unfortunate Ebionites, rejected from one religion as apostates, +and from the other as heretics, found themselves compelled to +assume a more decided character; and although some traces of that +obsolete sect may be discovered as late as the fourth century, +they insensibly melted away, either into the church or the +synagogue.<br> +</p> + +<p>While the orthodox church preserved a just medium between +excessive veneration and improper contempt for the law of Moses, +the various heretics deviated into equal but opposite extremes of +error and extravagance. From the acknowledged truth of the Jewish +religion, the Ebionites had concluded that it could never be +abolished. From its supposed imperfections, the Gnostics as +hastily inferred that it never was instituted by the wisdom of +the Deity. There are some objections against the authority of +Moses and the prophets, which too readily present themselves to +the sceptical mind; though they can only be derived from our +ignorance of remote antiquity, and from our incapacity to form an +adequate judgment of the divine economy. These objections were +eagerly embraced and as petulantly urged by the vain science of +the Gnostics. As those heretics were, for the most part, averse +to the pleasures of sense, they morosely arraigned the polygamy +of the patriarchs, the gallantries of David, and the seraglio of +Solomon. The conquest of the land of Canaan, and the extirpation +of the unsuspecting natives, they were at a loss how to reconcile +with the common notions of humanity and justice. * But when they +recollected the sanguinary list of murders, of executions, and of +massacres, which stain almost every page of the Jewish annals, +they acknowledged that the barbarians of Palestine had exercised +as much compassion towards their idolatrous enemies, as they had +ever shown to their friends or countrymen. Passing from the +sectaries of the law to the law itself, they asserted that it was +impossible that a religion which consisted only of bloody +sacrifices and trifling ceremonies, and whose rewards as well as +punishments were all of a carnal and temporal nature, could +inspire the love of virtue, or restrain the impetuosity of +passion. The Mosaic account of the creation and fall of man was +treated with profane derision by the Gnostics, who would not +listen with patience to the repose of the Deity after six days' +labor, to the rib of Adam, the garden of Eden, the trees of life +and of knowledge, the speaking serpent, the forbidden fruit, and +the condemnation pronounced against human kind for the venial +offence of their first progenitors. The God of Israel was +impiously represented by the Gnostics as a being liable to +passion and to error, capricious in his favor, implacable in his +resentment, meanly jealous of his superstitious worship, and +confining his partial providence to a single people, and to this +transitory life. In such a character they could discover none of +the features of the wise and omnipotent Father of the universe. +They allowed that the religion of the Jews was somewhat less +criminal than the idolatry of the Gentiles; but it was their +fundamental doctrine, that the Christ whom they adored as the +first and brightest emanation of the Deity appeared upon earth to +rescue mankind from their various errors, and to reveal a new +system of truth and perfection. The most learned of the fathers, +by a very singular condescension, have imprudently admitted the +sophistry of the Gnostics. * Acknowledging that the literal sense +is repugnant to every principle of faith as well as reason, they +deem themselves secure and invulnerable behind the ample veil of +allegory, which they carefully spread over every tender part of +the Mosaic dispensation.<br> +</p> + +<p>It has been remarked with more ingenuity than truth, that the +virgin purity of the church was never violated by schism or +heresy before the reign of Trajan or Hadrian, about one hundred +years after the death of Christ. We may observe with much more +propriety, that, during that period, the disciples of the Messiah +were indulged in a freer latitude, both of faith and practice, +than has ever been allowed in succeeding ages. As the terms of +communion were insensibly narrowed, and the spiritual authority +of the prevailing party was exercised with increasing severity, +many of its most respectable adherents, who were called upon to +renounce, were provoked to assert their private opinions, to +pursue the consequences of their mistaken principles, and openly +to erect the standard of rebellion against the unity of the +church. The Gnostics were distinguished as the most polite, the +most learned, and the most wealthy of the Christian name; and +that general appellation, which expressed a superiority of +knowledge, was either assumed by their own pride, or ironically +bestowed by the envy of their adversaries. They were almost +without exception of the race of the Gentiles, and their +principal founders seem to have been natives of Syria or Egypt, +where the warmth of the climate disposes both the mind and the +body to indolent and contemplative devotion. The Gnostics blended +with the faith of Christ many sublime but obscure tenets, which +they derived from oriental philosophy, and even from the religion +of Zoroaster, concerning the eternity of matter, the existence of +two principles, and the mysterious hierarchy of the invisible +world. As soon as they launched out into that vast abyss, they +delivered themselves to the guidance of a disordered imagination; +and as the paths of error are various and infinite, the Gnostics +were imperceptibly divided into more than fifty particular sects, +of whom the most celebrated appear to have been the Basilidians, +the Valentinians, the Marcionites, and, in a still later period, +the Manichæans. Each of these sects could boast of its +bishops and congregations, of its doctors and martyrs; and, +instead of the Four Gospels adopted by the church, the heretics +produced a multitude of histories, in which the actions and +discourses of Christ and of his apostles were adapted to their +respective tenets. The success of the Gnostics was rapid and +extensive. They covered Asia and Egypt, established themselves in +Rome, and sometimes penetrated into the provinces of the West. +For the most part they arose in the second century, flourished +during the third, and were suppressed in the fourth or fifth, by +the prevalence of more fashionable controversies, and by the +superior ascendant of the reigning power. Though they constantly +disturbed the peace, and frequently disgraced the name, of +religion, they contributed to assist rather than to retard the +progress of Christianity. The Gentile converts, whose strongest +objections and prejudices were directed against the law of Moses, +could find admission into many Christian societies, which +required not from their untutored mind any belief of an +antecedent revelation. Their faith was insensibly fortified and +enlarged, and the church was ultimately benefited by the +conquests of its most inveterate enemies.<br> +</p> + +<p>But whatever difference of opinion might subsist between the +Orthodox, the Ebionites, and the Gnostics, concerning the +divinity or the obligation of the Mosaic law, they were all +equally animated by the same exclusive zeal; and by the same +abhorrence for idolatry, which had distinguished the Jews from +the other nations of the ancient world. The philosopher, who +considered the system of polytheism as a composition of human +fraud and error, could disguise a smile of contempt under the +mask of devotion, without apprehending that either the mockery, +or the compliance, would expose him to the resentment of any +invisible, or, as he conceived them, imaginary powers. But the +established religions of Paganism were seen by the primitive +Christians in a much more odious and formidable light. It was the +universal sentiment both of the church and of heretics, that the +dæmons were the authors, the patrons, and the objects of +idolatry. Those rebellious spirits who had been degraded from the +rank of angels, and cast down into the infernal pit, were still +permitted to roam upon earth, to torment the bodies, and to +seduce the minds, of sinful men. The dæmons soon discovered +and abused the natural propensity of the human heart towards +devotion, and artfully withdrawing the adoration of mankind from +their Creator, they usurped the place and honors of the Supreme +Deity. By the success of their malicious contrivances, they at +once gratified their own vanity and revenge, and obtained the +only comfort of which they were yet susceptible, the hope of +involving the human species in the participation of their guilt +and misery. It was confessed, or at least it was imagined, that +they had distributed among themselves the most important +characters of polytheism, one dæmon assuming the name and +attributes of Jupiter, another of Æsculapius, a third of +Venus, and a fourth perhaps of Apollo; and that, by the advantage +of their long experience and ærial nature, they were +enabled to execute, with sufficient skill and dignity, the parts +which they had undertaken. They lurked in the temples, instituted +festivals and sacrifices, invented fables, pronounced oracles, +and were frequently allowed to perform miracles. The Christians, +who, by the interposition of evil spirits, could so readily +explain every preternatural appearance, were disposed and even +desirous to admit the most extravagant fictions of the Pagan +mythology. But the belief of the Christian was accompanied with +horror. The most trifling mark of respect to the national worship +he considered as a direct homage yielded to the dæmon, and +as an act of rebellion against the majesty of God.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part III.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>In consequence of this opinion, it was the first but arduous +duty of a Christian to preserve himself pure and undefiled by the +practice of idolatry. The religion of the nations was not merely +a speculative doctrine professed in the schools or preached in +the temples. The innumerable deities and rites of polytheism were +closely interwoven with every circumstance of business or +pleasure, of public or of private life; and it seemed impossible +to escape the observance of them, without, at the same time, +renouncing the commerce of mankind, and all the offices and +amusements of society. The important transactions of peace and +war were prepared or concluded by solemn sacrifices, in which the +magistrate, the senator, and the soldier, were obliged to preside +or to participate. The public spectacles were an essential part +of the cheerful devotion of the Pagans, and the gods were +supposed to accept, as the most grateful offering, the games that +the prince and people celebrated in honor of their peculiar +festivals. The Christians, who with pious horror avoided the +abomination of the circus or the theatre, found himself +encompassed with infernal snares in every convivial +entertainment, as often as his friends, invoking the hospitable +deities, poured out libations to each other's happiness. When the +bride, struggling with well-affected reluctance, was forced into +hymenæal pomp over the threshold of her new habitation, or +when the sad procession of the dead slowly moved towards the +funeral pile; the Christian, on these interesting occasions, was +compelled to desert the persons who were the dearest to him, +rather than contract the guilt inherent to those impious +ceremonies. Every art and every trade that was in the least +concerned in the framing or adorning of idols was polluted by the +stain of idolatry; a severe sentence, since it devoted to eternal +misery the far greater part of the community, which is employed +in the exercise of liberal or mechanic professions. If we cast +our eyes over the numerous remains of antiquity, we shall +perceive, that besides the immediate representations of the gods, +and the holy instruments of their worship, the elegant forms and +agreeable fictions consecrated by the imagination of the Greeks, +were introduced as the richest ornaments of the houses, the +dress, and the furniture of the Pagan. Even the arts of music and +painting, of eloquence and poetry, flowed from the same impure +origin. In the style of the fathers, Apollo and the Muses were +the organs of the infernal spirit; Homer and Virgil were the most +eminent of his servants; and the beautiful mythology which +pervades and animates the compositions of their genius, is +destined to celebrate the glory of the dæmons. Even the +common language of Greece and Rome abounded with familiar but +impious expressions, which the imprudent Christian might too +carelessly utter, or too patiently hear.<br> +</p> + +<p>The dangerous temptations which on every side lurked in ambush +to surprise the unguarded believer, assailed him with redoubled +violence on the days of solemn festivals. So artfully were they +framed and disposed throughout the year, that superstition always +wore the appearance of pleasure, and often of virtue. Some of the +most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual were destined to salute +the new calends of January with vows of public and private +felicity; to indulge the pious remembrance of the dead and +living; to ascertain the inviolable bounds of property; to hail, +on the return of spring, the genial powers of fecundity; to +perpetuate the two memorable areas of Rome, the foundation of the +city and that of the republic, and to restore, during the humane +license of the Saturnalia, the primitive equality of mankind. +Some idea may be conceived of the abhorrence of the Christians +for such impious ceremonies, by the scrupulous delicacy which +they displayed on a much less alarming occasion. On days of +general festivity, it was the custom of the ancients to adorn +their doors with lamps and with branches of laurel, and to crown +their heads with a garland of flowers. This innocent and elegant +practice might perhaps have been tolerated as a mere civil +institution. But it most unluckily happened that the doors were +under the protection of the household gods, that the laurel was +sacred to the lover of Daphne, and that garlands of flowers, +though frequently worn as a symbol of joy or mourning, had been +dedicated in their first origin to the service of superstition. +The trembling Christians, who were persuaded in this instance to +comply with the fashion of their country, and the commands of the +magistrate, labored under the most gloomy apprehensions, from the +reproaches of his own conscience, the censures of the church, and +the denunciations of divine vengeance.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such was the anxious diligence which was required to guard the +chastity of the gospel from the infectious breath of idolatry. +The superstitious observances of public or private rites were +carelessly practised, from education and habit, by the followers +of the established religion. But as often as they occurred, they +afforded the Christians an opportunity of declaring and +confirming their zealous opposition. By these frequent +protestations their attachment to the faith was continually +fortified; and in proportion to the increase of zeal, they +combated with the more ardor and success in the holy war, which +they had undertaken against the empire of the demons.