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diff --git a/890-h/890-h.htm b/890-h/890-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c08f03 --- /dev/null +++ b/890-h/890-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17821 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Volume 1 by Edward Gibbon</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre> +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire + Volume 1 + +Author: Edward Gibbon + +Commentator: H. H. Milman + +Release Date: April, 1997 [EBook #890] +[Most recently updated: March 28, 2020] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + + + + +Produced by David Reed, Dale R. Fredrickson and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <h2> + HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL <br/> OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE + </h2> + <h2> + Edward Gibbon, Esq. + </h2> + <h3> + With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman + </h3> + <h2> + Volume 1 + </h2> + <h4> + 1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) + </h4> + <hr /> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkintroduction">Introduction</a><br/> <a + href="#linkpreface-editor">Preface By The Editor</a><br/> <a + href="#linkpreface-author">Preface Of The Author</a><br/> <a + href="#linkpreface-vol1">Preface To The First Volume</a><br/><br/> <a + href="#linkch1-p1">Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antoninies.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch1-p2">Part II.</a> + <a href="#linkch1-p3">Part III.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Introduction—The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In +The Age Of The Antonines. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch2-p1">Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The + Age Of The Antonines.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch2-p2">Part + II.</a> <a href="#linkch2-p3">Part III.</a> <a + href="#linkch2-p4">Part IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In +The Age Of The Antonines. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch3-p1">Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of + The Antonines.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch3-2">Part + II.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The +Antonines. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch4-p1">Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder + Of Commodus.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch4-p2">Part + II.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus. Election Of +Pertinax—His Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination +By The Prætorian Guards. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch5-p1">Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius + Julianus.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch5-p2">Part II.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The +Prætorian Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius +Niger In Syria, And Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare +Against The Murderers Of Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of +Severus Over His Three Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New +Maxims Of Government. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch6-p1">Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of + Caracalla, Usurpation Of Macrinus.—Part I.</a> <a + href="#linkch6-p2">Part II.</a> <a href="#linkch6-p3">Part + III.</a> <a href="#linkch6-p4">Part IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation +Of Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander +Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The +Roman Finances. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch7-p1">Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, + Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part I.</a> <a + href="#linkch7-p2">Part II.</a> <a href="#linkch7-p3">Part + III.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa +And Italy, Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And +Seditions.—Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus +And Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians.—Usurpation And +Secular Games Of Philip. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch8-p1">Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And + Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part I.</a> <a + href="#linkch8-p2">Part II.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy +By Artaxerxes. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch9-p1">Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The + Barbarians.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch9-p2">Part II.</a> + <a href="#linkch9-p3">Part III.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In +The Time Of The Emperor Decius.<br/> +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch10-p1">Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, + Valerian And Gallienus.—Part I.</a> <a + href="#linkch10-p2">Part II.</a> <a href="#linkch10-p3">Part + III.</a> <a href="#linkch10-p4">Part IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And +Gallienus.—The General Irruption Of The Barbarians.—The +Thirty Tyrants. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch11-p1">Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of + The Goths.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch11-p2">Part II.</a> + <a href="#linkch11-p3">Part III.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, +Triumph, And Death Of Aurelian.<br/> +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch12-p1">Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, + Carus And His Sons.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch12-p2">Part + II.</a> <a href="#linkch12-p3">Part III.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.— +Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch13-p1">Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And This + Three Associates.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch13-p2">Part + II.</a> <a href="#linkch13-p3">Part III.</a> <a + href="#linkch13-p4">Part IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, +Galerius, And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order +And Tranquillity.—The Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.— +The New Form Of Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of +Diocletian And Maximian. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch14-p1">Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, + Reunion Of The Empire.—Part I.</a> <a + href="#linkch14-p2">Part II.</a> <a href="#linkch14-p3">Part + III.</a> <a href="#linkch14-p4">Part IV.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of +Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxentius. ­ +Six Emperors At The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And Galerius. +—Victories Of Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.— +Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority Of Constantine. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> <a href="#linkch15-p1">Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian + Religion.—Part I.</a> <a href="#linkch15-p2">Part II.</a> + <a href="#linkch15-p3">Part III.</a> <a href="#linkch15-p4">Part + IV.</a> <a href="#linkch15-p5">Part V.</a> <a + href="#linkch15-p6">Part VI.</a> <a href="#linkch15-p7">Part + VII.</a> <a href="#linkch15-p8">Part VIII.</a> + <a href="#linkch15-p9">Part IX.</a> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, +Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. +</pre> + <p> + <br/> + </p> + </blockquote> + <hr /> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkintroduction" id="linkintroduction"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Introduction + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkpreface-editor" id="linkpreface-editor"></a> + </p> + <h3> + Preface By The Editor. + </h3> + <p> + The great work of Gibbon is indispensable to the student of history. The + literature of Europe offers no substitute for “The Decline and Fall of the + Roman Empire.” It has obtained undisputed possession, as rightful + occupant, of the vast period which it comprehends. However some subjects, + which it embraces, may have undergone more complete investigation, on the + general view of the whole period, this history is the sole undisputed + authority to which all defer, and from which few appeal to the original + writers, or to more modern compilers. The inherent interest of the + subject, the inexhaustible labor employed upon it; the immense + condensation of matter; the luminous arrangement; the general accuracy; + the style, which, however monotonous from its uniform stateliness, and + sometimes wearisome from its elaborate art, is throughout vigorous, + animated, often picturesque, always commands attention, always conveys its + meaning with emphatic energy, describes with singular breadth and + fidelity, and generalizes with unrivalled felicity of expression; all + these high qualifications have secured, and seem likely to secure, its + permanent place in historic literature. + </p> + <p> + This vast design of Gibbon, the magnificent whole into which he has cast + the decay and ruin of the ancient civilization, the formation and birth of + the new order of things, will of itself, independent of the laborious + execution of his immense plan, render “The Decline and Fall of the Roman + Empire” an unapproachable subject to the future historian:* in the + eloquent language of his recent French editor, M. Guizot:— + </p> + <p> + “The gradual decline of the most extraordinary dominion which has ever + invaded and oppressed the world; the fall of that immense empire, erected + on the ruins of so many kingdoms, republics, and states both barbarous and + civilized; and forming in its turn, by its dismemberment, a multitude of + states, republics, and kingdoms; the annihilation of the religion of + Greece and Rome; the birth and the progress of the two new religions which + have shared the most beautiful regions of the earth; the decrepitude of + the ancient world, the spectacle of its expiring glory and degenerate + manners; the infancy of the modern world, the picture of its first + progress, of the new direction given to the mind and character of man—such + a subject must necessarily fix the attention and excite the interest of + men, who cannot behold with indifference those memorable epochs, during + which, in the fine language of Corneille— + </p> + <p> + ‘Un grand destin commence, un grand destin s’achève.’” + </p> + <p> + This extent and harmony of design is unquestionably that which + distinguishes the work of Gibbon from all other great historical + compositions. He has first bridged the abyss between ancient and modern + times, and connected together the two great worlds of history. The great + advantage which the classical historians possess over those of modern + times is in unity of plan, of course greatly facilitated by the narrower + sphere to which their researches were confined. Except Herodotus, the + great historians of Greece—we exclude the more modern compilers, + like Diodorus Siculus—limited themselves to a single period, or at + least to the contracted sphere of Grecian affairs. As far as the <i>Barbarians</i> + trespassed within the Grecian boundary, or were necessarily mingled up + with Grecian politics, they were admitted into the pale of Grecian + history; but to Thucydides and to Xenophon, excepting in the Persian + inroad of the latter, Greece was the world. Natural unity confined their + narrative almost to chronological order, the episodes were of rare + occurrence and extremely brief. To the Roman historians the course was + equally clear and defined. Rome was their centre of unity; and the + uniformity with which the circle of the Roman dominion spread around, the + regularity with which their civil polity expanded, forced, as it were, + upon the Roman historian that plan which Polybius announces as the subject + of his history, the means and the manner by which the whole world became + subject to the Roman sway. How different the complicated politics of the + European kingdoms! Every national history, to be complete, must, in a + certain sense, be the history of Europe; there is no knowing to how remote + a quarter it may be necessary to trace our most domestic events; from a + country, how apparently disconnected, may originate the impulse which + gives its direction to the whole course of affairs. + </p> + <p> + In imitation of his classical models, Gibbon places <i>Rome</i> + as the cardinal point from which his inquiries diverge, and to which they + bear constant reference; yet how immeasurable the space over which those + inquiries range! how complicated, how confused, how apparently + inextricable the causes which tend to the decline of the Roman empire! how + countless the nations which swarm forth, in mingling and indistinct + hordes, constantly changing the geographical limits—incessantly + confounding the natural boundaries! At first sight, the whole period, the + whole state of the world, seems to offer no more secure footing to an + historical adventurer than the chaos of Milton—to be in a state of + irreclaimable disorder, best described in the language of the poet:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + “A dark Illimitable ocean, without bound, + Without dimension, where length, breadth, and height, + And time, and place, are lost: where eldest Night + And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold + Eternal anarchy, amidst the noise + Of endless wars, and by confusion stand.” +</pre> + <p> + We feel that the unity and harmony of narrative, which shall comprehend + this period of social disorganization, must be ascribed entirely to the + skill and luminous disposition of the historian. It is in this sublime + Gothic architecture of his work, in which the boundless range, the + infinite variety, the, at first sight, incongruous gorgeousness of the + separate parts, nevertheless are all subordinate to one main and + predominant idea, that Gibbon is unrivalled. We cannot but admire the + manner in which he masses his materials, and arranges his facts in + successive groups, not according to chronological order, but to their + moral or political connection; the distinctness with which he marks his + periods of gradually increasing decay; and the skill with which, though + advancing on separate parallels of history, he shows the common tendency + of the slower or more rapid religious or civil innovations. However these + principles of composition may demand more than ordinary attention on the + part of the reader, they can alone impress upon the memory the real + course, and the relative importance of the events. Whoever would justly + appreciate the superiority of Gibbon’s lucid arrangement, should attempt + to make his way through the regular but wearisome annals of Tillemont, or + even the less ponderous volumes of Le Beau. Both these writers adhere, + almost entirely, to chronological order; the consequence is, that we are + twenty times called upon to break off, and resume the thread of six or + eight wars in different parts of the empire; to suspend the operations of + a military expedition for a court intrigue; to hurry away from a siege to + a council; and the same page places us in the middle of a campaign against + the barbarians, and in the depths of the Monophysite controversy. In + Gibbon it is not always easy to bear in mind the exact dates but the + course of events is ever clear and distinct; like a skilful general, + though his troops advance from the most remote and opposite quarters, they + are constantly bearing down and concentrating themselves on one point—that + which is still occupied by the name, and by the waning power of Rome. + Whether he traces the progress of hostile religions, or leads from the + shores of the Baltic, or the verge of the Chinese empire, the successive + hosts of barbarians—though one wave has hardly burst and discharged + itself, before another swells up and approaches—all is made to flow + in the same direction, and the impression which each makes upon the + tottering fabric of the Roman greatness, connects their distant movements, + and measures the relative importance assigned to them in the panoramic + history. The more peaceful and didactic episodes on the development of the + Roman law, or even on the details of ecclesiastical history, interpose + themselves as resting-places or divisions between the periods of barbaric + invasion. In short, though distracted first by the two capitals, and + afterwards by the formal partition of the empire, the extraordinary + felicity of arrangement maintains an order and a regular progression. As + our horizon expands to reveal to us the gathering tempests which are + forming far beyond the boundaries of the civilized world—as we + follow their successive approach to the trembling frontier—the + compressed and receding line is still distinctly visible; though gradually + dismembered and the broken fragments assuming the form of regular states + and kingdoms, the real relation of those kingdoms to the empire is + maintained and defined; and even when the Roman dominion has shrunk into + little more than the province of Thrace—when the name of Rome, + confined, in Italy, to the walls of the city—yet it is still the + memory, the shade of the Roman greatness, which extends over the wide + sphere into which the historian expands his later narrative; the whole + blends into the unity, and is manifestly essential to the double + catastrophe of his tragic drama. + </p> + <p> + But the amplitude, the magnificence, or the harmony of design, are, though + imposing, yet unworthy claims on our admiration, unless the details are + filled up with correctness and accuracy. No writer has been more severely + tried on this point than Gibbon. He has undergone the triple scrutiny of + theological zeal quickened by just resentment, of literary emulation, and + of that mean and invidious vanity which delights in detecting errors in + writers of established fame. On the result of the trial, we may be + permitted to summon competent witnesses before we deliver our own + judgment. + </p> + <p> + M. Guizot, in his preface, after stating that in France and Germany, as + well as in England, in the most enlightened countries of Europe, Gibbon is + constantly cited as an authority, thus proceeds:— + </p> + <p> + “I have had occasion, during my labors, to consult the writings of + philosophers, who have treated on the finances of the Roman empire; of + scholars, who have investigated the chronology; of theologians, who have + searched the depths of ecclesiastical history; of writers on law, who have + studied with care the Roman jurisprudence; of Orientalists, who have + occupied themselves with the Arabians and the Koran; of modern historians, + who have entered upon extensive researches touching the crusades and their + influence; each of these writers has remarked and pointed out, in the + ‘History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,’ some negligences, + some false or imperfect views, some omissions, which it is impossible not + to suppose voluntary; they have rectified some facts, combated with + advantage some assertions; but in general they have taken the researches + and the ideas of Gibbon, as points of departure, or as proofs of the + researches or of the new opinions which they have advanced.” + </p> + <p> + M. Guizot goes on to state his own impressions on reading Gibbon’s + history, and no authority will have greater weight with those to whom the + extent and accuracy of his historical researches are known:— + </p> + <p> + “After a first rapid perusal, which allowed me to feel nothing but the + interest of a narrative, always animated, and, notwithstanding its extent + and the variety of objects which it makes to pass before the view, always + perspicuous, I entered upon a minute examination of the details of which + it was composed; and the opinion which I then formed was, I confess, + singularly severe. I discovered, in certain chapters, errors which + appeared to me sufficiently important and numerous to make me believe that + they had been written with extreme negligence; in others, I was struck + with a certain tinge of partiality and prejudice, which imparted to the + exposition of the facts that want of truth and justice, which the English + express by their happy term <i>misrepresentation</i>. + Some imperfect (<i>tronquées</i>) quotations; + some passages, omitted unintentionally or designedly cast a suspicion on + the honesty (<i>bonne foi</i>) of the author; and his + violation of the first law of history—increased to my eye by the + prolonged attention with which I occupied myself with every phrase, every + note, every reflection—caused me to form upon the whole work, a + judgment far too rigorous. After having finished my labors, I allowed some + time to elapse before I reviewed the whole. A second attentive and regular + perusal of the entire work, of the notes of the author, and of those which + I had thought it right to subjoin, showed me how much I had exaggerated + the importance of the reproaches which Gibbon really deserved; I was + struck with the same errors, the same partiality on certain subjects; but + I had been far from doing adequate justice to the immensity of his + researches, the variety of his knowledge, and above all, to that truly + philosophical discrimination (<i>justesse d’esprit</i>) + which judges the past as it would judge the present; which does not permit + itself to be blinded by the clouds which time gathers around the dead, and + which prevent us from seeing that, under the toga, as under the modern + dress, in the senate as in our councils, men were what they still are, and + that events took place eighteen centuries ago, as they take place in our + days. I then felt that his book, in spite of its faults, will always be a + noble work—and that we may correct his errors and combat his + prejudices, without ceasing to admit that few men have combined, if we are + not to say in so high a degree, at least in a manner so complete, and so + well regulated, the necessary qualifications for a writer of history.” + </p> + <p> + The present editor has followed the track of Gibbon through many parts of + his work; he has read his authorities with constant reference to his + pages, and must pronounce his deliberate judgment, in terms of the highest + admiration as to his general accuracy. Many of his seeming errors are + almost inevitable from the close condensation of his matter. From the + immense range of his history, it was sometimes necessary to compress into + a single sentence, a whole vague and diffuse page of a Byzantine + chronicler. Perhaps something of importance may have thus escaped, and his + expressions may not quite contain the whole substance of the passage from + which they are taken. His limits, at times, compel him to sketch; where + that is the case, it is not fair to expect the full details of the + finished picture. At times he can only deal with important results; and in + his account of a war, it sometimes requires great attention to discover + that the events which seem to be comprehended in a single campaign, occupy + several years. But this admirable skill in selecting and giving prominence + to the points which are of real weight and importance—this + distribution of light and shade—though perhaps it may occasionally + betray him into vague and imperfect statements, is one of the highest + excellencies of Gibbon’s historic manner. It is the more striking, when we + pass from the works of his chief authorities, where, after laboring + through long, minute, and wearisome descriptions of the accessary and + subordinate circumstances, a single unmarked and undistinguished sentence, + which we may overlook from the inattention of fatigue, contains the great + moral and political result. + </p> + <p> + Gibbon’s method of arrangement, though on the whole most favorable to the + clear comprehension of the events, leads likewise to apparent inaccuracy. + That which we expect to find in one part is reserved for another. The + estimate which we are to form, depends on the accurate balance of + statements in remote parts of the work; and we have sometimes to correct + and modify opinions, formed from one chapter by those of another. Yet, on + the other hand, it is astonishing how rarely we detect contradiction; the + mind of the author has already harmonized the whole result to truth and + probability; the general impression is almost invariably the same. The + quotations of Gibbon have likewise been called in question;—I have, + <i>in general</i>, been more inclined to admire their + exactitude, than to complain of their indistinctness, or incompleteness. + Where they are imperfect, it is commonly from the study of brevity, and + rather from the desire of compressing the substance of his notes into + pointed and emphatic sentences, than from dishonesty, or uncandid + suppression of truth. + </p> + <p> + These observations apply more particularly to the accuracy and fidelity of + the historian as to his facts; his inferences, of course, are more liable + to exception. It is almost impossible to trace the line between unfairness + and unfaithfulness; between intentional misrepresentation and undesigned + false coloring. The relative magnitude and importance of events must, in + some respect, depend upon the mind before which they are presented; the + estimate of character, on the habits and feelings of the reader. + Christians, like M. Guizot and ourselves, will see some things, and some + persons, in a different light from the historian of the Decline and Fall. + We may deplore the bias of his mind; we may ourselves be on our guard + against the danger of being misled, and be anxious to warn less wary + readers against the same perils; but we must not confound this secret and + unconscious departure from truth, with the deliberate violation of that + veracity which is the only title of an historian to our confidence. + Gibbon, it may be fearlessly asserted, is rarely chargeable even with the + suppression of any material fact, which bears upon individual character; + he may, with apparently invidious hostility, enhance the errors and + crimes, and disparage the virtues of certain persons; yet, in general, he + leaves us the materials for forming a fairer judgment; and if he is not + exempt from his own prejudices, perhaps we might write <i>passions</i>, + yet it must be candidly acknowledged, that his philosophical bigotry is + not more unjust than the theological partialities of those ecclesiastical + writers who were before in undisputed possession of this province of + history. + </p> + <p> + We are thus naturally led to that great misrepresentation which pervades + his history—his false estimate of the nature and influence of + Christianity. + </p> + <p> + But on this subject some preliminary caution is necessary, lest that + should be expected from a new edition, which it is impossible that it + should completely accomplish. We must first be prepared with the only + sound preservative against the false impression likely to be produced by + the perusal of Gibbon; and we must see clearly the real cause of that + false impression. The former of these cautions will be briefly suggested + in its proper place, but it may be as well to state it, here, somewhat + more at length. The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression + produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his confounding + together, in one indistinguishable mass, the <i>origin</i> + and <i>apostolic</i> propagation of the new religion, + with its <i>later</i> progress. No argument for the + divine authority of Christianity has been urged with greater force, or + traced with higher eloquence, than that deduced from its primary + development, explicable on no other hypothesis than a heavenly origin, and + from its rapid extension through great part of the Roman empire. But this + argument—one, when confined within reasonable limits, of + unanswerable force—becomes more feeble and disputable in proportion + as it recedes from the birthplace, as it were, of the religion. The + further Christianity advanced, the more causes purely human were enlisted + in its favor; nor can it be doubted that those developed with such artful + exclusiveness by Gibbon did concur most essentially to its establishment. + It is in the Christian dispensation, as in the material world. In both it + is as the great First Cause, that the Deity is most undeniably manifest. + When once launched in regular motion upon the bosom of space, and endowed + with all their properties and relations of weight and mutual attraction, + the heavenly bodies appear to pursue their courses according to secondary + laws, which account for all their sublime regularity. So Christianity + proclaims its Divine Author chiefly in its first origin and development. + When it had once received its impulse from above—when it had once + been infused into the minds of its first teachers—when it had gained + full possession of the reason and affections of the favored few—it + <i>might be</i>—and to the Protestant, the + rational Christian, it is impossible to define <i>when</i> + it really <i>was</i>—left to make its way by its + native force, under the ordinary secret agencies of all-ruling Providence. + The main question, the <i>divine origin of the religion</i>, + was dexterously eluded, or speciously conceded by Gibbon; his plan enabled + him to commence his account, in most parts, <i>below the + apostolic times</i>; and it was only by the strength of the dark + coloring with which he brought out the failings and the follies of the + succeeding ages, that a shadow of doubt and suspicion was thrown back upon + the primitive period of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + “The theologian,” says Gibbon, “may indulge the pleasing task of + describing religion as she descended from heaven, arrayed in her native + purity; a more melancholy duty is imposed upon the historian:—he + must discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption which she + contracted in a long residence upon earth among a weak and degenerate race + of beings.” Divest this passage of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the + subsequent tone of the whole disquisition, and it might commence a + Christian history written in the most Christian spirit of candor. But as + the historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding the + limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was an Utopia + which had no existence but in the imagination of the theologian—as + he <i>suggested</i> rather than affirmed that the days + of Christian purity were a kind of poetic golden age;—so the + theologian, by venturing too far into the domain of the historian, has + been perpetually obliged to contest points on which he had little chance + of victory—to deny facts established on unshaken evidence—and + thence, to retire, if not with the shame of defeat, yet with but doubtful + and imperfect success. + </p> + <p> + Paley, with his intuitive sagacity, saw through the difficulty of + answering Gibbon by the ordinary arts of controversy; his emphatic + sentence, “Who can refute a sneer?” contains as much truth as point. But + full and pregnant as this phrase is, it is not quite the whole truth; it + is the tone in which the progress of Christianity is traced, in <i>comparison</i> + with the rest of the splendid and prodigally ornamented work, which is the + radical defect in the “Decline and Fall.” Christianity alone receives no + embellishment from the magic of Gibbon’s language; his imagination is dead + to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a general zone of jealous + disparagement, or neutralized by a painfully elaborate exposition of its + darker and degenerate periods. There are occasions, indeed, when its pure + and exalted humanity, when its manifestly beneficial influence, can compel + even him, as it were, to fairness, and kindle his unguarded eloquence to + its usual fervor; but, in general, he soon relapses into a frigid apathy; + <i>affects</i> an ostentatiously severe impartiality; + notes all the faults of Christians in every age with bitter and almost + malignant sarcasm; reluctantly, and with exception and reservation, admits + their claim to admiration. This inextricable bias appears even to + influence his manner of composition. While all the other assailants of the + Roman empire, whether warlike or religious, the Goth, the Hun, the Arab, + the Tartar, Alaric and Attila, Mahomet, and Zengis, and Tamerlane, are + each introduced upon the scene almost with dramatic animation—their + progress related in a full, complete, and unbroken narrative—the + triumph of Christianity alone takes the form of a cold and critical + disquisition. The successes of barbarous energy and brute force call forth + all the consummate skill of composition; while the moral triumphs of + Christian benevolence—the tranquil heroism of endurance, the + blameless purity, the contempt of guilty fame and of honors destructive to + the human race, which, had they assumed the proud name of philosophy, + would have been blazoned in his brightest words, because they own religion + as their principle—sink into narrow asceticism. The <i>glories</i> + of Christianity, in short, touch on no chord in the heart of the writer; + his imagination remains unkindled; his words, though they maintain their + stately and measured march, have become cool, argumentative, and + inanimate. Who would obscure one hue of that gorgeous coloring in which + Gibbon has invested the dying forms of Paganism, or darken one paragraph + in his splendid view of the rise and progress of Mahometanism? But who + would not have wished that the same equal justice had been done to + Christianity; that its real character and deeply penetrating influence had + been traced with the same philosophical sagacity, and represented with + more sober, as would become its quiet course, and perhaps less + picturesque, but still with lively and attractive, descriptiveness? He + might have thrown aside, with the same scorn, the mass of ecclesiastical + fiction which envelops the early history of the church, stripped off the + legendary romance, and brought out the facts in their primitive nakedness + and simplicity—if he had but allowed those facts the benefit of the + glowing eloquence which he denied to them alone. He might have annihilated + the whole fabric of post-apostolic miracles, if he had left uninjured by + sarcastic insinuation those of the New Testament; he might have cashiered, + with Dodwell, the whole host of martyrs, which owe their existence to the + prodigal invention of later days, had he but bestowed fair room, and dwelt + with his ordinary energy on the sufferings of the genuine witnesses to the + truth of Christianity, the Polycarps, or the martyrs of Vienne. + </p> + <p> + And indeed, if, after all, the view of the early progress of Christianity + be melancholy and humiliating we must beware lest we charge the whole of + this on the infidelity of the historian. It is idle, it is disingenuous, + to deny or to dissemble the early depravations of Christianity, its + gradual but rapid departure from its primitive simplicity and purity, + still more, from its spirit of universal love. It may be no unsalutary + lesson to the Christian world, that this silent, this unavoidable, + perhaps, yet fatal change shall have been drawn by an impartial, or even + an hostile hand. The Christianity of every age may take warning, lest by + its own narrow views, its want of wisdom, and its want of charity, it give + the same advantage to the future unfriendly historian, and disparage the + cause of true religion. + </p> + <p> + The design of the present edition is partly corrective, partly + supplementary: corrective, by notes, which point out (it is hoped, in a + perfectly candid and dispassionate spirit with no desire but to establish + the truth) such inaccuracies or misstatements as may have been detected, + particularly with regard to Christianity; and which thus, with the + previous caution, may counteract to a considerable extent the unfair and + unfavorable impression created against rational religion: supplementary, + by adding such additional information as the editor’s reading may have + been able to furnish, from original documents or books, not accessible at + the time when Gibbon wrote. + </p> + <p> + The work originated in the editor’s habit of noting on the margin of his + copy of Gibbon references to such authors as had discovered errors, or + thrown new light on the subjects treated by Gibbon. These had grown to + some extent, and seemed to him likely to be of use to others. The + annotations of M. Guizot also appeared to him worthy of being better known + to the English public than they were likely to be, as appended to the + French translation. + </p> + <p> + The chief works from which the editor has derived his materials are, I. + The French translation, with notes by M. Guizot; 2d edition, Paris, 1828. + The editor has translated almost all the notes of M. Guizot. Where he has + not altogether agreed with him, his respect for the learning and judgment + of that writer has, in general, induced him to retain the statement from + which he has ventured to differ, with the grounds on which he formed his + own opinion. In the notes on Christianity, he has retained all those of M. + Guizot, with his own, from the conviction, that on such a subject, to + many, the authority of a French statesman, a Protestant, and a rational + and sincere Christian, would appear more independent and unbiassed, and + therefore be more commanding, than that of an English clergyman. + </p> + <p> + The editor has not scrupled to transfer the notes of M. Guizot to the + present work. The well-known zeal for knowledge, displayed in all the + writings of that distinguished historian, has led to the natural + inference, that he would not be displeased at the attempt to make them of + use to the English readers of Gibbon. The notes of M. Guizot are signed + with the letter G. + </p> + <p> + II. The German translation, with the notes of Wenck. Unfortunately this + learned translator died, after having completed only the first volume; the + rest of the work was executed by a very inferior hand. + </p> + <p> + The notes of Wenck are extremely valuable; many of them have been adopted + by M. Guizot; they are distinguished by the letter W.* + </p> + <p> + III. The new edition of Le Beau’s “Histoire du Bas Empire, with notes by + M. St. Martin, and M. Brosset.” That distinguished Armenian scholar, M. + St. Martin (now, unhappily, deceased) had added much information from + Oriental writers, particularly from those of Armenia, as well as from more + general sources. Many of his observations have been found as applicable to + the work of Gibbon as to that of Le Beau. + </p> + <p> + IV. The editor has consulted the various answers made to Gibbon on the + first appearance of his work; he must confess, with little profit. They + were, in general, hastily compiled by inferior and now forgotten writers, + with the exception of Bishop Watson, whose able apology is rather a + general argument, than an examination of misstatements. The name of Milner + stands higher with a certain class of readers, but will not carry much + weight with the severe investigator of history. + </p> + <p> + V. Some few classical works and fragments have come to light, since the + appearance of Gibbon’s History, and have been noticed in their respective + places; and much use has been made, in the latter volumes particularly, of + the increase to our stores of Oriental literature. The editor cannot, + indeed, pretend to have followed his author, in these gleanings, over the + whole vast field of his inquiries; he may have overlooked or may not have + been able to command some works, which might have thrown still further + light on these subjects; but he trusts that what he has adduced will be of + use to the student of historic truth. + </p> + <p> + The editor would further observe, that with regard to some other + objectionable passages, which do not involve misstatement or inaccuracy, + he has intentionally abstained from directing particular attention towards + them by any special protest. + </p> + <p> + The editor’s notes are marked M. + </p> + <p> + A considerable part of the quotations (some of which in the later editions + had fallen into great confusion) have been verified, and have been + corrected by the latest and best editions of the authors. + </p> + <p> + June, 1845. + </p> + <p> + In this new edition, the text and the notes have been carefully revised, + the latter by the editor. + </p> + <p> + Some additional notes have been subjoined, distinguished by the signature + M. 1845. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkpreface-author" id="linkpreface-author"></a> + </p> + <h3> + Preface Of The Author. + </h3> + <p> + It is not my intention to detain the reader by expatiating on the variety + or the importance of the subject, which I have undertaken to treat; since + the merit of the choice would serve to render the weakness of the + execution still more apparent, and still less excusable. But as I have + presumed to lay before the public a first volume only of the History of + the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, it will, perhaps, be expected + that I should explain, in a few words, the nature and limits of my general + plan. + </p> + <p> + The memorable series of revolutions, which in the course of about thirteen + centuries gradually undermined, and at length destroyed, the solid fabric + of human greatness, may, with some propriety, be divided into the three + following periods: + </p> + <p> + I. The first of these periods may be traced from the age of Trajan and the + Antonines, when the Roman monarchy, having attained its full strength and + maturity, began to verge towards its decline; and will extend to the + subversion of the Western Empire, by the barbarians of Germany and + Scythia, the rude ancestors of the most polished nations of modern Europe. + This extraordinary revolution, which subjected Rome to the power of a + Gothic conqueror, was completed about the beginning of the sixth century. + </p> + <p> + II. The second period of the Decline and Fall of Rome may be supposed to + commence with the reign of Justinian, who, by his laws, as well as by his + victories, restored a transient splendor to the Eastern Empire. It will + comprehend the invasion of Italy by the Lombards; the conquest of the + Asiatic and African provinces by the Arabs, who embraced the religion of + Mahomet; the revolt of the Roman people against the feeble princes of + Constantinople; and the elevation of Charlemagne, who, in the year eight + hundred, established the second, or German Empire of the West. + </p> + <p> + III. The last and longest of these periods includes about six centuries + and a half; from the revival of the Western Empire, till the taking of + Constantinople by the Turks, and the extinction of a degenerate race of + princes, who continued to assume the titles of Cæsar and Augustus, + after their dominions were contracted to the limits of a single city; in + which the language, as well as manners, of the ancient Romans, had been + long since forgotten. The writer who should undertake to relate the events + of this period, would find himself obliged to enter into the general + history of the Crusades, as far as they contributed to the ruin of the + Greek Empire; and he would scarcely be able to restrain his curiosity from + making some inquiry into the state of the city of Rome, during the + darkness and confusion of the middle ages. + </p> + <p> + As I have ventured, perhaps too hastily, to commit to the press a work + which in every sense of the word, deserves the epithet of imperfect. I + consider myself as contracting an engagement to finish, most probably in a + second volume, the first of these memorable periods; and to deliver to the + Public the complete History of the Decline and Fall of Rome, from the age + of the Antonines to the subversion of the Western Empire. With regard to + the subsequent periods, though I may entertain some hopes, I dare not + presume to give any assurances. The execution of the extensive plan which + I have described, would connect the ancient and modern history of the + world; but it would require many years of health, of leisure, and of + perseverance. + </p> + <p> + B<small>ENTINCK</small> S<small>TREET</small>, <i>February</i> 1, 1776. + </p> + <p> + P. S. The entire History, which is now published, of the Decline and Fall + of the Roman Empire in the West, abundantly discharges my engagements with + the Public. Perhaps their favorable opinion may encourage me to prosecute + a work, which, however laborious it may seem, is the most agreeable + occupation of my leisure hours. + </p> + <p> + B<small>ENTINCK</small> S<small>TREET</small>, <i>March</i> 1, 1781. + </p> + <p> + An Author easily persuades himself that the public opinion is still + favorable to his labors; and I have now embraced the serious resolution of + proceeding to the last period of my original design, and of the Roman + Empire, the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the year one + thousand four hundred and fifty-three. The most patient Reader, who + computes that three ponderous volumes have been already employed on the + events of four centuries, may, perhaps, be alarmed at the long prospect of + nine hundred years. But it is not my intention to expatiate with the same + minuteness on the whole series of the Byzantine history. At our entrance + into this period, the reign of Justinian, and the conquests of the + Mahometans, will deserve and detain our attention, and the last age of + Constantinople (the Crusades and the Turks) is connected with the + revolutions of Modern Europe. From the seventh to the eleventh century, + the obscure interval will be supplied by a concise narrative of such facts + as may still appear either interesting or important. + </p> + <p> + B<small>ENTINCK</small> S<small>TREET</small>, <i>March</i> 1, 1782. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkpreface-vol1" id="linkpreface-vol1"></a> + </p> + <h3> + Preface To The First Volume. + </h3> + <p> + Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical writer may + ascribe to himself; if any merit, indeed, can be assumed from the + performance of an indispensable duty. I may therefore be allowed to say, + that I have carefully examined all the original materials that could + illustrate the subject which I had undertaken to treat. Should I ever + complete the extensive design which has been sketched out in the Preface, + I might perhaps conclude it with a critical account of the authors + consulted during the progress of the whole work; and however such an + attempt might incur the censure of ostentation, I am persuaded that it + would be susceptible of entertainment, as well as information. + </p> + <p> + At present I shall content myself with a single observation. The + biographers, who, under the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, + composed, or rather compiled, the lives of the Emperors, from Hadrian to + the sons of Carus, are usually mentioned under the names of Ælius + Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, Vulcatius + Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. But there is so much + perplexity in the titles of the MSS., and so many disputes have arisen + among the critics (see Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin. l. iii. c. 6) + concerning their number, their names, and their respective property, that + for the most part I have quoted them without distinction, under the + general and well-known title of the <i>Augustan History.