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. The writings of Cicero represent in the most lively colors +the ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the ancient +philosophers with regard to the immortality of the soul. When +they are desirous of arming their disciples against the fear of +death, they inculcate, as an obvious, though melancholy position, +that the fatal stroke of our dissolution releases us from the +calamities of life; and that those can no longer suffer, who no +longer exist. Yet there were a few sages of Greece and Rome who +had conceived a more exalted, and, in some respects, a juster +idea of human nature, though it must be confessed, that in the +sublime inquiry, their reason had been often guided by their +imagination, and that their imagination had been prompted by +their vanity. When they viewed with complacency the extent of +their own mental powers, when they exercised the various +faculties of memory, of fancy, and of judgment, in the most +profound speculations, or the most important labors, and when +they reflected on the desire of fame, which transported them into +future ages, far beyond the bounds of death and of the grave, +they were unwilling to confound themselves with the beasts of the +field, or to suppose that a being, for whose dignity they +entertained the most sincere admiration, could be limited to a +spot of earth, and to a few years of duration. With this +favorable prepossession they summoned to their aid the science, +or rather the language, of Metaphysics. They soon discovered, +that as none of the properties of matter will apply to the +operations of the mind, the human soul must consequently be a +substance distinct from the body, pure, simple, and spiritual, +incapable of dissolution, and susceptible of a much higher degree +of virtue and happiness after the release from its corporeal +prison. From these specious and noble principles, the +philosophers who trod in the footsteps of Plato deduced a very +unjustifiable conclusion, since they asserted, not only the +future immortality, but the past eternity, of the human soul, +which they were too apt to consider as a portion of the infinite +and self-existing spirit, which pervades and sustains the +universe. A doctrine thus removed beyond the senses and the +experience of mankind, might serve to amuse the leisure of a +philosophic mind; or, in the silence of solitude, it might +sometimes impart a ray of comfort to desponding virtue; but the +faint impression which had been received in the schools, was soon +obliterated by the commerce and business of active life. We are +sufficiently acquainted with the eminent persons who flourished +in the age of Cicero, and of the first Cæsars, with their +actions, their characters, and their motives, to be assured that +their conduct in this life was never regulated by any serious +conviction of the rewards or punishments of a future state. At +the bar and in the senate of Rome the ablest orators were not +apprehensive of giving offence to their hearers, by exposing that +doctrine as an idle and extravagant opinion, which was rejected +with contempt by every man of a liberal education and +understanding.<br> +</p> + +<p>Since therefore the most sublime efforts of philosophy can +extend no further than feebly to point out the desire, the hope, +or, at most, the probability, of a future state, there is +nothing, except a divine revelation, that can ascertain the +existence, and describe the condition, of the invisible country +which is destined to receive the souls of men after their +separation from the body. But we may perceive several defects +inherent to the popular religions of Greece and Rome, which +rendered them very unequal to so arduous a task. +<strong>1</strong>. The general system of their mythology was +unsupported by any solid proofs; and the wisest among the Pagans +had already disclaimed its usurped authority. <strong>2</strong>. +The description of the infernal regions had been abandoned to the +fancy of painters and of poets, who peopled them with so many +phantoms and monsters, who dispensed their rewards and +punishments with so little equity, that a solemn truth, the most +congenial to the human heart, was opposed and disgraced by the +absurd mixture of the wildest fictions. 3. The doctrine of a +future state was scarcely considered among the devout polytheists +of Greece and Rome as a fundamental article of faith. The +providence of the gods, as it related to public communities +rather than to private individuals, was principally displayed on +the visible theatre of the present world. The petitions which +were offered on the altars of Jupiter or Apollo, expressed the +anxiety of their worshippers for temporal happiness, and their +ignorance or indifference concerning a future life. The important +truth of the of the immortality of the soul was inculcated with +more diligence, as well as success, in India, in Assyria, in +Egypt, and in Gaul; and since we cannot attribute such a +difference to the superior knowledge of the barbarians, we must +ascribe it to the influence of an established priesthood, which +employed the motives of virtue as the instrument of ambition.<br> +</p> + +<p>We might naturally expect that a principle so essential to +religion, would have been revealed in the clearest terms to the +chosen people of Palestine, and that it might safely have been +intrusted to the hereditary priesthood of Aaron. It is incumbent +on us to adore the mysterious dispensations of Providence, when +we discover that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is +omitted in the law of Moses it is darkly insinuated by the +prophets; and during the long period which clasped between the +Egyptian and the Babylonian servitudes, the hopes as well as +fears of the Jews appear to have been confined within the narrow +compass of the present life. After Cyrus had permitted the exiled +nation to return into the promised land, and after Ezra had +restored the ancient records of their religion, two celebrated +sects, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, insensibly arose at +Jerusalem. The former, selected from the more opulent and +distinguished ranks of society, were strictly attached to the +literal sense of the Mosaic law, and they piously rejected the +immortality of the soul, as an opinion that received no +countenance from the divine book, which they revered as the only +rule of their faith. To the authority of Scripture the Pharisees +added that of tradition, and they accepted, under the name of +traditions, several speculative tenets from the philosophy or +religion of the eastern nations. The doctrines of fate or +predestination, of angels and spirits, and of a future state of +rewards and punishments, were in the number of these new articles +of belief; and as the Pharisees, by the austerity of their +manners, had drawn into their party the body of the Jewish +people, the immortality of the soul became the prevailing +sentiment of the synagogue, under the reign of the Asmonæan +princes and pontiffs. The temper of the Jews was incapable of +contenting itself with such a cold and languid assent as might +satisfy the mind of a Polytheist; and as soon as they admitted +the idea of a future state, they embraced it with the zeal which +has always formed the characteristic of the nation. Their zeal, +however, added nothing to its evidence, or even probability: and +it was still necessary that the doctrine of life and immortality, +which had been dictated by nature, approved by reason, and +received by superstition, should obtain the sanction of divine +truth from the authority and example of Christ.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the promise of eternal happiness was proposed to mankind +on condition of adopting the faith, and of observing the +precepts, of the gospel, it is no wonder that so advantageous an +offer should have been accepted by great numbers of every +religion, of every rank, and of every province in the Roman +empire. The ancient Christians were animated by a contempt for +their present existence, and by a just confidence of immortality, +of which the doubtful and imperfect faith of modern ages cannot +give us any adequate notion. In the primitive church, the +influence of truth was very powerfully strengthened by an +opinion, which, however it may deserve respect for its usefulness +and antiquity, has not been found agreeable to experience. It was +universally believed, that the end of the world, and the kingdom +of heaven, were at hand. * The near approach of this wonderful +event had been predicted by the apostles; the tradition of it was +preserved by their earliest disciples, and those who understood +in their literal senses the discourse of Christ himself, were +obliged to expect the second and glorious coming of the Son of +Man in the clouds, before that generation was totally +extinguished, which had beheld his humble condition upon earth, +and which might still be witness of the calamities of the Jews +under Vespasian or Hadrian. The revolution of seventeen centuries +has instructed us not to press too closely the mysterious +language of prophecy and revelation; but as long as, for wise +purposes, this error was permitted to subsist in the church, it +was productive of the most salutary effects on the faith and +practice of Christians, who lived in the awful expectation of +that moment, when the globe itself, and all the various race of +mankind, should tremble at the appearance of their divine +Judge.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part IV.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The ancient and popular doctrine of the Millennium was +intimately connected with the second coming of Christ. As the +works of the creation had been finished in six days, their +duration in their present state, according to a tradition which +was attributed to the prophet Elijah, was fixed to six thousand +years. By the same analogy it was inferred, that this long period +of labor and contention, which was now almost elapsed, would be +succeeded by a joyful Sabbath of a thousand years; and that +Christ, with the triumphant band of the saints and the elect who +had escaped death, or who had been miraculously revived, would +reign upon earth till the time appointed for the last and general +resurrection. So pleasing was this hope to the mind of believers, +that the <strong><em>New Jerusalem</em></strong>, the seat of +this blissful kingdom, was quickly adorned with all the gayest +colors of the imagination. A felicity consisting only of pure and +spiritual pleasure would have appeared too refined for its +inhabitants, who were still supposed to possess their human +nature and senses. A garden of Eden, with the amusements of the +pastoral life, was no longer suited to the advanced state of +society which prevailed under the Roman empire. A city was +therefore erected of gold and precious stones, and a supernatural +plenty of corn and wine was bestowed on the adjacent territory; +in the free enjoyment of whose spontaneous productions, the happy +and benevolent people was never to be restrained by any jealous +laws of exclusive property. The assurance of such a Millennium +was carefully inculcated by a succession of fathers from Justin +Martyr, and Irenæus, who conversed with the immediate +disciples of the apostles, down to Lactantius, who was preceptor +to the son of Constantine. Though it might not be universally +received, it appears to have been the reigning sentiment of the +orthodox believers; and it seems so well adapted to the desires +and apprehensions of mankind, that it must have contributed in a +very considerable degree to the progress of the Christian faith. +But when the edifice of the church was almost completed, the +temporary support was laid aside. The doctrine of Christ's reign +upon earth was at first treated as a profound allegory, was +considered by degrees as a doubtful and useless opinion, and was +at length rejected as the absurd invention of heresy and +fanaticism. A mysterious prophecy, which still forms a part of +the sacred canon, but which was thought to favor the exploded +sentiment, has very narrowly escaped the proscription of the +church.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whilst the happiness and glory of a temporal reign were +promised to the disciples of Christ, the most dreadful calamities +were denounced against an unbelieving world. The edification of a +new Jerusalem was to advance by equal steps with the destruction +of the mystic Babylon; and as long as the emperors who reigned +before Constantine persisted in the profession of idolatry, the +epithet of babylon was applied to the city and to the empire of +Rome. A regular series was prepared of all the moral and physical +evils which can afflict a flourishing nation; intestine discord, +and the invasion of the fiercest barbarians from the unknown +regions of the North; pestilence and famine, comets and eclipses, +earthquakes and inundations. All these were only so many +preparatory and alarming signs of the great catastrophe of Rome, +when the country of the Scipios and Cæsars should be +consumed by a flame from Heaven, and the city of the seven hills, +with her palaces, her temples, and her triumphal arches, should +be buried in a vast lake of fire and brimstone. It might, +however, afford some consolation to Roman vanity, that the period +of their empire would be that of the world itself; which, as it +had once perished by the element of water, was destined to +experience a second and a speedy destruction from the element of +fire. In the opinion of a general conflagration, the faith of the +Christian very happily coincided with the tradition of the East, +the philosophy of the Stoics, and the analogy of Nature; and even +the country, which, from religious motives, had been chosen for +the origin and principal scene of the conflagration, was the best +adapted for that purpose by natural and physical causes; by its +deep caverns, beds of sulphur, and numero is volcanoes, of which +those of Ætna, of Vesuvius, and of Lipari, exhibit a very +imperfect representation. The calmest and most intrepid sceptic +could not refuse to acknowledge that the destruction of the +present system of the world by fire, was in itself extremely +probable. The Christian, who founded his belief much less on the +fallacious arguments of reason than on the authority of tradition +and the interpretation of Scripture, expected it with terror and +confidence as a certain and approaching event; and as his mind +was perpetually filled with the solemn idea, he considered every +disaster that happened to the empire as an infallible symptom of +an expiring world.<br> +</p> + +<p>The condemnation of the wisest and most virtuous of the +Pagans, on account of their ignorance or disbelief of the divine +truth, seems to offend the reason and the humanity of the present +age. But the primitive church, whose faith was of a much firmer +consistence, delivered over, without hesitation, to eternal +torture, the far greater part of the human species. A charitable +hope might perhaps be indulged in favor of Socrates, or some +other sages of antiquity, who had consulted the light of reason +before that of the gospel had arisen. But it was unanimously +affirmed, that those who, since the birth or the death of Christ, +had obstinately persisted in the worship of the dæmons, +neither deserved nor could expect a pardon from the irritated +justice of the Deity. These rigid sentiments, which had been +unknown to the ancient world, appear to have infused a spirit of +bitterness into a system of love and harmony. The ties of blood +and friendship were frequently torn asunder by the difference of +religious faith; and the Christians, who, in this world, found +themselves oppressed by the power of the Pagans, were sometimes +seduced by resentment and spiritual pride to delight in the +prospect of their future triumph. "You are fond of spectacles," +exclaims the stern Tertullian; "expect the greatest of all +spectacles, the last and eternal judgment of the universe. How +shall I admire, how laugh, how rejoice, how exult, when I behold +so many proud monarchs, so many fancied gods, groaning in the +lowest abyss of darkness; so many magistrates, who persecuted the +name of the Lord, liquefying in fiercer fires than they ever +kindled against the Christians; so many sage philosophers +blushing in red-hot flames with their deluded scholars; so many +celebrated poets trembling before the tribunal, not of Minos, but +of Christ; so many tragedians, more tuneful in the expression of +their own sufferings; so many dancers." * But the humanity of the +reader will permit me to draw a veil over the rest of this +infernal description, which the zealous African pursues in a long +variety of affected and unfeeling witticisms.