</i> + </p> + <h3> + Preface To The Fourth Volume Of The Original Quarto Edition. + </h3> + <p> + I now discharge my promise, and complete my design, of writing the History + of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, both in the West and the + East. The whole period extends from the age of Trajan and the Antonines, + to the taking of Constantinople by Mahomet the Second; and includes a + review of the Crusades, and the state of Rome during the middle ages. + Since the publication of the first volume, twelve years have elapsed; + twelve years, according to my wish, “of health, of leisure, and of + perseverance.” I may now congratulate my deliverance from a long and + laborious service, and my satisfaction will be pure and perfect, if the + public favor should be extended to the conclusion of my work. + </p> + <p> + It was my first intention to have collected, under one view, the numerous + authors, of every age and language, from whom I have derived the materials + of this history; and I am still convinced that the apparent ostentation + would be more than compensated by real use. If I have renounced this idea, + if I have declined an undertaking which had obtained the approbation of a + master-artist,* my excuse may be found in the extreme difficulty of + assigning a proper measure to such a catalogue. A naked list of names and + editions would not be satisfactory either to myself or my readers: the + characters of the principal Authors of the Roman and Byzantine History + have been occasionally connected with the events which they describe; a + more copious and critical inquiry might indeed deserve, but it would + demand, an elaborate volume, which might swell by degrees into a general + library of historical writers. For the present, I shall content myself + with renewing my serious protestation, that I have always endeavored to + draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of + duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have + sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary + evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend. + </p> + <p> + I shall soon revisit the banks of the Lake of Lausanne, a country which I + have known and loved from my early youth. Under a mild government, amidst + a beauteous landscape, in a life of leisure and independence, and among a + people of easy and elegant manners, I have enjoyed, and may again hope to + enjoy, the varied pleasures of retirement and society. But I shall ever + glory in the name and character of an Englishman: I am proud of my birth + in a free and enlightened country; and the approbation of that country is + the best and most honorable reward of my labors. Were I ambitious of any + other Patron than the Public, I would inscribe this work to a Statesman, + who, in a long, a stormy, and at length an unfortunate administration, had + many political opponents, almost without a personal enemy; who has + retained, in his fall from power, many faithful and disinterested friends; + and who, under the pressure of severe infirmity, enjoys the lively vigor + of his mind, and the felicity of his incomparable temper. Lord North will + permit me to express the feelings of friendship in the language of truth: + but even truth and friendship should be silent, if he still dispensed the + favors of the crown. + </p> + <p> + In a remote solitude, vanity may still whisper in my ear, that my readers, + perhaps, may inquire whether, in the conclusion of the present work, I am + now taking an everlasting farewell. They shall hear all that I know + myself, and all that I could reveal to the most intimate friend. The + motives of action or silence are now equally balanced; nor can I + pronounce, in my most secret thoughts, on which side the scale will + preponderate. I cannot dissemble that six quartos must have tried, and may + have exhausted, the indulgence of the Public; that, in the repetition of + similar attempts, a successful Author has much more to lose than he can + hope to gain; that I am now descending into the vale of years; and that + the most respectable of my countrymen, the men whom I aspire to imitate, + have resigned the pen of history about the same period of their lives. Yet + I consider that the annals of ancient and modern times may afford many + rich and interesting subjects; that I am still possessed of health and + leisure; that by the practice of writing, some skill and facility must be + acquired; and that, in the ardent pursuit of truth and knowledge, I am not + conscious of decay. To an active mind, indolence is more painful than + labor; and the first months of my liberty will be occupied and amused in + the excursions of curiosity and taste. By such temptations, I have been + sometimes seduced from the rigid duty even of a pleasing and voluntary + task: but my time will now be my own; and in the use or abuse of + independence, I shall no longer fear my own reproaches or those of my + friends. I am fairly entitled to a year of jubilee: next summer and the + following winter will rapidly pass away; and experience only can determine + whether I shall still prefer the freedom and variety of study to the + design and composition of a regular work, which animates, while it + confines, the daily application of the Author. Caprice and accident may + influence my choice; but the dexterity of self-love will contrive to + applaud either active industry or philosophic repose. + </p> + <p> + <i>Downing</i> Street<i>, May 1, 1788.</i> + </p> + <p> + P. S. I shall embrace this opportunity of introducing two <i>verbal</i> + remarks, which have not conveniently offered themselves to my notice. 1. + As often as I use the definitions of <i>beyond</i> the Alps, the Rhine, + the Danube, &c., I generally suppose myself at Rome, and afterwards at + Constantinople; without observing whether this relative geography may + agree with the local, but variable, situation of the reader, or the + historian. 2. In proper names of foreign, and especially of Oriental + origin, it should be always our aim to express, in our English version, a + faithful copy of the original. But this rule, which is founded on a just + regard to uniformity and truth, must often be relaxed; and the exceptions + will be limited or enlarged by the custom of the language and the taste of + the interpreter. Our alphabets may be often defective; a harsh sound, an + uncouth spelling, might offend the ear or the eye of our countrymen; and + some words, notoriously corrupt, are fixed, and, as it were, naturalized + in the vulgar tongue. The prophet <i>Mohammed</i> can no longer be + stripped of the famous, though improper, appellation of Mahomet: the + well-known cities of Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo, would almost be lost in + the strange descriptions of <i>Haleb</i>, <i>Demashk</i>, and <i>Al + Cahira</i>: the titles and offices of the Ottoman empire are fashioned by + the practice of three hundred years; and we are pleased to blend the three + Chinese monosyllables, <i>Con-fû-tzee</i>, in the respectable name + of Confucius, or even to adopt the Portuguese corruption of Mandarin. But + I would vary the use of Zoroaster and <i>Zerdusht</i>, as I drew my + information from Greece or Persia: since our connection with India, the + genuine <i>Timour</i> is restored to the throne of Tamerlane: our most + correct writers have retrenched the <i>Al</i>, the superfluous article, + from the Koran; and we escape an ambiguous termination, by adopting <i>Moslem</i> + instead of Musulman, in the plural number. In these, and in a thousand + examples, the shades of distinction are often minute; and I can feel, + where I cannot explain, the motives of my choice. + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch1-p1" id="linkch1-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Introduction—The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In +The Age Of The Antonines. +</pre> + <p> + In the second century of the Christian Æra, the empire of Rome + comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilized portion + of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were guarded by + ancient renown and disciplined valor. The gentle but powerful influence of + laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their + peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and + luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent + reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, + and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. + During a happy period of more than fourscore years, the public + administration was conducted by the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, + Hadrian, and the two Antonines. It is the design of this, and of the two + succeeding chapters, to describe the prosperous condition of their empire; + and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the most + important circumstances of its decline and fall; a revolution which will + ever be remembered, and is still felt by the nations of the earth. + </p> + <p> + The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the republic; + and the emperors, for the most part, were satisfied with preserving those + dominions which had been acquired by the policy of the senate, the active + emulations of the consuls, and the martial enthusiasm of the people. The + seven first centuries were filled with a rapid succession of triumphs; but + it was reserved for Augustus to relinquish the ambitious design of + subduing the whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of moderation into the + public councils. Inclined to peace by his temper and situation, it was + easy for him to discover that Rome, in her present exalted situation, had + much less to hope than to fear from the chance of arms; and that, in the + prosecution of remote wars, the undertaking became every day more + difficult, the event more doubtful, and the possession more precarious, + and less beneficial. The experience of Augustus added weight to these + salutary reflections, and effectually convinced him that, by the prudent + vigor of his counsels, it would be easy to secure every concession which + the safety or the dignity of Rome might require from the most formidable + barbarians. Instead of exposing his person and his legions to the arrows + of the Parthians, he obtained, by an honorable treaty, the restitution of + the standards and prisoners which had been taken in the defeat of Crassus. + </p> + <p> + His generals, in the early part of his reign, attempted the reduction of + Ethiopia and Arabia Felix. They marched near a thousand miles to the south + of the tropic; but the heat of the climate soon repelled the invaders, and + protected the un-warlike natives of those sequestered regions. The + northern countries of Europe scarcely deserved the expense and labor of + conquest. The forests and morasses of Germany were filled with a hardy + race of barbarians, who despised life when it was separated from freedom; + and though, on the first attack, they seemed to yield to the weight of the + Roman power, they soon, by a signal act of despair, regained their + independence, and reminded Augustus of the vicissitude of fortune. On the + death of that emperor, his testament was publicly read in the senate. He + bequeathed, as a valuable legacy to his successors, the advice of + confining the empire within those limits which nature seemed to have + placed as its permanent bulwarks and boundaries: on the west, the Atlantic + Ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the Euphrates on the east; and + towards the south, the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa. + </p> + <p> + Happily for the repose of mankind, the moderate system recommended by the + wisdom of Augustus, was adopted by the fears and vices of his immediate + successors. Engaged in the pursuit of pleasure, or in the exercise of + tyranny, the first Cæsars seldom showed themselves to the armies, or + to the provinces; nor were they disposed to suffer, that those triumphs + which <i>their</i> indolence neglected, should be usurped by the conduct + and valor of their lieutenants. The military fame of a subject was + considered as an insolent invasion of the Imperial prerogative; and it + became the duty, as well as interest, of every Roman general, to guard the + frontiers intrusted to his care, without aspiring to conquests which might + have proved no less fatal to himself than to the vanquished barbarians. + </p> + <p> + The only accession which the Roman empire received, during the first + century of the Christian Æra, was the province of Britain. In this + single instance, the successors of Cæsar and Augustus were persuaded + to follow the example of the former, rather than the precept of the + latter. The proximity of its situation to the coast of Gaul seemed to + invite their arms; the pleasing though doubtful intelligence of a pearl + fishery attracted their avarice; and as Britain was viewed in the light + of a distinct and insulated world, the conquest scarcely formed any + exception to the general system of continental measures. After a war of + about forty years, undertaken by the most stupid, maintained by the most + dissolute, and terminated by the most timid of all the emperors, the far + greater part of the island submitted to the Roman yoke. The various tribes + of Britain possessed valor without conduct, and the love of freedom + without the spirit of union. They took up arms with savage fierceness; + they laid them down, or turned them against each other, with wild + inconsistency; and while they fought singly, they were successively + subdued. Neither the fortitude of Caractacus, nor the despair of Boadicea, + nor the fanaticism of the Druids, could avert the slavery of their + country, or resist the steady progress of the Imperial generals, who + maintained the national glory, when the throne was disgraced by the + weakest, or the most vicious of mankind. At the very time when Domitian, + confined to his palace, felt the terrors which he inspired, his legions, + under the command of the virtuous Agricola, defeated the collected force + of the Caledonians, at the foot of the Grampian Hills; and his fleets, + venturing to explore an unknown and dangerous navigation, displayed the + Roman arms round every part of the island. The conquest of Britain was + considered as already achieved; and it was the design of Agricola to + complete and insure his success, by the easy reduction of Ireland, for + which, in his opinion, one legion and a few auxiliaries were sufficient. + The western isle might be improved into a valuable possession, and the + Britons would wear their chains with the less reluctance, if the prospect + and example of freedom were on every side removed from before their eyes. + </p> + <p> + But the superior merit of Agricola soon occasioned his removal from the + government of Britain; and forever disappointed this rational, though + extensive scheme of conquest. Before his departure, the prudent general + had provided for security as well as for dominion. He had observed, that + the island is almost divided into two unequal parts by the opposite gulfs, + or, as they are now called, the Friths of Scotland. Across the narrow + interval of about forty miles, he had drawn a line of military stations, + which was afterwards fortified, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, by a turf + rampart, erected on foundations of stone. This wall of Antoninus, at a + small distance beyond the modern cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, was + fixed as the limit of the Roman province. The native Caledonians + preserved, in the northern extremity of the island, their wild + independence, for which they were not less indebted to their poverty than + to their valor. Their incursions were frequently repelled and chastised; + but their country was never subdued. The masters of the fairest and most + wealthy climates of the globe turned with contempt from gloomy hills, + assailed by the winter tempest, from lakes concealed in a blue mist, and + from cold and lonely heaths, over which the deer of the forest were chased + by a troop of naked barbarians. + </p> + <p> + Such was the state of the Roman frontiers, and such the maxims of Imperial + policy, from the death of Augustus to the accession of Trajan. That + virtuous and active prince had received the education of a soldier, and + possessed the talents of a general. The peaceful system of his + predecessors was interrupted by scenes of war and conquest; and the + legions, after a long interval, beheld a military emperor at their head. + The first exploits of Trajan were against the Dacians, the most warlike of + men, who dwelt beyond the Danube, and who, during the reign of Domitian, + had insulted, with impunity, the Majesty of Rome. To the strength and + fierceness of barbarians they added a contempt for life, which was derived + from a warm persuasion of the immortality and transmigration of the soul. + Decebalus, the Dacian king, approved himself a rival not unworthy of + Trajan; nor did he despair of his own and the public fortune, till, by the + confession of his enemies, he had exhausted every resource both of valor + and policy. This memorable war, with a very short suspension of + hostilities, lasted five years; and as the emperor could exert, without + control, the whole force of the state, it was terminated by an absolute + submission of the barbarians. The new province of Dacia, which formed a + second exception to the precept of Augustus, was about thirteen hundred + miles in circumference. Its natural boundaries were the Niester, the Teyss + or Tibiscus, the Lower Danube, and the Euxine Sea. The vestiges of a + military road may still be traced from the banks of the Danube to the + neighborhood of Bender, a place famous in modern history, and the actual + frontier of the Turkish and Russian empires. + </p> + <p> + Trajan was ambitious of fame; and as long as mankind shall continue to + bestow more liberal applause on their destroyers than on their + benefactors, the thirst of military glory will ever be the vice of the + most exalted characters. The praises of Alexander, transmitted by a + succession of poets and historians, had kindled a dangerous emulation in + the mind of Trajan. Like him, the Roman emperor undertook an expedition + against the nations of the East; but he lamented with a sigh, that his + advanced age scarcely left him any hopes of equalling the renown of the + son of Philip. Yet the success of Trajan, however transient, was rapid and + specious. The degenerate Parthians, broken by intestine discord, fled + before his arms. He descended the River Tigris in triumph, from the + mountains of Armenia to the Persian Gulf. He enjoyed the honor of being + the first, as he was the last, of the Roman generals, who ever navigated + that remote sea. His fleets ravaged the coast of Arabia; and Trajan vainly + flattered himself that he was approaching towards the confines of India. + Every day the astonished senate received the intelligence of new names and + new nations, that acknowledged his sway. They were informed that the kings + of Bosphorus, Colchos, Iberia, Albania, Osrhoene, and even the Parthian + monarch himself, had accepted their diadems from the hands of the emperor; + that the independent tribes of the Median and Carduchian hills had + implored his protection; and that the rich countries of Armenia, + Mesopotamia, and Assyria, were reduced into the state of provinces. But + the death of Trajan soon clouded the splendid prospect; and it was justly + to be dreaded, that so many distant nations would throw off the + unaccustomed yoke, when they were no longer restrained by the powerful + hand which had imposed it. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch1-p2" id="linkch1-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + It was an ancient tradition, that when the Capitol was founded by one of + the Roman kings, the god Terminus (who presided over boundaries, and was + represented, according to the fashion of that age, by a large stone) + alone, among all the inferior deities, refused to yield his place to + Jupiter himself. A favorable inference was drawn from his obstinacy, which + was interpreted by the augurs as a sure presage that the boundaries of the + Roman power would never recede. During many ages, the prediction, as it is + usual, contributed to its own accomplishment. But though Terminus had + resisted the Majesty of Jupiter, he submitted to the authority of the + emperor Hadrian. The resignation of all the eastern conquests of Trajan + was the first measure of his reign. He restored to the Parthians the + election of an independent sovereign; withdrew the Roman garrisons from + the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria; and, in compliance + with the precept of Augustus, once more established the Euphrates as the + frontier of the empire. Censure, which arraigns the public actions and the + private motives of princes, has ascribed to envy, a conduct which might be + attributed to the prudence and moderation of Hadrian. The various + character of that emperor, capable, by turns, of the meanest and the most + generous sentiments, may afford some color to the suspicion. It was, + however, scarcely in his power to place the superiority of his predecessor + in a more conspicuous light, than by thus confessing himself unequal to + the task of defending the conquests of Trajan. + </p> + <p> + The martial and ambitious spirit of Trajan formed a very singular contrast + with the moderation of his successor. The restless activity of Hadrian was + not less remarkable when compared with the gentle repose of Antoninus + Pius. The life of the former was almost a perpetual journey; and as he + possessed the various talents of the soldier, the statesman, and the + scholar, he gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his duty. Careless + of the difference of seasons and of climates, he marched on foot, and + bare-headed, over the snows of Caledonia, and the sultry plains of the + Upper Egypt; nor was there a province of the empire which, in the course + of his reign, was not honored with the presence of the monarch. But the + tranquil life of Antoninus Pius was spent in the bosom of Italy, and, + during the twenty-three years that he directed the public administration, + the longest journeys of that amiable prince extended no farther than from + his palace in Rome to the retirement of his Lanuvian villa. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this difference in their personal conduct, the general + system of Augustus was equally adopted and uniformly pursued by Hadrian + and by the two Antonines. They persisted in the design of maintaining the + dignity of the empire, without attempting to enlarge its limits. By every + honorable expedient they invited the friendship of the barbarians; and + endeavored to convince mankind that the Roman power, raised above the + temptation of conquest, was actuated only by the love of order and + justice. During a long period of forty-three years, their virtuous labors + were crowned with success; and if we except a few slight hostilities, that + served to exercise the legions of the frontier, the reigns of Hadrian and + Antoninus Pius offer the fair prospect of universal peace. The Roman name + was revered among the most remote nations of the earth. The fiercest + barbarians frequently submitted their differences to the arbitration of + the emperor; and we are informed by a contemporary historian that he had + seen ambassadors who were refused the honor which they came to solicit of + being admitted into the rank of subjects. + </p> + <p> + The terror of the Roman arms added weight and dignity to the moderation of + the emperors. They preserved peace by a constant preparation for war; and + while justice regulated their conduct, they announced to the nations on + their confines, that they were as little disposed to endure, as to offer + an injury. The military strength, which it had been sufficient for Hadrian + and the elder Antoninus to display, was exerted against the Parthians and + the Germans by the emperor Marcus. The hostilities of the barbarians + provoked the resentment of that philosophic monarch, and, in the + prosecution of a just defence, Marcus and his generals obtained many + signal victories, both on the Euphrates and on the Danube. The military + establishment of the Roman empire, which thus assured either its + tranquillity or success, will now become the proper and important object + of our attention. + </p> + <p> + In the purer ages of the commonwealth, the use of arms was reserved for + those ranks of citizens who had a country to love, a property to defend, + and some share in enacting those laws, which it was their interest as well + as duty to maintain. But in proportion as the public freedom was lost in + extent of conquest, war was gradually improved into an art, and degraded + into a trade. The legions themselves, even at the time when they were + recruited in the most distant provinces, were supposed to consist of Roman + citizens. That distinction was generally considered, either as a legal + qualification or as a proper recompense for the soldier; but a more + serious regard was paid to the essential merit of age, strength, and + military stature. In all levies, a just preference was given to the + climates of the North over those of the South: the race of men born to the + exercise of arms was sought for in the country rather than in cities; and + it was very reasonably presumed, that the hardy occupations of smiths, + carpenters, and huntsmen, would supply more vigor and resolution than the + sedentary trades which are employed in the service of luxury. After every + qualification of property had been laid aside, the armies of the Roman + emperors were still commanded, for the most part, by officers of liberal + birth and education; but the common soldiers, like the mercenary troops of + modern Europe, were drawn from the meanest, and very frequently from the + most profligate, of mankind. + </p> + <p> + That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated patriotism, + is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in the preservation and + prosperity of the free government of which we are members. Such a + sentiment, which had rendered the legions of the republic almost + invincible, could make but a very feeble impression on the mercenary + servants of a despotic prince; and it became necessary to supply that + defect by other motives, of a different, but not less forcible nature—honor + and religion. The peasant, or mechanic, imbibed the useful prejudice that + he was advanced to the more dignified profession of arms, in which his + rank and reputation would depend on his own valor; and that, although the + prowess of a private soldier must often escape the notice of fame, his own + behavior might sometimes confer glory or disgrace on the company, the + legion, or even the army, to whose honors he was associated. On his first + entrance into the service, an oath was administered to him with every + circumstance of solemnity. He promised never to desert his standard, to + submit his own will to the commands of his leaders, and to sacrifice his + life for the safety of the emperor and the empire. The attachment of the + Roman troops to their standards was inspired by the united influence of + religion and of honor. The golden eagle, which glittered in the front of + the legion, was the object of their fondest devotion; nor was it esteemed + less impious than it was ignominious, to abandon that sacred ensign in the + hour of danger. These motives, which derived their strength from the + imagination, were enforced by fears and hopes of a more substantial kind. + Regular pay, occasional donatives, and a stated recompense, after the + appointed time of service, alleviated the hardships of the military life, + whilst, on the other hand, it was impossible for cowardice or disobedience + to escape the severest punishment. The centurions were authorized to + chastise with blows, the generals had a right to punish with death; and it + was an inflexible maxim of Roman discipline, that a good soldier should + dread his officers far more than the enemy. From such laudable arts did + the valor of the Imperial troops receive a degree of firmness and docility + unattainable by the impetuous and irregular passions of barbarians. + </p> + <p> + And yet so sensible were the Romans of the imperfection of valor without + skill and practice, that, in their language, the name of an army was + borrowed from the word which signified exercise. Military exercises were + the important and unremitted object of their discipline. The recruits and + young soldiers were constantly trained, both in the morning and in the + evening, nor was age or knowledge allowed to excuse the veterans from the + daily repetition of what they had completely learnt. Large sheds were + erected in the winter-quarters of the troops, that their useful labors + might not receive any interruption from the most tempestuous weather; and + it was carefully observed, that the arms destined to this imitation of + war, should be of double the weight which was required in real action. It + is not the purpose of this work to enter into any minute description of + the Roman exercises. We shall only remark, that they comprehended whatever + could add strength to the body, activity to the limbs, or grace to the + motions. The soldiers were diligently instructed to march, to run, to + leap, to swim, to carry heavy burdens, to handle every species of arms + that was used either for offence or for defence, either in distant + engagement or in a closer onset; to form a variety of evolutions; and to + move to the sound of flutes in the Pyrrhic or martial dance. In the midst + of peace, the Roman troops familiarized themselves with the practice of + war; and it is prettily remarked by an ancient historian who had fought + against them, that the effusion of blood was the only circumstance which + distinguished a field of battle from a field of exercise.* It was the + policy of the ablest generals, and even of the emperors themselves, to + encourage these military studies by their presence and example; and we are + informed that Hadrian, as well as Trajan, frequently condescended to + instruct the unexperienced soldiers, to reward the diligent, and sometimes + to dispute with them the prize of superior strength or dexterity. Under + the reigns of those princes, the science of tactics was cultivated with + success; and as long as the empire retained any vigor, their military + instructions were respected as the most perfect model of Roman discipline. + </p> + <p> + Nine centuries of war had gradually introduced into the service many + alterations and improvements. The legions, as they are described by + Polybius, in the time of the Punic wars, differed very materially from + those which achieved the victories of Cæsar, or defended the + monarchy of Hadrian and the Antonines. The constitution of the Imperial + legion may be described in a few words. The heavy-armed infantry, which + composed its principal strength, was divided into ten cohorts, and + fifty-five companies, under the orders of a correspondent number of + tribunes and centurions. The first cohort, which always claimed the post + of honor and the custody of the eagle, was formed of eleven hundred and + five soldiers, the most approved for valor and fidelity. The remaining + nine cohorts consisted each of five hundred and fifty-five; and the whole + body of legionary infantry amounted to six thousand one hundred men. Their + arms were uniform, and admirably adapted to the nature of their service: + an open helmet, with a lofty crest; a breastplate, or coat of mail; + greaves on their legs, and an ample buckler on their left arm. The buckler + was of an oblong and concave figure, four feet in length, and two and a + half in breadth, framed of a light wood, covered with a bull’s hide, and + strongly guarded with plates of brass. Besides a lighter spear, the + legionary soldier grasped in his right hand the formidable <i>pilum</i>, + a ponderous javelin, whose utmost length was about six feet, and which was + terminated by a massy triangular point of steel of eighteen inches. This + instrument was indeed much inferior to our modern fire-arms; since it was + exhausted by a single discharge, at the distance of only ten or twelve + paces. Yet when it was launched by a firm and skilful hand, there was not + any cavalry that durst venture within its reach, nor any shield or + corselet that could sustain the impetuosity of its weight. As soon as the + Roman had darted his <i>pilum</i>, he drew his sword, and rushed + forwards to close with the enemy. His sword was a short well-tempered + Spanish blade, that carried a double edge, and was alike suited to the + purpose of striking or of pushing; but the soldier was always instructed + to prefer the latter use of his weapon, as his own body remained less + exposed, whilst he inflicted a more dangerous wound on his adversary. The + legion was usually drawn up eight deep; and the regular distance of three + feet was left between the files as well as ranks. A body of troops, + habituated to preserve this open order, in a long front and a rapid + charge, found themselves prepared to execute every disposition which the + circumstances of war, or the skill of their leader, might suggest. The + soldier possessed a free space for his arms and motions, and sufficient + intervals were allowed, through which seasonable reinforcements might be + introduced to the relief of the exhausted combatants. The tactics of the + Greeks and Macedonians were formed on very different principles. The + strength of the phalanx depended on sixteen ranks of long pikes, wedged + together in the closest array. But it was soon discovered by reflection, + as well as by the event, that the strength of the phalanx was unable to + contend with the activity of the legion. + </p> + <p> + The cavalry, without which the force of the legion would have remained + imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the first, as the + companion of the first cohort, consisted of a hundred and thirty-two men; + whilst each of the other nine amounted only to sixty-six. The entire + establishment formed a regiment, if we may use the modern expression, of + seven hundred and twenty-six horse, naturally connected with its + respective legion, but occasionally separated to act in the line, and to + compose a part of the wings of the army. The cavalry of the emperors was + no longer composed, like that of the ancient republic, of the noblest + youths of Rome and Italy, who, by performing their military service on + horseback, prepared themselves for the offices of senator and consul; and + solicited, by deeds of valor, the future suffrages of their countrymen. + Since the alteration of manners and government, the most wealthy of the + equestrian order were engaged in the administration of justice, and of the + revenue; and whenever they embraced the profession of arms, they were + immediately intrusted with a troop of horse, or a cohort of foot. Trajan + and Hadrian formed their cavalry from the same provinces, and the same + class of their subjects, which recruited the ranks of the legion. The + horses were bred, for the most part, in Spain or Cappadocia. The Roman + troopers despised the complete armor with which the cavalry of the East + was encumbered. <i>Their</i> more useful arms consisted in a helmet, an + oblong shield, light boots, and a coat of mail. A javelin, and a long + broad sword, were their principal weapons of offence. The use of lances + and of iron maces they seem to have borrowed from the barbarians. + </p> + <p> + The safety and honor of the empire was principally intrusted to the + legions, but the policy of Rome condescended to adopt every useful + instrument of war. Considerable levies were regularly made among the + provincials, who had not yet deserved the honorable distinction of Romans. + Many dependent princes and communities, dispersed round the frontiers, + were permitted, for a while, to hold their freedom and security by the + tenure of military service. Even select troops of hostile barbarians were + frequently compelled or persuaded to consume their dangerous valor in + remote climates, and for the benefit of the state. All these were included + under the general name of auxiliaries; and howsoever they might vary + according to the difference of times and circumstances, their numbers were + seldom much inferior to those of the legions themselves. Among the + auxiliaries, the bravest and most faithful bands were placed under the + command of præfects and centurions, and severely trained in the arts + of Roman discipline; but the far greater part retained those arms, to + which the nature of their country, or their early habits of life, more + peculiarly adapted them. By this institution, each legion, to whom a + certain proportion of auxiliaries was allotted, contained within itself + every species of lighter troops, and of missile weapons; and was capable + of encountering every nation, with the advantages of its respective arms + and discipline. Nor was the legion destitute of what, in modern language, + would be styled a train of artillery. It consisted in ten military engines + of the largest, and fifty-five of a smaller size; but all of which, either + in an oblique or horizontal manner, discharged stones and darts with + irresistible violence. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch1-p3" id="linkch1-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a fortified city. + As soon as the space was marked out, the pioneers carefully levelled the + ground, and removed every impediment that might interrupt its perfect + regularity. Its form was an exact quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a + square of about seven hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of + twenty thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops would + expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that extent. In the midst + of the camp, the prætorium, or general’s quarters, rose above the + others; the cavalry, the infantry, and the auxiliaries occupied their + respective stations; the streets were broad and perfectly straight, and a + vacant space of two hundred feet was left on all sides between the tents + and the rampart. The rampart itself was usually twelve feet high, armed + with a line of strong and intricate palisades, and defended by a ditch of + twelve feet in depth as well as in breadth. This important labor was + performed by the hands of the legionaries themselves; to whom the use of + the spade and the pickaxe was no less familiar than that of the sword or + <i>pilum</i>. Active valor may often be the present of nature; but such + patient diligence can be the fruit only of habit and discipline. + </p> + <p> + Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp was almost + instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their ranks without delay or + confusion. Besides their arms, which the legionaries scarcely considered + as an encumbrance, they were laden with their kitchen furniture, the + instruments of fortification, and the provision of many days. Under this + weight, which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, they were + trained by a regular step to advance, in about six hours, near twenty + miles. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw aside their baggage, and + by easy and rapid evolutions converted the column of march into an order + of battle. The slingers and archers skirmished in the front; the + auxiliaries formed the first line, and were seconded or sustained by the + strength of the legions; the cavalry covered the flanks, and the military + engines were placed in the rear. + </p> + <p> + Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors defended their + extensive conquests, and preserved a military spirit, at a time when every + other virtue was oppressed by luxury and despotism. If, in the + consideration of their armies, we pass from their discipline to their + numbers, we shall not find it easy to define them with any tolerable + accuracy. We may compute, however, that the legion, which was itself a + body of six thousand eight hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with its + attendant auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred men. + The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was composed of no + less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and most probably formed a + standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men. Instead of + being confined within the walls of fortified cities, which the Romans + considered as the refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the legions were + encamped on the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the + barbarians. As their stations, for the most part, remained fixed and + permanent, we may venture to describe the distribution of the troops. + Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal strength lay upon + the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of sixteen legions, in the following + proportions: two in the Lower, and three in the Upper Germany; one in Rhætia, + one in Noricum, four in Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in Dacia. + The defence of the Euphrates was intrusted to eight legions, six of whom + were planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia. With regard to + Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from any important + scene of war, a single legion maintained the domestic tranquillity of each + of those great provinces. Even Italy was not left destitute of a military + force. Above twenty thousand chosen soldiers, distinguished by the titles + of City Cohorts and Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of the + monarch and the capital. As the authors of almost every revolution that + distracted the empire, the Prætorians will, very soon, and very + loudly, demand our attention; but, in their arms and institutions, we + cannot find any circumstance which discriminated them from the legions, + unless it were a more splendid appearance, and a less rigid discipline. + </p> + <p> + The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to their + greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful purpose of + government. The ambition of the Romans was confined to the land; nor was + that warlike people ever actuated by the enterprising spirit which had + prompted the navigators of Tyre, of Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to + enlarge the bounds of the world, and to explore the most remote coasts of + the ocean. To the Romans the ocean remained an object of terror rather + than of curiosity; the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after the + destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was included + within their provinces. The policy of the emperors was directed only to + preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and to protect the commerce of + their subjects. With these moderate views, Augustus stationed two + permanent fleets in the most convenient ports of Italy, the one at + Ravenna, on the Adriatic, the other at Misenum, in the Bay of Naples. + Experience seems at length to have convinced the ancients, that as soon as + their galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars, they were + suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Augustus himself, in + the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of his own light frigates + (they were called Liburnians) over the lofty but unwieldy castles of his + rival. Of these Liburnians he composed the two fleets of Ravenna and + Misenum, destined to command, the one the eastern, the other the western + division of the Mediterranean; and to each of the squadrons he attached a + body of several thousand marines. Besides these two ports, which may be + considered as the principal seats of the Roman navy, a very considerable + force was stationed at Frejus, on the coast of Provence, and the Euxine + was guarded by forty ships, and three thousand soldiers. To all these we + add the fleet which preserved the communication between Gaul and Britain, + and a great number of vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and + Danube, to harass the country, or to intercept the passage of the + barbarians. If we review this general state of the Imperial forces; of the + cavalry as well as infantry; of the legions, the auxiliaries, the guards, + and the navy; the most liberal computation will not allow us to fix the + entire establishment by sea and by land at more than four hundred and + fifty thousand men: a military power, which, however formidable it may + seem, was equalled by a monarch of the last century, whose kingdom was + confined within a single province of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the strength + which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines. We shall now + endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe the provinces once + united under their sway, but, at present, divided into so many independent + and hostile states. + </p> + <p> + Spain, the western extremity of the empire, of Europe, and of the ancient + world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the same natural limits; + the Pyrenæan Mountains, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic Ocean. + That great peninsula, at present so unequally divided between two + sovereigns, was distributed by Augustus into three provinces, Lusitania, Bætica, + and Tarraconensis. The kingdom of Portugal now fills the place of the + warlike country of the Lusitanians; and the loss sustained by the former + on the side of the East, is compensated by an accession of territory + towards the North. The confines of Grenada and Andalusia correspond with + those of ancient Bætica. The remainder of Spain, Gallicia, and the + Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two Castiles, Murcia, + Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to form the third and + most considerable of the Roman governments, which, from the name of its + capital, was styled the province of Tarragona. Of the native barbarians, + the Celtiberians were the most powerful, as the Cantabrians and Asturians + proved the most obstinate. Confident in the strength of their mountains, + they were the last who submitted to the arms of Rome, and the first who + threw off the yoke of the Arabs. + </p> + <p> + Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the Pyrenees, the + Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater extent than modern France. + To the dominions of that powerful monarchy, with its recent acquisitions + of Alsace and Lorraine, we