<br> +</p> + +<p>Doubtless there were many among the primitive Christians of a +temper more suitable to the meekness and charity of their +profession. There were many who felt a sincere compassion for the +danger of their friends and countrymen, and who exerted the most +benevolent zeal to save them from the impending destruction. The +careless Polytheist, assailed by new and unexpected terrors, +against which neither his priests nor his philosophers could +afford him any certain protection, was very frequently terrified +and subdued by the menace of eternal tortures. His fears might +assist the progress of his faith and reason; and if he could once +persuade himself to suspect that the Christian religion might +possibly be true, it became an easy task to convince him that it +was the safest and most prudent party that he could possibly +embrace.<br> +</p> + +<p>III. The supernatural gifts, which even in this life were +ascribed to the Christians above the rest of mankind, must have +conduced to their own comfort, and very frequently to the +conviction of infidels. Besides the occasional prodigies, which +might sometimes be effected by the immediate interposition of the +Deity when he suspended the laws of Nature for the service of +religion, the Christian church, from the time of the apostles and +their first disciples, has claimed an uninterrupted succession of +miraculous powers, the gift of tongues, of vision, and of +prophecy, the power of expelling dæmons, of healing the +sick, and of raising the dead. The knowledge of foreign languages +was frequently communicated to the contemporaries of +Irenæus, though Irenæus himself was left to struggle +with the difficulties of a barbarous dialect, whilst he preached +the gospel to the natives of Gaul. The divine inspiration, +whether it was conveyed in the form of a waking or of a sleeping +vision, is described as a favor very liberally bestowed on all +ranks of the faithful, on women as on elders, on boys as well as +upon bishops. When their devout minds were sufficiently prepared +by a course of prayer, of fasting, and of vigils, to receive the +extraordinary impulse, they were transported out of their senses, +and delivered in ecstasy what was inspired, being mere organs of +the Holy Spirit, just as a pipe or flute is of him who blows into +it. We may add, that the design of these visions was, for the +most part, either to disclose the future history, or to guide the +present administration, of the church. The expulsion of the +dæmons from the bodies of those unhappy persons whom they +had been permitted to torment, was considered as a signal though +ordinary triumph of religion, and is repeatedly alleged by the +ancient apoligists, as the most convincing evidence of the truth +of Christianity. The awful ceremony was usually performed in a +public manner, and in the presence of a great number of +spectators; the patient was relieved by the power or skill of the +exorcist, and the vanquished dæmon was heard to confess +that he was one of the fabled gods of antiquity, who had +impiously usurped the adoration of mankind. But the miraculous +cure of diseases of the most inveterate or even preternatural +kind, can no longer occasion any surprise, when we recollect, +that in the days of Iranæus, about the end of the second +century, the resurrection of the dead was very far from being +esteemed an uncommon event; that the miracle was frequently +performed on necessary occasions, by great fasting and the joint +supplication of the church of the place, and that the persons +thus restored to their prayers had lived afterwards among them +many years. At such a period, when faith could boast of so many +wonderful victories over death, it seems difficult to account for +the scepticism of those philosophers, who still rejected and +derided the doctrine of the resurrection. A noble Grecian had +rested on this important ground the whole controversy, and +promised Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, that if he could be +gratified with the sight of a single person who had been actually +raised from the dead, he would immediately embrace the Christian +religion. It is somewhat remarkable, that the prelate of the +first eastern church, however anxious for the conversion of his +friend, thought proper to decline this fair and reasonable +challenge.<br> +</p> + +<p>The miracles of the primitive church, after obtaining the +sanction of ages, have been lately attacked in a very free and +ingenious inquiry, which, though it has met with the most +favorable reception from the public, appears to have excited a +general scandal among the divines of our own as well as of the +other Protestant churches of Europe. Our different sentiments on +this subject will be much less influenced by any particular +arguments, than by our habits of study and reflection; and, above +all, by the degree of evidence which we have accustomed ourselves +to require for the proof of a miraculous event. The duty of an +historian does not call upon him to interpose his private +judgment in this nice and important controversy; but he ought not +to dissemble the difficulty of adopting such a theory as may +reconcile the interest of religion with that of reason, of making +a proper application of that theory, and of defining with +precision the limits of that happy period, exempt from error and +from deceit, to which we might be disposed to extend the gift of +supernatural powers. From the first of the fathers to the last of +the popes, a succession of bishops, of saints, of martyrs, and of +miracles, is continued without interruption; and the progress of +superstition was so gradual, and almost imperceptible, that we +know not in what particular link we should break the chain of +tradition. Every age bears testimony to the wonderful events by +which it was distinguished, and its testimony appears no less +weighty and respectable than that of the preceding generation, +till we are insensibly led on to accuse our own inconsistency, if +in the eighth or in the twelfth century we deny to the venerable +Bede, or to the holy Bernard, the same degree of confidence +which, in the second century, we had so liberally granted to +Justin or to Irenæus. If the truth of any of those miracles +is appreciated by their apparent use and propriety, every age had +unbelievers to convince, heretics to confute, and idolatrous +nations to convert; and sufficient motives might always be +produced to justify the interposition of Heaven. And yet, since +every friend to revelation is persuaded of the reality, and every +reasonable man is convinced of the cessation, of miraculous +powers, it is evident that there must have been <strong><em>some +period</em></strong> in which they were either suddenly or +gradually withdrawn from the Christian church. Whatever æra +is chosen for that purpose, the death of the apostles, the +conversion of the Roman empire, or the extinction of the Arian +heresy, the insensibility of the Christians who lived at that +time will equally afford a just matter of surprise. They still +supported their pretensions after they had lost their power. +Credulity performed the office of faith; fanaticism was permitted +to assume the language of inspiration, and the effects of +accident or contrivance were ascribed to supernatural causes. The +recent experience of genuine miracles should have instructed the +Christian world in the ways of Providence, and habituated their +eye (if we may use a very inadequate expression) to the style of +the divine artist. Should the most skilful painter of modern +Italy presume to decorate his feeble imitations with the name of +Raphael or of Correggio, the insolent fraud would be soon +discovered, and indignantly rejected.<br> +</p> + +<p>Whatever opinion may be entertained of the miracles of the +primitive church since the time of the apostles, this unresisting +softness of temper, so conspicuous among the believers of the +second and third centuries, proved of some accidental benefit to +the cause of truth and religion. In modern times, a latent and +even involuntary scepticism adheres to the most pious +dispositions. Their admission of supernatural truths is much less +an active consent than a cold and passive acquiescence. +Accustomed long since to observe and to respect the variable +order of Nature, our reason, or at least our imagination, is not +sufficiently prepared to sustain the visible action of the Deity. +But, in the first ages of Christianity, the situation of mankind +was extremely different. The most curious, or the most credulous, +among the Pagans, were often persuaded to enter into a society +which asserted an actual claim of miraculous powers. The +primitive Christians perpetually trod on mystic ground, and their +minds were exercised by the habits of believing the most +extraordinary events. They felt, or they fancied, that on every +side they were incessantly assaulted by dæmons, comforted +by visions, instructed by prophecy, and surprisingly delivered +from danger, sickness, and from death itself, by the +supplications of the church. The real or imaginary prodigies, of +which they so frequently conceived themselves to be the objects, +the instruments, or the spectators, very happily disposed them to +adopt with the same ease, but with far greater justice, the +authentic wonders of the evangelic history; and thus miracles +that exceeded not the measure of their own experience, inspired +them with the most lively assurance of mysteries which were +acknowledged to surpass the limits of their understanding. It is +this deep impression of supernatural truths, which has been so +much celebrated under the name of faith; a state of mind +described as the surest pledge of the divine favor and of future +felicity, and recommended as the first, or perhaps the only merit +of a Christian. According to the more rigid doctors, the moral +virtues, which may be equally practised by infidels, are +destitute of any value or efficacy in the work of our +justification.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part V.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>IV. But the primitive Christian demonstrated his faith by his +virtues; and it was very justly supposed that the divine +persuasion, which enlightened or subdued the understanding, must, +at the same time, purify the heart, and direct the actions, of +the believer. The first apologists of Christianity who justify +the innocence of their brethren, and the writers of a later +period who celebrate the sanctity of their ancestors, display, in +the most lively colors, the reformation of manners which was +introduced into the world by the preaching of the gospel. As it +is my intention to remark only such human causes as were +permitted to second the influence of revelation, I shall slightly +mention two motives which might naturally render the lives of the +primitive Christians much purer and more austere than those of +their Pagan contemporaries, or their degenerate successors; +repentance for their past sins, and the laudable desire of +supporting the reputation of the society in which they were +engaged. *<br> +</p> + +<p>It is a very ancient reproach, suggested by the ignorance or +the malice of infidelity, that the Christians allured into their +party the most atrocious criminals, who, as soon as they were +touched by a sense of remorse, were easily persuaded to wash +away, in the water of baptism, the guilt of their past conduct, +for which the temples of the gods refused to grant them any +expiation. But this reproach, when it is cleared from +misrepresentation, contributes as much to the honor as it did to +the increase of the church. The friends of Christianity may +acknowledge without a blush, that many of the most eminent saints +had been before their baptism the most abandoned sinners. Those +persons, who in the world had followed, though in an imperfect +manner, the dictates of benevolence and propriety, derived such a +calm satisfaction from the opinion of their own rectitude, as +rendered them much less susceptible of the sudden emotions of +shame, of grief, and of terror, which have given birth to so many +wonderful conversions. After the example of their divine Master, +the missionaries of the gospel disdained not the society of men, +and especially of women, oppressed by the consciousness, and very +often by the effects, of their vices. As they emerged from sin +and superstition to the glorious hope of immortality, they +resolved to devote themselves to a life, not only of virtue, but +of penitence. The desire of perfection became the ruling passion +of their soul; and it is well known, that while reason embraces a +cold mediocrity, our passions hurry us, with rapid violence, over +the space which lies between the most opposite extremes.<br> +</p> + +<p>When the new converts had been enrolled in the number of the +faithful, and were admitted to the sacraments of the church, they +found themselves restrained from relapsing into their past +disorders by another consideration of a less spiritual, but of a +very innocent and respectable nature. Any particular society that +has departed from the great body of the nation, or the religion +to which it belonged, immediately becomes the object of universal +as well as invidious observation. In proportion to the smallness +of its numbers, the character of the society may be affected by +the virtues and vices of the persons who compose it; and every +member is engaged to watch with the most vigilant attention over +his own behavior, and over that of his brethren, since, as he +must expect to incur a part of the common disgrace, he may hope +to enjoy a share of the common reputation. When the Christians of +Bithynia were brought before the tribunal of the younger Pliny, +they assured the proconsul, that, far from being engaged in any +unlawful conspiracy, they were bound by a solemn obligation to +abstain from the commission of those crimes which disturb the +private or public peace of society, from theft, robbery, +adultery, perjury, and fraud. Near a century afterwards, +Tertullian with an honest pride, could boast, that very few +Christians had suffered by the hand of the executioner, except on +account of their religion. Their serious and sequestered life, +averse to the gay luxury of the age, inured them to chastity, +temperance, economy, and all the sober and domestic virtues. As +the greater number were of some trade or profession, it was +incumbent on them, by the strictest integrity and the fairest +dealing, to remove the suspicions which the profane are too apt +to conceive against the appearances of sanctity. The contempt of +the world exercised them in the habits of humility, meekness, and +patience. The more they were persecuted, the more closely they +adhered to each other. Their mutual charity and unsuspecting +confidence has been remarked by infidels, and was too often +abused by perfidious friends.