must add the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of + Switzerland, the four electorates of the Rhine, and the territories of + Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. When Augustus gave + laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a division of Gaul, + equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the course of the + rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, which had comprehended + above a hundred independent states. The sea-coast of the Mediterranean, + Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphiné, received their provincial appellation + from the colony of Narbonne. The government of Aquitaine was extended from + the Pyrenees to the Loire. The country between the Loire and the Seine was + styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed a new denomination from the + celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or Lyons. The Belgic lay beyond the Seine, + and in more ancient times had been bounded only by the Rhine; but a little + before the age of Cæsar, the Germans, abusing their superiority of + valor, had occupied a considerable portion of the Belgic territory. The + Roman conquerors very eagerly embraced so flattering a circumstance, and + the Gallic frontier of the Rhine, from Basil to Leyden, received the + pompous names of the Upper and the Lower Germany. Such, under the reign of + the Antonines, were the six provinces of Gaul; the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, + the Celtic, or Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the two Germanies. + </p> + <p> + We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of Britain, and to + fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this island. It comprehended all + England, Wales, and the Lowlands of Scotland, as far as the Friths of + Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Before Britain lost her freedom, the country was + irregularly divided between thirty tribes of barbarians, of whom the most + considerable were the Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in the North, + the Silures in South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk. As far + as we can either trace or credit the resemblance of manners and language, + Spain, Gaul, and Britain were peopled by the same hardy race of savages. + Before they yielded to the Roman arms, they often disputed the field, and + often renewed the contest. After their submission, they constituted the + western division of the European provinces, which extended from the + columns of Hercules to the wall of Antoninus, and from the mouth of the + Tagus to the sources of the Rhine and Danube. + </p> + <p> + Before the Roman conquest, the country which is now called Lombardy, was + not considered as a part of Italy. It had been occupied by a powerful + colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves along the banks of the Po, from + Piedmont to Romagna, carried their arms and diffused their name from the + Alps to the Apennine. The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast which now + forms the republic of Genoa. Venice was yet unborn; but the territories of + that state, which lie to the east of the Adige, were inhabited by the + Venetians. The middle part of the peninsula, that now composes the duchy + of Tuscany and the ecclesiastical state, was the ancient seat of the + Etruscans and Umbrians; to the former of whom Italy was indebted for the + first rudiments of civilized life. The Tyber rolled at the foot of the + seven hills of Rome, and the country of the Sabines, the Latins, and the + Volsci, from that river to the frontiers of Naples, was the theatre of her + infant victories. On that celebrated ground the first consuls deserved + triumphs, their successors adorned villas, and their posterity have + erected convents. Capua and Campania possessed the immediate territory of + Naples; the rest of the kingdom was inhabited by many warlike nations, the + Marsi, the Samnites, the Apulians, and the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts + had been covered by the flourishing colonies of the Greeks. We may remark, + that when Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions, the little province + of Istria was annexed to that seat of Roman sovereignty. + </p> + <p> + The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of the Rhine + and the Danube. The latter of those mighty streams, which rises at the + distance of only thirty miles from the former, flows above thirteen + hundred miles, for the most part to the south-east, collects the tribute + of sixty navigable rivers, and is, at length, through six mouths, received + into the Euxine, which appears scarcely equal to such an accession of + waters. The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general appellation + of Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were esteemed the most warlike + of the empire; but they deserve to be more particularly considered under + the names of Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, + Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. + </p> + <p> + The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name of the + Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the banks of the + Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with the Inn. The greatest + part of the flat country is subject to the elector of Bavaria; the city of + Augsburg is protected by the constitution of the German empire; the + Grisons are safe in their mountains, and the country of Tirol is ranked + among the numerous provinces of the house of Austria. + </p> + <p> + The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, the + Danube, and the Save,—Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the + Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia,—was known to the ancients under the + names of Noricum and Pannonia. In their original state of independence, + their fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. Under the Roman + government they were frequently united, and they still remain the + patrimony of a single family. They now contain the residence of a German + prince, who styles himself Emperor of the Romans, and form the centre, as + well as strength, of the Austrian power. It may not be improper to + observe, that if we except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern skirts of + Austria, and a part of Hungary between the Teyss and the Danube, all the + other dominions of the House of Austria were comprised within the limits + of the Roman Empire. + </p> + <p> + Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly belonged, was a + long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the Adriatic. The best part + of the sea-coast, which still retains its ancient appellation, is a + province of the Venetian state, and the seat of the little republic of + Ragusa. The inland parts have assumed the Sclavonian names of Croatia and + Bosnia; the former obeys an Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish pacha; + but the whole country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, whose + savage independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the Christian + and Mahometan power. + </p> + <p> + After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the Save, it + acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister. It formerly + divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, as we have already + seen, was a conquest of Trajan, and the only province beyond the river. If + we inquire into the present state of those countries, we shall find that, + on the left hand of the Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been + annexed, after many revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the + principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of the + Ottoman Porte. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, which, during + the middle ages, was broken into the barbarian kingdoms of Servia and + Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish slavery. + </p> + <p> + The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the Turks on the + extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, preserves the memory + of their ancient state under the Roman empire. In the time of the + Antonines, the martial regions of Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus + and Rhodope, to the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, had assumed the form of + a province. Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, the new + city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the Bosphorus, has + ever since remained the capital of a great monarchy. The kingdom of + Macedonia, which, under the reign of Alexander, gave laws to Asia, derived + more solid advantages from the policy of the two Philips; and with its + dependencies of Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the Ægean to the + Ionian Sea. When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and Argos, of Sparta and + Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so many immortal + republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single province of the Roman + empire, which, from the superior influence of the Achæan league, was + usually denominated the province of Achaia. + </p> + <p> + Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors. The provinces of + Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of Trajan, are all + comprehended within the limits of the Turkish power. But, instead of + following the arbitrary divisions of despotism and ignorance, it will be + safer for us, as well as more agreeable, to observe the indelible + characters of nature. The name of Asia Minor is attributed with some + propriety to the peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the + Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. The most + extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus and the River + Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the exclusive title of Asia. The + jurisdiction of that province extended over the ancient monarchies of + Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, the maritime countries of the Pamphylians, + Lycians, and Carians, and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, which equalled in + arts, though not in arms, the glory of their parent. The kingdoms of + Bithynia and Pontus possessed the northern side of the peninsula from + Constantinople to Trebizond. On the opposite side, the province of Cilicia + was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland country, separated + from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and from Armenia by the Euphrates, + had once formed the independent kingdom of Cappadocia. In this place we + may observe, that the northern shores of the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in + Asia, and beyond the Danube in Europe, acknowledged the sovereignty of the + emperors, and received at their hands either tributary princes or Roman + garrisons. Budzak, Crim Tartary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, are the modern + appellations of those savage countries. + </p> + <p> + Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the Seleucidæ, + who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful revolt of the Parthians + confined their dominions between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean. When + Syria became subject to the Romans, it formed the eastern frontier of + their empire: nor did that province, in its utmost latitude, know any + other bounds than the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards + the south, the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Phœnicia and Palestine + were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the jurisdiction + of Syria. The former of these was a narrow and rocky coast; the latter was + a territory scarcely superior to Wales, either in fertility or extent. * + Yet Phœnicia and Palestine will forever live in the memory of mankind; + since America, as well as Europe, has received letters from the one, and + religion from the other. A sandy desert, alike destitute of wood and + water, skirts along the doubtful confine of Syria, from the Euphrates to + the Red Sea. The wandering life of the Arabs was inseparably connected + with their independence; and wherever, on some spots less barren than the + rest, they ventured to for many settled habitations, they soon became + subjects to the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what portion of + the globe they should ascribe Egypt. By its situation that celebrated + kingdom is included within the immense peninsula of Africa; but it is + accessible only on the side of Asia, whose revolutions, in almost every + period of history, Egypt has humbly obeyed. A Roman præfect was + seated on the splendid throne of the Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of + the Mamelukes is now in the hands of a Turkish pacha. The Nile flows down + the country, above five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to the + Mediterranean, and marks on either side the extent of fertility by the + measure of its inundations. Cyrene, situate towards the west, and along + the sea-coast, was first a Greek colony, afterwards a province of Egypt, + and is now lost in the desert of Barca. * + </p> + <p> + From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above fifteen + hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the Mediterranean and + the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth seldom exceeds fourscore or + a hundred miles. The eastern division was considered by the Romans as the + more peculiar and proper province of Africa. Till the arrival of the + Phœnician colonies, that fertile country was inhabited by the Libyans, the + most savage of mankind. Under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, it + became the centre of commerce and empire; but the republic of Carthage is + now degenerated into the feeble and disorderly states of Tripoli and + Tunis. The military government of Algiers oppresses the wide extent of + Numidia, as it was once united under Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the + time of Augustus, the limits of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, + two thirds of the country acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the + epithet of Cæsariensis. The genuine Mauritania, or country of the + Moors, which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was + distinguished by the appellation of Tingitana, is represented by the + modern kingdom of Fez. Salle, on the Ocean, so infamous at present for its + piratical depredations, was noticed by the Romans, as the extreme object + of their power, and almost of their geography. A city of their foundation + may still be discovered near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom + we condescend to style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, + that his more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were + ever comprehended within the Roman province. The western parts of Africa + are intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so idly celebrated + by the fancy of poets; but which is now diffused over the immense ocean + that rolls between the ancient and the new continent. + </p> + <p> + Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may observe, that + Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of about twelve miles, + through which the Atlantic flows into the Mediterranean. The columns of + Hercules, so famous among the ancients, were two mountains which seemed to + have been torn asunder by some convulsion of the elements; and at the foot + of the European mountain, the fortress of Gibraltar is now seated. The + whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its coasts and its islands, were + comprised within the Roman dominion. Of the larger islands, the two + Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and Minorca from their + respective size, are subject at present, the former to Spain, the latter + to Great Britain. * It is easier to deplore the fate, than to describe the + actual condition, of Corsica. Two Italian sovereigns assume a regal title + from Sardinia and Sicily. Crete, or Candia, with Cyprus, and most of the + smaller islands of Greece and Asia, have been subdued by the Turkish arms, + whilst the little rock of Malta defies their power, and has emerged, under + the government of its military Order, into fame and opulence. + </p> + <p> + This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments have formed so + many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to forgive the vanity or + ignorance of the ancients. Dazzled with the extensive sway, the + irresistible strength, and the real or affected moderation of the + emperors, they permitted themselves to despise, and sometimes to forget, + the outlying countries which had been left in the enjoyment of a barbarous + independence; and they gradually usurped the license of confounding the + Roman monarchy with the globe of the earth. But the temper, as well as + knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more sober and accurate + language. He may impress a juster image of the greatness of Rome, by + observing that the empire was above two thousand miles in breadth, from + the wall of Antoninus and the northern limits of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and + the tropic of Cancer; that it extended in length more than three thousand + miles from the Western Ocean to the Euphrates; that it was situated in the + finest part of the Temperate Zone, between the twenty-fourth and + fifty-sixth degrees of northern latitude; and that it was supposed to + contain above sixteen hundred thousand square miles, for the most part of + fertile and well-cultivated land. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch2-p1" id="linkch2-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In +The Age Of The Antonines. +</pre> + <p> + It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of conquest, that we should + estimate the greatness of Rome. The sovereign of the Russian deserts + commands a larger portion of the globe. In the seventh summer after his + passage of the Hellespont, Alexander erected the Macedonian trophies on + the banks of the Hyphasis. Within less than a century, the irresistible + Zingis, and the Mogul princes of his race, spread their cruel devastations + and transient empire from the Sea of China, to the confines of Egypt and + Germany. But the firm edifice of Roman power was raised and preserved by + the wisdom of ages. The obedient provinces of Trajan and the Antonines + were united by laws, and adorned by arts. They might occasionally suffer + from the partial abuse of delegated authority; but the general principle + of government was wise, simple, and beneficent. They enjoyed the religion + of their ancestors, whilst in civil honors and advantages they were + exalted, by just degrees, to an equality with their conquerors. + </p> + <p> + I. The policy of the emperors and the senate, as far as it concerned + religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of the enlightened, and + by the habits of the superstitious, part of their subjects. The various + modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered + by the people, as equally true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and + by the magistrate, as equally useful. And thus toleration produced not + only mutual indulgence, but even religious concord. + </p> + <p> + The superstition of the people was not imbittered by any mixture of + theological rancor; nor was it confined by the chains of any speculative + system. The devout polytheist, though fondly attached to his national + rites, admitted with implicit faith the different religions of the earth. + Fear, gratitude, and curiosity, a dream or an omen, a singular disorder, + or a distant journey, perpetually disposed him to multiply the articles of + his belief, and to enlarge the list of his protectors. The thin texture of + the Pagan mythology was interwoven with various but not discordant + materials. As soon as it was allowed that sages and heroes, who had lived + or who had died for the benefit of their country, were exalted to a state + of power and immortality, it was universally confessed, that they + deserved, if not the adoration, at least the reverence, of all mankind. + The deities of a thousand groves and a thousand streams possessed, in + peace, their local and respective influence; nor could the Romans who + deprecated the wrath of the Tiber, deride the Egyptian who presented his + offering to the beneficent genius of the Nile. The visible powers of + nature, the planets, and the elements were the same throughout the + universe. The invisible governors of the moral world were inevitably cast + in a similar mould of fiction and allegory. Every virtue, and even vice, + acquired its divine representative; every art and profession its patron, + whose attributes, in the most distant ages and countries, were uniformly + derived from the character of their peculiar votaries. A republic of gods + of such opposite tempers and interests required, in every system, the + moderating hand of a supreme magistrate, who, by the progress of knowledge + and flattery, was gradually invested with the sublime perfections of an + Eternal Parent, and an Omnipotent Monarch. Such was the mild spirit of + antiquity, that the nations were less attentive to the difference, than to + the resemblance, of their religious worship. The Greek, the Roman, and the + Barbarian, as they met before their respective altars, easily persuaded + themselves, that under various names, and with various ceremonies, they + adored the same deities. The elegant mythology of Homer gave a beautiful, + and almost a regular form, to the polytheism of the ancient world. + </p> + <p> + The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from the nature of man, + rather than from that of God. They meditated, however, on the Divine + Nature, as a very curious and important speculation; and in the profound + inquiry, they displayed the strength and weakness of the human + understanding. Of the four most celebrated schools, the Stoics and the + Platonists endeavored to reconcile the jaring interests of reason and + piety. They have left us the most sublime proofs of the existence and + perfections of the first cause; but, as it was impossible for them to + conceive the creation of matter, the workman in the Stoic philosophy was + not sufficiently distinguished from the work; whilst, on the contrary, the + spiritual God of Plato and his disciples resembled an idea, rather than a + substance. The opinions of the Academics and Epicureans were of a less + religious cast; but whilst the modest science of the former induced them + to doubt, the positive ignorance of the latter urged them to deny, the + providence of a Supreme Ruler. The spirit of inquiry, prompted by + emulation, and supported by freedom, had divided the public teachers of + philosophy into a variety of contending sects; but the ingenious youth, + who, from every part, resorted to Athens, and the other seats of learning + in the Roman empire, were alike instructed in every school to reject and + to despise the religion of the multitude. How, indeed, was it possible + that a philosopher should accept, as divine truths, the idle tales of the + poets, and the incoherent traditions of antiquity; or that he should + adore, as gods, those imperfect beings whom he must have despised, as men? + Against such unworthy adversaries, Cicero condescended to employ the arms + of reason and eloquence; but the satire of Lucian was a much more + adequate, as well as more efficacious, weapon. We may be well assured, + that a writer, conversant with the world, would never have ventured to + expose the gods of his country to public ridicule, had they not already + been the objects of secret contempt among the polished and enlightened + orders of society. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the fashionable irreligion which prevailed in the age of + the Antonines, both the interest of the priests and the credulity of the + people were sufficiently respected. In their writings and conversation, + the philosophers of antiquity asserted the independent dignity of reason; + but they resigned their actions to the commands of law and of custom. + Viewing, with a smile of pity and indulgence, the various errors of the + vulgar, they diligently practised the ceremonies of their fathers, + devoutly frequented the temples of the gods; and sometimes condescending + to act a part on the theatre of superstition, they concealed the + sentiments of an atheist under the sacerdotal robes. Reasoners of such a + temper were scarcely inclined to wrangle about their respective modes of + faith, or of worship. It was indifferent to them what shape the folly of + the multitude might choose to assume; and they approached with the same + inward contempt, and the same external reverence, the altars of the + Libyan, the Olympian, or the Capitoline Jupiter. + </p> + <p> + It is not easy to conceive from what motives a spirit of persecution could + introduce itself into the Roman councils. The magistrates could not be + actuated by a blind, though honest bigotry, since the magistrates were + themselves philosophers; and the schools of Athens had given laws to the + senate. They could not be impelled by ambition or avarice, as the temporal + and ecclesiastical powers were united in the same hands. The pontiffs were + chosen among the most illustrious of the senators; and the office of + Supreme Pontiff was constantly exercised by the emperors themselves. They + knew and valued the advantages of religion, as it is connected with civil + government. They encouraged the public festivals which humanize the + manners of the people. They managed the arts of divination as a convenient + instrument of policy; and they respected, as the firmest bond of society, + the useful persuasion, that, either in this or in a future life, the crime + of perjury is most assuredly punished by the avenging gods. But whilst + they acknowledged the general advantages of religion, they were convinced + that the various modes of worship contributed alike to the same salutary + purposes; and that, in every country, the form of superstition, which had + received the sanction of time and experience, was the best adapted to the + climate, and to its inhabitants. Avarice and taste very frequently + despoiled the vanquished nations of the elegant statues of their gods, and + the rich ornaments of their temples; but, in the exercise of the religion + which they derived from their ancestors, they uniformly experienced the + indulgence, and even protection, of the Roman conquerors. The province of + Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal + toleration. Under the specious pretext of abolishing human sacrifices, the + emperors Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the dangerous power of the + Druids: but the priests themselves, their gods and their altars, subsisted + in peaceful obscurity till the final destruction of Paganism. + </p> + <p> + Rome, the capital of a great monarchy, was incessantly filled with + subjects and strangers from every part of the world, who all introduced + and enjoyed the favorite superstitions of their native country. Every city + in the empire was justified in maintaining the purity of its ancient + ceremonies; and the Roman senate, using the common privilege, sometimes + interposed, to check this inundation of foreign rites. * The Egyptian + superstition, of all the most contemptible and abject, was frequently + prohibited: the temples of Serapis and Isis demolished, and their + worshippers banished from Rome and Italy. But the zeal of fanaticism + prevailed over the cold and feeble efforts of policy. The exiles returned, + the proselytes multiplied, the temples were restored with increasing + splendor, and Isis and Serapis at length assumed their place among the + Roman Deities. Nor was this indulgence a departure from the old maxims of + government. In the purest ages of the commonwealth, Cybele and Æsculapius + had been invited by solemn embassies; and it was customary to tempt the + protectors of besieged cities, by the promise of more distinguished honors + than they possessed in their native country. Rome gradually became the + common temple of her subjects; and the freedom of the city was bestowed on + all the gods of mankind. + </p> + <p> + II. The narrow policy of preserving, without any foreign mixture, the pure + blood of the ancient citizens, had checked the fortune, and hastened the + ruin, of Athens and Sparta. The aspiring genius of Rome sacrificed vanity + to ambition, and deemed it more prudent, as well as honorable, to adopt + virtue and merit for her own wheresoever they were found, among slaves or + strangers, enemies or barbarians. During the most flourishing æra of + the Athenian commonwealth, the number of citizens gradually decreased from + about thirty to twenty-one thousand. If, on the contrary, we study the + growth of the Roman republic, we may discover, that, notwithstanding the + incessant demands of wars and colonies, the citizens, who, in the first + census of Servius Tullius, amounted to no more than eighty-three thousand, + were multiplied, before the commencement of the social war, to the number + of four hundred and sixty-three thousand men, able to bear arms in the + service of their country. When the allies of Rome claimed an equal share + of honors and privileges, the senate indeed preferred the chance of arms + to an ignominious concession. The Samnites and the Lucanians paid the + severe penalty of their rashness; but the rest of the Italian states, as + they successively returned to their duty, were admitted into the bosom of + the republic, and soon contributed to the ruin of public freedom. Under a + democratical government, the citizens exercise the powers of sovereignty; + and those powers will be first abused, and afterwards lost, if they are + committed to an unwieldy multitude. But when the popular assemblies had + been suppressed by the administration of the emperors, the conquerors were + distinguished from the vanquished nations, only as the first and most + honorable order of subjects; and their increase, however rapid, was no + longer exposed to the same dangers. Yet the wisest princes, who adopted + the maxims of Augustus, guarded with the strictest care the dignity of the + Roman name, and diffused the freedom of the city with a prudent + liberality. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch2-p2" id="linkch2-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Till the privileges of Romans had been progressively extended to all the + inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction was preserved between + Italy and the provinces. The former was esteemed the centre of public + unity, and the firm basis of the constitution. Italy claimed the birth, or + at least the residence, of the emperors and the senate. The estates of the + Italians were exempt from taxes, their persons from the arbitrary + jurisdiction of governors. Their municipal corporations, formed after the + perfect model of the capital, * were intrusted, under the immediate eye of + the supreme power, with the execution of the laws. From the foot of the + Alps to the extremity of Calabria, all the natives of Italy were born + citizens of Rome. Their partial distinctions were obliterated, and they + insensibly coalesced into one great nation, united by language, manners, + and civil institutions, and equal to the weight of a powerful empire. The + republic gloried in her generous policy, and was frequently rewarded by + the merit and services of her adopted sons. Had she always confined the + distinction of Romans to the ancient families within the walls of the + city, that immortal name would have been deprived of some of its noblest + ornaments. Virgil was a native of Mantua; Horace was inclined to doubt + whether he should call himself an Apulian or a Lucanian; it was in Padua + that an historian was found worthy to record the majestic series of Roman + victories. The patriot family of the Catos emerged from Tusculum; and the + little town of Arpinum claimed the double honor of producing Marius and + Cicero, the former of whom deserved, after Romulus and Camillus, to be + styled the Third Founder of Rome; and the latter, after saving his country + from the designs of Catiline, enabled her to contend with Athens for the + palm of eloquence. + </p> + <p> + The provinces of the empire (as they have been described in the preceding + chapter) were destitute of any public force, or constitutional freedom. In + Etruria, in Greece, and in Gaul, it was the first care of the senate to + dissolve those dangerous confederacies, which taught mankind that, as the + Roman arms prevailed by division, they might be resisted by union. Those + princes, whom the ostentation of gratitude or generosity permitted for a + while to hold a precarious sceptre, were dismissed from their thrones, as + soon as they had performed their appointed task of fashioning to the yoke + the vanquished nations. The free states and cities which had embraced the + cause of Rome were rewarded with a nominal alliance, and insensibly sunk + into real servitude. The public authority was everywhere exercised by the + ministers of the senate and of the emperors, and that authority was + absolute, and without control. But the same salutary maxims of government, + which had secured the peace and obedience of Italy were extended to the + most distant conquests. A nation of Romans was gradually formed in the + provinces, by the double expedient of introducing colonies, and of + admitting the most faithful and deserving of the provincials to the + freedom of Rome. + </p> + <p> + “Wheresoever the Roman conquers, he inhabits,” is a very just observation + of Seneca, confirmed by history and experience. The natives of Italy, + allured by pleasure or by interest, hastened to enjoy the advantages of + victory; and we may remark, that, about forty years after the reduction of + Asia, eighty thousand Romans were massacred in one day, by the cruel + orders of Mithridates. These voluntary exiles were engaged, for the most + part, in the occupations of commerce, agriculture, and the farm of the + revenue. But after the legions were rendered permanent by the emperors, + the provinces were peopled by a race of soldiers; and the veterans, + whether they received the reward of their service in land or in money, + usually settled with their families in the country, where they had + honorably spent their youth. Throughout the empire, but more particularly + in the western parts, the most fertile districts, and the most convenient + situations, were reserved for the establishment of colonies; some of which + were of a civil, and others of a military nature. In their manners and + internal policy, the colonies formed a perfect representation of their + great parent; and they were soon endeared to the natives by the ties of + friendship and alliance, they effectually diffused a reverence for the + Roman name, and a desire, which was seldom disappointed, of sharing, in + due time, its honors and advantages. The municipal cities insensibly + equalled the rank and splendor of the colonies; and in the reign of + Hadrian, it was disputed which was the preferable condition, of those + societies which had issued from, or those which had been received into, + the bosom of Rome. The right of Latium, as it was called, * conferred on + the cities to which it had been granted, a more partial favor. The + magistrates only, at the expiration of their office, assumed the quality + of Roman citizens; but as those offices were annual, in a few years they + circulated round the principal families. Those of the provincials who were + permitted to bear arms in the legions; those who exercised any civil + employment; all, in a word, who performed any public service, or displayed + any personal talents, were rewarded with a present, whose value was + continually diminished by the increasing liberality of the emperors. Yet + even, in the age of the Antonines, when the freedom of the city had been + bestowed on the greater number of their subjects, it was still accompanied + with very solid advantages. The bulk of the people acquired, with that + title, the benefit of the Roman laws, particularly in the interesting + articles of marriage, testaments, and inheritances; and the road of + fortune was open to those whose pretensions were seconded by favor or + merit. The grandsons of the Gauls, who had besieged Julius Cæsar in + Alesia, commanded legions, governed provinces, and were admitted into the + senate of Rome. Their ambition, instead of disturbing the tranquillity of + the state, was intimately connected with its safety and greatness. + </p> + <p> + So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over national + manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, with the progress + of their arms, the use of the Latin tongue. The ancient dialects of Italy, + the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the Venetian, sunk into oblivion; but in the + provinces, the east was less docile than the west to the voice of its + victorious preceptors. This obvious difference marked the two portions of + the empire with a distinction of colors, which, though it was in some + degree concealed during the meridian splendor of prosperity, became + gradually more visible, as the shades of night descended upon the Roman + world. The western countries were civilized by the same hands which + subdued them. As soon as the barbarians were reconciled to obedience, + their minds were open to any new impressions of knowledge and politeness. + The language of Virgil and Cicero, though with some inevitable mixture of + corruption, was so universally adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and + Pannonia, that the faint traces of the Punic or Celtic idioms were + preserved only in the mountains, or among the peasants. Education and + study insensibly inspired the natives of those countries with the + sentiments of Romans; and Italy gave fashions, as well as laws, to her + Latin provincials. They solicited with more ardor, and obtained with more + facility, the freedom and honors of the state; supported the national + dignity in letters and in arms; and at length, in the person of Trajan, + produced an emperor whom the Scipios would not have disowned for their + countryman. The situation of the Greeks was very different from that of + the barbarians. The former had been long since civilized and corrupted. + They had too much taste to relinquish their language, and too much vanity + to adopt any foreign institutions. Still preserving the prejudices, after + they had lost the virtues, of their ancestors, they affected to despise + the unpolished manners of the Roman conquerors, whilst they were compelled + to respect their superior wisdom and power. Nor was the influence of the + Grecian language and sentiments confined to the narrow limits of that once + celebrated country. Their empire, by the progress of colonies and + conquest, had been diffused from the Adriatic to the Euphrates and the + Nile. Asia was covered with Greek cities, and the long reign of the + Macedonian kings had introduced a silent revolution into Syria and Egypt. + In their pompous courts, those princes united the elegance of Athens with + the luxury of the East, and the example of the court was imitated, at an + humble distance, by the higher ranks of their subjects. Such was the + general division of the Roman empire into the Latin and Greek languages. + To these we may add a third distinction for the body of the natives in + Syria, and especially in Egypt, the use of their ancient dialects, by + secluding them from the commerce of mankind, checked the improvements of + those barbarians. The slothful effeminacy of the former exposed them to + the contempt, the sullen ferociousness of the latter excited the aversion, + of the conquerors. Those nations had submitted to the Roman power, but + they seldom desired or deserved the freedom of the city: and it was + remarked, that more than two hundred and thirty years elapsed after the + ruin of the Ptolemies, before an Egyptian was admitted into the senate of + Rome. + </p> + <p> + It is a just though trite observation, that victorious Rome was herself + subdued by the arts of Greece. Those immortal writers who still command + the admiration of modern Europe, soon became the favorite object of study + and imitation in Italy and the western provinces. But the elegant + amusements of the Romans were not suffered to interfere with their sound + maxims of policy. Whilst they acknowledged the charms of the Greek, they + asserted the dignity of the Latin tongue, and the exclusive use of the + latter was inflexibly maintained in the administration of civil as well as + military government. The two languages exercised at the same time their + separate jurisdiction throughout the empire: the former, as the natural + idiom of science; the latter, as the legal dialect of public transactions. + Those who united letters with business were equally conversant with both; + and it was almost impossible, in any province, to find a Roman subject, of + a liberal education, who was at once a stranger to the Greek and to the + Latin language. + </p> + <p> + It was by such institutions that the nations of the empire insensibly + melted away into the Roman name and people. But there still remained, in + the centre of every province and of every family, an unhappy condition of + men who endured the weight, without sharing the benefits, of society. In + the free states of antiquity, the domestic slaves were exposed to the + wanton rigor of despotism. The perfect settlement of the Roman empire was + preceded by ages of violence and rapine. The slaves consisted, for the + most part, of barbarian captives, * taken in thousands by the chance of + war, purchased at a vile price, accustomed to a life of independence, and + impatient to break and to revenge their fetters. Against such internal + enemies, whose desperate insurrections had more than once reduced the + republic to the brink of destruction, the most severe regulations, and the + most cruel treatment, seemed almost justified by the great law of + self-preservation. But when the principal nations of Europe, Asia, and + Africa were united under the laws of one sovereign, the source of foreign + supplies flowed with much less abundance, and the Romans were reduced to + the milder but more tedious method of propagation. * In their numerous + families, and particularly in their country estates, they encouraged the + marriage of their slaves. The sentiments of nature, the habits of + education, and the possession of a dependent species of property, + contributed to alleviate the hardships of servitude. The existence of a + slave became an object of greater value, and though his happiness still + depended on the temper and circumstances of the master, the humanity of + the latter, instead of being restrained by fear, was encouraged by the + sense of his own interest. The progress of manners was accelerated by the + virtue or policy of the emperors; and by the edicts of Hadrian and the + Antonines, the protection of the laws was extended to the most abject part + of mankind. The jurisdiction of life and death over the slaves, a power + long exercised and often abused, was taken out of private hands, and + reserved to the magistrates alone. The subterraneous prisons were + abolished; and, upon a just complaint of intolerable treatment, the + injured slave obtained either his deliverance, or a less cruel master. + </p> + <p> + Hope, the best comfort of our imperfect condition, was not denied to the + Roman slave; and if he had any opportunity of rendering himself either + useful or agreeable, he might very naturally expect that the diligence and + fidelity of a few years would be rewarded with the inestimable gift of + freedom. The benevolence of the master was so frequently prompted by the + meaner suggestions of vanity and avarice, that the laws found it more + necessary to restrain than to encourage a profuse and undistinguishing + liberality, which might degenerate into a very dangerous abuse. It was a + maxim of ancient jurisprudence, that a slave had not any country of his + own; he acquired with his liberty an admission into the political society + of which his patron was a member. The consequences of this maxim would + have prostituted the privileges of the Roman city to a mean and + promiscuous multitude. Some seasonable exceptions were therefore provided; + and the honorable distinction was confined to such slaves only as, for + just causes, and with the approbation of the magistrate, should receive a + solemn and legal manumission. Even these chosen freedmen obtained no more + than the private rights of citizens, and were rigorously excluded from + civil or military honors. Whatever might be the merit or fortune of their + sons, <i>they</i> likewise were esteemed unworthy of a seat in the + senate; nor were the traces of a servile origin allowed to be completely + obliterated till the third or fourth generation. Without destroying the + distinction of ranks, a distant prospect of freedom and honors was + presented, even to those whom pride and prejudice almost disdained to + number among the human species. + </p> + <p> + It was once proposed to discriminate the slaves by a peculiar habit; but + it was justly apprehended that there might be some danger in acquainting + them with their own numbers. Without interpreting, in their utmost + strictness, the liberal appellations of legions and myriads, we may + venture to pronounce, that the proportion of slaves, who were valued as + property, was more considerable than that of servants, who can be computed + only as an expense. The youths of a promising genius were instructed in + the arts and sciences, and their price was ascertained by the degree of + their skill and talents. Almost every profession, either liberal or + mechanical, might be found in the household of an opulent senator. The + ministers of pomp and sensuality were multiplied beyond the conception of + modern luxury. It was more for the interest of the merchant or + manufacturer to purchase, than to hire his workmen; and in the country, + slaves were employed as the cheapest and most laborious instruments of + agriculture. To confirm the general observation, and to display the + multitude of slaves, we might allege a variety of particular instances. It + was discovered, on a very melancholy occasion, that four hundred slaves + were maintained in a single palace of Rome. The same number of four + hundred belonged to an estate which an African widow, of a very private + condition, resigned to her son, whilst she reserved for herself a much + larger share of her property. A freedman, under the name of Augustus, + though his fortune had suffered great losses in the civil wars, left + behind him three thousand six hundred yoke of oxen, two hundred and fifty + thousand head of smaller cattle, and what was almost included in the + description of cattle, four thousand one hundred and sixteen slaves. + </p> + <p> + The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of citizens, of + provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with such a degree of + accuracy, as the importance of the object would deserve. We are informed, + that when the Emperor Claudius exercised the office of censor, he took an + account of six millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand Roman + citizens, who, with the proportion of women and children, must have + amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of subjects of + an inferior rank was uncertain and fluctuating. But, after weighing with + attention every circumstance which could influence the balance, it seems + probable that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many + provincials as there were citizens, of either sex, and of every age; and + that the slaves were at least equal in number to the free inhabitants of + the Roman world. * The total amount of this imperfect calculation would + rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons; a degree of + population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, and forms the + most numerous society that has ever been united under the same system of + government. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch2-p3" id="linkch2-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + Domestic peace and union were the natural consequences of the moderate and + comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans. If we turn our eyes towards + the monarchies of Asia, we shall behold despotism in the centre, and + weakness in the extremities; the collection of the revenue, or the + administration of justice, enforced by the presence of an army; hostile + barbarians established in the heart of the country, hereditary satraps + usurping the dominion of the provinces, and subjects inclined to + rebellion, though incapable of freedom. But the obedience of the Roman + world was uniform, voluntary, and permanent. The vanquished nations, + blended into one great people, resigned the hope, nay, even the wish, of + resuming their independence, and scarcely considered their own existence + as distinct from the existence of Rome. The established authority of the + emperors pervaded without an effort the wide extent of their dominions, + and was exercised with the same facility on the banks of the Thames, or of + the Nile, as on those of the Tyber. The legions were destined to serve + against the public enemy, and the civil magistrate seldom required the aid + of a military force. In this state of general security, the leisure, as + well as opulence, both of the prince and people, were devoted to improve + and to adorn the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + Among the innumerable monuments of architecture constructed by the Romans, + how many have escaped the notice of history, how few have resisted the + ravages of time and barbarism! And yet, even the majestic ruins that are + still scattered over Italy and the provinces, would be sufficient to prove + that those countries were once the seat of a polite and powerful empire. + Their greatness alone, or their beauty, might deserve our attention: but + they are rendered more interesting, by two important circumstances, which + connect the agreeable history of the arts with the more useful history of + human manners. Many of those works were erected at private expense, and + almost all were intended for public benefit. + </p> + <p> + It is natural to suppose that the greatest number, as well as the most + considerable of the Roman edifices, were raised by the emperors, who + possessed so unbounded a command both of men and money. Augustus was + accustomed to boast that he had found his capital of brick, and that he + had left it of marble. The strict economy of Vespasian was the source of + his magnificence. The works of Trajan bear the stamp of his genius. The + public monuments with which Hadrian adorned every province of the empire, + were executed not only by his orders, but under his immediate inspection. + He was himself an artist; and he loved the arts, as they conduced to the + glory of the monarch. They were encouraged by the Antonines, as they + contributed to the happiness of the people. But if the emperors were the + first, they were not the only architects of their dominions. Their example + was universally imitated by their principal subjects, who were not afraid + of declaring to the world that they had spirit to conceive, and wealth to + accomplish, the noblest undertakings. Scarcely had the proud structure of + the Coliseum been dedicated at Rome, before the edifices, of a smaller + scale indeed, but of the same design and materials, were erected for the + use, and at the expense, of the cities of Capua and Verona. The + inscription of the stupendous bridge of Alcantara attests that it was + thrown over the Tagus by the contribution of a few Lusitanian communities. + When Pliny was intrusted with the government of Bithynia and Pontus, + provinces by no means the richest or most considerable of the empire, he + found the cities within his jurisdiction striving with each other in every + useful and ornamental work, that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, + or the gratitude of their citizens. It was the duty of the proconsul to + supply their deficiencies, to direct their taste, and sometimes to + moderate their emulation. The opulent senators of Rome and the provinces + esteemed it an honor, and almost an obligation, to adorn the splendor of + their age and country; and the influence of fashion very frequently + supplied the want of taste or generosity. Among a crowd of these private + benefactors, we may select Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, who lived + in the age of the Antonines. Whatever might be the motive of his conduct, + his magnificence would have been worthy of the greatest kings. + </p> + <p> + The family of Herod, at least after it had been favored by fortune, was + lineally descended from Cimon and Miltiades, Theseus and Cecrops, Æacus + and Jupiter. But the posterity of so many gods and heroes was fallen into + the most abject state. His grandfather had suffered by the hands of + justice, and Julius Atticus, his father, must have ended his life in + poverty and contempt, had he not discovered an immense treasure buried + under an old house, the last remains of his patrimony. According to the + rigor of the law, the emperor might have asserted his claim, and the + prudent Atticus prevented, by a frank confession, the officiousness of + informers. But the equitable Nerva, who then filled the throne, refused to + accept any part of it, and commanded him to use, without scruple, the + present of fortune. The cautious Athenian still insisted, that the + treasure was too considerable for a subject, and that he knew not how to + <i>use it</i>. <i>Abuse it then</i>, replied the monarch, with a + good-natured peevishness; for it is your own. Many will be of opinion, + that Atticus literally obeyed the emperor’s last instructions; since he + expended the greatest part of his fortune, which was much increased by an + advantageous marriage, in the service of the public. He had obtained for + his son Herod the prefecture of the free cities of Asia; and the young + magistrate, observing that the town of Troas was indifferently supplied + with water, obtained from the munificence of Hadrian three hundred myriads + of drachms, (about a hundred thousand pounds,) for the construction of a + new aqueduct. But in the execution of the work, the charge amounted to + more than double the estimate, and the officers of the revenue began to + murmur, till the generous Atticus silenced their complaints, by requesting + that he might be permitted to take upon himself the whole additional + expense. + </p> + <p> + The ablest preceptors of Greece and Asia had been invited by liberal + rewards to direct the education of young Herod. Their pupil soon became a + celebrated orator, according to the useless rhetoric of that age, which, + confining itself to the schools, disdained to visit either the Forum or + the Senate. He was honored with the consulship at Rome: but the greatest + part of his life was spent in a philosophic retirement at Athens, and his + adjacent villas; perpetually surrounded by sophists, who acknowledged, + without reluctance, the superiority of a rich and generous rival. The + monuments of his genius have perished; some considerable ruins still + preserve the fame of his taste and munificence: modern travellers have + measured the remains of the stadium which he constructed at Athens. It was + six hundred feet in length, built entirely of white marble, capable of + admitting the whole body of the people, and finished in four years, whilst + Herod was president of the Athenian games. To the memory of his wife + Regilla he dedicated a theatre, scarcely to be paralleled in the empire: + no wood except cedar, very curiously carved, was employed in any part of + the building. The Odeum, * designed by Pericles for musical performances, + and the rehearsal of new tragedies, had been a trophy of the victory of + the arts over barbaric greatness; as the timbers employed in the + construction consisted chiefly of the masts of the Persian vessels. + Notwithstanding the repairs bestowed on that ancient edifice by a king of + Cappadocia, it was again fallen to decay. Herod restored its ancient + beauty and magnificence. Nor was the liberality of that illustrious + citizen confined to the walls of Athens. The most splendid ornaments + bestowed on the temple of Neptune in the Isthmus, a theatre at Corinth, a + stadium at Delphi, a bath at Thermopylæ, and an aqueduct at Canusium + in Italy, were insufficient to exhaust his treasures. The people of + Epirus, Thessaly, Euboea, Boeotia, and Peloponnesus, experienced his + favors; and many inscriptions of the cities of Greece and Asia gratefully + style Herodes Atticus their patron and benefactor. + </p> + <p> + In the commonwealths of Athens and Rome, the modest simplicity of private + houses announced the equal condition of freedom; whilst the sovereignty of + the people was represented in the majestic edifices designed to the public + use; nor was this republican spirit totally extinguished by the + introduction of wealth and monarchy. It was in works of national honor and + benefit, that the most virtuous of the emperors affected to display their + magnificence. The golden palace of Nero excited a just indignation, but + the vast extent of ground which had been usurped by his selfish luxury was + more nobly filled under the succeeding reigns by the Coliseum, the baths + of Titus, the Claudian portico, and the temples dedicated to the goddess + of Peace, and to the genius of Rome. These monuments of architecture, the + property of the Roman people, were adorned with the most beautiful + productions of Grecian painting and sculpture; and in the temple of Peace, + a very curious library was open to the curiosity of the learned. * At a + small distance from thence was situated the Forum of Trajan. It was + surrounded by a lofty portico, in the form of a quadrangle, into which + four triumphal arches opened a noble and spacious entrance: in the centre + arose a column of marble, whose height, of one hundred and ten feet, + denoted the elevation of the hill that had been cut away. This column, + which still subsists in its ancient beauty, exhibited an exact + representation of the Dacian victories of its founder. The veteran soldier + contemplated the story of his own campaigns, and by an easy illusion of + national vanity, the peaceful citizen associated himself to the honors of + the triumph. All the other quarters of the capital, and all the provinces + of the empire, were embellished by the same liberal spirit of public + magnificence, and were filled with amphitheatres, theatres, temples, + porticoes, triumphal arches, baths and aqueducts, all variously conducive + to the health, the devotion, and the pleasures of the meanest citizen. The + last mentioned of those edifices deserve our peculiar attention. The + boldness of the enterprise, the solidity of the execution, and the uses to + which they were subservient, rank the aqueducts among the noblest + monuments of Roman genius and power. The aqueducts of the capital claim a + just preeminence; but the curious traveller, who, without the light of + history, should examine those of Spoleto, of Metz, or of Segovia, would + very naturally conclude that those provincial towns had formerly been the + residence of some potent monarch. The solitudes of Asia and Africa were + once covered with flourishing cities, whose populousness, and even whose + existence, was derived from such artificial supplies of a perennial stream + of fresh water. + </p> + <p> + We have computed the inhabitants, and contemplated the public works, of + the Roman empire. The observation of the number and greatness of its + cities will serve to confirm the former, and to multiply the latter. It + may not be unpleasing to collect a few scattered instances relative to + that subject without forgetting, however, that from the vanity of nations + and the poverty of language, the vague appellation of city has been + indifferently bestowed on Rome and upon Laurentum. + </p> + <p> + I. <i>Ancient</i> Italy is said to have contained eleven hundred and + ninety-seven cities; and for whatsoever æra of antiquity the + expression might be intended, there is not any reason to believe the + country less populous in the age of the Antonines, than in that of + Romulus. The petty states of Latium were contained within the metropolis + of the empire, by whose superior influence they had been attracted. * + Those parts of Italy which have so long languished under the lazy tyranny + of priests and viceroys, had been afflicted only by the more tolerable + calamities of war; and the first symptoms of decay which they experienced, + were amply compensated by the rapid improvements of the Cisalpine Gaul. + The splendor of Verona may be traced in its remains: yet Verona was less + celebrated than Aquileia or Padua, Milan or Ravenna. II. The spirit of + improvement had passed the Alps, and been felt even in the woods of + Britain, which were gradually cleared away to open a free space for + convenient and elegant habitations. York was the seat of government; + London was already enriched by commerce; and Bath was celebrated for the + salutary effects of its medicinal waters. Gaul could boast of her twelve + hundred cities; and though, in the northern parts, many of them, without + excepting Paris itself, were little more than the rude and imperfect + townships of a rising people, the southern provinces imitated the wealth + and elegance of Italy. Many were the cities of Gaul, Marseilles, Arles, + Nismes, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Bourdeaux, Autun, Vienna, Lyons, Langres, and + Treves, whose ancient condition might sustain an equal, and perhaps + advantageous comparison with their present state. With regard to Spain, + that country flourished as a province, and has declined as a kingdom. + Exhausted by the abuse of her strength, by America, and by superstition, + her pride might possibly be confounded, if we required such a list of + three hundred and sixty cities, as Pliny has exhibited under the reign of + Vespasian. III. Three hundred African cities had once acknowledged the + authority of Carthage, nor is it likely that their numbers diminished + under the administration of the emperors: Carthage itself rose with new + splendor from its ashes; and that capital, as well as Capua and Corinth, + soon recovered all the advantages which can be separated from independent + sovereignty. IV. The provinces of the East present the contrast of Roman + magnificence with Turkish barbarism. The ruins of antiquity scattered over + uncultivated fields, and ascribed, by ignorance, to the power of magic, + scarcely afford a shelter to the oppressed peasant or wandering Arab. + Under the reign of the Cæsars, the proper Asia alone contained five + hundred populous cities, enriched with all the gifts of nature, and + adorned with all the refinements of art. Eleven cities of Asia had once + disputed the honor of dedicating a temple of Tiberius, and their + respective merits were examined by the senate. Four of them were + immediately rejected as unequal to the burden; and among these was + Laodicea, whose splendor is still displayed in its ruins. Laodicea + collected a very considerable revenue from its flocks of sheep, celebrated + for the fineness of their wool, and had received, a little before the + contest, a legacy of above four hundred thousand pounds by the testament + of a generous citizen. If such was the poverty of Laodicea, what must have + been the wealth of those cities, whose claim appeared preferable, and + particularly of Pergamus, of Smyrna, and of Ephesus, who so long disputed + with each other the titular primacy of Asia? The capitals of Syria and + Egypt held a still superior rank in the empire; Antioch and Alexandria + looked down with disdain on a crowd of dependent cities, and yielded, with + reluctance, to the majesty of Rome itself. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch2-p4" id="linkch2-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + All these cities were connected with each other, and with the capital, by + the public highways, which, issuing from the Forum of Rome, traversed + Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the frontiers + of the empire. If we carefully trace the distance from the wall of + Antoninus to Rome, and from thence to Jerusalem, it will be found that the + great chain of communication, from the north-west to the south-east point + of the empire, was drawn out to the length of four thousand and eighty + Roman miles. The public roads were accurately divided by mile-stones, and + ran in a direct line from one city to another, with very little respect + for the obstacles either of nature or private property. Mountains were + perforated, and bold arches thrown over the broadest and most rapid + streams. The middle part of the road was raised into a terrace which + commanded the adjacent country, consisted of several strata of sand, + gravel, and cement, and was paved with large stones, or, in some places + near the capital, with granite. Such was the solid construction of the + Roman highways, whose firmness has not entirely yielded to the effort of + fifteen centuries. They united the subjects of the most distant provinces + by an easy and familiar intercourse; but their primary object had been to + facilitate the marches of the legions; nor was any country considered as + completely subdued, till it had been rendered, in all its parts, pervious + to the arms and authority of the conqueror. The advantage of receiving the + earliest intelligence, and of conveying their orders with celerity, + induced the emperors to establish, throughout their extensive dominions, + the regular institution of posts. Houses were everywhere erected at the + distance only of five or six miles; each of them was constantly provided + with forty horses, and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel + a hundred miles in a day along the Roman roads. * The use of posts was + allowed to those who claimed it by an Imperial mandate; but though + originally intended for the public service, it was sometimes indulged to + the business or conveniency of private citizens. Nor was the communication + of the Roman empire less free and open by sea than it was by land. The + provinces surrounded and enclosed the Mediterranean: and Italy, in the + shape of an immense promontory, advanced into the midst of that great + lake. The coasts of Italy are, in general, destitute of safe harbors; but + human industry had corrected the deficiencies of nature; and the + artificial port of Ostia, in particular, situate at the mouth of the + Tyber, and formed by the emperor Claudius, was a useful monument of Roman + greatness. From this port, which was only sixteen miles from the capital, + a favorable breeze frequently carried vessels in seven days to the columns + of Hercules, and in nine or ten, to Alexandria in Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Whatever evils either reason or declamation have imputed to extensive + empire, the power of Rome was attended with some beneficial consequences + to mankind; and the same freedom of intercourse which extended the vices, + diffused likewise the improvements, of social life. In the more remote + ages of antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The East was in the + immemorial possession of arts and luxury; whilst the West was inhabited by + rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained agriculture, or to whom + it was totally unknown. Under the protection of an established government, + the productions of happier climates, and the industry of more civilized + nations, were gradually introduced into the western countries of Europe; + and the natives were encouraged, by an open and profitable commerce, to + multiply the former, as well as to improve the latter. It would be almost + impossible to enumerate all the articles, either of the animal or the + vegetable reign, which were successively imported into Europe from Asia + and Egypt: but it will not be unworthy of the dignity, and much less of + the utility, of an historical work, slightly to touch on a few of the + principal heads. 1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and the fruits, + that grow in our European gardens, are of foreign extraction, which, in + many cases, is betrayed even by their names: the apple was a native of + Italy, and when the Romans had tasted the richer flavor of the apricot, + the peach, the pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they contented + themselves with applying to all these new fruits the common denomination + of apple, discriminating them from each other by the additional epithet of + their country. 2. In the time of Homer, the vine grew wild in the island + of Sicily, and most probably in the adjacent continent; but it was not + improved by the skill, nor did it afford a liquor grateful to the taste, + of the savage inhabitants. A thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, + that of the fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, more than two + thirds were produced from her soil. The blessing was soon communicated to + the Narbonnese province of Gaul; but so intense was the cold to the north + of the Cevennes, that, in the time of Strabo, it was thought impossible to + ripen the grapes in those parts of Gaul. This difficulty, however, was + gradually vanquished; and there is some reason to believe, that the + vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of the Antonines. 3. The + olive, in the western world, followed the progress of peace, of which it + was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the foundation of Rome, + both Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful plant: it was + naturalized in those countries; and at length carried into the heart of + Spain and Gaul. The timid errors of the ancients, that it required a + certain degree of heat, and could only flourish in the neighborhood of the + sea, were insensibly exploded by industry and experience. 4. The + cultivation of flax was transported from Egypt to Gaul, and enriched the + whole country, however it might impoverish the particular lands on which + it was sown. 5. The use of artificial grasses became familiar to the + farmers both of Italy and the provinces, particularly the Lucerne, which + derived its name and origin from Media. The assured supply of wholesome + and plentiful food for the cattle during winter, multiplied the number of + the docks and herds, which in their turn contributed to the fertility of + the soil. To all these improvements may be added an assiduous attention to + mines and fisheries, which, by employing a multitude of laborious hands, + serve to increase the pleasures of the rich and the subsistence of the + poor. The elegant treatise of Columella describes the advanced state of + the Spanish husbandry under the reign of Tiberius; and it may be observed, + that those famines, which so frequently afflicted the infant republic, + were seldom or never experienced by the extensive empire of Rome. The + accidental scarcity, in any single province, was immediately relieved by + the plenty of its more fortunate neighbors. + </p> + <p> + Agriculture is the foundation of manufactures; since the productions of + nature are the materials of art. Under the Roman empire, the labor of an + industrious and ingenious people was variously, but incessantly, employed + in the service of the rich. In their dress, their table, their houses, and + their furniture, the favorites of fortune united every refinement of + conveniency, of elegance, and of splendor, whatever could soothe their + pride or gratify their sensuality. Such refinements, under the odious name + of luxury, have been severely arraigned by the moralists of every age; and + it might perhaps be more conducive to the virtue, as well as happiness, of + mankind, if all possessed the necessaries, and none the superfluities, of + life. But in the present imperfect condition of society, luxury, though it + may proceed from vice or folly, seems to be the only means that can + correct the unequal distribution of property. The diligent mechanic, and + the skilful artist, who have obtained no share in the division of the + earth, receive a voluntary tax from the possessors of land; and the latter + are prompted, by a sense of interest, to improve those estates, with whose + produce they may purchase additional pleasures. This operation, the + particular effects of which are felt in every society, acted with much + more diffusive energy in the Roman world. The provinces would soon have + been exhausted of their wealth, if the manufactures and commerce of luxury + had not insensibly restored to the industrious subjects the sums which + were exacted from them by the arms and authority of Rome. As long as the + circulation was confined within the bounds of the empire, it impressed the + political machine with a new degree of activity, and its consequences, + sometimes beneficial, could never become pernicious. + </p> + <p> + But it is no easy task to confine luxury within the limits of an empire. + The most remote countries of the ancient world were ransacked to supply + the pomp and delicacy of Rome. The forests of Scythia afforded some + valuable furs. Amber was brought over land from the shores of the Baltic + to the Danube; and the barbarians were astonished at the price which they + received in exchange for so useless a commodity. There was a considerable + demand for Babylonian carpets, and other manufactures of the East; but the + most important and unpopular branch of foreign trade was carried on with + Arabia and India. Every year, about the time of the summer solstice, a + fleet of a hundred and twenty vessels sailed from Myos-hormos, a port of + Egypt, on the Red Sea. By the periodical assistance of the monsoons, they + traversed the ocean in about forty days. The coast of Malabar, or the + island of Ceylon, was the usual term of their navigation, and it was in + those markets that the merchants from the more remote countries of Asia + expected their arrival. The return of the fleet of Egypt was fixed to the + months of December or January; and as soon as their rich cargo had been + transported on the backs of camels, from the Red Sea to the Nile, and had + descended that river as far as Alexandria, it was poured, without delay, + into the capital of the empire. The objects of oriental traffic were + splendid and trifling; silk, a pound of which was esteemed not inferior in + value to a pound of gold; precious stones, among which the pearl claimed + the first rank after the diamond; and a variety of aromatics, that were + consumed in religious worship and the pomp of funerals. The labor and risk + of the voyage was rewarded with almost incredible profit; but the profit + was made upon Roman subjects, and a few individuals were enriched at the + expense of the public. As the natives of Arabia and India were contented + with the productions and manufactures of their own country, silver, on the + side of the Romans, was the principal, if not the only * instrument of + commerce. It was a complaint worthy of the gravity of the senate, that, in + the purchase of female ornaments, the wealth of the state was + irrecoverably given away to foreign and hostile nations. The annual loss + is computed, by a writer of an inquisitive but censorious temper, at + upwards of eight hundred thousand pounds sterling. Such was the style of + discontent, brooding over the dark prospect of approaching poverty. And + yet, if we compare the proportion between gold and silver, as it stood in + the time of Pliny, and as it was fixed in the reign of Constantine, we + shall discover within that period a very considerable increase. There is + not the least reason to suppose that gold was become more scarce; it is + therefore evident that silver was grown more common; that whatever might + be the amount of the Indian and Arabian exports, they were far from + exhausting the wealth of the Roman world; and that the produce of the + mines abundantly supplied the demands of commerce. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the propensity of mankind to exalt the past, and to + depreciate the present, the tranquil and prosperous state of the empire + was warmly felt, and honestly confessed, by the provincials as well as + Romans. “They acknowledged that the true principles of social life, laws, + agriculture, and science, which had been first invented by the wisdom of + Athens, were now firmly established by the power of Rome, under whose + auspicious influence the fiercest barbarians were united by an equal + government and common language. They affirm, that with the improvement of + arts, the human species were visibly multiplied. They celebrate the + increasing splendor of the cities, the beautiful face of the country, + cultivated and adorned like an immense garden; and the long festival of + peace which was enjoyed by so many nations, forgetful of the ancient + animosities, and delivered from the apprehension of future danger.” + Whatever suspicions may be suggested by the air of rhetoric and + declamation, which seems to prevail in these passages, the substance of + them is perfectly agreeable to historic truth. + </p> + <p> + It was scarcely possible that the eyes of contemporaries should discover + in the public felicity the latent causes of decay and corruption. This + long peace, and the uniform government of the Romans, introduced a slow + and secret poison into the vitals of the empire. The minds of men were + gradually reduced to the same level, the fire of genius was extinguished, + and even the military spirit evaporated. The natives of Europe were brave + and robust. Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum supplied the legions with + excellent soldiers, and constituted the real strength of the monarchy. + Their personal valor remained, but they no longer possessed that public + courage which is nourished by the love of independence, the sense of + national honor, the presence of danger, and the habit of command. They + received laws and governors from the will of their sovereign, and trusted + for their defence to a mercenary army. The posterity of their boldest + leaders was contented with the rank of citizens and subjects. The most + aspiring spirits resorted to the court or standard of the emperors; and + the deserted provinces, deprived of political strength or union, + insensibly sunk into the languid indifference of private life. + </p> + <p> + The love of letters, almost inseparable from peace and refinement, was + fashionable among the subjects of Hadrian and the Antonines, who were + themselves men of learning and curiosity. It was diffused over the whole + extent of their empire; the most northern tribes of Britons had acquired a + taste for rhetoric; Homer as well as Virgil were transcribed and studied + on the banks of the Rhine and Danube; and the most liberal rewards sought + out the faintest glimmerings of literary merit. The sciences of physic and + astronomy were successfully cultivated by the Greeks; the observations of + Ptolemy and the writings of Galen are studied by those who have improved + their discoveries and corrected their errors; but if we except the + inimitable Lucian, this age of indolence passed away without having + produced a single writer of original genius, or who excelled in the arts + of elegant composition.* The authority of Plato and Aristotle, of Zeno + and Epicurus, still reigned in the schools; and their systems, transmitted + with blind deference from one generation of disciples to another, + precluded every generous attempt to exercise the powers, or enlarge the + limits, of the human mind. The beauties of the poets and orators, instead + of kindling a fire like their own, inspired only cold and servile + imitations: or if any ventured to deviate from those models, they deviated + at the same time from good sense and propriety. On the revival of letters, + the youthful vigor of the imagination, after a long repose, national + emulation, a new religion, new languages, and a new world, called forth + the genius of Europe. But the provincials of Rome, trained by a uniform + artificial foreign education, were engaged in a very unequal competition + with those bold ancients, who, by expressing their genuine feelings in + their native tongue, had already occupied every place of honor. The name + of Poet was almost forgotten; that of Orator was usurped by the sophists. + A cloud of critics, of compilers, of commentators, darkened the face of + learning, and the decline of genius was soon followed by the corruption of + taste. + </p> + <p> + The sublime Longinus, who, in somewhat a later period, and in the court of + a Syrian queen, preserved the spirit of ancient Athens, observes and + laments this degeneracy of his contemporaries, which debased their + sentiments, enervated their courage, and depressed their talents. “In the + same manner,” says he, “as some children always remain pygmies, whose + infant limbs have been too closely confined, thus our tender minds, + fettered by the prejudices and habits of a just servitude, are unable to + expand themselves, or to attain that well-proportioned greatness which we + admire in the ancients; who, living under a popular government, wrote with + the same freedom as they acted.” This diminutive stature of mankind, if we + pursue the metaphor, was daily sinking below the old standard, and the + Roman world was indeed peopled by a race of pygmies; when the fierce + giants of the north broke in, and mended the puny breed. They restored a + manly spirit of freedom; and after the revolution of ten centuries, + freedom became the happy parent of taste and science. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch3-p1" id="linkch3-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The +Antonines. +</pre> + <p> + The obvious definition of a monarchy seems to be that of a state, in which + a single person, by whatsoever name he may be distinguished, is intrusted + with the execution of the laws, the management of the revenue, and the + command of the army. But, unless public liberty is protected by intrepid + and vigilant guardians, the authority of so formidable a magistrate will + soon degenerate into despotism. The influence of the clergy, in an age of + superstition, might be usefully employed to assert the rights of mankind; + but so intimate is the connection between the throne and the altar, that + the banner of the church has very seldom been seen on the side of the + people. * A martial nobility and stubborn commons, possessed of arms, + tenacious of property, and collected into constitutional assemblies, form + the only balance capable of preserving a free constitution against + enterprises of an aspiring prince. + </p> + <p> + Every barrier of the Roman constitution had been levelled by the vast + ambition of the dictator; every fence had been extirpated by the cruel + hand of the triumvir. After the victory of Actium, the fate of the Roman + world depended on the will of Octavianus, surnamed Cæsar, by his + uncle’s adoption, and afterwards Augustus, by the flattery of the senate. + The conqueror was at the head of forty-four veteran legions, conscious of + their own strength, and of the weakness of the constitution, habituated, + during twenty years’ civil war, to every act of blood and violence, and + passionately devoted to the house of Cæsar, from whence alone they + had received, and expected the most lavish rewards. The provinces, long + oppressed by the ministers of the republic, sighed for the government of a + single person, who would be the master, not the accomplice, of those petty + tyrants. The people of Rome, viewing, with a secret pleasure, the + humiliation of the aristocracy, demanded only bread and public shows; and + were supplied with both by the liberal hand of Augustus. The rich and + polite Italians, who had almost universally embraced the philosophy of + Epicurus, enjoyed the present blessings of ease and tranquillity, and + suffered not the pleasing dream to be interrupted by the memory of their + old tumultuous freedom. With its power, the senate had lost its dignity; + many of the most noble families were extinct. The republicans of spirit + and ability had perished in the field of battle, or in the proscription . + The door of the assembly had been designedly left open, for a mixed + multitude of more than a thousand persons, who reflected disgrace upon + their rank, instead of deriving honor from it. + </p> + <p> + The reformation of the senate was one of the first steps in which Augustus + laid aside the tyrant, and professed himself the father of his country. He + was elected censor; and, in concert with his faithful Agrippa, he examined + the list of the senators, expelled a few members, * whose vices or whose + obstinacy required a public example, persuaded near two hundred to prevent + the shame of an expulsion by a voluntary retreat, raised the qualification + of a senator to about ten thousand pounds, created a sufficient number of + patrician families, and accepted for himself the honorable title of Prince + of the Senate, which had always been bestowed, by the censors, on the + citizen the most eminent for his honors and services. But whilst he thus + restored the dignity, he destroyed the independence, of the senate. The + principles of a free constitution are irrecoverably lost, when the + legislative power is nominated by the executive. + </p> + <p> + Before an assembly thus modelled and prepared, Augustus pronounced a + studied oration, which displayed his patriotism, and disguised his + ambition. “He lamented, yet excused, his past conduct. Filial piety had + required at his hands the revenge of his father’s murder; the humanity of + his own nature had sometimes given way to the stern laws of necessity, and + to a forced connection with two unworthy colleagues: as long as Antony + lived, the republic forbade him to abandon her to a degenerate Roman, and + a barbarian queen. He was now at liberty to satisfy his duty and his + inclination. He solemnly restored the senate and people to all their + ancient rights; and wished only to mingle with the crowd of his + fellow-citizens, and to share the blessings which he had obtained for his + country.” + </p> + <p> + It would require the pen of Tacitus (if Tacitus had assisted at this + assembly) to describe the various emotions of the senate, those that were + suppressed, and those that were affected. It was dangerous to trust the + sincerity of Augustus; to seem to distrust it was still more dangerous. + The respective advantages of monarchy and a republic have often divided + speculative inquirers; the present greatness of the Roman state, the + corruption of manners, and the license of the soldiers, supplied new + arguments to the advocates of monarchy; and these general views of + government were again warped by the hopes and fears of each individual. + Amidst this confusion of sentiments, the answer of the senate was + unanimous and decisive. They refused to accept the resignation of + Augustus; they conjured him not to desert the republic, which he had + saved. After a decent resistance, the crafty tyrant submitted to the + orders of the senate; and consented to receive the government of the + provinces, and the general command of the Roman armies, under the + well-known names of Proconsul and Imperator. But he would receive them + only for ten years. Even before the expiration of that period, he hope + that the wounds of civil discord would be completely healed, and that the + republic, restored to its pristine health and vigor, would no longer + require the dangerous interposition of so extraordinary a magistrate. The + memory of this comedy, repeated several times during the life of Augustus, + was preserved to the last ages of the empire, by the peculiar pomp with + which the perpetual monarchs of Rome always solemnized the tenth years of + their reign. + </p> + <p> + Without any violation of the principles of the constitution, the general + of the Roman armies might receive and exercise an authority almost + despotic over the soldiers, the enemies, and the subjects of the republic. + With regard to the soldiers, the jealousy of freedom had, even from the + earliest ages of Rome, given way to the hopes of conquest, and a just + sense of military discipline. The dictator, or consul, had a right to + command the service of the Roman youth; and to punish an obstinate or + cowardly disobedience by the most severe and ignominious penalties, by + striking the offender out of the list of citizens, by confiscating his + property, and by selling his person into slavery. The most sacred rights + of freedom, confirmed by the Porcian and Sempronian laws, were suspended + by the military engagement. In his camp the general exercised an absolute + power of life and death; his jurisdiction was not confined by any forms of + trial, or rules of proceeding, and the execution of the sentence was + immediate and without appeal. The choice of the enemies of Rome was + regularly decided by the legislative authority. The most important + resolutions of peace and war were seriously debated in the senate, and + solemnly ratified by the people. But when the arms of the legions were + carried to a great distance from Italy, the general assumed the liberty of + directing them against whatever people, and in whatever manner, they + judged most advantageous for the public service. It was from the success, + not from the justice, of their enterprises, that they expected the honors + of a triumph. In the use of victory, especially after they were no longer + controlled by the commissioners of the senate, they exercised the most + unbounded despotism. When Pompey commanded in the East, he rewarded his + soldiers and allies, dethroned princes, divided kingdoms, founded + colonies, and distributed the treasures of Mithridates. On his return to + Rome, he obtained, by a single act of the senate and people, the universal + ratification of all his proceedings. Such was the power over the soldiers, + and over the enemies of Rome, which was either granted to, or assumed by, + the generals of the republic. They were, at the same time, the governors, + or rather monarchs, of the conquered provinces, united the civil with the + military character, administered justice as well as the finances, and + exercised both the executive and legislative power of the state. + </p> + <p> + From what has already been observed in the first chapter of this work, + some notion may be formed of the armies and provinces thus intrusted to + the ruling hand of Augustus. But as it was impossible that he could + personally command the regions of so many distant frontiers, he was + indulged by the senate, as Pompey had already been, in the permission of + devolving the execution of his great office on a sufficient number of + lieutenants. In rank and authority these officers seemed not inferior to + the ancient proconsuls; but their station was dependent and precarious. + They received and held their commissions at the will of a superior, to + whose <i>auspicious</i> influence the merit of their action was legally + attributed. They were the representatives of the emperor. The emperor + alone was the general of the republic, and his jurisdiction, civil as well + as military, extended over all the conquests of Rome. It was some + satisfaction, however, to the senate, that he always delegated his power + to the members of their body. The imperial lieutenants were of consular or + prætorian dignity; the legions were commanded by senators, and the + præfecture of Egypt was the only important trust committed to a + Roman knight. + </p> + <p> + Within six days after Augustus had been compelled to accept so very + liberal a grant, he resolved to gratify the pride of the senate by an easy + sacrifice. He represented to them, that they had enlarged his powers, even + beyond that degree which might be required by the melancholy condition of + the times. They had not permitted him to refuse the laborious command of + the armies and the frontiers; but he must insist on being allowed to + restore the more peaceful and secure provinces to the mild administration + of the civil magistrate. In the division of the provinces, Augustus + provided for his own power and for the dignity of the republic. The + proconsuls of the senate, particularly those of Asia, Greece, and Africa, + enjoyed a more honorable character than the lieutenants of the emperor, + who commanded in Gaul or Syria. The former were attended by lictors, the + latter by soldiers. * A law was passed, that wherever the emperor was + present, his extraordinary commission should supersede the ordinary + jurisdiction of the governor; a custom was introduced, that the new + conquests belonged to the imperial portion; and it was soon discovered + that the authority of the <i>Prince</i>, the favorite epithet of + Augustus, was the same in every part of the empire. + </p> + <p> + In return for this imaginary concession, Augustus obtained an important + privilege, which rendered him master of Rome and Italy. By a dangerous + exception to the ancient maxims, he was authorized to preserve his + military command, supported by a numerous body of guards, even in time of + peace, and in the heart of the capital. His command, indeed, was confined + to those citizens who were engaged in the service by the military oath; + but such was the propensity of the Romans to servitude, that the oath was + voluntarily taken by the magistrates, the senators, and the equestrian + order, till the homage of flattery was insensibly converted into an annual + and solemn protestation of fidelity. + </p> + <p> + Although Augustus considered a military force as the firmest foundation, + he wisely rejected it, as a very odious instrument of government. It was + more agreeable to his temper, as well as to his policy, to reign under the + venerable names of ancient magistracy, and artfully to collect, in his own + person, all the scattered rays of civil jurisdiction. With this view, he + permitted the senate to confer upon him, for his life, the powers of the + consular and