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is a very honorable circumstance for the morals of the +primitive Christians, that even their faults, or rather errors, +were derived from an excess of virtue. The bishops and doctors of +the church, whose evidence attests, and whose authority might +influence, the professions, the principles, and even the practice +of their contemporaries, had studied the Scriptures with less +skill than devotion; and they often received, in the most literal +sense, those rigid precepts of Christ and the apostles, to which +the prudence of succeeding commentators has applied a looser and +more figurative mode of interpretation. Ambitious to exalt the +perfection of the gospel above the wisdom of philosophy, the +zealous fathers have carried the duties of self-mortification, of +purity, and of patience, to a height which it is scarcely +possible to attain, and much less to preserve, in our present +state of weakness and corruption. A doctrine so extraordinary and +so sublime must inevitably command the veneration of the people; +but it was ill calculated to obtain the suffrage of those worldly +philosophers, who, in the conduct of this transitory life, +consult only the feelings of nature and the interest of +society.<br> +</p> + +<p>There are two very natural propensities which we may +distinguish in the most virtuous and liberal dispositions, the +love of pleasure and the love of action. If the former is refined +by art and learning, improved by the charms of social +intercourse, and corrected by a just regard to economy, to +health, and to reputation, it is productive of the greatest part +of the happiness of private life. The love of action is a +principle of a much stronger and more doubtful nature. It often +leads to anger, to ambition, and to revenge; but when it is +guided by the sense of propriety and benevolence, it becomes the +parent of every virtue, and if those virtues are accompanied with +equal abilities, a family, a state, or an empire, may be indebted +for their safety and prosperity to the undaunted courage of a +single man. To the love of pleasure we may therefore ascribe most +of the agreeable, to the love of action we may attribute most of +the useful and respectable, qualifications. The character in +which both the one and the other should be united and harmonized, +would seem to constitute the most perfect idea of human nature. +The insensible and inactive disposition, which should be supposed +alike destitute of both, would be rejected, by the common consent +of mankind, as utterly incapable of procuring any happiness to +the individual, or any public benefit to the world. But it was +not in this world, that the primitive Christians were desirous of +making themselves either agreeable or useful. *<br> +</p> + +<p>The acquisition of knowledge, the exercise of our reason or +fancy, and the cheerful flow of unguarded conversation, may +employ the leisure of a liberal mind. Such amusements, however, +were rejected with abhorrence, or admitted with the utmost +caution, by the severity of the fathers, who despised all +knowledge that was not useful to salvation, and who considered +all levity of discours eas a criminal abuse of the gift of +speech. In our present state of existence the body is so +inseparably connected with the soul, that it seems to be our +interest to taste, with innocence and moderation, the enjoyments +of which that faithful companion is susceptible. Very different +was the reasoning of our devout predecessors; vainly aspiring to +imitate the perfection of angels, they disdained, or they +affected to disdain, every earthly and corporeal delight. Some of +our senses indeed are necessary for our preservation, others for +our subsistence, and others again for our information; and thus +far it was impossible to reject the use of them. The first +sensation of pleasure was marked as the first moment of their +abuse. The unfeeling candidate for heaven was instructed, not +only to resist the grosser allurements of the taste or smell, but +even to shut his ears against the profane harmony of sounds, and +to view with indifference the most finished productions of human +art. Gay apparel, magnificent houses, and elegant furniture, were +supposed to unite the double guilt of pride and of sensuality; a +simple and mortified appearance was more suitable to the +Christian who was certain of his sins and doubtful of his +salvation. In their censures of luxury, the fathers are extremely +minute and circumstantial; and among the various articles which +excite their pious indignation, we may enumerate false hair, +garments of any color except white, instruments of music, vases +of gold or silver, downy pillows, (as Jacob reposed his head on a +stone,) white bread, foreign wines, public salutations, the use +of warm baths, and the practice of shaving the beard, which, +according to the expression of Tertullian, is a lie against our +own faces, and an impious attempt to improve the works of the +Creator. When Christianity was introduced among the rich and the +polite, the observation of these singular laws was left, as it +would be at present, to the few who were ambitious of superior +sanctity. But it is always easy, as well as agreeable, for the +inferior ranks of mankind to claim a merit from the contempt of +that pomp and pleasure which fortune has placed beyond their +reach. The virtue of the primitive Christians, like that of the +first Romans, was very frequently guarded by poverty and +ignorance.<br> +</p> + +<p>The chaste severity of the fathers, in whatever related to the +commerce of the two sexes, flowed from the same principle; their +abhorrence of every enjoyment which might gratify the sensual, +and degrade the spiritual, nature of man. It was their favorite +opinion, that if Adam had preserved his obedience to the Creator, +he would have lived forever in a state of virgin purity, and that +some harmless mode of vegetation might have peopled paradise with +a race of innocent and immortal beings. The use of marriage was +permitted only to his fallen posterity, as a necessary expedient +to continue the human species, and as a restraint, however +imperfect, on the natural licentiousness of desire. The +hesitation of the orthodox casuists on this interesting subject, +betrays the perplexity of men, unwilling to approve an +institution which they were compelled to tolerate. The +enumeration of the very whimsical laws, which they most +circumstantially imposed on the marriage-bed, would force a smile +from the young and a blush from the fair. It was their unanimous +sentiment, that a first marriage was adequate to all the purposes +of nature and of society. The sensual connection was refined into +a resemblance of the mystic union of Christ with his church, and +was pronounced to be indissoluble either by divorce or by death. +The practice of second nuptials was branded with the name of a +egal adultery; and the persons who were guilty of so scandalous +an offence against Christian purity, were soon excluded from the +honors, and even from the alms, of the church. Since desire was +imputed as a crime, and marriage was tolerated as a defect, it +was consistent with the same principles to consider a state of +celibacy as the nearest approach to the divine perfection. It was +with the utmost difficulty that ancient Rome could support the +institution of six vestals; but the primitive church was filled +with a great number of persons of either sex, who had devoted +themselves to the profession of perpetual chastity. A few of +these, among whom we may reckon the learned Origen, judged it the +most prudent to disarm the tempter. Some were insensible and some +were invincible against the assaults of the flesh. Disdaining an +ignominious flight, the virgins of the warm climate of Africa +encountered the enemy in the closest engagement; they permitted +priests and deacons to share their bed, and gloried amidst the +flames in their unsullied purity. But insulted Nature sometimes +vindicated her rights, and this new species of martyrdom served +only to introduce a new scandal into the church. Among the +Christian ascetics, however, (a name which they soon acquired +from their painful exercise,) many, as they were less +presumptuous, were probably more successful. The loss of sensual +pleasure was supplied and compensated by spiritual pride. Even +the multitude of Pagans were inclined to estimate the merit of +the sacrifice by its apparent difficulty; and it was in the +praise of these chaste spouses of Christ that the fathers have +poured forth the troubled stream of their eloquence. Such are the +early traces of monastic principles and institutions, which, in a +subsequent age, have counterbalanced all the temporal advantages +of Christianity.<br> +</p> + +<p>The Christians were not less averse to the business than to +the pleasures of this world. The defence of our persons and +property they knew not how to reconcile with the patient doctrine +which enjoined an unlimited forgiveness of past injuries, and +commanded them to invite the repetition of fresh insults. Their +simplicity was offended by the use of oaths, by the pomp of +magistracy, and by the active contention of public life; nor +could their humane ignorance be convinced that it was lawful on +any occasion to shed the blood of our fellow-creatures, either by +the sword of justice, or by that of war; even though their +criminal or hostile attempts should threaten the peace and safety +of the whole community. It was acknowledged, that, under a less +perfect law, the powers of the Jewish constitution had been +exercised, with the approbation of Heaven, by inspired prophets +and by anointed kings. The Christians felt and confessed that +such institutions might be necessary for the present system of +the world, and they cheerfully submitted to the authority of +their Pagan governors. But while they inculcated the maxims of +passive obedience, they refused to take any active part in the +civil administration or the military defence of the empire. Some +indulgence might, perhaps, be allowed to those persons who, +before their conversion, were already engaged in such violent and +sanguinary occupations; but it was impossible that the +Christians, without renouncing a more sacred duty, could assume +the character of soldiers, of magistrates, or of princes. This +indolent, or even criminal disregard to the public welfare, +exposed them to the contempt and reproaches of the Pagans who +very frequently asked, what must be the fate of the empire, +attacked on every side by the barbarians, if all mankind should +adopt the pusillanimous sentiments of the new sect. To this +insulting question the Christian apologists returned obscure and +ambiguous answers, as they were unwilling to reveal the secret +cause of their security; the expectation that, before the +conversion of mankind was accomplished, war, government, the +Roman empire, and the world itself, would be no more. It may be +observed, that, in this instance likewise, the situation of the +first Christians coincided very happily with their religious +scruples, and that their aversion to an active life contributed +rather to excuse them from the service, than to exclude them from +the honors, of the state and army.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part VI.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>V. But the human character, however it may be exalted or +depressed by a temporary enthusiasm, will return by degrees to +its proper and natural level, and will resume those passions that +seem the most adapted to its present condition. The primitive +Christians were dead to the business and pleasures of the world; +but their love of action, which could never be entirely +extinguished, soon revived, and found a new occupation in the +government of the church. A separate society, which attacked the +established religion of the empire, was obliged to adopt some +form of internal policy, and to appoint a sufficient number of +ministers, intrusted not only with the spiritual functions, but +even with the temporal direction of the Christian commonwealth. +The safety of that society, its honor, its aggrandizement, were +productive, even in the most pious minds, of a spirit of +patriotism, such as the first of the Romans had felt for the +republic, and sometimes of a similar indifference, in the use of +whatever means might probably conduce to so desirable an end. The +ambition of raising themselves or their friends to the honors and +offices of the church, was disguised by the laudable intention of +devoting to the public benefit the power and consideration, +which, for that purpose only, it became their duty to solicit. In +the exercise of their functions, they were frequently called upon +to detect the errors of heresy or the arts of faction, to oppose +the designs of perfidious brethren, to stigmatize their +characters with deserved infamy, and to expel them from the bosom +of a society whose peace and happiness they had attempted to +disturb. The ecclesiastical governors of the Christians were +taught to unite the wisdom of the serpent with the innocence of +the dove; but as the former was refined, so the latter was +insensibly corrupted, by the habits of government. If the church +as well as in the world, the persons who were placed in any +public station rendered themselves considerable by their +eloquence and firmness, by their knowledge of mankind, and by +their dexterity in business; and while they concealed from +others, and perhaps from themselves, the secret motives of their +conduct, they too frequently relapsed into all the turbulent +passions of active life, which were tinctured with an additional +degree of bitterness and obstinacy from the infusion of spiritual +zeal.<br> +</p> + +<p>The government of the church has often been the subject, as +well as the prize, of religious contention. The hostile +disputants of Rome, of Paris, of Oxford, and of Geneva, have +alike struggled to reduce the primitive and apostolic model to +the respective standards of their own policy. The few who have +pursued this inquiry with more candor and impartiality, are of +opinion, that the apostles declined the office of legislation, +and rather chose to endure some partial scandals and divisions, +than to exclude the Christians of a future age from the liberty +of varying their forms of ecclesiastical government according to +the changes of times and circumstances. The scheme of policy, +which, under their approbation, was adopted for the use of the +first century, may be discovered from the practice of Jerusalem, +of Ephesus, or of Corinth. The societies which were instituted in +the cities of the Roman empire, were united only by the ties of +faith and charity. Independence and equality formed the basis of +their internal constitution. The want of discipline and human +learning was supplied by the occasional assistance of the +<strong><em>prophets</em></strong>, who were called to that +function without distinction of age, of sex, * or of natural +abilities, and who, as often as they felt the divine impulse, +poured forth the effusions of the Spirit in the assembly of the +faithful. But these extraordinary gifts were frequently abused or +misapplied by the prophetic teachers. They displayed them at an +improper season, presumptuously disturbed the service of the +assembly, and, by their pride or mistaken zeal, they introduced, +particularly into the apostolic church of Corinth, a long and +melancholy train of disorders. As the institution of prophets +became useless, and even pernicious, their powers were withdrawn, +and their office abolished. The public functions of religion were +solely intrusted to the established ministers of the church, the +<strong><em>bishops</em></strong> and the +<strong><em>presbyters</em></strong>; two appellations which, in +their first origin, appear to have distinguished the same office +and the same order of persons. The name of Presbyter was +expressive of their age, or rather of their gravity and wisdom. +The title of Bishop denoted their inspection over the faith and +manners of the Christians who were committed to their pastoral +care. In proportion to the respective numbers of the faithful, a +larger or smaller number of these +<strong><em>episcopal</em></strong> +<strong><em>presbyters</em></strong> guided each infant +congregation with equal authority and with united counsels.