tribunitian offices, which were, in the same manner, + continued to all his successors. The consuls had succeeded to the kings of + Rome, and represented the dignity of the state. They superintended the + ceremonies of religion, levied and commanded the legions, gave audience to + foreign ambassadors, and presided in the assemblies both of the senate and + people. The general control of the finances was intrusted to their care; + and though they seldom had leisure to administer justice in person, they + were considered as the supreme guardians of law, equity, and the public + peace. Such was their ordinary jurisdiction; but whenever the senate + empowered the first magistrate to consult the safety of the commonwealth, + he was raised by that decree above the laws, and exercised, in the defence + of liberty, a temporary despotism. The character of the tribunes was, in + every respect, different from that of the consuls. The appearance of the + former was modest and humble; but their persons were sacred and + inviolable. Their force was suited rather for opposition than for action. + They were instituted to defend the oppressed, to pardon offences, to + arraign the enemies of the people, and, when they judged it necessary, to + stop, by a single word, the whole machine of government. As long as the + republic subsisted, the dangerous influence, which either the consul or + the tribune might derive from their respective jurisdiction, was + diminished by several important restrictions. Their authority expired with + the year in which they were elected; the former office was divided between + two, the latter among ten persons; and, as both in their private and + public interest they were averse to each other, their mutual conflicts + contributed, for the most part, to strengthen rather than to destroy the + balance of the constitution. * But when the consular and tribunitian + powers were united, when they were vested for life in a single person, + when the general of the army was, at the same time, the minister of the + senate and the representative of the Roman people, it was impossible to + resist the exercise, nor was it easy to define the limits, of his imperial + prerogative. + </p> + <p> + To these accumulated honors, the policy of Augustus soon added the + splendid as well as important dignities of supreme pontiff, and of censor. + By the former he acquired the management of the religion, and by the + latter a legal inspection over the manners and fortunes, of the Roman + people. If so many distinct and independent powers did not exactly unite + with each other, the complaisance of the senate was prepared to supply + every deficiency by the most ample and extraordinary concessions. The + emperors, as the first ministers of the republic, were exempted from the + obligation and penalty of many inconvenient laws: they were authorized to + convoke the senate, to make several motions in the same day, to recommend + candidates for the honors of the state, to enlarge the bounds of the city, + to employ the revenue at their discretion, to declare peace and war, to + ratify treaties; and by a most comprehensive clause, they were empowered + to execute whatsoever they should judge advantageous to the empire, and + agreeable to the majesty of things private or public, human of divine. + </p> + <p> + When all the various powers of executive government were committed to the + <i>Imperial magistrate</i>, the ordinary magistrates of the commonwealth + languished in obscurity, without vigor, and almost without business. The + names and forms of the ancient administration were preserved by Augustus + with the most anxious care. The usual number of consuls, prætors, + and tribunes, were annually invested with their respective ensigns of + office, and continued to discharge some of their least important + functions. Those honors still attracted the vain ambition of the Romans; + and the emperors themselves, though invested for life with the powers of + the consulship, frequently aspired to the title of that annual dignity, + which they condescended to share with the most illustrious of their + fellow-citizens. In the election of these magistrates, the people, during + the reign of Augustus, were permitted to expose all the inconveniences of + a wild democracy. That artful prince, instead of discovering the least + symptom of impatience, humbly solicited their suffrages for himself or his + friends, and scrupulously practised all the duties of an ordinary + candidate. But we may venture to ascribe to his councils the first measure + of the succeeding reign, by which the elections were transferred to the + senate. The assemblies of the people were forever abolished, and the + emperors were delivered from a dangerous multitude, who, without restoring + liberty, might have disturbed, and perhaps endangered, the established + government. + </p> + <p> + By declaring themselves the protectors of the people, Marius and Cæsar + had subverted the constitution of their country. But as soon as the senate + had been humbled and disarmed, such an assembly, consisting of five or six + hundred persons, was found a much more tractable and useful instrument of + dominion. It was on the dignity of the senate that Augustus and his + successors founded their new empire; and they affected, on every occasion, + to adopt the language and principles of Patricians. In the administration + of their own powers, they frequently consulted the great national council, + and <i>seemed</i> to refer to its decision the most important concerns + of peace and war. Rome, Italy, and the internal provinces, were subject to + the immediate jurisdiction of the senate. With regard to civil objects, it + was the supreme court of appeal; with regard to criminal matters, a + tribunal, constituted for the trial of all offences that were committed by + men in any public station, or that affected the peace and majesty of the + Roman people. The exercise of the judicial power became the most frequent + and serious occupation of the senate; and the important causes that were + pleaded before them afforded a last refuge to the spirit of ancient + eloquence. As a council of state, and as a court of justice, the senate + possessed very considerable prerogatives; but in its legislative capacity, + in which it was supposed virtually to represent the people, the rights of + sovereignty were acknowledged to reside in that assembly. Every power was + derived from their authority, every law was ratified by their sanction. + Their regular meetings were held on three stated days in every month, the + Calends, the Nones, and the Ides. The debates were conducted with decent + freedom; and the emperors themselves, who gloried in the name of senators, + sat, voted, and divided with their equals. + </p> + <p> + To resume, in a few words, the system of the Imperial government; as it + was instituted by Augustus, and maintained by those princes who understood + their own interest and that of the people, it may be defined an absolute + monarchy disguised by the forms of a commonwealth. The masters of the + Roman world surrounded their throne with darkness, concealed their + irresistible strength, and humbly professed themselves the accountable + ministers of the senate, whose supreme decrees they dictated and obeyed. + </p> + <p> + The face of the court corresponded with the forms of the administration. + The emperors, if we except those tyrants whose capricious folly violated + every law of nature and decency, disdained that pomp and ceremony which + might offend their countrymen, but could add nothing to their real power. + In all the offices of life, they affected to confound themselves with + their subjects, and maintained with them an equal intercourse of visits + and entertainments. Their habit, their palace, their table, were suited + only to the rank of an opulent senator. Their family, however numerous or + splendid, was composed entirely of their domestic slaves and freedmen. + Augustus or Trajan would have blushed at employing the meanest of the + Romans in those menial offices, which, in the household and bedchamber of + a limited monarch, are so eagerly solicited by the proudest nobles of + Britain. + </p> + <p> + The deification of the emperors is the only instance in which they + departed from their accustomed prudence and modesty. The Asiatic Greeks + were the first inventors, the successors of Alexander the first objects, + of this servile and impious mode of adulation. * It was easily transferred + from the kings to the governors of Asia; and the Roman magistrates very + frequently were adored as provincial deities, with the pomp of altars and + temples, of festivals and sacrifices. It was natural that the emperors + should not refuse what the proconsuls had accepted; and the divine honors + which both the one and the other received from the provinces, attested + rather the despotism than the servitude of Rome. But the conquerors soon + imitated the vanquished nations in the arts of flattery; and the imperious + spirit of the first Cæsar too easily consented to assume, during his + lifetime, a place among the tutelar deities of Rome. The milder temper of + his successor declined so dangerous an ambition, which was never + afterwards revived, except by the madness of Caligula and Domitian. + Augustus permitted indeed some of the provincial cities to erect temples + to his honor, on condition that they should associate the worship of Rome + with that of the sovereign; he tolerated private superstition, of which he + might be the object; but he contented himself with being revered by the + senate and the people in his human character, and wisely left to his + successor the care of his public deification. A regular custom was + introduced, that on the decease of every emperor who had neither lived nor + died like a tyrant, the senate by a solemn decree should place him in the + number of the gods: and the ceremonies of his apotheosis were blended with + those of his funeral. This legal, and, as it should seem, injudicious + profanation, so abhorrent to our stricter principles, was received with a + very faint murmur, by the easy nature of Polytheism; but it was received + as an institution, not of religion, but of policy. We should disgrace the + virtues of the Antonines by comparing them with the vices of Hercules or + Jupiter. Even the characters of Cæsar or Augustus were far superior + to those of the popular deities. But it was the misfortune of the former + to live in an enlightened age, and their actions were too faithfully + recorded to admit of such a mixture of fable and mystery, as the devotion + of the vulgar requires. As soon as their divinity was established by law, + it sunk into oblivion, without contributing either to their own fame, or + to the dignity of succeeding princes. + </p> + <p> + In the consideration of the Imperial government, we have frequently + mentioned the artful founder, under his well-known title of Augustus, + which was not, however, conferred upon him till the edifice was almost + completed. The obscure name of Octavianus he derived from a mean family, + in the little town of Aricia. It was stained with the blood of the + proscription; and he was desirous, had it been possible, to erase all + memory of his former life. The illustrious surname of Cæsar he had + assumed, as the adopted son of the dictator: but he had too much good + sense, either to hope to be confounded, or to wish to be compared with + that extraordinary man. It was proposed in the senate to dignify their + minister with a new appellation; and after a serious discussion, that of + Augustus was chosen, among several others, as being the most expressive of + the character of peace and sanctity, which he uniformly affected. <i>Augustus</i> + was therefore a personal, <i>Cæsar</i> a family distinction. The + former should naturally have expired with the prince on whom it was + bestowed; and however the latter was diffused by adoption and female + alliance, Nero was the last prince who could allege any hereditary claim + to the honors of the Julian line. But, at the time of his death, the + practice of a century had inseparably connected those appellations with + the Imperial dignity, and they have been preserved by a long succession of + emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from the fall of the + republic to the present time. A distinction was, however, soon introduced. + The sacred title of Augustus was always reserved for the monarch, whilst + the name of Cæsar was more freely communicated to his relations; + and, from the reign of Hadrian, at least, was appropriated to the second + person in the state, who was considered as the presumptive heir of the + empire. * + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch3-2" id="linkch3-2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The tender respect of Augustus for a free constitution which he had + destroyed, can only be explained by an attentive consideration of the + character of that subtle tyrant. A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a + cowardly disposition, prompted him at the age of nineteen to assume the + mask of hypocrisy, which he never afterwards laid aside. With the same + hand, and probably with the same temper, he signed the proscription of + Cicero, and the pardon of Cinna. His virtues, and even his vices, were + artificial; and according to the various dictates of his interest, he was + at first the enemy, and at last the father, of the Roman world. When he + framed the artful system of the Imperial authority, his moderation was + inspired by his fears. He wished to deceive the people by an image of + civil liberty, and the armies by an image of civil government. + </p> + <p> + I. The death of Cæsar was ever before his eyes. He had lavished + wealth and honors on his adherents; but the most favored friends of his + uncle were in the number of the conspirators. The fidelity of the legions + might defend his authority against open rebellion; but their vigilance + could not secure his person from the dagger of a determined republican; + and the Romans, who revered the memory of Brutus, would applaud the + imitation of his virtue. Cæsar had provoked his fate, as much as by + the ostentation of his power, as by his power itself. The consul or the + tribune might have reigned in peace. The title of king had armed the + Romans against his life. Augustus was sensible that mankind is governed by + names; nor was he deceived in his expectation, that the senate and people + would submit to slavery, provided they were respectfully assured that they + still enjoyed their ancient freedom. A feeble senate and enervated people + cheerfully acquiesced in the pleasing illusion, as long as it was + supported by the virtue, or even by the prudence, of the successors of + Augustus. It was a motive of self-preservation, not a principle of + liberty, that animated the conspirators against Caligula, Nero, and + Domitian. They attacked the person of the tyrant, without aiming their + blow at the authority of the emperor. + </p> + <p> + There appears, indeed, <i>one</i> memorable occasion, in which the + senate, after seventy years of patience, made an ineffectual attempt to + re-assume its long-forgotten rights. When the throne was vacant by the + murder of Caligula, the consuls convoked that assembly in the Capitol, + condemned the memory of the Cæsars, gave the watchword <i>liberty</i> + to the few cohorts who faintly adhered to their standard, and during + eight-and-forty hours acted as the independent chiefs of a free + commonwealth. But while they deliberated, the prætorian guards had + resolved. The stupid Claudius, brother of Germanicus, was already in their + camp, invested with the Imperial purple, and prepared to support his + election by arms. The dream of liberty was at an end; and the senate awoke + to all the horrors of inevitable servitude. Deserted by the people, and + threatened by a military force, that feeble assembly was compelled to + ratify the choice of the prætorians, and to embrace the benefit of + an amnesty, which Claudius had the prudence to offer, and the generosity + to observe. + </p> + <p> + II. The insolence of the armies inspired Augustus with fears of a still + more alarming nature. The despair of the citizens could only attempt, what + the power of the soldiers was, at any time, able to execute. How + precarious was his own authority over men whom he had taught to violate + every social duty! He had heard their seditious clamors; he dreaded their + calmer moments of reflection. One revolution had been purchased by immense + rewards; but a second revolution might double those rewards. The troops + professed the fondest attachment to the house of Cæsar; but the + attachments of the multitude are capricious and inconstant. Augustus + summoned to his aid whatever remained in those fierce minds of Roman + prejudices; enforced the rigor of discipline by the sanction of law; and, + interposing the majesty of the senate between the emperor and the army, + boldly claimed their allegiance, as the first magistrate of the republic. + </p> + <p> + During a long period of two hundred and twenty years from the + establishment of this artful system to the death of Commodus, the dangers + inherent to a military government were, in a great measure, suspended. The + soldiers were seldom roused to that fatal sense of their own strength, and + of the weakness of the civil authority, which was, before and afterwards, + productive of such dreadful calamities. Caligula and Domitian were + assassinated in their palace by their own domestics: * the convulsions + which agitated Rome on the death of the former, were confined to the walls + of the city. But Nero involved the whole empire in his ruin. In the space + of eighteen months, four princes perished by the sword; and the Roman + world was shaken by the fury of the contending armies. Excepting only this + short, though violent eruption of military license, the two centuries from + Augustus to Commodus passed away unstained with civil blood, and + undisturbed by revolutions. The emperor was elected by the <i>authority + of the senate, and the consent of the soldiers</i>. The legions respected + their oath of fidelity; and it requires a minute inspection of the Roman + annals to discover three inconsiderable rebellions, which were all + suppressed in a few months, and without even the hazard of a battle. + </p> + <p> + In elective monarchies, the vacancy of the throne is a moment big with + danger and mischief. The Roman emperors, desirous to spare the legions + that interval of suspense, and the temptation of an irregular choice, + invested their designed successor with so large a share of present power, + as should enable him, after their decease, to assume the remainder, + without suffering the empire to perceive the change of masters. Thus + Augustus, after all his fairer prospects had been snatched from him by + untimely deaths, rested his last hopes on Tiberius, obtained for his + adopted son the censorial and tribunitian powers, and dictated a law, by + which the future prince was invested with an authority equal to his own, + over the provinces and the armies. Thus Vespasian subdued the generous + mind of his eldest son. Titus was adored by the eastern legions, which, + under his command, had recently achieved the conquest of Judæa. His + power was dreaded, and, as his virtues were clouded by the intemperance of + youth, his designs were suspected. Instead of listening to such unworthy + suspicions, the prudent monarch associated Titus to the full powers of the + Imperial dignity; and the grateful son ever approved himself the humble + and faithful minister of so indulgent a father. + </p> + <p> + The good sense of Vespasian engaged him indeed to embrace every measure + that might confirm his recent and precarious elevation. The military oath, + and the fidelity of the troops, had been consecrated, by the habits of a + hundred years, to the name and family of the Cæsars; and although + that family had been continued only by the fictitious rite of adoption, + the Romans still revered, in the person of Nero, the grandson of + Germanicus, and the lineal successor of Augustus. It was not without + reluctance and remorse, that the prætorian guards had been persuaded + to abandon the cause of the tyrant. The rapid downfall of Galba, Otho, and + Vitellus, taught the armies to consider the emperors as the creatures of + <i>their</i> will, and the instruments of <i>their</i> license. The + birth of Vespasian was mean: his grandfather had been a private soldier, + his father a petty officer of the revenue; his own merit had raised him, + in an advanced age, to the empire; but his merit was rather useful than + shining, and his virtues were disgraced by a strict and even sordid + parsimony. Such a prince consulted his true interest by the association of + a son, whose more splendid and amiable character might turn the public + attention from the obscure origin, to the future glories, of the Flavian + house. Under the mild administration of Titus, the Roman world enjoyed a + transient felicity, and his beloved memory served to protect, above + fifteen years, the vices of his brother Domitian. + </p> + <p> + Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of Domitian, + before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to stem the torrent of + public disorders, which had multiplied under the long tyranny of his + predecessor. His mild disposition was respected by the good; but the + degenerate Romans required a more vigorous character, whose justice should + strike terror into the guilty. Though he had several relations, he fixed + his choice on a stranger. He adopted Trajan, then about forty years of + age, and who commanded a powerful army in the Lower Germany; and + immediately, by a decree of the senate, declared him his colleague and + successor in the empire. It is sincerely to be lamented, that whilst we + are fatigued with the disgustful relation of Nero’s crimes and follies, we + are reduced to collect the actions of Trajan from the glimmerings of an + abridgment, or the doubtful light of a panegyric. There remains, however, + one panegyric far removed beyond the suspicion of flattery. Above two + hundred and fifty years after the death of Trajan, the senate, in pouring + out the customary acclamations on the accession of a new emperor, wished + that he might surpass the felicity of Augustus, and the virtue of Trajan. + </p> + <p> + We may readily believe, that the father of his country hesitated whether + he ought to intrust the various and doubtful character of his kinsman + Hadrian with sovereign power. In his last moments the arts of the empress + Plotina either fixed the irresolution of Trajan, or boldly supposed a + fictitious adoption; the truth of which could not be safely disputed, and + Hadrian was peaceably acknowledged as his lawful successor. Under his + reign, as has been already mentioned, the empire flourished in peace and + prosperity. He encouraged the arts, reformed the laws, asserted military + discipline, and visited all his provinces in person. His vast and active + genius was equally suited to the most enlarged views, and the minute + details of civil policy. But the ruling passions of his soul were + curiosity and vanity. As they prevailed, and as they were attracted by + different objects, Hadrian was, by turns, an excellent prince, a + ridiculous sophist, and a jealous tyrant. The general tenor of his conduct + deserved praise for its equity and moderation. Yet in the first days of + his reign, he put to death four consular senators, his personal enemies, + and men who had been judged worthy of empire; and the tediousness of a + painful illness rendered him, at last, peevish and cruel. The senate + doubted whether they should pronounce him a god or a tyrant; and the + honors decreed to his memory were granted to the prayers of the pious + Antoninus. + </p> + <p> + The caprice of Hadrian influenced his choice of a successor. After + revolving in his mind several men of distinguished merit, whom he esteemed + and hated, he adopted Ælius Verus a gay and voluptuous nobleman, + recommended by uncommon beauty to the lover of Antinous. But whilst + Hadrian was delighting himself with his own applause, and the acclamations + of the soldiers, whose consent had been secured by an immense donative, + the new Cæsar was ravished from his embraces by an untimely death. + He left only one son. Hadrian commended the boy to the gratitude of the + Antonines. He was adopted by Pius; and, on the accession of Marcus, was + invested with an equal share of sovereign power. Among the many vices of + this younger Verus, he possessed one virtue; a dutiful reverence for his + wiser colleague, to whom he willingly abandoned the ruder cares of empire. + The philosophic emperor dissembled his follies, lamented his early death, + and cast a decent veil over his memory. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Hadrian’s passion was either gratified or disappointed, he + resolved to deserve the thanks of posterity, by placing the most exalted + merit on the Roman throne. His discerning eye easily discovered a senator + about fifty years of age, blameless in all the offices of life; and a + youth of about seventeen, whose riper years opened a fair prospect of + every virtue: the elder of these was declared the son and successor of + Hadrian, on condition, however, that he himself should immediately adopt + the younger. The two Antonines (for it is of them that we are now + speaking,) governed the Roman world forty-two years, with the same + invariable spirit of wisdom and virtue. Although Pius had two sons, he + preferred the welfare of Rome to the interest of his family, gave his + daughter Faustina, in marriage to young Marcus, obtained from the senate + the tribunitian and proconsular powers, and, with a noble disdain, or + rather ignorance of jealousy, associated him to all the labors of + government. Marcus, on the other hand, revered the character of his + benefactor, loved him as a parent, obeyed him as his sovereign, and, after + he was no more, regulated his own administration by the example and maxims + of his predecessor. Their united reigns are possibly the only period of + history in which the happiness of a great people was the sole object of + government. + </p> + <p> + Titus Antoninus Pius has been justly denominated a second Numa. The same + love of religion, justice, and peace, was the distinguishing + characteristic of both princes. But the situation of the latter opened a + much larger field for the exercise of those virtues. Numa could only + prevent a few neighboring villages from plundering each other’s harvests. + Antoninus diffused order and tranquillity over the greatest part of the + earth. His reign is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few + materials for history; which is, indeed, little more than the register of + the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. In private life, he was + an amiable, as well as a good man. The native simplicity of his virtue was + a stranger to vanity or affectation. He enjoyed with moderation the + conveniences of his fortune, and the innocent pleasures of society; and + the benevolence of his soul displayed itself in a cheerful serenity of + temper. + </p> + <p> + The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was of severer and more laborious + kind. It was the well-earned harvest of many a learned conference, of many + a patient lecture, and many a midnight lucubration. At the age of twelve + years he embraced the rigid system of the Stoics, which taught him to + submit his body to his mind, his passions to his reason; to consider + virtue as the only good, vice as the only evil, all things external as + things indifferent. His meditations, composed in the tumult of the camp, + are still extant; and he even condescended to give lessons of philosophy, + in a more public manner than was perhaps consistent with the modesty of + sage, or the dignity of an emperor. But his life was the noblest + commentary on the precepts of Zeno. He was severe to himself, indulgent to + the imperfections of others, just and beneficent to all mankind. He + regretted that Avidius Cassius, who excited a rebellion in Syria, had + disappointed him, by a voluntary death, * of the pleasure of converting an + enemy into a friend; and he justified the sincerity of that sentiment, by + moderating the zeal of the senate against the adherents of the traitor. + War he detested, as the disgrace and calamity of human nature; but when + the necessity of a just defence called upon him to take up arms, he + readily exposed his person to eight winter campaigns, on the frozen banks + of the Danube, the severity of which was at last fatal to the weakness of + his constitution. His memory was revered by a grateful posterity, and + above a century after his death, many persons preserved the image of + Marcus Antoninus among those of their household gods. + </p> + <p> + If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world, during + which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he + would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of + Domitian to the accession of Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman empire + was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. + The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four successive + emperors, whose characters and authority commanded involuntary respect. + The forms of the civil administration were carefully preserved by Nerva, + Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, who delighted in the image of liberty, + and were pleased with considering themselves as the accountable ministers + of the laws. Such princes deserved the honor of restoring the republic, + had the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom. + </p> + <p> + The labors of these monarchs were overpaid by the immense reward that + inseparably waited on their success; by the honest pride of virtue, and by + the exquisite delight of beholding the general happiness of which they + were the authors. A just but melancholy reflection imbittered, however, + the noblest of human enjoyments. They must often have recollected the + instability of a happiness which depended on the character of single man. + The fatal moment was perhaps approaching, when some licentious youth, or + some jealous tyrant, would abuse, to the destruction, that absolute power, + which they had exerted for the benefit of their people. The ideal + restraints of the senate and the laws might serve to display the virtues, + but could never correct the vices, of the emperor. The military force was + a blind and irresistible instrument of oppression; and the corruption of + Roman manners would always supply flatterers eager to applaud, and + ministers prepared to serve, the fear or the avarice, the lust or the + cruelty, of their master. + </p> + <p> + These gloomy apprehensions had been already justified by the experience of + the Romans. The annals of the emperors exhibit a strong and various + picture of human nature, which we should vainly seek among the mixed and + doubtful characters of modern history. In the conduct of those monarchs we + may trace the utmost lines of vice and virtue; the most exalted + perfection, and the meanest degeneracy of our own species. The golden age + of Trajan and the Antonines had been preceded by an age of iron. It is + almost superfluous to enumerate the unworthy successors of Augustus. Their + unparalleled vices, and the splendid theatre on which they were acted, + have saved them from oblivion. The dark, unrelenting Tiberius, the furious + Caligula, the feeble Claudius, the profligate and cruel Nero, the beastly + Vitellius, and the timid, inhuman Domitian, are condemned to everlasting + infamy. During fourscore years (excepting only the short and doubtful + respite of Vespasian’s reign) Rome groaned beneath an unremitting tyranny, + which exterminated the ancient families of the republic, and was fatal to + almost every virtue and every talent that arose in that unhappy period. + </p> + <p> + Under the reign of these monsters, the slavery of the Romans was + accompanied with two peculiar circumstances, the one occasioned by their + former liberty, the other by their extensive conquests, which rendered + their condition more completely wretched than that of the victims of + tyranny in any other age or country. From these causes were derived, 1. + The exquisite sensibility of the sufferers; and, 2. The impossibility of + escaping from the hand of the oppressor. + </p> + <p> + I. When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a race of princes + whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, their table, and their + bed, with the blood of their favorites, there is a saying recorded of a + young nobleman, that he never departed from the sultan’s presence, without + satisfying himself whether his head was still on his shoulders. The + experience of every day might almost justify the scepticism of Rustan. Yet + the fatal sword, suspended above him by a single thread, seems not to have + disturbed the slumbers, or interrupted the tranquillity, of the Persian. + The monarch’s frown, he well knew, could level him with the dust; but the + stroke of lightning or apoplexy might be equally fatal; and it was the + part of a wise man to forget the inevitable calamities of human life in + the enjoyment of the fleeting hour. He was dignified with the appellation + of the king’s slave; had, perhaps, been purchased from obscure parents, in + a country which he had never known; and was trained up from his infancy in + the severe discipline of the seraglio. His name, his wealth, his honors, + were the gift of a master, who might, without injustice, resume what he + had bestowed. Rustan’s knowledge, if he possessed any, could only serve to + confirm his habits by prejudices. His language afforded not words for any + form of government, except absolute monarchy. The history of the East + informed him, that such had ever been the condition of mankind. The Koran, + and the interpreters of that divine book, inculcated to him, that the + sultan was the descendant of the prophet, and the vicegerent of heaven; + that patience was the first virtue of a Mussulman, and unlimited obedience + the great duty of a subject. + </p> + <p> + The minds of the Romans were very differently prepared for slavery. + Oppressed beneath the weight of their own corruption and of military + violence, they for a long while preserved the sentiments, or at least the + ideas, of their free-born ancestors. The education of Helvidius and + Thrasea, of Tacitus and Pliny, was the same as that of Cato and Cicero. + From Grecian philosophy, they had imbibed the justest and most liberal + notions of the dignity of human nature, and the origin of civil society. + The history of their own country had taught them to revere a free, a + virtuous, and a victorious commonwealth; to abhor the successful crimes of + Cæsar and Augustus; and inwardly to despise those tyrants whom they + adored with the most abject flattery. As magistrates and senators they + were admitted into the great council, which had once dictated laws to the + earth, whose authority was so often prostituted to the vilest purposes of + tyranny. Tiberius, and those emperors who adopted his maxims, attempted to + disguise their murders by the formalities of justice, and perhaps enjoyed + a secret pleasure in rendering the senate their accomplice as well as + their victim. By this assembly, the last of the Romans were condemned for + imaginary crimes and real virtues. Their infamous accusers assumed the + language of independent patriots, who arraigned a dangerous citizen before + the tribunal of his country; and the public service was rewarded by riches + and honors. The servile judges professed to assert the majesty of the + commonwealth, violated in the person of its first magistrate, whose + clemency they most applauded when they trembled the most at his inexorable + and impending cruelty. The tyrant beheld their baseness with just + contempt, and encountered their secret sentiments of detestation with + sincere and avowed hatred for the whole body of the senate. + </p> + <p> + II. The division of Europe into a number of independent states, connected, + however, with each other by the general resemblance of religion, language, + and manners, is productive of the most beneficial consequences to the + liberty of mankind. A modern tyrant, who should find no resistance either + in his own breast, or in his people, would soon experience a gentle + restrain from the example of his equals, the dread of present censure, the + advice of his allies, and the apprehension of his enemies. The object of + his displeasure, escaping from the narrow limits of his dominions, would + easily obtain, in a happier climate, a secure refuge, a new fortune + adequate to his merit, the freedom of complaint, and perhaps the means of + revenge. But the empire of the Romans filled the world, and when the + empire fell into the hands of a single person, the world became a safe and + dreary prison for his enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether he + was condemned to drag his gilded chain in Rome and the senate, or to were + out a life of exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or the frozen bank of + the Danube, expected his fate in silent despair. To resist was fatal, and + it was impossible to fly. On every side he was encompassed with a vast + extent of sea and land, which he could never hope to traverse without + being discovered, seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the + frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the ocean, + inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of fierce manners and + unknown language, or dependent kings, who would gladly purchase the + emperor’s protection by the sacrifice of an obnoxious fugitive. “Wherever + you are,” said Cicero to the exiled Marcellus, “remember that you are + equally within the power of the conqueror.” + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch4-p1" id="linkch4-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus. Election Of + Pertinax—His Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination + By The Prætorian Guards. +</pre> + <p> + The mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the Stoics was + unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the most amiable, and the + only defective part of his character. His excellent understanding was + often deceived by the unsuspecting goodness of his heart. Artful men, who + study the passions of princes, and conceal their own, approached his + person in the disguise of philosophic sanctity, and acquired riches and + honors by affecting to despise them. His excessive indulgence to his + brother, * his wife, and his son, exceeded the bounds of private virtue, + and became a public injury, by the example and consequences of their + vices. + </p> + <p> + Faustina, the daughter of Pius and the wife of Marcus, has been as much + celebrated for her gallantries as for her beauty. The grave simplicity of + the philosopher was ill calculated to engage her wanton levity, or to fix + that unbounded passion for variety, which often discovered personal merit + in the meanest of mankind. The Cupid of the ancients was, in general, a + very sensual deity; and the amours of an empress, as they exact on her + side the plainest advances, are seldom susceptible of much sentimental + delicacy. Marcus was the only man in the empire who seemed ignorant or + insensible of the irregularities of Faustina; which, according to the + prejudices of every age, reflected some disgrace on the injured husband. + He promoted several of her lovers to posts of honor and profit, and during + a connection of thirty years, invariably gave her proofs of the most + tender confidence, and of a respect which ended not with her life. In his + Meditations, he thanks the gods, who had bestowed on him a wife so + faithful, so gentle, and of such a wonderful simplicity of manners. The + obsequious senate, at his earnest request, declared her a goddess. She was + represented in her temples, with the attributes of Juno, Venus, and Ceres; + and it was decreed, that, on the day of their nuptials, the youth of + either sex should pay their vows before the altar of their chaste + patroness. + </p> + <p> + The monstrous vices of the son have cast a shade on the purity of the + father’s virtues. It has been objected to Marcus, that he sacrificed the + happiness of millions to a fond partiality for a worthless boy; and that + he chose a successor in his own family, rather than in the republic. + Nothing however, was neglected by the anxious father, and by the men of + virtue and learning whom he summoned to his assistance, to expand the + narrow mind of young Commodus, to correct his growing vices, and to render + him worthy of the throne for which he was designed. But the power of + instruction is seldom of much efficacy, except in those happy dispositions + where it is almost superfluous. The distasteful lesson of a grave + philosopher was, in a moment, obliterated by the whisper of a profligate + favorite; and Marcus himself blasted the fruits of this labored education, + by admitting his son, at the age of fourteen or fifteen, to a full + participation of the Imperial power. He lived but four years afterwards: + but he lived long enough to repent a rash measure, which raised the + impetuous youth above the restraint of reason and authority. + </p> + <p> + Most of the crimes which disturb the internal peace of society, are + produced by the restraints which the necessary but unequal laws of + property have imposed on the appetites of mankind, by confining to a few + the possession of those objects that are coveted by many. Of all our + passions and appetites, the love of power is of the most imperious and + unsociable nature, since the pride of one man requires the submission of + the multitude. In the tumult of civil discord, the laws of society lose + their force, and their place is seldom supplied by those of humanity. The + ardor of contention, the pride of victory, the despair of success, the + memory of past injuries, and the fear of future dangers, all contribute to + inflame the mind, and to silence the voice of pity. From such motives + almost every page of history has been stained with civil blood; but these + motives will not account for the unprovoked cruelties of Commodus, who had + nothing to wish and every thing to enjoy. The beloved son of Marcus + succeeded to his father, amidst the acclamations of the senate and armies; + and when he ascended the throne, the happy youth saw round him neither + competitor to remove, nor enemies to punish. In this calm, elevated + station, it was surely natural that he should prefer the love of mankind + to their detestation, the mild glories of his five predecessors to the + ignominious fate of Nero and Domitian. + </p> + <p> + Yet Commodus was not, as he has been represented, a tiger born with an + insatiate thirst of human blood, and capable, from his infancy, of the + most inhuman actions. Nature had formed him of a weak rather than a wicked + disposition. His simplicity and timidity rendered him the slave of his + attendants, who gradually corrupted his mind. His cruelty, which at first + obeyed the dictates of others, degenerated into habit, and at length + became the ruling passion of his soul. + </p> + <p> + Upon the death of his father, Commodus found himself embarrassed with the + command of a great army, and the conduct of a difficult war against the + Quadi and Marcomanni. The servile and profligate youths whom Marcus had + banished, soon regained their station and influence about the new emperor. + They exaggerated the hardships and dangers of a campaign in the wild + countries beyond the Danube; and they assured the indolent prince that the + terror of his name, and the arms of his lieutenants, would be sufficient + to complete the conquest of the dismayed barbarians, or to impose such + conditions as were more advantageous than any conquest. By a dexterous + application to his sensual appetites, they compared the tranquillity, the + splendor, the refined pleasures of Rome, with the tumult of a Pannonian + camp, which afforded neither leisure nor materials for luxury. Commodus + listened to the pleasing advice; but whilst he hesitated between his own + inclination and the awe which he still retained for his father’s + counsellors, the summer insensibly elapsed, and his triumphal entry into + the capital was deferred till the autumn. His graceful person, popular + address, and imagined virtues, attracted the public favor; the honorable + peace which he had recently granted to the barbarians, diffused a + universal joy; his impatience to revisit Rome was fondly ascribed to the + love of his country; and his dissolute course of amusements was faintly + condemned in a prince of nineteen years of age. + </p> + <p> + During the three first years of his reign, the forms, and even the spirit, + of the old administration, were maintained by those faithful counsellors, + to whom Marcus had recommended his son, and for whose wisdom and integrity + Commodus still entertained a reluctant esteem. The young prince and his + profligate favorites revelled in all the license of sovereign power; but + his hands were yet unstained with blood; and he had even displayed a + generosity of sentiment, which might perhaps have ripened into solid + virtue. A fatal incident decided his fluctuating character. + </p> + <p> + One evening, as the emperor was returning to the palace, through a dark + and narrow portico in the amphitheatre, an assassin, who waited his + passage, rushed upon him with a drawn sword, loudly exclaiming, “<i>The + senate sends you this.