<br> +</p> + +<p>But the most perfect equality of freedom requires the +directing hand of a superior magistrate: and the order of public +deliberations soon introduces the office of a president, invested +at least with the authority of collecting the sentiments, and of +executing the resolutions, of the assembly. A regard for the +public tranquillity, which would so frequently have been +interrupted by annual or by occasional elections, induced the +primitive Christians to constitute an honorable and perpetual +magistracy, and to choose one of the wisest and most holy among +their presbyterians to execute, during his life, the duties of +their ecclesiastical governor. It was under these circumstances +that the lofty title of Bishop began to raise itself above the +humble appellation of Presbyter; and while the latter remained +the most natural distinction for the members of every Christian +senate, the former was appropriated to the dignity of its new +president. The advantages of this episcopal form of government, +which appears to have been introduced before the end of the first +century, were so obvious, and so important for the future +greatness, as well as the present peace, of Christianity, that it +was adopted without delay by all the societies which were already +scattered over the empire, had acquired in a very early period +the sanction of antiquity, and is still revered by the most +powerful churches, both of the East and of the West, as a +primitive and even as a divine establishment. It is needless to +observe, that the pious and humble presbyters, who were first +dignified with the episcopal title, could not possess, and would +probably have rejected, the power and pomp which now encircles +the tiara of the Roman pontiff, or the mitre of a German prelate. +But we may define, in a few words, the narrow limits of their +original jurisdiction, which was chiefly of a spiritual, though +in some instances of a temporal nature. It consisted in the +administration of the sacraments and discipline of the church, +the superintendency of religious ceremonies, which imperceptibly +increased in number and variety, the consecration of +ecclesiastical ministers, to whom the bishop assigned their +respective functions, the management of the public fund, and the +determination of all such differences as the faithful were +unwilling to expose before the tribunal of an idolatrous judge. +These powers, during a short period, were exercised according to +the advice of the presbyteral college, and with the consent and +approbation of the assembly of Christians. The primitive bishops +were considered only as the first of their equals, and the +honorable servants of a free people. Whenever the episcopal chair +became vacant by death, a new president was chosen among the +presbyters by the suffrages of the whole congregation, every +member of which supposed himself invested with a sacred and +sacerdotal character.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such was the mild and equal constitution by which the +Christians were governed more than a hundred years after the +death of the apostles. Every society formed within itself a +separate and independent republic; and although the most distant +of these little states maintained a mutual as well as friendly +intercourse of letters and deputations, the Christian world was +not yet connected by any supreme authority or legislative +assembly. As the numbers of the faithful were gradually +multiplied, they discovered the advantages that might result from +a closer union of their interest and designs. Towards the end of +the second century, the churches of Greece and Asia adopted the +useful institutions of provincial synods, * and they may justly +be supposed to have borrowed the model of a representative +council from the celebrated examples of their own country, the +Amphictyons, the Achæan league, or the assemblies of the +Ionian cities. It was soon established as a custom and as a law, +that the bishops of the independent churches should meet in the +capital of the province at the stated periods of spring and +autumn. Their deliberations were assisted by the advice of a few +distinguished presbyters, and moderated by the presence of a +listening multitude. Their decrees, which were styled Canons, +regulated every important controversy of faith and discipline; +and it was natural to believe that a liberal effusion of the Holy +Spirit would be poured on the united assembly of the delegates of +the Christian people. The institution of synods was so well +suited to private ambition, and to public interest, that in the +space of a few years it was received throughout the whole empire. +A regular correspondence was established between the provincial +councils, which mutually communicated and approved their +respective proceedings; and the catholic church soon assumed the +form, and acquired the strength, of a great foederative +republic.<br> +</p> + +<p>As the legislative authority of the particular churches was +insensibly superseded by the use of councils, the bishops +obtained by their alliance a much larger share of executive and +arbitrary power; and as soon as they were connected by a sense of +their common interest, they were enabled to attack with united +vigor, the original rights of their clergy and people. The +prelates of the third century imperceptibly changed the language +of exhortation into that of command, scattered the seeds of +future usurpations, and supplied, by scripture allegories and +declamatory rhetoric, their deficiency of force and of reason. +They exalted the unity and power of the church, as it was +represented in the Episcopal Office, of which every bishop +enjoyed an equal and undivided portion. Princes and magistrates, +it was often repeated, might boast an earthly claim to a +transitory dominion; it was the episcopal authority alone which +was derived from the Deity, and extended itself over this and +over another world. The bishops were the vicegerents of Christ, +the successors of the apostles, and the mystic substitutes of the +high priest of the Mosaic law. Their exclusive privilege of +conferring the sacerdotal character, invaded the freedom both of +clerical and of popular elections; and if, in the administration +of the church, they still consulted the judgment of the +presbyters, or the inclination of the people, they most carefully +inculcated the merit of such a voluntary condescension. The +bishops acknowledged the supreme authority which resided in the +assembly of their brethren; but in the government of his peculiar +diocese, each of them exacted from his flock the same implicit +obedience as if that favorite metaphor had been literally just, +and as if the shepherd had been of a more exalted nature than +that of his sheep. This obedience, however, was not imposed +without some efforts on one side, and some resistance on the +other. The democratical part of the constitution was, in many +places, very warmly supported by the zealous or interested +opposition of the inferior clergy. But their patriotism received +the ignominious epithets of faction and schism; and the episcopal +cause was indebted for its rapid progress to the labors of many +active prelates, who, like Cyprian of Carthage, could reconcile +the arts of the most ambitious statesman with the Christian +virtues which seem adapted to the character of a saint and +martyr.<br> +</p> + +<p>The same causes which at first had destroyed the equality of +the presbyters introduced among the bishops a preeminence of +rank, and from thence a superiority of jurisdiction. As often as +in the spring and autumn they met in provincial synod, the +difference of personal merit and reputation was very sensibly +felt among the members of the assembly, and the multitude was +governed by the wisdom and eloquence of the few. But the order of +public proceedings required a more regular and less invidious +distinction; the office of perpetual presidents in the councils +of each province was conferred on the bishops of the principal +city; and these aspiring prelates, who soon acquired the lofty +titles of Metropolitans and Primates, secretly prepared +themselves to usurp over their episcopal brethren the same +authority which the bishops had so lately assumed above the +college of presbyters. Nor was it long before an emulation of +preeminence and power prevailed among the Metropolitans +themselves, each of them affecting to display, in the most +pompous terms, the temporal honors and advantages of the city +over which he presided; the numbers and opulence of the +Christians who were subject to their pastoral care; the saints +and martyrs who had arisen among them; and the purity with which +they preserved the tradition of the faith, as it had been +transmitted through a series of orthodox bishops from the apostle +or the apostolic disciple, to whom the foundation of their church +was ascribed. From every cause, either of a civil or of an +ecclesiastical nature, it was easy to foresee that Rome must +enjoy the respect, and would soon claim the obedience of the +provinces. The society of the faithful bore a just proportion to +the capital of the empire; and the Roman church was the greatest, +the most numerous, and, in regard to the West, the most ancient +of all the Christian establishments, many of which had received +their religion from the pious labors of her missionaries. Instead +of <strong><em>one</em></strong>apostolic founder, the utmost +boast of Antioch, of Ephesus, or of Corinth, the banks of the +Tyber were supposed to have been honored with the preaching and +martyrdom of the <strong><em>two</em></strong> most eminent among +the apostles; and the bishops of Rome very prudently claimed the +inheritance of whatsoever prerogatives were attributed either to +the person or to the office of St. Peter. The bishops of Italy +and of the provinces were disposed to allow them a primacy of +order and association (such was their very accurate expression) +in the Christian aristocracy. But the power of a monarch was +rejected with abhorrence, and the aspiring genius of Rome +experienced from the nations of Asia and Africa a more vigorous +resistance to her spiritual, than she had formerly done to her +temporal, dominion. The patriotic Cyprian, who ruled with the +most absolute sway the church of Carthage and the provincial +synods, opposed with resolution and success the ambition of the +Roman pontiff, artfully connected his own cause with that of the +eastern bishops, and, like Hannibal, sought out new allies in the +heart of Asia. If this Punic war was carried on without any +effusion of blood, it was owing much less to the moderation than +to the weakness of the contending prelates. Invectives and +excommunications were <strong><em>their</em></strong> only +weapons; and these, during the progress of the whole controversy, +they hurled against each other with equal fury and devotion. The +hard necessity of censuring either a pope, or a saint and martyr, +distresses the modern Catholics whenever they are obliged to +relate the particulars of a dispute in which the champions of +religion indulged such passions as seem much more adapted to the +senate or to the camp.<br> +</p> + +<p>The progress of the ecclesiastical authority gave birth to the +memorable distinction of the laity and of the clergy, which had +been unknown to the Greeks and Romans. The former of these +appellations comprehended the body of the Christian people; the +latter, according to the signification of the word, was +appropriated to the chosen portion that had been set apart for +the service of religion; a celebrated order of men, which has +furnished the most important, though not always the most +edifying, subjects for modern history. Their mutual hostilities +sometimes disturbed the peace of the infant church, but their +zeal and activity were united in the common cause, and the love +of power, which (under the most artful disguises) could insinuate +itself into the breasts of bishops and martyrs, animated them to +increase the number of their subjects, and to enlarge the limits +of the Christian empire. They were destitute of any temporal +force, and they were for a long time discouraged and oppressed, +rather than assisted, by the civil magistrate; but they had +acquired, and they employed within their own society, the two +most efficacious instruments of government, rewards and +punishments; the former derived from the pious liberality, the +latter from the devout apprehensions, of the faithful.