</i>” The menace prevented the deed; the assassin + was seized by the guards, and immediately revealed the authors of the + conspiracy. It had been formed, not in the state, but within the walls of + the palace. Lucilla, the emperor’s sister, and widow of Lucius Verus, + impatient of the second rank, and jealous of the reigning empress, had + armed the murderer against her brother’s life. She had not ventured to + communicate the black design to her second husband, Claudius Pompeiarus, a + senator of distinguished merit and unshaken loyalty; but among the crowd + of her lovers (for she imitated the manners of Faustina) she found men of + desperate fortunes and wild ambition, who were prepared to serve her more + violent, as well as her tender passions. The conspirators experienced the + rigor of justice, and the abandoned princess was punished, first with + exile, and afterwards with death. + </p> + <p> + But the words of the assassin sunk deep into the mind of Commodus, and + left an indelible impression of fear and hatred against the whole body of + the senate. * Those whom he had dreaded as importunate ministers, he now + suspected as secret enemies. The Delators, a race of men discouraged, and + almost extinguished, under the former reigns, again became formidable, as + soon as they discovered that the emperor was desirous of finding + disaffection and treason in the senate. That assembly, whom Marcus had + ever considered as the great council of the nation, was composed of the + most distinguished of the Romans; and distinction of every kind soon + became criminal. The possession of wealth stimulated the diligence of the + informers; rigid virtue implied a tacit censure of the irregularities of + Commodus; important services implied a dangerous superiority of merit; and + the friendship of the father always insured the aversion of the son. + Suspicion was equivalent to proof; trial to condemnation. The execution of + a considerable senator was attended with the death of all who might lament + or revenge his fate; and when Commodus had once tasted human blood, he + became incapable of pity or remorse. + </p> + <p> + Of these innocent victims of tyranny, none died more lamented than the two + brothers of the Quintilian family, Maximus and Condianus; whose fraternal + love has saved their names from oblivion, and endeared their memory to + posterity. Their studies and their occupations, their pursuits and their + pleasures, were still the same. In the enjoyment of a great estate, they + never admitted the idea of a separate interest: some fragments are now + extant of a treatise which they composed in common; and in every action of + life it was observed that their two bodies were animated by one soul. The + Antonines, who valued their virtues, and delighted in their union, raised + them, in the same year, to the consulship; and Marcus afterwards intrusted + to their joint care the civil administration of Greece, and a great + military command, in which they obtained a signal victory over the + Germans. The kind cruelty of Commodus united them in death. + </p> + <p> + The tyrant’s rage, after having shed the noblest blood of the senate, at + length recoiled on the principal instrument of his cruelty. Whilst + Commodus was immersed in blood and luxury, he devolved the detail of the + public business on Perennis, a servile and ambitious minister, who had + obtained his post by the murder of his predecessor, but who possessed a + considerable share of vigor and ability. By acts of extortion, and the + forfeited estates of the nobles sacrificed to his avarice, he had + accumulated an immense treasure. The Prætorian guards were under his + immediate command; and his son, who already discovered a military genius, + was at the head of the Illyrian legions. Perennis aspired to the empire; + or what, in the eyes of Commodus, amounted to the same crime, he was + capable of aspiring to it, had he not been prevented, surprised, and put + to death. The fall of a minister is a very trifling incident in the + general history of the empire; but it was hastened by an extraordinary + circumstance, which proved how much the nerves of discipline were already + relaxed. The legions of Britain, discontented with the administration of + Perennis, formed a deputation of fifteen hundred select men, with + instructions to march to Rome, and lay their complaints before the + emperor. These military petitioners, by their own determined behaviour, by + inflaming the divisions of the guards, by exaggerating the strength of the + British army, and by alarming the fears of Commodus, exacted and obtained + the minister’s death, as the only redress of their grievances. This + presumption of a distant army, and their discovery of the weakness of + government, was a sure presage of the most dreadful convulsions. + </p> + <p> + The negligence of the public administration was betrayed, soon afterwards, + by a new disorder, which arose from the smallest beginnings. A spirit of + desertion began to prevail among the troops: and the deserters, instead of + seeking their safety in flight or concealment, infested the highways. + Maternus, a private soldier, of a daring boldness above his station, + collected these bands of robbers into a little army, set open the prisons, + invited the slaves to assert their freedom, and plundered with impunity + the rich and defenceless cities of Gaul and Spain. The governors of the + provinces, who had long been the spectators, and perhaps the partners, of + his depredations, were, at length, roused from their supine indolence by + the threatening commands of the emperor. Maternus found that he was + encompassed, and foresaw that he must be overpowered. A great effort of + despair was his last resource. He ordered his followers to disperse, to + pass the Alps in small parties and various disguises, and to assemble at + Rome, during the licentious tumult of the festival of Cybele. To murder + Commodus, and to ascend the vacant throne, was the ambition of no vulgar + robber. His measures were so ably concerted that his concealed troops + already filled the streets of Rome. The envy of an accomplice discovered + and ruined this singular enterprise, in a moment when it was ripe for + execution. + </p> + <p> + Suspicious princes often promote the last of mankind, from a vain + persuasion, that those who have no dependence, except on their favor, will + have no attachment, except to the person of their benefactor. Cleander, + the successor of Perennis, was a Phrygian by birth; of a nation over whose + stubborn, but servile temper, blows only could prevail. He had been sent + from his native country to Rome, in the capacity of a slave. As a slave he + entered the Imperial palace, rendered himself useful to his master’s + passions, and rapidly ascended to the most exalted station which a subject + could enjoy. His influence over the mind of Commodus was much greater than + that of his predecessor; for Cleander was devoid of any ability or virtue + which could inspire the emperor with envy or distrust. Avarice was the + reigning passion of his soul, and the great principle of his + administration. The rank of Consul, of Patrician, of Senator, was exposed + to public sale; and it would have been considered as disaffection, if any + one had refused to purchase these empty and disgraceful honors with the + greatest part of his fortune. In the lucrative provincial employments, the + minister shared with the governor the spoils of the people. The execution + of the laws was penal and arbitrary. A wealthy criminal might obtain, not + only the reversal of the sentence by which he was justly condemned, but + might likewise inflict whatever punishment he pleased on the accuser, the + witnesses, and the judge. + </p> + <p> + By these means, Cleander, in the space of three years, had accumulated + more wealth than had ever yet been possessed by any freedman. Commodus was + perfectly satisfied with the magnificent presents which the artful + courtier laid at his feet in the most seasonable moments. To divert the + public envy, Cleander, under the emperor’s name, erected baths, porticos, + and places of exercise, for the use of the people. He flattered himself + that the Romans, dazzled and amused by this apparent liberality, would be + less affected by the bloody scenes which were daily exhibited; that they + would forget the death of Byrrhus, a senator to whose superior merit the + late emperor had granted one of his daughters; and that they would forgive + the execution of Arrius Antoninus, the last representative of the name and + virtues of the Antonines. The former, with more integrity than prudence, + had attempted to disclose, to his brother-in-law, the true character of + Cleander. An equitable sentence pronounced by the latter, when proconsul + of Asia, against a worthless creature of the favorite, proved fatal to + him. After the fall of Perennis, the terrors of Commodus had, for a short + time, assumed the appearance of a return to virtue. He repealed the most + odious of his acts; loaded his memory with the public execration, and + ascribed to the pernicious counsels of that wicked minister all the errors + of his inexperienced youth. But his repentance lasted only thirty days; + and, under Cleander’s tyranny, the administration of Perennis was often + regretted. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch4-p2" id="linkch4-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure of the calamities + of Rome. The first could be only imputed to the just indignation of the + gods; but a monopoly of corn, supported by the riches and power of the + minister, was considered as the immediate cause of the second. The popular + discontent, after it had long circulated in whispers, broke out in the + assembled circus. The people quitted their favorite amusements for the + more delicious pleasure of revenge, rushed in crowds towards a palace in + the suburbs, one of the emperor’s retirements, and demanded, with angry + clamors, the head of the public enemy. Cleander, who commanded the Prætorian + guards, ordered a body of cavalry to sally forth, and disperse the + seditious multitude. The multitude fled with precipitation towards the + city; several were slain, and many more were trampled to death; but when + the cavalry entered the streets, their pursuit was checked by a shower of + stones and darts from the roofs and windows of the houses. The foot + guards, who had been long jealous of the prerogatives and insolence of the + Prætorian cavalry, embraced the party of the people. The tumult + became a regular engagement, and threatened a general massacre. The Prætorians, + at length, gave way, oppressed with numbers; and the tide of popular fury + returned with redoubled violence against the gates of the palace, where + Commodus lay, dissolved in luxury, and alone unconscious of the civil war. + It was death to approach his person with the unwelcome news. He would have + perished in this supine security, had not two women, his eldest sister + Fadilla, and Marcia, the most favored of his concubines, ventured to break + into his presence. Bathed in tears, and with dishevelled hair, they threw + themselves at his feet; and with all the pressing eloquence of fear, + discovered to the affrighted emperor the crimes of the minister, the rage + of the people, and the impending ruin, which, in a few minutes, would + burst over his palace and person. Commodus started from his dream of + pleasure, and commanded that the head of Cleander should be thrown out to + the people. The desired spectacle instantly appeased the tumult; and the + son of Marcus might even yet have regained the affection and confidence of + his subjects. + </p> + <p> + But every sentiment of virtue and humanity was extinct in the mind of + Commodus. Whilst he thus abandoned the reins of empire to these unworthy + favorites, he valued nothing in sovereign power, except the unbounded + license of indulging his sensual appetites. His hours were spent in a + seraglio of three hundred beautiful women, and as many boys, of every + rank, and of every province; and, wherever the arts of seduction proved + ineffectual, the brutal lover had recourse to violence. The ancient + historians have expatiated on these abandoned scenes of prostitution, + which scorned every restraint of nature or modesty; but it would not be + easy to translate their too faithful descriptions into the decency of + modern language. The intervals of lust were filled up with the basest + amusements. The influence of a polite age, and the labor of an attentive + education, had never been able to infuse into his rude and brutish mind + the least tincture of learning; and he was the first of the Roman emperors + totally devoid of taste for the pleasures of the understanding. Nero + himself excelled, or affected to excel, in the elegant arts of music and + poetry: nor should we despise his pursuits, had he not converted the + pleasing relaxation of a leisure hour into the serious business and + ambition of his life. But Commodus, from his earliest infancy, discovered + an aversion to whatever was rational or liberal, and a fond attachment to + the amusements of the populace; the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, + the combats of gladiators, and the hunting of wild beasts. The masters in + every branch of learning, whom Marcus provided for his son, were heard + with inattention and disgust; whilst the Moors and Parthians, who taught + him to dart the javelin and to shoot with the bow, found a disciple who + delighted in his application, and soon equalled the most skilful of his + instructors in the steadiness of the eye and the dexterity of the hand. + </p> + <p> + The servile crowd, whose fortune depended on their master’s vices, + applauded these ignoble pursuits. The perfidious voice of flattery + reminded him, that by exploits of the same nature, by the defeat of the + Nemæan lion, and the slaughter of the wild boar of Erymanthus, the + Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among the gods, and an immortal + memory among men. They only forgot to observe, that, in the first ages of + society, when the fiercer animals often dispute with man the possession of + an unsettled country, a successful war against those savages is one of the + most innocent and beneficial labors of heroism. In the civilized state of + the Roman empire, the wild beasts had long since retired from the face of + man, and the neighborhood of populous cities. To surprise them in their + solitary haunts, and to transport them to Rome, that they might be slain + in pomp by the hand of an emperor, was an enterprise equally ridiculous + for the prince and oppressive for the people. Ignorant of these + distinctions, Commodus eagerly embraced the glorious resemblance, and + styled himself (as we still read on his medals ) the <i>Roman</i> <i>Hercules</i>. + * The club and the lion’s hide were placed by the side of the throne, + amongst the ensigns of sovereignty; and statues were erected, in which + Commodus was represented in the character, and with the attributes, of the + god, whose valor and dexterity he endeavored to emulate in the daily + course of his ferocious amusements. + </p> + <p> + Elated with these praises, which gradually extinguished the innate sense + of shame, Commodus resolved to exhibit before the eyes of the Roman people + those exercises, which till then he had decently confined within the walls + of his palace, and to the presence of a few favorites. On the appointed + day, the various motives of flattery, fear, and curiosity, attracted to + the amphitheatre an innumerable multitude of spectators; and some degree + of applause was deservedly bestowed on the uncommon skill of the Imperial + performer. Whether he aimed at the head or heart of the animal, the wound + was alike certain and mortal. With arrows whose point was shaped into the + form of crescent, Commodus often intercepted the rapid career, and cut + asunder the long, bony neck of the ostrich. A panther was let loose; and + the archer waited till he had leaped upon a trembling malefactor. In the + same instant the shaft flew, the beast dropped dead, and the man remained + unhurt. The dens of the amphitheatre disgorged at once a hundred lions: a + hundred darts from the unerring hand of Commodus laid them dead as they + run raging round the <i>Arena</i>. Neither the huge bulk of the + elephant, nor the scaly hide of the rhinoceros, could defend them from his + stroke. Æthiopia and India yielded their most extraordinary + productions; and several animals were slain in the amphitheatre, which had + been seen only in the representations of art, or perhaps of fancy. In all + these exhibitions, the securest precautions were used to protect the + person of the Roman Hercules from the desperate spring of any savage, who + might possibly disregard the dignity of the emperor and the sanctity of + the god.* + </p> + <p> + But the meanest of the populace were affected with shame and indignation + when they beheld their sovereign enter the lists as a gladiator, and glory + in a profession which the laws and manners of the Romans had branded with + the justest note of infamy. He chose the habit and arms of the <i>Secutor</i>, + whose combat with the <i>Retiarius</i> formed one of the most lively + scenes in the bloody sports of the amphitheatre. The <i>Secutor</i> was + armed with a helmet, sword, and buckler; his naked antagonist had only a + large net and a trident; with the one he endeavored to entangle, with the + other to despatch his enemy. If he missed the first throw, he was obliged + to fly from the pursuit of the <i>Secutor</i>, till he had prepared his + net for a second cast. The emperor fought in this character seven hundred + and thirty-five several times. These glorious achievements were carefully + recorded in the public acts of the empire; and that he might omit no + circumstance of infamy, he received from the common fund of gladiators a + stipend so exorbitant that it became a new and most ignominious tax upon + the Roman people. It may be easily supposed, that in these engagements the + master of the world was always successful; in the amphitheatre, his + victories were not often sanguinary; but when he exercised his skill in + the school of gladiators, or his own palace, his wretched antagonists were + frequently honored with a mortal wound from the hand of Commodus, and + obliged to seal their flattery with their blood. He now disdained the + appellation of Hercules. The name of Paulus, a celebrated Secutor, was the + only one which delighted his ear. It was inscribed on his colossal + statues, and repeated in the redoubled acclamations of the mournful and + applauding senate. Claudius Pompeianus, the virtuous husband of Lucilla, + was the only senator who asserted the honor of his rank. As a father, he + permitted his sons to consult their safety by attending the amphitheatre. + As a Roman, he declared, that his own life was in the emperor’s hands, but + that he would never behold the son of Marcus prostituting his person and + dignity. Notwithstanding his manly resolution Pompeianus escaped the + resentment of the tyrant, and, with his honor, had the good fortune to + preserve his life. + </p> + <p> + Commodus had now attained the summit of vice and infamy. Amidst the + acclamations of a flattering court, he was unable to disguise from + himself, that he had deserved the contempt and hatred of every man of + sense and virtue in his empire. His ferocious spirit was irritated by the + consciousness of that hatred, by the envy of every kind of merit, by the + just apprehension of danger, and by the habit of slaughter, which he + contracted in his daily amusements. History has preserved a long list of + consular senators sacrificed to his wanton suspicion, which sought out, + with peculiar anxiety, those unfortunate persons connected, however + remotely, with the family of the Antonines, without sparing even the + ministers of his crimes or pleasures. His cruelty proved at last fatal to + himself. He had shed with impunity the noblest blood of Rome: he perished + as soon as he was dreaded by his own domestics. Marcia, his favorite + concubine, Eclectus, his chamberlain, and Lætus, his Prætorian + præfect, alarmed by the fate of their companions and predecessors, + resolved to prevent the destruction which every hour hung over their + heads, either from the mad caprice of the tyrant, * or the sudden + indignation of the people. Marcia seized the occasion of presenting a + draught of wine to her lover, after he had fatigued himself with hunting + some wild beasts. Commodus retired to sleep; but whilst he was laboring + with the effects of poison and drunkenness, a robust youth, by profession + a wrestler, entered his chamber, and strangled him without resistance. The + body was secretly conveyed out of the palace, before the least suspicion + was entertained in the city, or even in the court, of the emperor’s death. + Such was the fate of the son of Marcus, and so easy was it to destroy a + hated tyrant, who, by the artificial powers of government, had oppressed, + during thirteen years, so many millions of subjects, each of whom was + equal to their master in personal strength and personal abilities. + </p> + <p> + The measures of the conspirators were conducted with the deliberate + coolness and celerity which the greatness of the occasion required. They + resolved instantly to fill the vacant throne with an emperor whose + character would justify and maintain the action that had been committed. + They fixed on Pertinax, præfect of the city, an ancient senator of + consular rank, whose conspicuous merit had broke through the obscurity of + his birth, and raised him to the first honors of the state. He had + successively governed most of the provinces of the empire; and in all his + great employments, military as well as civil, he had uniformly + distinguished himself by the firmness, the prudence, and the integrity of + his conduct. He now remained almost alone of the friends and ministers of + Marcus; and when, at a late hour of the night, he was awakened with the + news, that the chamberlain and the præfect were at his door, he + received them with intrepid resignation, and desired they would execute + their master’s orders. Instead of death, they offered him the throne of + the Roman world. During some moments he distrusted their intentions and + assurances. Convinced at length of the death of Commodus, he accepted the + purple with a sincere reluctance, the natural effect of his knowledge both + of the duties and of the dangers of the supreme rank. + </p> + <p> + Lætus conducted without delay his new emperor to the camp of the Prætorians, + diffusing at the same time through the city a seasonable report that + Commodus died suddenly of an apoplexy; and that the virtuous Pertinax had + already succeeded to the throne. The guards were rather surprised than + pleased with the suspicious death of a prince, whose indulgence and + liberality they alone had experienced; but the emergency of the occasion, + the authority of their præfect, the reputation of Pertinax, and the + clamors of the people, obliged them to stifle their secret discontents, to + accept the donative promised by the new emperor, to swear allegiance to + him, and with joyful acclamations and laurels in their hands to conduct + him to the senate house, that the military consent might be ratified by + the civil authority. + </p> + <p> + This important night was now far spent; with the dawn of day, and the + commencement of the new year, the senators expected a summons to attend an + ignominious ceremony. * In spite of all remonstrances, even of those of + his creatures who yet preserved any regard for prudence or decency, + Commodus had resolved to pass the night in the gladiators’ school, and + from thence to take possession of the consulship, in the habit and with + the attendance of that infamous crew. On a sudden, before the break of + day, the senate was called together in the temple of Concord, to meet the + guards, and to ratify the election of a new emperor. For a few minutes + they sat in silent suspense, doubtful of their unexpected deliverance, and + suspicious of the cruel artifices of Commodus: but when at length they + were assured that the tyrant was no more, they resigned themselves to all + the transports of joy and indignation. Pertinax, who modestly represented + the meanness of his extraction, and pointed out several noble senators + more deserving than himself of the empire, was constrained by their + dutiful violence to ascend the throne, and received all the titles of + Imperial power, confirmed by the most sincere vows of fidelity. The memory + of Commodus was branded with eternal infamy. The names of tyrant, of + gladiator, of public enemy resounded in every corner of the house. They + decreed in tumultuous votes, that his honors should be reversed, his + titles erased from the public monuments, his statues thrown down, his body + dragged with a hook into the stripping room of the gladiators, to satiate + the public fury; and they expressed some indignation against those + officious servants who had already presumed to screen his remains from the + justice of the senate. But Pertinax could not refuse those last rites to + the memory of Marcus, and the tears of his first protector Claudius + Pompeianus, who lamented the cruel fate of his brother-in-law, and + lamented still more that he had deserved it. + </p> + <p> + These effusions of impotent rage against a dead emperor, whom the senate + had flattered when alive with the most abject servility, betrayed a just + but ungenerous spirit of revenge. The legality of these decrees was, + however, supported by the principles of the Imperial constitution. To + censure, to depose, or to punish with death, the first magistrate of the + republic, who had abused his delegated trust, was the ancient and + undoubted prerogative of the Roman senate; but the feeble assembly was + obliged to content itself with inflicting on a fallen tyrant that public + justice, from which, during his life and reign, he had been shielded by + the strong arm of military despotism. * + </p> + <p> + Pertinax found a nobler way of condemning his predecessor’s memory; by the + contrast of his own virtues with the vices of Commodus. On the day of his + accession, he resigned over to his wife and son his whole private fortune; + that they might have no pretence to solicit favors at the expense of the + state. He refused to flatter the vanity of the former with the title of + Augusta; or to corrupt the inexperienced youth of the latter by the rank + of Cæsar. Accurately distinguishing between the duties of a parent + and those of a sovereign, he educated his son with a severe simplicity, + which, while it gave him no assured prospect of the throne, might in time + have rendered him worthy of it. In public, the behavior of Pertinax was + grave and affable. He lived with the virtuous part of the senate, (and, in + a private station, he had been acquainted with the true character of each + individual,) without either pride or jealousy; considered them as friends + and companions, with whom he had shared the danger of the tyranny, and + with whom he wished to enjoy the security of the present time. He very + frequently invited them to familiar entertainments, the frugality of which + was ridiculed by those who remembered and regretted the luxurious + prodigality of Commodus. + </p> + <p> + To heal, as far as it was possible, the wounds inflicted by the hand of + tyranny, was the pleasing, but melancholy, task of Pertinax. The innocent + victims, who yet survived, were recalled from exile, released from prison, + and restored to the full possession of their honors and fortunes. The + unburied bodies of murdered senators (for the cruelty of Commodus + endeavored to extend itself beyond death) were deposited in the sepulchres + of their ancestors; their memory was justified and every consolation was + bestowed on their ruined and afflicted families. Among these consolations, + one of the most grateful was the punishment of the Delators; the common + enemies of their master, of virtue, and of their country. Yet even in the + inquisition of these legal assassins, Pertinax proceeded with a steady + temper, which gave every thing to justice, and nothing to popular + prejudice and resentment. + </p> + <p> + The finances of the state demanded the most vigilant care of the emperor. + Though every measure of injustice and extortion had been adopted, which + could collect the property of the subject into the coffers of the prince, + the rapaciousness of Commodus had been so very inadequate to his + extravagance, that, upon his death, no more than eight thousand pounds + were found in the exhausted treasury, to defray the current expenses of + government, and to discharge the pressing demand of a liberal donative, + which the new emperor had been obliged to promise to the Prætorian + guards. Yet under these distressed circumstances, Pertinax had the + generous firmness to remit all the oppressive taxes invented by Commodus, + and to cancel all the unjust claims of the treasury; declaring, in a + decree of the senate, “that he was better satisfied to administer a poor + republic with innocence, than to acquire riches by the ways of tyranny and + dishonor.” Economy and industry he considered as the pure and genuine + sources of wealth; and from them he soon derived a copious supply for the + public necessities. The expense of the household was immediately reduced + to one half. All the instruments of luxury Pertinax exposed to public + auction, gold and silver plate, chariots of a singular construction, a + superfluous wardrobe of silk and embroidery, and a great number of + beautiful slaves of both sexes; excepting only, with attentive humanity, + those who were born in a state of freedom, and had been ravished from the + arms of their weeping parents. At the same time that he obliged the + worthless favorites of the tyrant to resign a part of their ill-gotten + wealth, he satisfied the just creditors of the state, and unexpectedly + discharged the long arrears of honest services. He removed the oppressive + restrictions which had been laid upon commerce, and granted all the + uncultivated lands in Italy and the provinces to those who would improve + them; with an exemption from tribute during the term of ten years. + </p> + <p> + Such a uniform conduct had already secured to Pertinax the noblest reward + of a sovereign, the love and esteem of his people. Those who remembered + the virtues of Marcus were happy to contemplate in their new emperor the + features of that bright original; and flattered themselves, that they + should long enjoy the benign influence of his administration. A hasty zeal + to reform the corrupted state, accompanied with less prudence than might + have been expected from the years and experience of Pertinax, proved fatal + to himself and to his country. His honest indiscretion united against him + the servile crowd, who found their private benefit in the public + disorders, and who preferred the favor of a tyrant to the inexorable + equality of the laws. + </p> + <p> + Amidst the general joy, the sullen and angry countenance of the Prætorian + guards betrayed their inward dissatisfaction. They had reluctantly + submitted to Pertinax; they dreaded the strictness of the ancient + discipline, which he was preparing to restore; and they regretted the + license of the former reign. Their discontents were secretly fomented by Lætus, + their præfect, who found, when it was too late, that his new emperor + would reward a servant, but would not be ruled by a favorite. On the third + day of his reign, the soldiers seized on a noble senator, with a design to + carry him to the camp, and to invest him with the Imperial purple. Instead + of being dazzled by the dangerous honor, the affrighted victim escaped + from their violence, and took refuge at the feet of Pertinax. A short time + afterwards, Sosius Falco, one of the consuls of the year, a rash youth, + but of an ancient and opulent family, listened to the voice of ambition; + and a conspiracy was formed during a short absence of Pertinax, which was + crushed by his sudden return to Rome, and his resolute behavior. Falco was + on the point of being justly condemned to death as a public enemy had he + not been saved by the earnest and sincere entreaties of the injured + emperor, who conjured the senate, that the purity of his reign might not + be stained by the blood even of a guilty senator. + </p> + <p> + These disappointments served only to irritate the rage of the Prætorian + guards. On the twenty-eighth of March, eighty-six days only after the + death of Commodus, a general sedition broke out in the camp, which the + officers wanted either power or inclination to suppress. Two or three + hundred of the most desperate soldiers marched at noonday, with arms in + their hands and fury in their looks, towards the Imperial palace. The + gates were thrown open by their companions upon guard, and by the + domestics of the old court, who had already formed a secret conspiracy + against the life of the too virtuous emperor. On the news of their + approach, Pertinax, disdaining either flight or concealment, advanced to + meet his assassins; and recalled to their minds his own innocence, and the + sanctity of their recent oath. For a few moments they stood in silent + suspense, ashamed of their atrocious design, and awed by the venerable + aspect and majestic firmness of their sovereign, till at length, the + despair of pardon reviving their fury, a barbarian of the country of + Tongress levelled the first blow against Pertinax, who was instantly + despatched with a multitude of wounds. His head, separated from his body, + and placed on a lance, was carried in triumph to the Prætorian camp, + in the sight of a mournful and indignant people, who lamented the unworthy + fate of that excellent prince, and the transient blessings of a reign, the + memory of which could serve only to aggravate their approaching + misfortunes. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch5-p1" id="linkch5-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The +Prætorian Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius +Niger In Syria, And Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare +Against The Murderers Of Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of +Severus Over His Three Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New +Maxims Of Government. +</pre> + <p> + The power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive monarchy, + than in a small community. It has been calculated by the ablest + politicians, that no state, without being soon exhausted, can maintain + above the hundredth part of its members in arms and idleness. But although + this relative proportion may be uniform, the influence of the army over + the rest of the society will vary according to the degree of its positive + strength. The advantages of military science and discipline cannot be + exerted, unless a proper number of soldiers are united into one body, and + actuated by one soul. With a handful of men, such a union would be + ineffectual; with an unwieldy host, it would be impracticable; and the + powers of the machine would be alike destroyed by the extreme minuteness + or the excessive weight of its springs. To illustrate this observation, we + need only reflect, that there is no superiority of natural strength, + artificial weapons, or acquired skill, which could enable one man to keep + in constant subjection one hundred of his fellow-creatures: the tyrant of + a single town, or a small district, would soon discover that a hundred + armed followers were a weak defence against ten thousand peasants or + citizens; but a hundred thousand well-disciplined soldiers will command, + with despotic sway, ten millions of subjects; and a body of ten or fifteen + thousand guards will strike terror into the most numerous populace that + ever crowded the streets of an immense capital. + </p> + <p> + The Prætorian bands, whose licentious fury was the first symptom and + cause of the decline of the Roman empire, scarcely amounted to the + last-mentioned number.* They derived their institution from Augustus. That + crafty tyrant, sensible that laws might color, but that arms alone could + maintain, his usurped dominion, had gradually formed this powerful body of + guards, in constant readiness to protect his person, to awe the senate, + and either to prevent or to crush the first motions of rebellion. He + distinguished these favored troops by a double pay and superior + privileges; but, as their formidable aspect would at once have alarmed and + irritated the Roman people, three cohorts only were stationed in the + capital, whilst the remainder was dispersed in the adjacent towns of + Italy. But after fifty years of peace and servitude, Tiberius ventured on + a decisive measure, which forever rivetted the fetters of his country. + Under the fair pretences of relieving Italy from the heavy burden of + military quarters, and of introducing a stricter discipline among the + guards, he assembled them at Rome, in a permanent camp, which was + fortified with skilful care, and placed on a commanding situation. + </p> + <p> + Such formidable servants are always necessary, but often fatal to the + throne of despotism. By thus introducing the Prætorian guards as it + were into the palace and the senate, the emperors taught them to perceive + their own strength, and the weakness of the civil government; to view the + vices of their masters with familiar contempt, and to lay aside that + reverential awe, which distance only, and mystery, can preserve towards an + imaginary power. In the luxurious idleness of an opulent city, their pride + was nourished by the sense of their irresistible weight; nor was it + possible to conceal from them, that the person of the sovereign, the + authority of the senate, the public treasure, and the seat of empire, were + all in their hands. To divert the Prætorian bands from these + dangerous reflections, the firmest and best established princes were + obliged to mix blandishments with commands, rewards with punishments, to + flatter their pride, indulge their pleasures, connive at their + irregularities, and to purchase their precarious faith by a liberal + donative; which, since the elevation of Claudius, was enacted as a legal + claim, on the accession of every new emperor. + </p> + <p> + The advocate of the guards endeavored to justify by arguments the power + which they asserted by arms; and to maintain that, according to the purest + principles of the constitution, <i>their</i> consent was essentially + necessary in the appointment of an emperor. The election of consuls, of + generals, and of magistrates, however it had been recently usurped by the + senate, was the ancient and undoubted right of the Roman people. But where + was the Roman people to be found? Not surely amongst the mixed multitude + of slaves and strangers that filled the streets of Rome; a servile + populace, as devoid of spirit as destitute of property. The defenders of + the state, selected from the flower of the Italian youth, and trained in + the exercise of arms and virtue, were the genuine representatives of the + people, and the best entitled to elect the military chief of the republic. + These assertions, however defective in reason, became unanswerable when + the fierce Prætorians increased their weight, by throwing, like the + barbarian conqueror of Rome, their swords into the scale. + </p> + <p> + The Prætorians had violated the sanctity of the throne by the + atrocious murder of Pertinax; they dishonored the majesty of it by their + subsequent conduct. The camp was without a leader, for even the præfect + Lætus, who had excited the tempest, prudently declined the public + indignation. Amidst the wild disorder, Sulpicianus, the emperor’s + father-in-law, and governor of the city, who had been sent to the camp on + the first alarm of mutiny, was endeavoring to calm the fury of the + multitude, when he was silenced by the clamorous return of the murderers, + bearing on a lance the head of Pertinax. Though history has accustomed us + to observe every principle and every passion yielding to the imperious + dictates of ambition, it is scarcely credible that, in these moments of + horror, Sulpicianus should have aspired to ascend a throne polluted with + the recent blood of so near a relation and so excellent a prince. He had + already begun to use the only effectual argument, and to treat for the + Imperial dignity; but the more prudent of the Prætorians, + apprehensive that, in this private contract, they should not obtain a just + price for so valuable a commodity, ran out upon the ramparts; and, with a + loud voice, proclaimed that the Roman world was to be disposed of to the + best bidder by public auction. + </p> + <p> + This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military license, + diffused a universal grief, shame, and indignation throughout the city. It + reached at length the ears of Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator, who, + regardless of the public calamities, was indulging himself in the luxury + of the table. His wife and his daughter, his freedmen and his parasites, + easily convinced him that he deserved the throne, and earnestly conjured + him to embrace so fortunate an opportunity. The vain old man hastened to + the Prætorian camp, where Sulpicianus was still in treaty with the + guards, and began to bid against him from the foot of the rampart. The + unworthy negotiation was transacted by faithful emissaries, who passed + alternately from one candidate to the other, and acquainted each of them + with the offers of his rival. Sulpicianus had already promised a donative + of five thousand drachms (above one hundred and sixty pounds) to each + soldier; when Julian, eager for the prize, rose at once to the sum of six + thousand two hundred and fifty drachms, or upwards of two hundred pounds + sterling. The gates of the camp were instantly thrown open to the + purchaser; he was declared emperor, and received an oath of allegiance + from the soldiers, who retained humanity enough to stipulate that he + should pardon and forget the competition of Sulpicianus. * + </p> + <p> + It was now incumbent on the Prætorians to fulfil the conditions of + the sale. They placed their new sovereign, whom they served and despised, + in the centre of their ranks, surrounded him on every side with their + shields, and conducted him in close order of battle through the deserted + streets of the city. The senate was commanded to assemble; and those who + had been the distinguished friends of Pertinax, or the personal enemies of + Julian, found it necessary to affect a more than common share of + satisfaction at this happy revolution. After Julian had filled the senate + house with armed soldiers, he expatiated on the freedom of his election, + his own eminent virtues, and his full assurance of the affections of the + senate. The obsequious assembly congratulated their own and the public + felicity; engaged their allegiance, and conferred on him all the several + branches of the Imperial power. From the senate Julian was conducted, by + the same military procession, to take possession of the palace. The first + objects that struck his eyes, were the abandoned trunk of Pertinax, and + the frugal entertainment prepared for his supper. The one he viewed with + indifference, the other with contempt. A magnificent feast was prepared by + his order, and he amused himself, till a very late hour, with dice, and + the performances of Pylades, a celebrated dancer. Yet it was observed, + that after the crowd of flatterers dispersed, and left him to darkness, + solitude, and terrible reflection, he passed a sleepless night; revolving + most probably in his mind his own rash folly, the fate of his virtuous + predecessor, and the doubtful and dangerous tenure of an empire which had + not been acquired by merit, but purchased by money. + </p> + <p> + He had reason to tremble. On the throne of the world he found himself + without a friend, and even without an adherent. The guards themselves were + ashamed of the prince whom their avarice had persuaded them to accept; nor + was there a citizen who did not consider his elevation with horror, as the + last insult on the Roman name. The nobility, whose conspicuous station, + and ample possessions, exacted the strictest caution, dissembled their + sentiments, and met the affected civility of the emperor with smiles of + complacency and professions of duty. But the people, secure in their + numbers and obscurity, gave a free vent to their passions. The streets and + public places of Rome resounded with clamors and imprecations. The enraged + multitude affronted the person of Julian, rejected his liberality, and, + conscious of the impotence of their own resentment, they called aloud on + the legions of the frontiers to assert the violated majesty of the Roman + empire. + </p> + <p> + The public discontent was soon diffused from the centre to the frontiers + of the empire. The armies of Britain, of Syria, and of Illyricum, lamented + the death of Pertinax, in whose company, or under whose command, they had + so often fought and conquered. They received with surprise, with + indignation, and perhaps with envy, the extraordinary intelligence, that + the Prætorians had disposed of the empire by public auction; and + they sternly refused to ratify the ignominious bargain. Their immediate + and unanimous revolt was fatal to Julian, but it was fatal at the same + time to the public peace, as the generals of the respective armies, + Clodius Albinus, Pescennius Niger, and Septimius Severus, were still more + anxious to succeed than to revenge the murdered Pertinax. Their forces + were exactly balanced. Each of them was at the head of three legions, with + a numerous train of auxiliaries; and however different in their + characters, they were all soldiers of experience and capacity. + </p> + <p> + Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain, surpassed both his competitors in + the nobility of his extraction, which he derived from some of the most + illustrious names of the old republic. But the branch from which he + claimed his descent was sunk into mean circumstances, and transplanted + into a remote province. It is difficult to form a just idea of his true + character. Under the philosophic cloak of austerity, he stands accused of + concealing most of the vices which degrade human nature. But his accusers + are those venal writers who adored the fortune of Severus, and trampled on + the ashes of an unsuccessful rival. Virtue, or the appearances of virtue, + recommended Albinus to the confidence and good opinion of Marcus; and his + preserving with the son the same interest which he had acquired with the + father, is a proof at least that he was possessed of a very flexible + disposition. The favor of a tyrant does not always suppose a want of merit + in the object of it; he may, without intending it, reward a man of worth + and ability, or he may find such a man useful to his own service. It does + not appear that Albinus served the son of Marcus, either as the minister + of his cruelties, or even as the associate of his pleasures. He was + employed in a distant honorable command, when he received a confidential + letter from the emperor, acquainting him of the treasonable designs of + some discontented generals, and authorizing him to declare himself the + guardian and successor of the throne, by assuming the title and ensigns of + Cæsar. The governor of Britain wisely declined the dangerous honor, + which would have marked him for the jealousy, or involved him in the + approaching ruin, of Commodus. He courted power by nobler, or, at least, + by more specious arts. On a premature report of the death of the emperor, + he assembled his troops; and, in an eloquent discourse, deplored the + inevitable mischiefs of despotism, described the happiness and glory which + their ancestors had enjoyed under the consular government, and declared + his firm resolution to reinstate the senate and people in their legal + authority. This popular harangue was answered by the loud acclamations of + the British legions, and received at Rome with a secret murmur of + applause. Safe in the possession of his little world, and in the command + of an army less distinguished indeed for discipline than for numbers and + valor, Albinus braved the menaces of Commodus, maintained towards Pertinax + a stately ambiguous reserve, and instantly declared against the usurpation + of Julian. The convulsions of the capital added new weight to his + sentiments, or rather to his professions of patriotism. A regard to + decency induced him to decline the lofty titles of Augustus and Emperor; + and he imitated perhaps the example of Galba, who, on a similar occasion, + had styled himself the Lieutenant of the