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part VII</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>I. The community of goods, which had so agreeably amused the +imagination of Plato, and which subsisted in some degree among +the austere sect of the Essenians, was adopted for a short time +in the primitive church. The fervor of the first proselytes +prompted them to sell those worldly possessions, which they +despised, to lay the price of them at the feet of the apostles, +and to content themselves with receiving an equal share out of +the general distribution. The progress of the Christian religion +relaxed, and gradually abolished, this generous institution, +which, in hands less pure than those of the apostles, would too +soon have been corrupted and abused by the returning selfishness +of human nature; and the converts who embraced the new religion +were permitted to retain the possession of their patrimony, to +receive legacies and inheritances, and to increase their separate +property by all the lawful means of trade and industry. Instead +of an absolute sacrifice, a moderate proportion was accepted by +the ministers of the gospel; and in their weekly or monthly +assemblies, every believer, according to the exigency of the +occasion, and the measure of his wealth and piety, presented his +voluntary offering for the use of the common fund. Nothing, +however inconsiderable, was refused; but it was diligently +inculcated; that, in the article of Tithes, the Mosaic law was +still of divine obligation; and that since the Jews, under a less +perfect discipline, had been commanded to pay a tenth part of all +that they possessed, it would become the disciples of Christ to +distinguish themselves by a superior degree of liberality, and to +acquire some merit by resigning a superfluous treasure, which +must so soon be annihilated with the world itself. It is almost +unnecessary to observe, that the revenue of each particular +church, which was of so uncertain and fluctuating a nature, must +have varied with the poverty or the opulence of the faithful, as +they were dispersed in obscure villages, or collected in the +great cities of the empire. In the time of the emperor Decius, it +was the opinion of the magistrates, that the Christians of Rome +were possessed of very considerable wealth; that vessels of gold +and silver were used in their religious worship, and that many +among their proselytes had sold their lands and houses to +increase the public riches of the sect, at the expense, indeed, +of their unfortunate children, who found themselves beggars, +because their parents had been saints. We should listen with +distrust to the suspicions of strangers and enemies: on this +occasion, however, they receive a very specious and probable +color from the two following circumstances, the only ones that +have reached our knowledge, which define any precise sums, or +convey any distinct idea. Almost at the same period, the bishop +of Carthage, from a society less opulent than that of Rome, +collected a hundred thousand sesterces, (above eight hundred and +fifty pounds sterling,) on a sudden call of charity to redeem the +brethren of Numidia, who had been carried away captives by the +barbarians of the desert. About a hundred years before the reign +of Decius, the Roman church had received, in a single donation, +the sum of two hundred thousand sesterces from a stranger of +Pontus, who proposed to fix his residence in the capital. These +oblations, for the most part, were made in money; nor was the +society of Christians either desirous or capable of acquiring, to +any considerable degree, the encumbrance of landed property. It +had been provided by several laws, which were enacted with the +same design as our statutes of mortmain, that no real estates +should be given or bequeathed to any corporate body, without +either a special privilege or a particular dispensation from the +emperor or from the senate; who were seldom disposed to grant +them in favor of a sect, at first the object of their contempt, +and at last of their fears and jealousy. A transaction, however, +is related under the reign of Alexander Severus, which discovers +that the restraint was sometimes eluded or suspended, and that +the Christians were permitted to claim and to possess lands +within the limits of Rome itself. The progress of Christianity, +and the civil confusion of the empire, contributed to relax the +severity of the laws; and before the close of the third century +many considerable estates were bestowed on the opulent churches +of Rome, Milan, Carthage, Antioch, Alexandria, and the other +great cities of Italy and the provinces.<br> +</p> + +<p>The bishop was the natural steward of the church; the public +stock was intrusted to his care without account or control; the +presbyters were confined to their spiritual functions, and the +more dependent order of the deacons was solely employed in the +management and distribution of the ecclesiastical revenue. If we +may give credit to the vehement declamations of Cyprian, there +were too many among his African brethren, who, in the execution +of their charge, violated every precept, not only of evangelical +perfection, but even of moral virtue. By some of these unfaithful +stewards the riches of the church were lavished in sensual +pleasures; by others they were perverted to the purposes of +private gain, of fraudulent purchases, and of rapacious usury. +But as long as the contributions of the Christian people were +free and unconstrained, the abuse of their confidence could not +be very frequent, and the general uses to which their liberality +was applied reflected honor on the religious society. A decent +portion was reserved for the maintenance of the bishop and his +clergy; a sufficient sum was allotted for the expenses of the +public worship, of which the feasts of love, the +<strong><em>agap</em></strong>, as they were called, constituted +a very pleasing part. The whole remainder was the sacred +patrimony of the poor. According to the discretion of the bishop, +it was distributed to support widows and orphans, the lame, the +sick, and the aged of the community; to comfort strangers and +pilgrims, and to alleviate the misfortunes of prisoners and +captives, more especially when their sufferings had been +occasioned by their firm attachment to the cause of religion. A +generous intercourse of charity united the most distant +provinces, and the smaller congregations were cheerfully assisted +by the alms of their more opulent brethren. Such an institution, +which paid less regard to the merit than to the distress of the +object, very materially conduced to the progress of Christianity. +The Pagans, who were actuated by a sense of humanity, while they +derided the doctrines, acknowledged the benevolence, of the new +sect. The prospect of immediate relief and of future protection +allured into its hospitable bosom many of those unhappy persons +whom the neglect of the world would have abandoned to the +miseries of want, of sickness, and of old age. There is some +reason likewise to believe that great numbers of infants, who, +according to the inhuman practice of the times, had been exposed +by their parents, were frequently rescued from death, baptized, +educated, and maintained by the piety of the Christians, and at +the expense of the public treasure.<br> +</p> + +<p>II. It is the undoubted right of every society to exclude from +its communion and benefits such among its members as reject or +violate those regulations which have been established by general +consent. In the exercise of this power, the censures of the +Christian church were chiefly directed against scandalous +sinners, and particularly those who were guilty of murder, of +fraud, or of incontinence; against the authors or the followers +of any heretical opinions which had been condemned by the +judgment of the episcopal order; and against those unhappy +persons, who, whether from choice or compulsion, had polluted +themselves after their baptism by any act of idolatrous worship. +The consequences of excommunication were of a temporal as well as +a spiritual nature. The Christian against whom it was pronounced, +was deprived of any part in the oblations of the faithful. The +ties both of religious and of private friendship were dissolved: +he found himself a profane object of abhorrence to the persons +whom he the most esteemed, or by whom he had been the most +tenderly beloved; and as far as an expulsion from a respectable +society could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace, he was +shunned or suspected by the generality of mankind. The situation +of these unfortunate exiles was in itself very painful and +melancholy; but, as it usually happens, their apprehensions far +exceeded their sufferings. The benefits of the Christian +communion were those of eternal life; nor could they erase from +their minds the awful opinion, that to those ecclesiastical +governors by whom they were condemned, the Deity had committed +the keys of Hell and of Paradise. The heretics, indeed, who might +be supported by the consciousness of their intentions, and by the +flattering hope that they alone had discovered the true path of +salvation, endeavored to regain, in their separate assemblies, +those comforts, temporal as well as spiritual, which they no +longer derived from the great society of Christians. But almost +all those who had reluctantly yielded to the power of vice or +idolatry were sensible of their fallen condition, and anxiously +desirous of being restored to the benefits of the Christian +communion.<br> +</p> + +<p>With regard to the treatment of these penitents, two opposite +opinions, the one of justice, the other of mercy, divided the +primitive church. The more rigid and inflexible casuists refused +them forever, and without exception, the meanest place in the +holy community, which they had disgraced or deserted; and leaving +them to the remorse of a guilty conscience, indulged them only +with a faint ray of hope that the contrition of their life and +death might possibly be accepted by the Supreme Being. A milder +sentiment was embraced in practice as well as in theory, by the +purest and most respectable of the Christian churches. The gates +of reconciliation and of heaven were seldom shut against the +returning penitent; but a severe and solemn form of discipline +was instituted, which, while it served to expiate his crime, +might powerfully deter the spectators from the imitation of his +example. Humbled by a public confession, emaciated by fasting and +clothed in sackcloth, the penitent lay prostrate at the door of +the assembly, imploring with tears the pardon of his offences, +and soliciting the prayers of the faithful. If the fault was of a +very heinous nature, whole years of penance were esteemed an +inadequate satisfaction to the divine justice; and it was always +by slow and painful gradations that the sinner, the heretic, or +the apostate, was readmitted into the bosom of the church. A +sentence of perpetual excommunication was, however, reserved for +some crimes of an extraordinary magnitude, and particularly for +the inexcusable relapses of those penitents who had already +experienced and abused the clemency of their ecclesiastical +superiors. According to the circumstances or the number of the +guilty, the exercise of the Christian discipline was varied by +the discretion of the bishops. The councils of Ancyra and +Illiberis were held about the same time, the one in Galatia, the +other in Spain; but their respective canons, which are still +extant, seem to breathe a very different spirit. The Galatian, +who after his baptism had repeatedly sacrificed to idols, might +obtain his pardon by a penance of seven years; and if he had +seduced others to imitate his example, only three years more were +added to the term of his exile. But the unhappy Spaniard, who had +committed the same offence, was deprived of the hope of +reconciliation, even in the article of death; and his idolatry +was placed at the head of a list of seventeen other crimes, +against which a sentence no less terrible was pronounced. Among +these we may distinguish the inexpiable guilt of calumniating a +bishop, a presbyter, or even a deacon.<br> +</p> + +<p>The well-tempered mixture of liberality and rigor, the +judicious dispensation of rewards and punishments, according to +the maxims of policy as well as justice, constituted the +<strong><em>human</em></strong> strength of the church. The +Bishops, whose paternal care extended itself to the government of +both worlds, were sensible of the importance of these +prerogatives; and covering their ambition with the fair pretence +of the love of order, they were jealous of any rival in the +exercise of a discipline so necessary to prevent the desertion of +those troops which had enlisted themselves under the banner of +the cross, and whose numbers every day became more considerable. +From the imperious declamations of Cyprian, we should naturally +conclude that the doctrines of excommunication and penance formed +the most essential part of religion; and that it was much less +dangerous for the disciples of Christ to neglect the observance +of the moral duties, than to despise the censures and authority +of their bishops. Sometimes we might imagine that we were +listening to the voice of Moses, when he commanded the earth to +open, and to swallow up, in consuming flames, the rebellious race +which refused obedience to the priesthood of Aaron; and we should +sometimes suppose that we hear a Roman consul asserting the +majesty of the republic, and declaring his inflexible resolution +to enforce the rigor of the laws. * "If such irregularities are +suffered with impunity," (it is thus that the bishop of Carthage +chides the lenity of his colleague,) "if such irregularities are +suffered, there is an end of Episcopal Vigor; an end of the +sublime and divine power of governing the Church, an end of +Christianity itself." Cyprian had renounced those temporal +honors, which it is probable he would never have obtained; * but +the acquisition of such absolute command over the consciences and +understanding of a congregation, however obscure or despised by +the world, is more truly grateful to the pride of the human +heart, than the possession of the most despotic power, imposed by +arms and conquest on a reluctant people.<br> +</p> + +<p>In the course of this important, though perhaps tedious +inquiry, I have attempted to display the secondary causes which +so efficaciously assisted the truth of the Christian religion. If +among these causes we have discovered any artificial ornaments, +any accidental circumstances, or any mixture of error and +passion, it cannot appear surprising that mankind should be the +most sensibly affected by such motives as were suited to their +imperfect nature. It was by the aid of these causes, exclusive +zeal, the immediate expectation of another world, the claim of +miracles, the practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of +the primitive church, that Christianity spread itself with so +much success in the Roman empire. To the first of these the +Christians were indebted for their invincible valor, which +disdained to capitulate with the enemy whom they were resolved to +vanquish. The three succeeding causes supplied their valor with +the most formidable arms. The last of these causes united their +courage, directed their arms, and gave their efforts that +irresistible weight, which even a small band of well-trained and +intrepid volunteers has so often possessed over an undisciplined +multitude, ignorant of the subject, and careless of the event of +the war. In the various religions of Polytheism, some wandering +fanatics of Egypt and Syria, who addressed themselves to the +credulous superstition of the populace, were perhaps the only +order of priests that derived their whole support and credit from +their sacerdotal profession, and were very deeply affected by a +personal concern for the safety or prosperity of their tutelar +deities. The ministers of Polytheism, both in Rome and in the +provinces, were, for the most part, men of a noble birth, and of +an affluent fortune, who received, as an honorable distinction, +the care of a celebrated temple, or of a public sacrifice, +exhibited, very frequently at their own expense, the sacred +games, and with cold indifference performed the ancient rites, +according to the laws and fashion of their country. As they were +engaged in the ordinary occupations of life, their zeal and +devotion were seldom animated by a sense of interest, or by the +habits of an ecclesiastical character. Confined to their +respective temples and cities, they remained without any +connection of discipline or government; and whilst they +acknowledged the supreme jurisdiction of the senate, of the +college of pontiffs, and of the emperor, those civil magistrates +contented themselves with the easy task of maintaining in peace +and dignity the general worship of mankind. We have already seen +how various, how loose, and how uncertain were the religious +sentiments of Polytheists. They were abandoned, almost without +control, to the natural workings of a superstitious fancy. The +accidental circumstances of their life and situation determined +the object as well as the degree of their devotion; and as long +as their adoration was successively prostituted to a thousand +deities, it was scarcely possible that their hearts could be +susceptible of a very sincere or lively passion for any of +them.<br> +</p> + +<p>When Christianity appeared in the world, even these faint and +imperfect impressions had lost much of their original power. +Human reason, which by its unassisted strength is incapable of +perceiving the mysteries of faith, had already obtained an easy +triumph over the folly of Paganism; and when Tertullian or +Lactantius employ their labors in exposing its falsehood and +extravagance, they are obliged to transcribe the eloquence of +Cicero or the wit of Lucian. The contagion of these sceptical +writings had been diffused far beyond the number of their +readers. The fashion of incredulity was communicated from the +philosopher to the man of pleasure or business, from the noble to +the plebeian, and from the master to the menial slave who waited +at his table, and who eagerly listened to the freedom of his +conversation. On public occasions the philosophic part of mankind +affected to treat with respect and decency the religious +institutions of their country; but their secret contempt +penetrated through the thin and awkward disguise; and even the +people, when they discovered that their deities were rejected and +derided by those whose rank or understanding they were accustomed +to reverence, were filled with doubts and apprehensions +concerning the truth of those doctrines, to which they had +yielded the most implicit belief. The decline of ancient +prejudice exposed a very numerous portion of human kind to the +danger of a painful and comfortless situation. A state of +scepticism and suspense may amuse a few inquisitive minds. But +the practice of superstition is so congenial to the multitude, +that if they are forcibly awakened, they still regret the loss of +their pleasing vision. Their love of the marvellous and +supernatural, their curiosity with regard to future events, and +their strong propensity to extend their hopes and fears beyond +the limits of the visible world, were the principal causes which +favored the establishment of Polytheism. So urgent on the vulgar +is the necessity of believing, that the fall of any system of +mythology will most probably be succeeded by the introduction of +some other mode of superstition. Some deities of a more recent +and fashionable cast might soon have occupied the deserted +temples of Jupiter and Apollo, if, in the decisive moment, the +wisdom of Providence had not interposed a genuine revelation, +fitted to inspire the most rational esteem and conviction, +whilst, at the same time, it was adorned with all that could +attract the curiosity, the wonder, and the veneration of the +people. In their actual disposition, as many were almost +disengaged from their artificial prejudices, but equally +susceptible and desirous of a devout attachment; an object much +less deserving would have been sufficient to fill the vacant +place in their hearts, and to gratify the uncertain eagerness of +their passions. Those who are inclined to pursue this reflection, +instead of viewing with astonishment the rapid progress of +Christianity, will perhaps be surprised that its success was not +still more rapid and still more universal.<br> +</p> + +<p>It has been observed, with truth as well as propriety, that +the conquests of Rome prepared and facilitated those of +Christianity. In the second chapter of this work we have +attempted to explain in what manner the most civilized provinces +of Europe, Asia, and Africa were united under the dominion of one +sovereign, and gradually connected by the most intimate ties of +laws, of manners, and of language. The Jews of Palestine, who had +fondly expected a temporal deliverer, gave so cold a reception to +the miracles of the divine prophet, that it was found unnecessary +to publish, or at least to preserve, any Hebrew gospel. The +authentic histories of the actions of Christ were composed in the +Greek language, at a considerable distance from Jerusalem, and +after the Gentile converts were grown extremely numerous. As soon +as those histories were translated into the Latin tongue, they +were perfectly intelligible to all the subjects of Rome, +excepting only to the peasants of Syria and Egypt, for whose +benefit particular versions were afterwards made. The public +highways, which had been constructed for the use of the legions, +opened an easy passage for the Christian missionaries from +Damascus to Corinth, and from Italy to the extremity of Spain or +Britain; nor did those spiritual conquerors encounter any of the +obstacles which usually retard or prevent the introduction of a +foreign religion into a distant country. There is the strongest +reason to believe, that before the reigns of Diocletian and +Constantine, the faith of Christ had been preached in every +province, and in all the great cities of the empire; but the +foundation of the several congregations, the numbers of the +faithful who composed them, and their proportion to the +unbelieving multitude, are now buried in obscurity, or disguised +by fiction and declamation. Such imperfect circumstances, +however, as have reached our knowledge concerning the increase of +the Christian name in Asia and Greece, in Egypt, in Italy, and in +the West, we shall now proceed to relate, without neglecting the +real or imaginary acquisitions which lay beyond the frontiers of +the Roman empire.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part VIII.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>The rich provinces that extend from the Euphrates to the +Ionian Sea, were the principal theatre on which the apostle of +the Gentiles displayed his zeal and piety. The seeds of the +gospel, which he had scattered in a fertile soil, were diligently +cultivated by his disciples; and it should seem that, during the +two first centuries, the most considerable body of Christians was +contained within those limits. Among the societies which were +instituted in Syria, none were more ancient or more illustrious +than those of Damascus, of Berea or Aleppo, and of Antioch. The +prophetic introduction of the Apocalypse has described and +immortalized the seven churches of Asia; Ephesus, Smyrna, +Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardes, Laodicea and Philadelphia; and their +colonies were soon diffused over that populous country. In a very +early period, the islands of Cyprus and Crete, the provinces of +Thrace and Macedonia, gave a favorable reception to the new +religion; and Christian republics were soon founded in the cities +of Corinth, of Sparta, and of Athens. The antiquity of the Greek +and Asiatic churches allowed a sufficient space of time for their +increase and multiplication; and even the swarms of Gnostics and +other heretics serve to display the flourishing condition of the +orthodox church, since the appellation of hereties has always +been applied to the less numerous party. To these domestic +testimonies we may add the confession, the complaints, and the +apprehensions of the Gentiles themselves. From the writings of +Lucian, a philosopher who had studied mankind, and who describes +their manners in the most lively colors, we may learn that, under +the reign of Commodus, his native country of Pontus was filled +with Epicureans and <strong><em>Christians</em></strong>. Within +fourscore years after the death of Christ, the humane Pliny +laments the magnitude of the evil which he vainly attempted to +eradicate. In his very curious epistle to the emperor Trajan, he +affirms, that the temples were almost deserted, that the sacred +victims scarcely found any purchasers, and that the superstition +had not only infected the cities, but had even spread itself into +the villages and the open country of Pontus and Bithynia.<br> +</p> + +<p>Without descending into a minute scrutiny of the expressions +or of the motives of those writers who either celebrate or lament +the progress of Christianity in the East, it may in general be +observed, that none of them have left us any grounds from whence +a just estimate might be formed of the real numbers of the +faithful in those provinces. One circumstance, however, has been +fortunately preserved, which seems to cast a more distinct light +on this obscure but interesting subject. Under the reign of +Theodosius, after Christianity had enjoyed, during more than +sixty years, the sunshine of Imperial favor, the ancient and +illustrious church of Antioch consisted of one hundred thousand +persons, three thousand of whom were supported out of the public +oblations. The splendor and dignity of the queen of the East, the +acknowledged populousness of Cæsarea, Seleucia, and +Alexandria, and the destruction of two hundred and fifty thousand +souls in the earthquake which afflicted Antioch under the elder +Justin, are so many convincing proofs that the whole number of +its inhabitants was not less than half a million, and that the +Christians, however multiplied by zeal and power, did not exceed +a fifth part of that great city. How different a proportion must +we adopt when we compare the persecuted with the triumphant +church, the West with the East, remote villages with populous +towns, and countries recently converted to the faith with the +place where the believers first received the appellation of +Christians! It must not, however, be dissembled, that, in another +passage, Chrysostom, to whom we are indebted for this useful +information, computes the multitude of the faithful as even +superior to that of the Jews and Pagans. But the solution of this +apparent difficulty is easy and obvious. The eloquent preacher +draws a parallel between the civil and the ecclesiastical +constitution of Antioch; between the list of Christians who had +acquired heaven by baptism, and the list of citizens who had a +right to share the public liberality. Slaves, strangers, and +infants were comprised in the former; they were excluded from the +latter.<br> +</p> + +<p>The extensive commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to +Palestine, gave an easy entrance to the new religion. It was at +first embraced by great numbers of the Theraputæ, or +Essenians, of the Lake Mareotis, a Jewish sect which had abated +much of its reverence for the Mosaic ceremonies. The austere life +of the Essenians, their fasts and excommunications, the community +of goods, the love of celibacy, their zeal for martyrdom, and the +warmth though not the purity of their faith, already offered a +very lively image of the primitive discipline. It was in the +school of Alexandria that the Christian theology appears to have +assumed a regular and scientific form; and when Hadrian visited +Egypt, he found a church composed of Jews and of Greeks, +sufficiently important to attract the notice of that inquisitive +prince. But the progress of Christianity was for a long time +confined within the limits of a single city, which was itself a +foreign colony, and till the close of the second century the +predecessors of Demetrius were the only prelates of the Egyptian +church. Three bishops were consecrated by the hands of Demetrius, +and the number was increased to twenty by his successor Heraclas. +The body of the natives, a people distinguished by a sullen +inflexibility of temper, entertained the new doctrine with +coldness and reluctance; and even in the time of Origen, it was +rare to meet with an Egyptian who had surmounted his early +prejudices in favor of the sacred animals of his country. As +soon, indeed, as Christianity ascended the throne, the zeal of +those barbarians obeyed the prevailing impulsion; the cities of +Egypt were filled with bishops, and the deserts of Thebais +swarmed with hermits.<br> +</p> + +<p>A perpetual stream of strangers and provincials flowed into +the capacious bosom of Rome. Whatever was strange or odious, +whoever was guilty or suspected, might hope, in the obscurity of +that immense capital, to elude the vigilance of the law. In such +a various conflux of nations, every teacher, either of truth or +falsehood, every founder, whether of a virtuous or a criminal +association, might easily multiply his disciples or accomplices. +The Christians of Rome, at the time of the accidental persecution +of Nero, are represented by Tacitus as already amounting to a +very great multitude, and the language of that great historian is +almost similar to the style employed by Livy, when he relates the +introduction and the suppression of the rites of Bacchus. After +the Bacchanals had awakened the severity of the senate, it was +likewise apprehended that a very great multitude, as it were +<strong><em>another people</em></strong>, had been initiated into +those abhorred mysteries. A more careful inquiry soon +demonstrated, that the offenders did not exceed seven thousand; a +number indeed sufficiently alarming, when considered as the +object of public justice. It is with the same candid allowance +that we should interpret the vague expressions of Tacitus, and in +a former instance of Pliny, when they exaggerate the crowds of +deluded fanatics who had forsaken the established worship of the +gods. The church of Rome was undoubtedly the first and most +populous of the empire; and we are possessed of an authentic +record which attests the state of religion in that city about the +middle of the third century, and after a peace of thirty-eight +years. The clergy, at that time, consisted of a bishop, forty-six +presbyters, seven deacons, as many sub-deacons, forty-two +acolythes, and fifty readers, exorcists, and porters. The number +of widows, of the infirm, and of the poor, who were maintained by +the oblations of the faithful, amounted to fifteen hundred. From +reason, as well as from the analogy of Antioch, we may venture to +estimate the Christians of Rome at about fifty thousand. The +populousness of that great capital cannot perhaps be exactly +ascertained; but the most modest calculation will not surely +reduce it lower than a million of inhabitants, of whom the +Christians might constitute at the most a twentieth part.<br> +</p> + +<p>The western provincials appeared to have derived the knowledge +of Christianity from the same source which had diffused among +them the language, the sentiments, and the manners of Rome. In +this more important circumstance, Africa, as well as Gaul, was +gradually fashioned to the imitation of the capital. Yet +notwithstanding the many favorable occasions which might invite +the Roman missionaries to visit their Latin provinces, it was +late before they passed either the sea or the Alps; nor can we +discover in those great countries any assured traces either of +faith or of persecution that ascend higher than the reign of the +Antonines. The slow progress of the gospel in the cold climate of +Gaul, was extremely different from the eagerness with which it +seems to have been received on the burning sands of Africa. The +African Christians soon formed one of the principal members of +the primitive church. The practice introduced into that province +of appointing bishops to the most inconsiderable towns, and very +frequently to the most obscure villages, contributed to multiply +the splendor and importance of their religious societies, which +during the course of the third century were animated by the zeal +of Tertullian, directed by the abilities of Cyprian, and adorned +by the eloquence of Lactantius. But if, on the contrary, we turn +our eyes towards Gaul, we must content ourselves with +discovering, in the time of Marcus Antoninus, the feeble and +united congregations of Lyons and Vienna; and even as late as the +reign of Decius, we are assured, that in a few cities only, +Arles, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Limoges, Clermont, Tours, and Paris, +some scattered churches were supported by the devotion of a small +number of Christians. Silence is indeed very consistent with +devotion; but as it is seldom compatible with zeal, we may +perceive and lament the languid state of Christianity in those +provinces which had exchanged the Celtic for the Latin tongue, +since they did not, during the three first centuries, give birth +to a single ecclesiastical writer. From Gaul, which claimed a +just preeminence of learning and authority over all the countries +on this side of the Alps, the light of the gospel was more +faintly reflected on the remote provinces of Spain and Britain; +and if we may credit the vehement assertions of Tertullian, they +had already received the first rays of the faith, when he +addressed his apology to the magistrates of the emperor Severus. +But the obscure and imperfect origin of the western churches of +Europe has been so negligently recorded, that if we would relate +the time and manner of their foundation, we must supply the +silence of antiquity by those legends which avarice or +superstition long afterwards dictated to the monks in the lazy +gloom of their convents. Of these holy romances, that of the +apostle St. James can alone, by its singular extravagance, +deserve to be mentioned. From a peaceful fisherman of the Lake of +Gennesareth, he was transformed into a valorous knight, who +charged at the head of the Spanish chivalry in their battles +against the Moors. The gravest historians have celebrated his +exploits; the miraculous shrine of Compostella displayed his +power; and the sword of a military order, assisted by the terrors +of the Inquisition, was sufficient to remove every objection of +profane criticism.<br> +</p> + +<p>The progress of Christianity was not confined to the Roman +empire; and according to the primitive fathers, who interpret +facts by prophecy, the new religion, within a century after the +death of its divine Author, had already visited every part of the +globe. "There exists not," says Justin Martyr, "a people, whether +Greek or Barbarian, or any other race of men, by whatsoever +appellation or manners they may be distinguished, however +ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell under tents, +or wander about in covered wagons, among whom prayers are not +offered up in the name of a crucified Jesus to the Father and +Creator of all things." But this splendid exaggeration, which +even at present it would be extremely difficult to reconcile with +the real state of mankind, can be considered only as the rash +sally of a devout but careless writer, the measure of whose +belief was regulated by that of his wishes. But neither the +belief nor the wishes of the fathers can alter the truth of +history. It will still remain an undoubted fact, that the +barbarians of Scythia and Germany, who afterwards subverted the +Roman monarchy, were involved in the darkness of paganism; and +that even the conversion of Iberia, of Armenia, or of +Æthiopia, was not attempted with any degree of success till +the sceptre was in the hands of an orthodox emperor. Before that +time, the various accidents of war and commerce might indeed +diffuse an imperfect knowledge of the gospel among the tribes of +Caledonia, and among the borderers of the Rhine, the Danube, and +the Euphrates. Beyond the last-mentioned river, Edessa was +distinguished by a firm and early adherence to the faith. From +Edessa the principles of Christianity were easily introduced into +the Greek and Syrian cities which obeyed the successors of +Artaxerxes; but they do not appear to have made any deep +impression on the minds of the Persians, whose religious system, +by the labors of a well disciplined order of priests, had been +constructed with much more art and solidity than the uncertain +mythology of Greece and Rome.<br> +</p> + +<p><strong><em>Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion. -- +Part IX.</em></strong><br> +</p> + +<p>From this impartial though imperfect survey of the progress of +Christianity, it may perhaps seem probable, that the number of +its proselytes has been excessively magnified by fear on the one +side, and by devotion on the other. According to the +irreproachable testimony of Origen, the proportion of the +faithful was very inconsiderable, when compared with the +multitude of an unbelieving world; but, as we are left without +any distinct information, it is impossible to determine, and it +is difficult even to conjecture, the real numbers of the +primitive Christians. The most favorable calculation, however, +that can be deduced from the examples of Antioch and of Rome, +will not permit us to imagine that more than a themselves under +the banner of the cross before the important conversion of +Constantine. But their habits of faith, of zeal, and of union, +seemed to multiply their numbers; and the same causes which +contributed to their future increase, served to render their +actual strength more apparent and more formidable.<br> +</p> + +<p>Such is the constitution of civil society, that whilst a few +persons are distinguished by riches, by honors, and by knowledge, +the body of the people is condemned to obscurity, ignorance and +poverty. The Christian religion, which addressed itself to the +whole human race, must consequently collect a far greater number +of proselytes from the lower than from the superior ranks of +life. This innocent and natural circumstance has been improved +into a very odious imputation, which seems to be less strenuously +denied by the apologists, than it is urged by the adversaries, of +the faith; that the new sect of Christians was almost entirely +composed of the dregs of the populace, of peasants and mechanics, +of boys and women, of beggars and slaves, the last of whom might +sometimes introduce the missionaries into the rich and noble +families to which they belonged. These obscure teachers (such was +the charge of malice and infidelity) are as mute in public as +they are loquacious and dogmatical in private. Whilst they +cautiously avoid the dangerous encounter of philosophers, they +mingle with the rude and illiterate crowd, and insinuate +themselves into those minds, whom their age, their sex, or their +education, has the best disposed to receive the impression of +superstitious terrors.<br> +</p> + +<p>This unfavorable picture, though not devoid of a faint +resemblance, betrays, by its dark coloring and distorted +features, the pencil of an enemy. As the humble faith of Christ +diffused itself through the world, it was embraced by several +persons who derived some consequence from the advantages of +nature or fortune. Aristides, who presented an eloquent apology +to the emperor Hadrian, was an Athenian philosopher. Justin +Martyr had sought divine knowledge in the schools of Zeno, of +Aristotle, of Pythagoras, and of Plato, before he fortunately was +accosted by the old man, or rather the angel, who turned his +attention to the study of the Jewish prophets. Clemens of +Alexandria had acquired much various reading in the Greek, and +Tertullian in the Latin, language. Julius Africanus and Origen +possessed a very considerable share of the learning of their +times; and although the style of Cyprian is very different from +that of Lactantius, we might almost discover that both those +writers had been public teachers of rhetoric. Even the study of +philosophy was at length introduced among the Christians, but it +was not always productive of the most salutary effects; knowledge +was as often the parent of heresy as of devotion, and the +description which was designed for the followers of Artemon, may, +with equal propriety, be applied to the various sects that +resisted the successors of the apostles. "They presume to alter +the Holy Scriptures, to abandon the ancient rule of faith, and to +form their opinions according to the subtile precepts of logic. +The science of the church is neglected for the study of geometry, +and they lose sight of heaven while they are employed in +measuring the earth. Euclid is perpetually in their hands. +Aristotle and Theophrastus are the objects of their admiration; +and they express an uncommon reverence for the works of Galen. +Their errors are derived from the abuse of the arts and sciences +of the infidels, and they corrupt the simplicity of the gospel by +the refinements of human reason."<br> +</p> + +<p>Nor can it be affirmed with truth, that the advantages of +birth and fortune were always separated from the profession of +Christianity. Several Roman citizens were brought before the +tribunal of Pliny, and he soon discovered, that a great number of +persons of <strong><em>every order</em></strong>of men in +Bithynia had deserted the religion of their ancestors. His +unsuspected testimony may, in this instance, obtain more credit +than the bold challenge of Tertullian, when he addresses himself +to the fears as well as the humanity of the proconsul of Africa, +by assuring him, that if he persists in his cruel intentions, he +must decimate Carthage, and that he will find among the guilty +many persons of his own rank, senators and matrons of nobles' +extraction, and the friends or relations of his most intimate +friends. It appears, however, that about forty years afterwards +the emperor Valerian was persuaded of the truth of this +assertion, since in one of his rescripts he evidently supposes, +that senators, Roman knights, and ladies of quality, were engaged +in the Christian sect. The church still continued to increase its +outward splendor as it lost its internal purity; and, in the +reign of Diocletian, the palace, the courts of justice, and even +the army, concealed a multitude of Christians, who endeavored to +reconcile the interests of the present with those of a future +life.<br> +</p> + +<p>And yet these exceptions are either too few in number, or too +recent in time, entirely to remove the imputation of ignorance +and obscurity which has been so arrogantly cast on the first +proselytes of Christianity. * Instead of employing in our defence +the fictions of later ages, it will be more prudent to convert +the occasion of scandal into a subject of edification. Our +serious thoughts will suggest to us, that the apostles themselves +were chosen by Providence among the fishermen of Galilee, and +that the lower we depress the temporal condition of the first +Christians, the more reason we shall find to admire their merit +and success. It is incumbent on us diligently to remember, that +the kingdom of heaven was promised to the poor in spirit, and +that minds afflicted by calamity and the contempt of mankind, +cheerfully listen to the divine promise of future happiness; +while, on the contrary, the fortunate are satisfied with the +possession of this world; and the wise abuse in doubt and dispute +their vain superiority of reason and knowledge.<br> +</p> + +<p>We stand in need of such reflections to comfort us for the +loss of some illustrious characters, which in our eyes might have +seemed the most worthy of the heavenly present. The names of +Seneca, of the elder and the younger Pliny, of Tacitus, of +Plutarch, of Galen, of the slave Epictetus, and of the emperor +Marcus Antoninus, adorn the age in which they flourished, and +exalt the dignity of human nature. They filled with glory their +respective stations, either in active or contemplative life; +their excellent understandings were improved by study; Philosophy +had purified their minds from the prejudices of the popular +superstition; and their days were spent in the pursuit of truth +and the practice of virtue. Yet all these sages (it is no less an +object of surprise than of concern) overlooked or rejected the +perfection of the Christian system. Their language or their +silence equally discover their contempt for the growing sect, +which in their time had diffused itself over the Roman empire. +Those among them who condescended to mention the Christians, +consider them only as obstinate and perverse enthusiasts, who +exacted an implicit submission to their mysterious doctrines, +without being able to produce a single argument that could engage +the attention of men of sense and learning.<br> +</p> + +<p>It is at least doubtful whether any of these philosophers +perused the apologies * which the primitive Christians repeatedly +published in behalf of themselves and of their religion; but it +is much to be lamented that such a cause was not defended by +abler advocates. They expose with superfluous with and eloquence +the extravagance of Polytheism. They interest our compassion by +displaying the innocence and sufferings of their injured +brethren. But when they would demonstrate the divine origin of +Christianity, they insist much more strongly on the predictions +which announced, than on the miracles which accompanied, the +appearance of the Messiah. Their favorite argument might serve to +edify a Christian or to convert a Jew, since both the one and the +other acknowledge the authority of those prophecies, and both are +obliged, with devout reverence, to search for their sense and +their accomplishment. But this mode of persuasion loses much of +its weight and influence, when it is addressed to those who +neither understand nor respect the Mosaic dispensation and the +prophetic style. In the unskilful hands of Justin and of the +succeeding apologists, the sublime meaning of the Hebrew oracles +evaporates in distant types, affected conceits, and cold +allegories; and even their authenticity was rendered suspicious +to an unenlightened Gentile, by the mixture of pious forgeries, +which, under the names of Orpheus, Hermes, and the Sibyls, were +obtruded on him as of equal value with the genuine inspirations +of Heaven. The adoption of fraud and sophistry in the defence of +revelation too often reminds us of the injudicious conduct of +those poets who load their <strong><em>invulnerable</em></strong> +heroes with a useless weight of cumbersome and brittle armor.<br> +</p> + +<p>But how shall we excuse the supine inattention of the Pagan +and philosophic world, to those evidences which were represented +by the hand of Omnipotence, not to their reason, but to their +senses? During the age of Christ, of his apostles, and of their +first disciples, the doctrine which they preached was confirmed +by innumerable prodigies. The lame walked, the blind saw, the +sick were healed, the dead were raised, dæmons were +expelled, and the laws of Nature were frequently suspended for +the benefit of the church. But the sages of Greece and Rome +turned aside from the awful spectacle, and, pursuing the ordinary +occupations of life and study, appeared unconscious of any +alterations in the moral or physical government of the world. +Under the reign of Tiberius, the whole earth, or at least a +celebrated province of the Roman empire, was involved in a +preternatural darkness of three hours. Even this miraculous +event, which ought to have excited the wonder, the curiosity, and +the devotion of mankind, passed without notice in an age of +science and history. It happened during the lifetime of Seneca +and the elder Pliny, who must have experienced the immediate +effects, or received the earliest intelligence, of the prodigy. +Each of these philosophers, in a laborious work, has recorded all +the great phenomena of Nature, earthquakes, meteors comets, and +eclipses, which his indefatigable curiosity could collect. Both +the one and the other have omitted to mention the greatest +phenomenon to which the mortal eye has been witness since the +creation of the globe. A distinct chapter of Pliny is designed +for eclipses of an extraordinary nature and unusual duration; but +he contents himself with describing the singular defect of light +which followed the murder of Cæsar, when, during the +greatest part of a year, the orb of the sun appeared pale and +without splendor. The season of obscurity, which cannot surely be +compared with the preternatural darkness of the Passion, had been +already celebrated by most of the poets and historians of that +memorable age.<br> +</p> + +<p>End Of Vol. I.</p> +</body> +</html> + + |