senate and people. + </p> + <p> + Personal merit alone had raised Pescennius Niger, from an obscure birth + and station, to the government of Syria; a lucrative and important + command, which in times of civil confusion gave him a near prospect of the + throne. Yet his parts seem to have been better suited to the second than + to the first rank; he was an unequal rival, though he might have approved + himself an excellent lieutenant, to Severus, who afterwards displayed the + greatness of his mind by adopting several useful institutions from a + vanquished enemy. In his government Niger acquired the esteem of the + soldiers and the love of the provincials. His rigid discipline fortified + the valor and confirmed the obedience of the former, whilst the voluptuous + Syrians were less delighted with the mild firmness of his administration, + than with the affability of his manners, and the apparent pleasure with + which he attended their frequent and pompous festivals. As soon as the + intelligence of the atrocious murder of Pertinax had reached Antioch, the + wishes of Asia invited Niger to assume the Imperial purple and revenge his + death. The legions of the eastern frontier embraced his cause; the opulent + but unarmed provinces, from the frontiers of Æthiopia to the + Hadriatic, cheerfully submitted to his power; and the kings beyond the + Tigris and the Euphrates congratulated his election, and offered him their + homage and services. The mind of Niger was not capable of receiving this + sudden tide of fortune: he flattered himself that his accession would be + undisturbed by competition and unstained by civil blood; and whilst he + enjoyed the vain pomp of triumph, he neglected to secure the means of + victory. Instead of entering into an effectual negotiation with the + powerful armies of the West, whose resolution might decide, or at least + must balance, the mighty contest; instead of advancing without delay + towards Rome and Italy, where his presence was impatiently expected, Niger + trifled away in the luxury of Antioch those irretrievable moments which + were diligently improved by the decisive activity of Severus. + </p> + <p> + The country of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which occupied the space between the + Danube and the Hadriatic, was one of the last and most difficult conquests + of the Romans. In the defence of national freedom, two hundred thousand of + these barbarians had once appeared in the field, alarmed the declining age + of Augustus, and exercised the vigilant prudence of Tiberius at the head + of the collected force of the empire. The Pannonians yielded at length to + the arms and institutions of Rome. Their recent subjection, however, the + neighborhood, and even the mixture, of the unconquered tribes, and perhaps + the climate, adapted, as it has been observed, to the production of great + bodies and slow minds, all contributed to preserve some remains of their + original ferocity, and under the tame and uniform countenance of Roman + provincials, the hardy features of the natives were still to be discerned. + Their warlike youth afforded an inexhaustible supply of recruits to the + legions stationed on the banks of the Danube, and which, from a perpetual + warfare against the Germans and Sarmazans, were deservedly esteemed the + best troops in the service. + </p> + <p> + The Pannonian army was at this time commanded by Septimius Severus, a + native of Africa, who, in the gradual ascent of private honors, had + concealed his daring ambition, which was never diverted from its steady + course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the + feelings of humanity. On the first news of the murder of Pertinax, he + assembled his troops, painted in the most lively colors the crime, the + insolence, and the weakness of the Prætorian guards, and animated + the legions to arms and to revenge. He concluded (and the peroration was + thought extremely eloquent) with promising every soldier about four + hundred pounds; an honorable donative, double in value to the infamous + bribe with which Julian had purchased the empire. The acclamations of the + army immediately saluted Severus with the names of Augustus, Pertinax, and + Emperor; and he thus attained the lofty station to which he was invited, + by conscious merit and a long train of dreams and omens, the fruitful + offsprings either of his superstition or policy. + </p> + <p> + The new candidate for empire saw and improved the peculiar advantage of + his situation. His province extended to the Julian Alps, which gave an + easy access into Italy; and he remembered the saying of Augustus, that a + Pannonian army might in ten days appear in sight of Rome. By a celerity + proportioned to the greatness of the occasion, he might reasonably hope to + revenge Pertinax, punish Julian, and receive the homage of the senate and + people, as their lawful emperor, before his competitors, separated from + Italy by an immense tract of sea and land, were apprised of his success, + or even of his election. During the whole expedition, he scarcely allowed + himself any moments for sleep or food; marching on foot, and in complete + armor, at the head of his columns, he insinuated himself into the + confidence and affection of his troops, pressed their diligence, revived + their spirits, animated their hopes, and was well satisfied to share the + hardships of the meanest soldier, whilst he kept in view the infinite + superiority of his reward. + </p> + <p> + The wretched Julian had expected, and thought himself prepared, to dispute + the empire with the governor of Syria; but in the invincible and rapid + approach of the Pannonian legions, he saw his inevitable ruin. The hasty + arrival of every messenger increased his just apprehensions. He was + successively informed, that Severus had passed the Alps; that the Italian + cities, unwilling or unable to oppose his progress, had received him with + the warmest professions of joy and duty; that the important place of + Ravenna had surrendered without resistance, and that the Hadriatic fleet + was in the hands of the conqueror. The enemy was now within two hundred + and fifty miles of Rome; and every moment diminished the narrow span of + life and empire allotted to Julian. + </p> + <p> + He attempted, however, to prevent, or at least to protract, his ruin. He + implored the venal faith of the Prætorians, filled the city with + unavailing preparations for war, drew lines round the suburbs, and even + strengthened the fortifications of the palace; as if those last + intrenchments could be defended, without hope of relief, against a + victorious invader. Fear and shame prevented the guards from deserting his + standard; but they trembled at the name of the Pannonian legions, + commanded by an experienced general, and accustomed to vanquish the + barbarians on the frozen Danube. They quitted, with a sigh, the pleasures + of the baths and theatres, to put on arms, whose use they had almost + forgotten, and beneath the weight of which they were oppressed. The + unpractised elephants, whose uncouth appearance, it was hoped, would + strike terror into the army of the north, threw their unskilful riders; + and the awkward evolutions of the marines, drawn from the fleet of + Misenum, were an object of ridicule to the populace; whilst the senate + enjoyed, with secret pleasure, the distress and weakness of the usurper. + </p> + <p> + Every motion of Julian betrayed his trembling perplexity. He insisted that + Severus should be declared a public enemy by the senate. He entreated that + the Pannonian general might be associated to the empire. He sent public + ambassadors of consular rank to negotiate with his rival; he despatched + private assassins to take away his life. He designed that the Vestal + virgins, and all the colleges of priests, in their sacerdotal habits, and + bearing before them the sacred pledges of the Roman religion, should + advance in solemn procession to meet the Pannonian legions; and, at the + same time, he vainly tried to interrogate, or to appease, the fates, by + magic ceremonies and unlawful sacrifices. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch5-p2" id="linkch5-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Severus, who dreaded neither his arms nor his enchantments, guarded + himself from the only danger of secret conspiracy, by the faithful + attendance of six hundred chosen men, who never quitted his person or + their cuirasses, either by night or by day, during the whole march. + Advancing with a steady and rapid course, he passed, without difficulty, + the defiles of the Apennine, received into his party the troops and + ambassadors sent to retard his progress, and made a short halt at + Interamnia, about seventy miles from Rome. His victory was already secure, + but the despair of the Prætorians might have rendered it bloody; and + Severus had the laudable ambition of ascending the throne without drawing + the sword. His emissaries, dispersed in the capital, assured the guards, + that provided they would abandon their worthless prince, and the + perpetrators of the murder of Pertinax, to the justice of the conqueror, + he would no longer consider that melancholy event as the act of the whole + body. The faithless Prætorians, whose resistance was supported only + by sullen obstinacy, gladly complied with the easy conditions, seized the + greatest part of the assassins, and signified to the senate, that they no + longer defended the cause of Julian. That assembly, convoked by the + consul, unanimously acknowledged Severus as lawful emperor, decreed divine + honors to Pertinax, and pronounced a sentence of deposition and death + against his unfortunate successor. Julian was conducted into a private + apartment of the baths of the palace, and beheaded as a common criminal, + after having purchased, with an immense treasure, an anxious and + precarious reign of only sixty-six days. The almost incredible expedition + of Severus, who, in so short a space of time, conducted a numerous army + from the banks of the Danube to those of the Tyber, proves at once the + plenty of provisions produced by agriculture and commerce, the goodness of + the roads, the discipline of the legions, and the indolent, subdued temper + of the provinces. + </p> + <p> + The first cares of Severus were bestowed on two measures, the one dictated + by policy, the other by decency; the revenge, and the honors, due to the + memory of Pertinax. Before the new emperor entered Rome, he issued his + commands to the Prætorian guards, directing them to wait his arrival + on a large plain near the city, without arms, but in the habits of + ceremony, in which they were accustomed to attend their sovereign. He was + obeyed by those haughty troops, whose contrition was the effect of their + just terrors. A chosen part of the Illyrian army encompassed them with + levelled spears. Incapable of flight or resistance, they expected their + fate in silent consternation. Severus mounted the tribunal, sternly + reproached them with perfidy and cowardice, dismissed them with ignominy + from the trust which they had betrayed, despoiled them of their splendid + ornaments, and banished them, on pain of death, to the distance of a + hundred miles from the capital. During the transaction, another detachment + had been sent to seize their arms, occupy their camp, and prevent the + hasty consequences of their despair. + </p> + <p> + The funeral and consecration of Pertinax was next solemnized with every + circumstance of sad magnificence. The senate, with a melancholy pleasure, + performed the last rites to that excellent prince, whom they had loved, + and still regretted. The concern of his successor was probably less + sincere; he esteemed the virtues of Pertinax, but those virtues would + forever have confined his ambition to a private station. Severus + pronounced his funeral oration with studied eloquence, inward + satisfaction, and well-acted sorrow; and by this pious regard to his + memory, convinced the credulous multitude, that he alone was worthy to + supply his place. Sensible, however, that arms, not ceremonies, must + assert his claim to the empire, he left Rome at the end of thirty days, + and without suffering himself to be elated by this easy victory, prepared + to encounter his more formidable rivals. + </p> + <p> + The uncommon abilities and fortune of Severus have induced an elegant + historian to compare him with the first and greatest of the Cæsars. + The parallel is, at least, imperfect. Where shall we find, in the + character of Severus, the commanding superiority of soul, the generous + clemency, and the various genius, which could reconcile and unite the love + of pleasure, the thirst of knowledge, and the fire of ambition? In one + instance only, they may be compared, with some degree of propriety, in the + celerity of their motions, and their civil victories. In less than four + years, Severus subdued the riches of the East, and the valor of the West. + He vanquished two competitors of reputation and ability, and defeated + numerous armies, provided with weapons and discipline equal to his own. In + that age, the art of fortification, and the principles of tactics, were + well understood by all the Roman generals; and the constant superiority of + Severus was that of an artist, who uses the same instruments with more + skill and industry than his rivals. I shall not, however, enter into a + minute narrative of these military operations; but as the two civil wars + against Niger and against Albinus were almost the same in their conduct, + event, and consequences, I shall collect into one point of view the most + striking circumstances, tending to develop the character of the conqueror + and the state of the empire. + </p> + <p> + Falsehood and insincerity, unsuitable as they seem to the dignity of + public transactions, offend us with a less degrading idea of meanness, + than when they are found in the intercourse of private life. In the + latter, they discover a want of courage; in the other, only a defect of + power: and, as it is impossible for the most able statesmen to subdue + millions of followers and enemies by their own personal strength, the + world, under the name of policy, seems to have granted them a very liberal + indulgence of craft and dissimulation. Yet the arts of Severus cannot be + justified by the most ample privileges of state reason. He promised only + to betray, he flattered only to ruin; and however he might occasionally + bind himself by oaths and treaties, his conscience, obsequious to his + interest, always released him from the inconvenient obligation. + </p> + <p> + If his two competitors, reconciled by their common danger, had advanced + upon him without delay, perhaps Severus would have sunk under their united + effort. Had they even attacked him, at the same time, with separate views + and separate armies, the contest might have been long and doubtful. But + they fell, singly and successively, an easy prey to the arts as well as + arms of their subtle enemy, lulled into security by the moderation of his + professions, and overwhelmed by the rapidity of his action. He first + marched against Niger, whose reputation and power he the most dreaded: but + he declined any hostile declarations, suppressed the name of his + antagonist, and only signified to the senate and people his intention of + regulating the eastern provinces. In private, he spoke of Niger, his old + friend and intended successor, with the most affectionate regard, and + highly applauded his generous design of revenging the murder of Pertinax. + To punish the vile usurper of the throne, was the duty of every Roman + general. To persevere in arms, and to resist a lawful emperor, + acknowledged by the senate, would alone render him criminal. The sons of + Niger had fallen into his hands among the children of the provincial + governors, detained at Rome as pledges for the loyalty of their parents. + As long as the power of Niger inspired terror, or even respect, they were + educated with the most tender care, with the children of Severus himself; + but they were soon involved in their father’s ruin, and removed first by + exile, and afterwards by death, from the eye of public compassion. + </p> + <p> + Whilst Severus was engaged in his eastern war, he had reason to apprehend + that the governor of Britain might pass the sea and the Alps, occupy the + vacant seat of empire, and oppose his return with the authority of the + senate and the forces of the West. The ambiguous conduct of Albinus, in + not assuming the Imperial title, left room for negotiation. Forgetting, at + once, his professions of patriotism, and the jealousy of sovereign power, + he accepted the precarious rank of Cæsar, as a reward for his fatal + neutrality. Till the first contest was decided, Severus treated the man, + whom he had doomed to destruction, with every mark of esteem and regard. + Even in the letter, in which he announced his victory over Niger, he + styles Albinus the brother of his soul and empire, sends him the + affectionate salutations of his wife Julia, and his young family, and + entreats him to preserve the armies and the republic faithful to their + common interest. The messengers charged with this letter were instructed + to accost the Cæsar with respect, to desire a private audience, and + to plunge their daggers into his heart. The conspiracy was discovered, and + the too credulous Albinus, at length, passed over to the continent, and + prepared for an unequal contest with his rival, who rushed upon him at the + head of a veteran and victorious army. + </p> + <p> + The military labors of Severus seem inadequate to the importance of his + conquests. Two engagements, * the one near the Hellespont, the other in + the narrow defiles of Cilicia, decided the fate of his Syrian competitor; + and the troops of Europe asserted their usual ascendant over the + effeminate natives of Asia. The battle of Lyons, where one hundred and + fifty thousand Romans were engaged, was equally fatal to Albinus. The + valor of the British army maintained, indeed, a sharp and doubtful + contest, with the hardy discipline of the Illyrian legions. The fame and + person of Severus appeared, during a few moments, irrecoverably lost, till + that warlike prince rallied his fainting troops, and led them on to a + decisive victory. The war was finished by that memorable day. + </p> + <p> + The civil wars of modern Europe have been distinguished, not only by the + fierce animosity, but likewise by the obstinate perseverance, of the + contending factions. They have generally been justified by some principle, + or, at least, colored by some pretext, of religion, freedom, or loyalty. + The leaders were nobles of independent property and hereditary influence. + The troops fought like men interested in the decision of the quarrel; and + as military spirit and party zeal were strongly diffused throughout the + whole community, a vanquished chief was immediately supplied with new + adherents, eager to shed their blood in the same cause. But the Romans, + after the fall of the republic, combated only for the choice of masters. + Under the standard of a popular candidate for empire, a few enlisted from + affection, some from fear, many from interest, none from principle. The + legions, uninflamed by party zeal, were allured into civil war by liberal + donatives, and still more liberal promises. A defeat, by disabling the + chief from the performance of his engagements, dissolved the mercenary + allegiance of his followers, and left them to consult their own safety by + a timely desertion of an unsuccessful cause. It was of little moment to + the provinces, under whose name they were oppressed or governed; they were + driven by the impulsion of the present power, and as soon as that power + yielded to a superior force, they hastened to implore the clemency of the + conqueror, who, as he had an immense debt to discharge, was obliged to + sacrifice the most guilty countries to the avarice of his soldiers. In the + vast extent of the Roman empire, there were few fortified cities capable + of protecting a routed army; nor was there any person, or family, or order + of men, whose natural interest, unsupported by the powers of government, + was capable of restoring the cause of a sinking party. + </p> + <p> + Yet, in the contest between Niger and Severus, a single city deserves an + honorable exception. As Byzantium was one of the greatest passages from + Europe into Asia, it had been provided with a strong garrison, and a fleet + of five hundred vessels was anchored in the harbor. The impetuosity of + Severus disappointed this prudent scheme of defence; he left to his + generals the siege of Byzantium, forced the less guarded passage of the + Hellespont, and, impatient of a meaner enemy, pressed forward to encounter + his rival. Byzantium, attacked by a numerous and increasing army, and + afterwards by the whole naval power of the empire, sustained a siege of + three years, and remained faithful to the name and memory of Niger. The + citizens and soldiers (we know not from what cause) were animated with + equal fury; several of the principal officers of Niger, who despaired of, + or who disdained, a pardon, had thrown themselves into this last refuge: + the fortifications were esteemed impregnable, and, in the defence of the + place, a celebrated engineer displayed all the mechanic powers known to + the ancients. Byzantium, at length, surrendered to famine. The magistrates + and soldiers were put to the sword, the walls demolished, the privileges + suppressed, and the destined capital of the East subsisted only as an open + village, subject to the insulting jurisdiction of Perinthus. The historian + Dion, who had admired the flourishing, and lamented the desolate, state of + Byzantium, accused the revenge of Severus, for depriving the Roman people + of the strongest bulwark against the barbarians of Pontus and Asia The + truth of this observation was but too well justified in the succeeding + age, when the Gothic fleets covered the Euxine, and passed through the + undefined Bosphorus into the centre of the Mediterranean. + </p> + <p> + Both Niger and Albinus were discovered and put to death in their flight + from the field of battle. Their fate excited neither surprise nor + compassion. They had staked their lives against the chance of empire, and + suffered what they would have inflicted; nor did Severus claim the + arrogant superiority of suffering his rivals to live in a private station. + But his unforgiving temper, stimulated by avarice, indulged a spirit of + revenge, where there was no room for apprehension. The most considerable + of the provincials, who, without any dislike to the fortunate candidate, + had obeyed the governor under whose authority they were accidentally + placed, were punished by death, exile, and especially by the confiscation + of their estates. Many cities of the East were stripped of their ancient + honors, and obliged to pay, into the treasury of Severus, four times the + amount of the sums contributed by them for the service of Niger. + </p> + <p> + Till the final decision of the war, the cruelty of Severus was, in some + measure, restrained by the uncertainty of the event, and his pretended + reverence for the senate. The head of Albinus, accompanied with a menacing + letter, announced to the Romans that he was resolved to spare none of the + adherents of his unfortunate competitors. He was irritated by the just + suspicion that he had never possessed the affections of the senate, and he + concealed his old malevolence under the recent discovery of some + treasonable correspondences. Thirty-five senators, however, accused of + having favored the party of Albinus, he freely pardoned, and, by his + subsequent behavior, endeavored to convince them, that he had forgotten, + as well as forgiven, their supposed offences. But, at the same time, he + condemned forty-one other senators, whose names history has recorded; + their wives, children, and clients attended them in death, * and the + noblest provincials of Spain and Gaul were involved in the same ruin. Such + rigid justice—for so he termed it—was, in the opinion of + Severus, the only conduct capable of insuring peace to the people or + stability to the prince; and he condescended slightly to lament, that to + be mild, it was necessary that he should first be cruel. + </p> + <p> + The true interest of an absolute monarch generally coincides with that of + his people. Their numbers, their wealth, their order, and their security, + are the best and only foundations of his real greatness; and were he + totally devoid of virtue, prudence might supply its place, and would + dictate the same rule of conduct. Severus considered the Roman empire as + his property, and had no sooner secured the possession, than he bestowed + his care on the cultivation and improvement of so valuable an acquisition. + Salutary laws, executed with inflexible firmness, soon corrected most of + the abuses with which, since the death of Marcus, every part of the + government had been infected. In the administration of justice, the + judgments of the emperor were characterized by attention, discernment, and + impartiality; and whenever he deviated from the strict line of equity, it + was generally in favor of the poor and oppressed; not so much indeed from + any sense of humanity, as from the natural propensity of a despot to + humble the pride of greatness, and to sink all his subjects to the same + common level of absolute dependence. His expensive taste for building, + magnificent shows, and above all a constant and liberal distribution of + corn and provisions, were the surest means of captivating the affection of + the Roman people. The misfortunes of civil discord were obliterated. The + calm of peace and prosperity was once more experienced in the provinces; + and many cities, restored by the munificence of Severus, assumed the title + of his colonies, and attested by public monuments their gratitude and + felicity. The fame of the Roman arms was revived by that warlike and + successful emperor, and he boasted, with a just pride, that, having + received the empire oppressed with foreign and domestic wars, he left it + established in profound, universal, and honorable peace. + </p> + <p> + Although the wounds of civil war appeared completely healed, its mortal + poison still lurked in the vitals of the constitution. Severus possessed a + considerable share of vigor and ability; but the daring soul of the first + Cæsar, or the deep policy of Augustus, were scarcely equal to the + task of curbing the insolence of the victorious legions. By gratitude, by + misguided policy, by seeming necessity, Severus was reduced to relax the + nerves of discipline. The vanity of his soldiers was flattered with the + honor of wearing gold rings; their ease was indulged in the permission of + living with their wives in the idleness of quarters. He increased their + pay beyond the example of former times, and taught them to expect, and + soon to claim, extraordinary donatives on every public occasion of danger + or festivity. Elated by success, enervated by luxury, and raised above the + level of subjects by their dangerous privileges, they soon became + incapable of military fatigue, oppressive to the country, and impatient of + a just subordination. Their officers asserted the superiority of rank by a + more profuse and elegant luxury. There is still extant a letter of + Severus, lamenting the licentious stage of the army, * and exhorting one + of his generals to begin the necessary reformation from the tribunes + themselves; since, as he justly observes, the officer who has forfeited + the esteem, will never command the obedience, of his soldiers. Had the + emperor pursued the train of reflection, he would have discovered, that + the primary cause of this general corruption might be ascribed, not indeed + to the example, but to the pernicious indulgence, however, of the + commander-in-chief. + </p> + <p> + The Prætorians, who murdered their emperor and sold the empire, had + received the just punishment of their treason; but the necessary, though + dangerous, institution of guards was soon restored on a new model by + Severus, and increased to four times the ancient number. Formerly these + troops had been recruited in Italy; and as the adjacent provinces + gradually imbibed the softer manners of Rome, the levies were extended to + Macedonia, Noricum, and Spain. In the room of these elegant troops, better + adapted to the pomp of courts than to the uses of war, it was established + by Severus, that from all the legions of the frontiers, the soldiers most + distinguished for strength, valor, and fidelity, should be occasionally + draughted; and promoted, as an honor and reward, into the more eligible + service of the guards. By this new institution, the Italian youth were + diverted from the exercise of arms, and the capital was terrified by the + strange aspect and manners of a multitude of barbarians. But Severus + flattered himself, that the legions would consider these chosen Prætorians + as the representatives of the whole military order; and that the present + aid of fifty thousand men, superior in arms and appointments to any force + that could be brought into the field against them, would forever crush the + hopes of rebellion, and secure the empire to himself and his posterity. + </p> + <p> + The command of these favored and formidable troops soon became the first + office of the empire. As the government degenerated into military + despotism, the Prætorian Præfect, who in his origin had been a + simple captain of the guards, * was placed not only at the head of the + army, but of the finances, and even of the law. In every department of + administration, he represented the person, and exercised the authority, of + the emperor. The first præfect who enjoyed and abused this immense + power was Plautianus, the favorite minister of Severus. His reign lasted + above ten years, till the marriage of his daughter with the eldest son of + the emperor, which seemed to assure his fortune, proved the occasion of + his ruin. The animosities of the palace, by irritating the ambition and + alarming the fears of Plautianus, threatened to produce a revolution, and + obliged the emperor, who still loved him, to consent with reluctance to + his death. After the fall of Plautianus, an eminent lawyer, the celebrated + Papinian, was appointed to execute the motley office of Prætorian Præfect. + </p> + <p> + Till the reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good sense of the + emperors had been distinguished by their zeal or affected reverence for + the senate, and by a tender regard to the nice frame of civil policy + instituted by Augustus. But the youth of Severus had been trained in the + implicit obedience of camps, and his riper years spent in the despotism of + military command. His haughty and inflexible spirit could not discover, + or would not acknowledge, the advantage of preserving an intermediate + power, however imaginary, between the emperor and the army. He disdained + to profess himself the servant of an assembly that detested his person and + trembled at his frown; he issued his commands, where his requests would + have proved as effectual; assumed the conduct and style of a sovereign and + a conqueror, and exercised, without disguise, the whole legislative, as + well as the executive power. + </p> + <p> + The victory over the senate was easy and inglorious. Every eye and every + passion were directed to the supreme magistrate, who possessed the arms + and treasure of the state; whilst the senate, neither elected by the + people, nor guarded by military force, nor animated by public spirit, + rested its declining authority on the frail and crumbling basis of ancient + opinion. The fine theory of a republic insensibly vanished, and made way + for the more natural and substantial feelings of monarchy. As the freedom + and honors of Rome were successively communicated to the provinces, in + which the old government had been either unknown, or was remembered with + abhorrence, the tradition of republican maxims was gradually obliterated. + The Greek historians of the age of the Antonines observe, with a malicious + pleasure, that although the sovereign of Rome, in compliance with an + obsolete prejudice, abstained from the name of king, he possessed the full + measure of regal power. In the reign of Severus, the senate was filled + with polished and eloquent slaves from the eastern provinces, who + justified personal flattery by speculative principles of servitude. These + new advocates of prerogative were heard with pleasure by the court, and + with patience by the people, when they inculcated the duty of passive + obedience, and descanted on the inevitable mischiefs of freedom. The + lawyers and historians concurred in teaching, that the Imperial authority + was held, not by the delegated commission, but by the irrevocable + resignation of the senate; that the emperor was freed from the restraint + of civil laws, could command by his arbitrary will the lives and fortunes + of his subjects, and might dispose of the empire as of his private + patrimony. The most eminent of the civil lawyers, and particularly + Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, flourished under the house of Severus; and + the Roman jurisprudence, having closely united itself with the system of + monarchy, was supposed to have attained its full majority and perfection. + </p> + <p> + The contemporaries of Severus in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of + his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. + Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, + justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman + empire. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch6-p1" id="linkch6-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation +Of Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander +Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The +Roman Finances. +</pre> + <p> + The ascent to greatness, however steep and dangerous, may entertain an + active spirit with the consciousness and exercise of its own powers: but + the possession of a throne could never yet afford a lasting satisfaction + to an ambitious mind. This melancholy truth was felt and acknowledged by + Severus. Fortune and merit had, from an humble station, elevated him to + the first place among mankind. “He had been all things,” as he said + himself, “and all was of little value.” Distracted with the care, not of + acquiring, but of preserving an empire, oppressed with age and + infirmities, careless of fame, and satiated with power, all his prospects + of life were closed. The desire of perpetuating the greatness of his + family was the only remaining wish of his ambition and paternal + tenderness. + </p> + <p> + Like most of the Africans, Severus was passionately addicted to the vain + studies of magic and divination, deeply versed in the interpretation of + dreams and omens, and perfectly acquainted with the science of judicial + astrology; which, in almost every age except the present, has maintained + its dominion over the mind of man. He had lost his first wife, while he + was governor of the Lionnese Gaul. In the choice of a second, he sought + only to connect himself with some favorite of fortune; and as soon as he + had discovered that the young lady of Emesa in Syria had a royal nativity, + he solicited and obtained her hand. Julia Domna (for that was her name) + deserved all that the stars could promise her. She possessed, even in + advanced age, the attractions of beauty, and united to a lively + imagination a firmness of mind, and strength of judgment, seldom bestowed + on her sex. Her amiable qualities never made any deep impression on the + dark and jealous temper of her husband; but in her son’s reign, she + administered the principal affairs of the empire, with a prudence that + supported his authority, and with a moderation that sometimes corrected + his wild extravagancies. Julia applied herself to letters and philosophy, + with some success, and with the most splendid reputation. She was the + patroness of every art, and the friend of every man of genius. The + grateful flattery of the learned has celebrated her virtues; but, if we + may credit the scandal of ancient history, chastity was very far from + being the most conspicuous virtue of the empress Julia. + </p> + <p> + Two sons, Caracalla and Geta, were the fruit of this marriage, and the + destined heirs of the empire. The fond hopes of the father, and of the + Roman world, were soon disappointed by these vain youths, who displayed + the indolent security of hereditary princes; and a presumption that + fortune would supply the place of merit and application. Without any + emulation of virtue or talents, they discovered, almost from their + infancy, a fixed and implacable antipathy for each other. + </p> + <p> + Their aversion, confirmed by years, and fomented by the arts of their + interested favorites, broke out in childish, and gradually in more serious + competitions; and, at length, divided the theatre, the circus, and the + court, into two factions, actuated by the hopes and fears of their + respective leaders. The prudent emperor endeavored, by every expedient of + advice and authority, to allay this growing animosity. The unhappy discord + of his sons clouded all his prospects, and threatened to overturn a throne + raised with so much labor, cemented with so much blood, and guarded with + every defence of arms and treasure. With an impartial hand he maintained + between them an exact balance of favor, conferred on both the rank of + Augustus, with the revered name of Antoninus; and for the first time the + Roman world beheld three emperors. Yet even this equal conduct served only + to inflame the contest, whilst the fierce Caracalla asserted the right of + primogeniture, and the milder Geta courted the affections of the people + and the soldiers. In the anguish of a disappointed father, Severus + foretold that the weaker of his sons would fall a sacrifice to the + stronger; who, in his turn, would be ruined by his own vices. + </p> + <p> + In these circumstances the intelligence of a war in Britain, and of an + invasion of the province by the barbarians of the North, was received with + pleasure by Severus. Though the vigilance of his lieutenants might have + been sufficient to repel the distant enemy, he resolved to embrace the + honorable pretext of withdrawing his sons from the luxury of Rome, which + enervated their minds and irritated their passions; and of inuring their + youth to the toils of war and government. Notwithstanding his advanced + age, (for he was above threescore,) and his gout, which obliged him to be + carried in a litter, he transported himself in person into that remote + island, attended by his two sons, his whole court, and a formidable army. + He immediately passed the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus, and entered the + enemy’s country, with a design of completing the long attempted conquest + of Britain. He penetrated to the northern extremity of the island, without + meeting an enemy. But the concealed ambuscades of the Caledonians, who + hung unseen on the rear and flanks of his army, the coldness of the + climate and the severity of a winter march across the hills and morasses + of Scotland, are reported to have cost the Romans above fifty thousand + men. The Caledonians at length yielded to the powerful and obstinate + attack, sued for peace, and surrendered a part of their arms, and a large + tract of territory. But their apparent submission lasted no longer than + the present terror. As soon as the Roman legions had retired, they resumed + their hostile independence. Their restless spirit provoked Severus to send + a new army into Caledonia, with the most bloody orders, not to subdue, but + to extirpate the natives. They were saved by the death of their haughty + enemy. + </p> + <p> + This Caledonian war, neither marked by decisive events, nor attended with + any important consequences, would ill deserve our attention; but it is + supposed, not without a considerable degree of probability, that the + invasion of Severus is connected with the most shining period of the + British history or fable. Fingal, whose fame, with that of his heroes and + bards, has been revived in our language by a recent publication, is said + to have commanded the Caledonians in that memorable juncture, to have + eluded the power of Severus, and to have obtained a signal victory on the + banks of the Carun, in which the son of <i>the King of the World</i>, + Caracul, fled from his arms along the fields of his pride. Something of a + doubtful mist still hangs over these Highland traditions; nor can it be + entirely dispelled by the most ingenious researches of modern criticism; + but if we could, with safety, indulge the pleasing supposition, that + Fingal lived, and that Ossian sung, the striking contrast of the situation + and manners of the contending nations might amuse a philosophic mind. The + parallel would be little to the advantage of the more civilized people, if + we compared the unrelenting revenge of Severus with the generous clemency + of Fingal; the timid and brutal cruelty of Caracalla with the bravery, the + tenderness, the elegant genius of Ossian; the mercenary chiefs, who, from + motives of fear or interest, served under the imperial standard, with the + free-born warriors who started to arms at the voice of the king of Morven; + if, in a word, we contemplated the untutored Caledonians, glowing with the + warm virtues of nature, and the degenerate Romans, polluted with the mean + vices of wealth and slavery. + </p> + <p> + The declining health and last illness of Severus inflamed the wild + ambition and black passions of Caracalla’s soul. Impatient of any delay or + division of empire, he attempted, more than once, to shorten the small + remainder of his father’s days, and endeavored, but without success, to + excite a mutiny among the troops. The old emperor had often censured the + misguided lenity of Marcus, who, by a single act of justice, might have + saved the Romans from the tyranny of his worthless son. Placed in the same + situation, he experienced how easily the rigor of a judge dissolves away + in the tenderness of a parent. He deliberated, he threatened, but he could + not punish; and this last and only instance of mercy was more fatal to the + empire than a long series of cruelty. The disorder of his mind irritated + the pains of his body; he wished impatiently for death, and hastened the + instant of it by his impatience. He expired at York in the sixty-fifth + year of his life, and in the eighteenth of a glorious and successful + reign. In his last moments he recommended concord to his sons, and his + sons to the army. The salutary advice never reached the heart, or even the + understanding, of the impetuous youths; but the more obedient troops, + mindful of their oath of allegiance, and of the authority of their + deceased master, resisted the solicitations of Caracalla, and proclaimed + both brothers emperors of Rome. The new princes soon left the Caledonians + in peace, returned to the capital, celebrated their father’s funeral with + divine honors, and were cheerfully acknowledged as lawful sovereigns, by + the senate, the people, and the provinces. Some preeminence of rank seems + to have been allowed to the elder brother; but they both administered the + empire with equal and independent power. + </p> + <p> + Such a divided form of government would have proved a source of discord + between the most affectionate brothers. It was impossible that it could + long subsist between two implacable enemies, who neither desired nor could + trust a reconciliation. It was visible that one only could reign, and that + the other must fall; and each of them, judging of his rival’s designs by + his own, guarded his life with the most jealous vigilance from the + repeated attacks of poison or the sword. Their rapid journey through Gaul + and Italy, during which they never ate at the same table, or slept in the + same house, displayed to the provinces the odious spectacle of fraternal + discord. On their arrival at Rome, they immediately divided the vast + extent of the imperial palace. No communication was allowed between their + apartments; the doors and passages were diligently fortified, and guards + posted and relieved with the same strictness as in a besieged place. The + emperors met only in public, in the presence of their afflicted mother; + and each surrounded by a numerous train of armed followers. Even on these + occasions of ceremony, the dissimulation of courts could ill disguise the + rancor of their hearts. + </p> + <p> + This latent civil war already distracted the whole government, when a + scheme was suggested that seemed of mutual benefit to the hostile + brothers. It was proposed, that since it was impossible to reconcile their + minds, they should separate their interest, and divide the empire between + them. The conditions of the treaty were already drawn with some accuracy. + It was agreed that Caracalla, as the elder brother should remain in + possession of Europe and the western Africa; and that he should relinquish + the sovereignty of Asia and Egypt to Geta, who might fix his residence at + Alexandria or Antioch, cities little inferior to Rome itself in wealth and + greatness; that numerous armies should be constantly encamped on either + side of the Thracian Bosphorus, to guard the frontiers of the rival + monarchies; and that the senators of European extraction should + acknowledge the sovereign of Rome, whilst the natives of Asia followed the + emperor of the East. The tears of the empress Julia interrupted the + negotiation, the first idea of which had filled every Roman breast with + surprise and indignation. The mighty mass of conquest was so intimately + united by the hand of time and policy, that it required the most forcible + violence to rend it asunder. The Romans had reason to dread, that the + disjointed members would soon be reduced by a civil war under the dominion + of one master; but if the separation was permanent, the division of the + provinces must terminate in the dissolution of an empire whose unity had + hitherto remained inviolate. + </p> + <p> + Had the treaty been carried into execution, the sovereign of Europe might + soon have been the conqueror of Asia; but Caracalla obtained an easier, + though a more guilty, victory. He artfully listened to his mother’s + entreaties, and consented to meet his brother in her apartment, on terms + of peace and reconciliation. In the midst of their conversation, some + centurions, who had contrived to conceal themselves, rushed with drawn + swords upon the unfortunate Geta. His distracted mother strove to protect + him in her arms; but, in the unavailing struggle, she was wounded in the + hand, and covered with the blood of her younger son, while she saw the + elder animating and assisting the fury of the assassins. As soon as the + deed was perpetrated, Caracalla, with hasty steps, and horror in his + countenance, ran towards the Prætorian camp, as his only refuge, and + threw himself on the ground before the statues of the tutelar deities. The + soldiers attempted to raise and comfort him. In broken and disordered + words he informed them of his imminent danger, and fortunate escape; + insinuating that he had prevented the designs of his enemy, and declared + his resolution to live and die with his faithful troops. Geta had been the + favorite of the soldiers; but complaint was useless, revenge was + dangerous, and they still reverenced the son of Severus. Their discontent + died away in idle murmurs, and Caracalla soon convinced them of the + justice of his cause, by distributing in one lavish donative the + accumulated treasures of his father’s reign. The real <i>sentiments</i> + of the soldiers alone were of importance to his power or safety. Their + declaration in his favor commanded the dutiful <i>professions</i> of the + senate. The obsequious assembly was always prepared to ratify the decision + of fortune; * but as Caracalla wished to assuage the first emotions of + public indignation, the name of Geta was mentioned with decency, and he + received the funeral honors of a Roman emperor. Posterity, in pity to his + misfortune, has cast a veil over his vices. We consider that young prince + as the innocent victim of his brother’s ambition, without recollecting + that he himself wanted power, rather than inclination, to consummate the + same attempts of revenge and murder. + </p> + <p> + The crime went not unpunished. Neither business, nor pleasure, nor + flattery, could defend Caracalla from the stings of a guilty conscience; + and he confessed, in the anguish of a tortured mind, that his disordered + fancy often beheld the angry forms of his father and his brother rising + into life, to threaten and upbraid him. The consciousness of his crime + should have induced him to convince mankind, by the virtues of his reign, + that the bloody deed had been the involuntary effect of fatal necessity. + But the repentance of Caracalla only prompted him to remove from the world + whatever could remind him of his guilt, or recall the memory of his + murdered brother. On his return from the senate to the palace, he found + his mother in the company of several noble matrons, weeping over the + untimely fate of her younger son. The jealous emperor threatened them with + instant death; the sentence was executed against Fadilla, the last + remaining daughter of the emperor Marcus; * and even the afflicted Julia + was obliged to silence her lamentations, to suppress her sighs, and to + receive the assassin with smiles of joy and approbation. It was computed + that, under the vague appellation of the friends of Geta, above twenty + thousand persons of both sexes suffered death. His guards and freedmen, + the ministers of his serious business, and the companions of his looser + hours, those who by his interest had been promoted to any commands in the + army or provinces, with the long connected chain of their dependants, were + included in the proscription; which endeavored to reach every one who had + maintained the smallest correspondence with Geta, who lamented his death, + or who even mentioned his name. Helvius Pertinax, son to the prince of + that name, lost his life by an unseasonable witticism. It was a sufficient + crime of Thrasea Priscus to be descended from a family in which the love + of liberty seemed an hereditary quality. The particular causes of calumny + and suspicion were at length exhausted; and when a senator was accused of + being a secret enemy to the government, the emperor was satisfied with the + general proof that he was a man of property and virtue. From this + well-grounded principle he frequently drew the most bloody inferences. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch6-p2" id="linkch6-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The execution of so many innocent citizens was bewailed by the secret + tears of their friends and families. The death of Papinian, the Prætorian + Præfect, was lamented as a public calamity. During the last seven + years of Severus, he had exercised the most important offices of the + state, and, by his salutary influence, guided the emperor’s steps in the + paths of justice and moderation. In full assurance of his virtue and + abilities, Severus, on his death-bed, had conjured him to watch over the + prosperity and union of the Imperial family. The honest labors of Papinian + served only to inflame the hatred which Caracalla had already conceived + against his father’s minister. After the murder of Geta, the Præfect + was commanded to exert the powers of his skill and eloquence in a studied + apology for that atrocious deed. The philosophic Seneca had condescended + to compose a similar epistle to the senate, in the name of the son and + assassin of Agrippina. “That it was easier to commit than to justify a + parricide,” was the glorious reply of Papinian; who did not hesitate + between the loss of life and that of honor. Such intrepid virtue, which + had escaped pure and unsullied from the intrigues of courts, the habits of + business, and the arts of his profession, reflects more lustre on the + memory of Papinian, than all his great employments, his numerous writings, + and the superior reputation as a lawyer, which he has preserved through + every age of the Roman jurisprudence. + </p> + <p> + It had hitherto been the peculiar felicity of the Romans, and in the + worst of times the consolation, that the virtue of the emperors was + active, and their vice indolent. Augustus, Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus + visited their extensive dominions in person, and their progress was + marked by acts of wisdom and beneficence. The tyranny of Tiberius, Nero, + and Domitian, who resided almost constantly at Rome, or in the adjacent + was confined to the senatorial and equestrian orders. But Caracalla was + the common enemy of mankind. He left capital (and he never returned to + it) about a year after the murder of Geta. The rest of his reign was + spent in the several provinces of the empire, particularly those of the + East, and every province was by turns the scene of his rapine and + cruelty. The senators, compelled by fear to attend his capricious + motions, were obliged to provide daily entertainments at an immense + expense, which he abandoned with contempt to his guards; and to erect, in + every city, magnificent palaces and theatres, which he either disdained + to visit, or ordered immediately thrown down. The most wealthy families + were ruined by partial fines and confiscations, and the great body of his + subjects oppressed by ingenious and aggravated taxes. In the midst of + peace, and upon the slightest provocation, he issued his commands, at + Alexandria, in Egypt for a general massacre. From a secure post in the + temple of Serapis, he viewed and directed the slaughter of many thousand + citizens, as well as strangers, without distinguishing the number or the + crime of the sufferers; since as he coolly informed the senate, + <i>all</i>the Alexandrians, those who had perished, and those who had + escaped, were alike guilty. + </p> + <p> + The wise instructions of Severus never made any lasting impression on the + mind of his son, who, although not destitute of imagination and eloquence, + was equally devoid of judgment and humanity. One dangerous maxim, worthy + of a tyrant, was remembered and abused by Caracalla. “To secure the + affections of the army, and to esteem the rest of his subjects as of + little moment.” But the liberality of the father had been restrained by + prudence, and his indulgence to the troops was tempered by firmness and + authority. The careless profusion of the son was the policy of one reign, + and the inevitable ruin both of the army and of the empire. The vigor of + the soldiers, instead of being confirmed by the severe discipline of + camps, melted away in the luxury of cities. The excessive increase of + their pay and donatives exhausted the state to enrich the military order, + whose modesty in peace, and service in war, is best secured by an + honorable poverty. The demeanor of Caracalla was haughty and full of + pride; but with the troops he forgot even the proper dignity of his rank, + encouraged their insolent familiarity, and, neglecting the essential + duties of a general, affected to imitate the dress and manners of a common + soldier. + </p> + <p> + It was impossible that such a character, and such conduct as that of + Caracalla, could inspire either love or esteem; but as long as his vices + were beneficial to the armies, he was secure from the danger of rebellion. + A secret conspiracy, provoked by his own jealousy, was fatal to the + tyrant. The Prætorian præfecture was divided between two + ministers. The military department was intrusted to Adventus, an + experienced rather than able soldier; and the civil affairs were + transacted by Opilius Macrinus, who, by his dexterity in business, had + raised himself, with a fair character, to that high office. But his favor + varied with the caprice of the emperor, and his life might depend on the + slightest suspicion, or the most casual circumstance. Malice or fanaticism + had suggested to an African, deeply skilled in the knowledge of futurity, + a very dangerous prediction, that Macrinus and his son were destined to + reign over the empire. The report was soon diffused through the province; + and when the man was sent in chains to Rome, he still asserted, in the + presence of the præfect of the city, the faith of his prophecy. That + magistrate, who had received the most pressing instructions to inform + himself of the <i>successors</i> of Caracalla, immediately communicated + the examination of the African to the Imperial court, which at that time + resided in Syria. But, notwithstanding the diligence of the public + messengers, a friend of Macrinus found means to apprise him of the + approaching danger. The emperor received the letters from Rome; and as he + was then engaged in the conduct of a chariot race, he delivered them + unopened to the Prætorian Præfect, directing him to despatch + the ordinary affairs, and to report the more important business that might + be contained in them. Macrinus read his fate, and resolved to prevent it. + He inflamed the discontents of some inferior officers, and employed the + hand of Martialis, a desperate soldier, who had been refused the rank of + centurion. The devotion of Caracalla prompted him to make a pilgrimage + from Edessa to the celebrated temple of the Moon at Carrhæ. * He was + attended by a body of cavalry: but having stopped on the road for some + necessary occasion, his guards preserved a respectful distance, and + Martialis, approaching his person under a presence of duty, stabbed him + with a dagger. The bold assassin was instantly killed by a Scythian archer + of the Imperial guard. Such was the end of a monster whose life disgraced + human nature, and whose reign accused the patience of the Romans. The + grateful soldiers forgot his vices, remembered only his partial + liberality, and obliged the senate to prostitute their own dignity and + that of religion, by granting him a place among the gods. Whilst he was + upon earth, Alexander the Great was the only hero whom this god deemed + worthy his admiration. He assumed the name and ensigns of Alexander, + formed a Macedonian phalanx of guards, persecuted the disciples of + Aristotle, and displayed, with a puerile enthusiasm, the only sentiment by + which he discovered any regard for virtue or glory. We can easily + conceive, that after the battle of Narva, and the conquest of Poland, + Charles XII. (though he still wanted the more elegant accomplishments of + the son of Philip) might boast of having rivalled his valor and + magnanimity; but in no one action of his life did Caracalla express the + faintest resemblance of the Macedonian hero, except in the murder of a + great number of his own and of his father’s friends. + </p> + <p> + After the extinction of the house of Severus, the Roman world remained + three days without a master. The choice of the army (for the authority of + a distant and feeble senate was little regarded) hung in anxious suspense, + as no candidate presented himself whose distinguished birth and merit + could engage their attachment and unite their suffrages. The decisive + weight of the Prætorian guards elevated the hopes of their præfects, + and these powerful ministers began to assert their <i>legal</i> claim to + fill the vacancy of the Imperial throne. Adventus, however, the senior præfect, + conscious of his age and infirmities, of his small reputation, and his + smaller abilities, resigned the dangerous honor to the crafty ambition of + his colleague Macrinus, whose well-dissembled grief removed all suspicion + of his being accessary to his master’s death. The troops neither loved nor + esteemed his character. They cast their eyes around in search of a + competitor, and at last yielded with reluctance to his promises of + unbounded liberality and indulgence. A short time after his accession, he + conferred on his son Diadumenianus, at the age of only ten years, the + Imperial title, and the popular name of Antoninus. The beautiful figure of + the youth, assisted by an additional donative, for which the ceremony + furnished a pretext, might attract, it was hoped, the favor of the army, + and secure the doubtful throne of Macrinus. + </p> + <p> + The authority of the new sovereign had been ratified by the cheerful + submission of the senate and provinces. They exulted in their unexpected + deliverance from a hated tyrant, and it seemed of little consequence to + examine into the virtues of the successor of Caracalla. But as soon as the + first transports of joy and surprise had subsided, they began to + scrutinize the merits of Macrinus with a critical severity, and to arraign + the hasty choice of the army. It had hitherto been considered as a + fundamental maxim of the constitution, that the emperor must be always + chosen in the senate, and the sovereign power, no longer exercised by the + whole body, was always delegated to one of its members. But Macrinus was + not a senator. The sudden elevation of the Prætorian præfects + betrayed the meanness of their origin; and the equestrian order was still + in possession of that great office, which commanded with arbitrary sway + the lives and fortunes of the senate. A murmur of indignation was heard, + that a man, whose obscure extraction had never been illustrated by any + signal service, should dare to invest himself with the purple, instead of + bestowing it on some distinguished senator, equal in birth and dignity to + the splendor of the Imperial station. As soon as the character of Macrinus + was surveyed by the sharp eye of discontent, some vices, and many defects, + were easily discovered. The choice of his ministers was in many instances + justly censured, and the dissatisfied people, with their usual candor, + accused at once his indolent tameness and his excessive severity. + </p> + <p> + His rash ambition had climbed a height where it was difficult to stand + with firmness, and impossible to fall without instant destruction. Trained + in the arts of courts and the forms of civil business, he trembled in the + presence of the fierce and undisciplined multitude, over whom he had + assumed the command; his military talents were despised, and his personal + courage suspected; a whisper that circulated in the camp, disclosed the + fatal secret of the conspiracy against the late emperor, aggravated the + guilt of murder by the baseness of hypocrisy, and heightened contempt by + detestation. To alienate the soldiers, and to provoke inevitable ruin, the + character of a reformer was only wanting; and such was the peculiar + hardship of his fate, that Macrinus was compelled to exercise that + invidious office. The prodigality of Caracalla had left behind it a long + train of ruin and disorder; and if that worthless tyrant had been capable + of reflecting on the sure consequences of his own conduct, he would + perhaps have enjoyed the dark prospect of the distress and calamities + which he bequeathed to his successors. + </p> + <p> + In the management of this necessary reformation, Macrinus proceeded with a + cautious prudence, which would have restored health and vigor to the Roman + army in an easy and almost imperceptible manner. To the soldiers already + engaged in the service, he was constrained to leave the dangerous + privileges and extravagant pay given by Caracalla; but the new recruits + were received on the more moderate though liberal establishment of + Severus, and gradually formed to modesty and obedience. One fatal error + destroyed the salutary effects of this judicious plan. The numerous army, + assembled in the East by the late emperor, instead of being immediately + dispersed by Macrinus through the several provinces, was suffered to + remain united in Syria, during the winter that followed his elevation. In + the luxurious idleness of their quarters, the troops viewed their strength + and numbers, communicated their complaints, and revolved in their minds + the advantages of another revolution. The veterans, instead of being + flattered by the advantageous distinction, were alarmed by the first steps + of the emperor, which they considered as the presage of his future + intentions. The recruits, with sullen reluctance, entered on a service, + whose labors were increased while its rewards were diminished by a + covetous and unwarlike sovereign. The murmurs of the army swelled with + impunity into seditious clamors; and the partial mutinies betrayed a + spirit of discontent and disaffection that waited only for the slightest + occasion to break out on every side into a general rebellion. To minds + thus disposed, the occasion soon presented itself. + </p> + <p> + The empress Julia had experienced all the vicissitudes of fortune. From an + humble station she had been raised to greatness, only to taste the + superior bitterness of an exalted rank. She was doomed to weep over the + death of one of her sons, and over the life of the other. The cruel fate + of Caracalla, though her good sense must have long taught her to expect + it, awakened the feelings of a mother and of an empress. Notwithstanding + the respectful civility expressed by the usurper towards the widow of + Severus, she descended with a painful struggle into the condition of a + subject, and soon withdrew herself, by a voluntary death, from the anxious + and humiliating dependence. * Julia Mæsa, her sister, was ordered to + leave the court and Antioch. She retired to Emesa with an immense fortune, + the fruit of twenty years’ favor accompanied by her two daughters, Soæmias + and Mamæ, each of whom was a widow, and each had an only son. + Bassianus, for that was the name of the son of Soæmias, was + consecrated to the honorable ministry of high priest of the Sun; and this + holy vocation, embraced either from prudence or superstition, contributed + to raise the Syrian youth to the empire of Rome. A numerous body of troops + was stationed at Emesa; and as the severe discipline of Macrinus had + constrained them to pass the winter encamped, they were eager to revenge + the cruelty of such unaccustomed hardships. The soldiers, who resorted in + crowds to the temple of the Sun, beheld with veneration and delight the + elegant dress and figure of the young pontiff; they recognized, or they + thought that they recognized, the features of Caracalla, whose memory they + now adored. The artful Mæsa saw and cherished their rising + partiality, and readily sacrificing her daughter’s reputation to the + fortune of her grandson, she insinuated that Bassianus was the natural son + of their murdered sovereign. The sums distributed by her emissaries with a + lavish hand silenced every objection, and the profusion sufficiently + proved the affinity, or at least the resemblance, of Bassianus with the + great original. The young Antoninus (for he had assumed and polluted that + respectable name) was declared emperor by the troops of Emesa, asserted + his hereditary right, and called aloud on the armies to follow the + standard of a young and liberal prince, who had taken up arms to revenge + his father’s death and the oppression of the military order. + </p> + <p> + Whilst a conspiracy of women and eunuchs was concerted with prudence, and + conducted with rapid vigor, Macrinus, who, by a decisive motion, might + have crushed his infant enemy, floated between the opposite extremes of + terror and security, which alike fixed him inactive at Antioch. A spirit + of rebellion diffused itself through all the camps and garrisons of Syria, + successive detachments murdered their officers, and joined the party of + the rebels; and the tardy restitution of military pay and privileges was + imputed to the acknowledged weakness of Macrinus. At length he marched out + of Antioch, to meet the increasing and zealous army of the young + pretender. His own troops seemed to take the field with faintness and + reluctance; but, in the heat of the battle, the Prætorian guards, + almost by an involuntary impulse, asserted the superiority of their valor + and discipline. The rebel ranks were broken; when the mother and + grandmother of the Syrian prince, who, according to their eastern custom, + had attended the army, threw themselves from their covered chariots, and, + by exciting the compassion of the soldiers, endeavored to animate their + drooping courage. Antoninus himself, who, in the rest of his life, never + acted like a man, in this important crisis of his fate, approved himself a + hero, mounted his horse, and, at the head of his rallied troops, charged + sword in hand among the thickest of the enemy; whilst the eunuch Gannys, * + whose occupations had been confined to female cares and the soft luxury of + Asia, displayed the talents of an able and experienced general. The battle + still raged with doubtful violence, and Macrinus might have obtained the + victory, had he not betrayed his own cause by a shameful and precipitate + flight. His cowardice served only to protract his life a few days, and to + stamp deserved ignominy on his misfortunes. It is scarcely necessary to + add, that his son Diadumenianus was involved in the same fate. As soon as + the stubborn Prætorians could be convinced that they fought for a + prince who had basely deserted them, they surrendered to the conqueror: + the contending parties of the Roman army, mingling tears of joy and + tenderness, united under the banners of the imagined son of Caracalla, and + the East acknowledged with pleasure the first emperor of Asiatic + extraction. + </p> + <p> + The letters of Macrinus had condescended to inform the senate of the + slight disturbance occasioned by an impostor in Syria, and a decree + immediately passed, declaring the rebel and his family public enemies; + with a promise of pardon, however, to such of his deluded adherents as + should merit it by an immediate return to their duty. During the twenty + days that elapsed from the declaration of the victory of Antoninus (for + in so short an interval was the fate of the Roman world decided,) the + capital and the provinces, more especially those of the East, were + distracted with hopes and fears, agitated with tumult, and stained with a + useless effusion of civil blood, since whosoever of the rivals prevailed + in Syria must reign over the empire. The specious letters in which the + young conqueror announced his victory to the obedient senate were filled + with professions of virtue and moderation; the shining examples of Marcus + and Augustus, he should ever consider as the great rule of his + administration; and he affected to dwell with pride on the striking + resemblance of his own age and fortunes with those of Augustus, who in the + earliest youth had revenged, by a successful war, the murder of his + father. By adopting the style of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, son of + Antoninus and grandson of Severus, he tacitly asserted his hereditary + claim to the empire; but, by assuming the tribunitian and proconsular + powers before they had been conferred on him by a decree of the senate, he + offended the delicacy of Roman prejudice. This new and injudicious + violation of the constitution was probably dictated either by the + ignorance of his Syrian courtiers, or the fierce disdain of his military + followers. + </p> + <p> + As the attention of the new emperor was diverted by the most trifling + amusements, he wasted many months in his luxurious progress from Syria to + Italy, passed at Nicomedia his first winter after his victory, and + deferred till the ensuing summer his triumphal entry into the capital. A + faithful picture, however, which preceded his arrival, and was placed by + his immediate order over the altar of Victory in the senate house, + conveyed to the Romans the just but unworthy resemblance of his person and + manners. He was drawn in his sacerdotal robes of silk and gold, after the + loose flowing fashion of the Medes and Phœnicians; his head was covered + with a lofty tiara, his numerous collars and bracelets were adorned with + gems of an inestimable value. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his + cheeks painted with an artificial red and white. The grave senators + confessed with a sigh, that, after having long experienced the stern + tyranny of their own countrymen, Rome was at length humbled beneath the + effeminate luxury of Oriental despotism. + </p> + <p> + The Sun was worshipped at Emesa, under the name of Elagabalus, and under + the form of a black conical stone, which, as it was universally believed, + had fallen from heaven on that sacred place. To this protecting deity, + Antoninus, not without some reason, ascribed his elevation to the throne. + The display of superstitious gratitude was the only serious business of + his reign. The triumph of the god of Emesa over all the religions of the + earth, was the great object of his zeal and vanity; and the appellation of + Elagabalus (for he presumed as pontiff and favorite to adopt that sacred + name) was dearer to him than all the titles of Imperial greatness. In a + solemn procession through the streets of Rome, the way was strewed with + gold dust; the black stone, set in precious gems, was placed on a chariot + drawn by six milk-white horses richly caparisoned. The pious emperor held + the reins, and, supported by his ministers, moved slowly backwards, that + he might perpetually enjoy the felicity of the divine presence. In a + magnificent temple raised on the Palatine Mount, the sacrifices of the god + Elagabalus were celebrated with every circumstance of cost and solemnity. + The richest wines, the most extraordinary victims, and the rarest + aromatics, were profusely consumed on his altar. Around the altar, a + chorus of Syrian damsels performed their lascivious dances to the sound of + barbarian music, whilst the gravest personages of the state and army, + clothed in long Phœnician tunics, officiated in the meanest functions, with + affected zeal and secret indignation. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch6-p3" id="linkch6-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + To this temple, as to the common centre of religious worship, the Imperial + fanatic attempted to remove the Ancilia, the Palladium, and all the sacred + pledges of the faith of Numa. A crowd of inferior deities attended in + various stations the majesty of the god of Emesa; but his court was still + imperfect, till a female of distinguished rank was admitted to his bed. + Pallas had been first chosen for his consort; but as it was dreaded lest + her warlike terrors might affright the soft delicacy of a Syrian deity, + the Moon, adored by the Africans under the name of Astarte, was deemed a + more suitable companion for the Sun. Her image, with the rich offerings of + her temple as a marriage portion, was transported with solemn pomp from + Carthage to Rome, and the day of these mystic nuptials was a general + festival in the capital and throughout the empire. + </p> + <p> + A rational voluptuary adheres with invariable respect to the temperate + dictates of nature, and improves the gratifications of sense by social + intercourse, endearing connections, and the soft coloring of taste and the + imagination. But Elagabalus, (I speak of the emperor of that name,) + corrupted by his youth, his country, and his fortune, abandoned himself to + the grossest pleasures with ungoverned fury, and soon found disgust and + satiety in the midst of his enjoyments. The inflammatory powers of art + were summoned to his aid: the confused multitude of women, of wines, and + of dishes, and the studied variety of attitude and sauces, served to + revive his languid appetites. New terms and new inventions in these + sciences, the only ones cultivated and patronized by the monarch, + signalized his reign, and transmitted his infamy to succeeding times. A + capricious prodigality supplied the want of taste and elegance; and whilst + Elagabalus lavished away the treasures of his people in the wildest + extravagance, his own voice and that of his flatterers applauded a spirit + of magnificence unknown to the tameness of his predecessors. To confound + the order of seasons and climates, to sport with the passions and + prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law of nature and + decency, were in the number of his most delicious amusements. A long train + of concubines, and a rapid succession of wives, among whom was a vestal + virgin, ravished by force from her sacred asylum, were insufficient to + satisfy the impotence of his passions. The master of the Roman world + affected to copy the dress and manners of the female sex, preferred the + distaff to the sceptre, and dishonored the principal dignities of the + empire by distributing them among his numerous lovers; one of whom was + publicly invested with the title and authority of the emperor’s, or, as he + more properly styled himself, of the empress’s husband. + </p> + <p> + It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have been + adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. Yet, confining ourselves to + the public scenes displayed before the Roman people, and attested by grave + and contemporary historians, their inexpressible infamy surpasses that of + any other age or country. The license of an eastern monarch is secluded + from the eye of curiosity by the inaccessible walls of his seraglio. The + sentiments of honor and gallantry have introduced a refinement of + pleasure, a regard for decency, and a respect for the public opinion, into + the modern courts of Europe; * but the corrupt and opulent nobles of Rome + gratified every vice that could be collected from the mighty conflux of + nations and manners. Secure of impunity, careless of censure, they lived + without restraint in the patient and humble society of their slaves and + parasites. The emperor, in his turn, viewing every rank of his subjects + with the same contemptuous indifference, asserted without control his + sovereign privilege of lust and luxury. + </p> + <p> + The most worthless of mankind are not afraid to condemn in others the same + disorders which they allow in themselves; and can readily discover some + nice difference of age, character, or station, to justify the partial + distinction. The licentious soldiers, who had raised to the throne the + dissolute son of Caracalla, blushed at their ignominious choice, and + turned with disgust from that monster, to contemplate with pleasure the + opening virtues of his cousin Alexander, the son of Mamæa. The + crafty Mæsa, sensible that her grandson Elagabalus must inevitably + destroy himself by his own vices, had provided another and surer support + of her family. Embracing a favorable moment of fondness and devotion, she + had persuaded the young emperor to adopt Alexander, and to invest him with + the title of Cæsar, that his own divine occupations might be no + longer interrupted by the care of the earth. In the second rank that + amiable prince soon acquired the affections of the public, and excited the + tyrant’s jealousy, who resolved to terminate the dangerous competition, + either by corrupting the manners, or by taking away the life, of his + rival. His arts proved unsuccessful; his vain designs were constantly + discovered by his own loquacious folly, and disappointed by those virtuous + and faithful servants whom the prudence of Mamæa had placed about + the person of her son. In a hasty sally of passion, Elagabalus resolved to + execute by force what he had been unable to compass by fraud, and by a + despotic sentence degraded his cousin from the rank and honors of Cæsar. + The message was received in the senate with silence, and in the camp with + fury. The Prætorian guards swore to protect Alexander, and to + revenge the dishonored majesty of the throne. The tears and promises of + the trembling Elagabalus, who only begged them to spare his life, and to + leave him in the possession of his beloved Hierocles, diverted their just + indignation; and they contented themselves with empowering their præfects + to watch over the safety of Alexander, and the conduct of the emperor. + </p> + <p> + It was impossible that such a reconciliation should last, or that even the + mean soul of Elagabalus could hold an empire on such humiliating terms of + dependence. He soon attempted, by a dangerous experiment, to try the + temper of the soldiers. The report of the death of Alexander, and the + natural suspicion that he had been murdered, inflamed their passions into + fury, and the tempest of the camp could only be appeased by the presence + and authority of the popular youth. Provoked at this new instance of their + affection for his cousin, and their contempt for his person, the emperor + ventured to punish some of the leaders of the mutiny. His unseasonable + severity proved instantly fatal to his minions, his mother, and himself. + Elagabalus was massacred by the indignant Prætorians, his mutilated + corpse dragged through the streets of the city, and thrown into the Tiber. + His memory was branded with eternal infamy by the senate; the justice of + whose decree has been ratified by posterity. + </p> + <p> + In the room of Elagabalus, his cousin Alexander was raised to the throne + by the Prætorian guards. His relation to the family of Severus, + whose name he assumed, was the same as that of his predecessor; his virtue + and his danger had already endeared him to the Romans, and the eager + liberality of the senate conferred upon him, in one day, the various + titles and powers of the Imperial dignity. But as Alexander was a modest + and dutiful youth, of only seventeen years of age, the reins of government + were in the hands of two women, of his mother, Mamæa, and of Mæsa, + his grandmother. After the death of the latter, who survived but a short + time the elevation of Alexander, Mamæa remained the sole regent of + her son and of the empire. + </p> + <p> + In every age and country, the wiser, or at least the stronger, of the two + sexes, has usurped the powers of the state, and confined the other to the + cares and pleasures of domestic life. In hereditary monarchies, however, + and especially in those of modern Europe, the gallant spirit of chivalry, + and the law of succession, have accustomed us to allow a singular + exception; and a woman is often acknowledged the absolute sovereign of a + great kingdom, in which she would be deemed incapable of exercising the + smallest employment, civil or military. But as the Roman emperors were + still considered as the generals and magistrates of the republic, their + wives and mothers, although distinguished by the name of Augusta, were + never associated to their personal honors; and a female reign would have + appeared an inexpiable prodigy in the eyes of those primitive Romans, who + married without love, or loved without delicacy and respect. The haughty + Agrippina aspired, indeed, to share the honors of the empire which she had + conferred on her son; but her mad ambition, detested by every citizen who + felt for the dignity of Rome, was disappointed by the artful firmness of + Seneca and Burrhus. The good sense, or the indifference, of succeeding + princes, restrained them from offending the prejudices of their subjects; + and it was reserved for the profligate Elagabalus to discharge the acts of + the senate with the name of his mother Soæmias, who was placed by + the side of the consuls, and subscribed, as a regular member, the decrees + of the legislative assembly. Her more prudent sister, Mamæa, + declined the useless and odious prerogative, and a solemn law was enacted, + excluding women forever from the senate, and devoting to the infernal gods + the head of the wretch by whom this sanction should be violated. The + substance, not the pageantry, of power, was the object of Mamæa’s + manly ambition. She maintained an absolute and lasting empire over the + mind of her son, and in his affection the mother could not brook a rival. + Alexander, with her consent, married the daughter of a patrician; but his + respect for his father-in-law, and love for the empress, were inconsistent + with the tenderness of interest of Mamæa. The patrician was executed + on the ready accusation of treason, and the wife of Alexander driven with + ignominy from the palace, and banished into Africa. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this act of jealous cruelty, as well as some instances of + avarice, with which Mamæa is charged, the general tenor of her + administration was equally for the benefit of her son and of the empire. + With the approbation of the senate, she chose sixteen of the wisest and + most virtuous senators as a perpetual council of state, before whom every + public business of moment was debated and determined. The celebrated + Ulpian, equally distinguished by his knowledge of, and his respect for, + the laws of Rome, was at their head; and the prudent firmness of this + aristocracy restored order and authority to the government. As soon as + they had purged the city from foreign superstition and luxury, the remains + of the capricious tyranny of Elagabalus, they applied themselves to remove + his worthless creatures from every department of the public + administration, and to supply their places with men of virtue and ability. + Learning, and the love of justice, became the only recommendations for + civil offices; valor, and the love of discipline, the only qualifications + for military employments. + </p> + <p> + But the most important care of Mamæa and her wise counsellors, was + to form the character of the young emperor, on whose personal qualities + the happiness or misery of the Roman world must ultimately depend. The + fortunate soil assisted, and even prevented, the hand of cultivation. An + excellent understanding soon convinced Alexander of the advantages of + virtue, the pleasure of knowledge, and the necessity of labor. A natural + mildness and moderation of temper preserved him from the assaults of + passion, and the allurements of vice. His unalterable regard for his + mother, and his esteem for the wise Ulpian, guarded his unexperienced + youth from the poison of flattery. * + </p> + <p> + The simple journal of his ordinary occupations exhibits a pleasing picture + of an accomplished emperor, and, with some allowance for the difference of + manners, might well deserve the imitation of modern princes. Alexander + rose early: the first moments of the day were consecrated to private + devotion, and his domestic chapel was filled with the images of those + heroes, who, by improving or reforming human life, had deserved the + grateful reverence of posterity. But as he deemed the service of mankind + the most acceptable worship of the gods, the greatest part of his morning + hours was employed in his council, where he discussed public affairs, and + determined private causes, with a patience and discretion above his years. + The dryness of business was relieved by the charms of literature; and a + portion of time was always set apart for his favorite studies of poetry, + history, and philosophy. The works of Virgil and Horace, the republics of + Plato and Cicero, formed his taste, enlarged his understanding, and gave + him the noblest ideas of man and government. The exercises of the body + succeeded to those of the mind; and Alexander, who was tall, active, and + robust, surpassed most of his equals in the gymnastic arts. Refreshed by + the use of the bath and a slight dinner, he resumed, with new vigor, the + business of the day; and, till the hour of supper, the principal meal of + the Romans, he was attended by his secretaries, with whom he read and + answered the multitude of letters, memorials, and petitions, that must + have been addressed to the master of the greatest part of the world. His + table was served with the most frugal simplicity, and whenever he was at + liberty to consult his own inclination, the company consisted of a few + select friends, men of learning and virtue, amongst whom Ulpian was + constantly invited. Their conversation was familiar and instructive; and + the pauses were occasionally enlivened by the recital of some pleasing + composition, which supplied the place of the dancers, comedians, and even + gladiators, so frequently summoned to the tables of the rich and luxurious + Romans. The dress of Alexander was plain and modest, his demeanor + courteous and affable: at the proper hours his palace was open to all his + subjects, but the voice of a crier was heard, as in the Eleusinian + mysteries, pronouncing the same salutary admonition: “Let none enter these + holy walls, unless he is conscious of a pure and innocent mind.” + </p> + <p> + Such a uniform tenor of life, which left not a moment for vice or folly, + is a better proof of the wisdom and justice of Alexander’s government, + than all the trifling details preserved in the compilation of Lampridius. + Since the accession of Commodus, the Roman world had experienced, during + the term of forty years, the successive and various vices of four tyrants. + From the death of Elagabalus, it enjoyed an auspicious calm of thirteen + years. * The provinces, relieved from the oppressive taxes invented by + Caracalla and his pretended son, flourished in peace and prosperity, under + the administration of magistrates who were convinced by experience that + to deserve the love of the subjects was their best and only method of + obtaining the favor of their sovereign. While some gentle restraints were + imposed on the innocent luxury of the Roman people, the price of + provisions and the interest of money, were reduced by the paternal care of + Alexander, whose prudent liberality, without distressing the industrious, + supplied the wants and amusements of the populace. The dignity, the + freedom, the authority of the senate was restored; and every virtuous + senator might approach the person of the emperor without a fear and + without a blush. + </p> + <p> + The name of Antoninus, ennobled by the virtues of Pius and Marcus, had + been communicated by adoption to the dissolute Verus, and by descent to + the cruel Commodus. It became the honorable appellation of the sons of + Severus, was bestowed on young Diadumenianus, and at length prostituted to + the infamy of the high priest of Emesa. Alexander, though pressed by the + studied, and, perhaps, sincere importunity of the senate, nobly refused + the borrowed lustre of a name; whilst in his whole conduct he labored to + restore the glories and felicity of the age of the genuine Antonines. + </p> + <p> + In the civil administration of Alexander, wisdom was enforced by power, + and the people, sensible of the public felicity, repaid their benefactor + with their love and gratitude. There still remained a greater, a more + necessary, but a more difficult enterprise; the reformation of the + military order, whose interest and temper, confirmed by long impunity, + rendered them impatient of the restraints of discipline, and careless of + the blessings of public tranquillity. In the execution of his design, the + emperor affected to display his love, and to conceal his fear of the army. + The most rigid economy in every other branch of the administration + supplied a fund of gold and silver for the ordinary pay and the + extraordinary rewards of the troops. In their marches he relaxed the + severe obligation of carrying seventeen days’ provision on their + shoulders. Ample magazines were formed along the public roads, and as soon + as they entered the enemy’s country, a numerous train of mules and camels + waited on their haughty laziness. As Alexander despaired of correcting the + luxury of his soldiers, he attempted, at least, to direct it to objects of + martial pomp and ornament, fine horses, splendid armor, and shields + enriched with silver and gold. He shared whatever fatigues he was obliged + to impose, visited, in person, the sick and wounded, preserved an exact + register of their services and his own gratitude, and expressed on every + occasion, the warmest regard for a body of men, whose welfare, as he + affected to declare, was so closely connected with that of the state. By + the most gentle arts he labored to inspire the fierce multitude with a + sense of duty, and to restore at least a faint image of that discipline to + which the Romans owed their empire over so many other nations, as warlike + and more powerful than themselves. But his prudence was vain, his courage + fatal, and the attempt towards a reformation served only to inflame the + ills it was meant to cure. + </p> + <p> + The Prætorian guards were attached to the youth of Alexander. They + loved him as a tender pupil, whom they had saved from a tyrant’s fury, and + placed on the Imperial throne. That amiable prince was sensible of the + obligation; but as his gratitude was restrained within the limits of + reason and justice, they soon were more dissatisfied with the virtues of + Alexander, than they had ever been with the vices of Elagabalus. Their præfect, + the wise Ulpian, was the friend of the laws and of the people; he was + considered as the enemy of the soldiers, and to his pernicious counsels + every scheme of reformation was imputed. Some trifling accident blew up + their discontent into a furious mutiny; and the civil war raged, during + three days, in Rome, whilst the life of that excellent minister was + defended by the grateful people. Terrified, at length, by the sight of + some houses in flames, and by the threats of a general conflagration, the + people yielded with a sigh, and left the virtuous but unfortunate Ulpian + to his fate. He was pursued into the Imperial palace, and massacred at the + feet of his master, who vainly strove to cover him with the purple, and to + obtain his pardon from the inexorable soldiers. * Such was the deplorable + weakness of government, that the emperor was unable to revenge his + murdered friend and his insulted dignity, without stooping to the arts of + patience and dissimulation. Epagathus, the principal leader of the mutiny, + was removed from Rome, by the honorable employment of præfect of + Egypt: from that high rank he was gently degraded to the government of + Crete; and when at length, his popularity among the guards was effaced by + time and absence, Alexander ventured to inflict the tardy but deserved + punishment of his crimes. Under the reign of a just and virtuous prince, + the tyranny of the army threatened with instant death his most faithful + ministers, who were suspected of an intention to correct their intolerable + disorders. The historian Dion Cassius had commanded the Pannonian legions + with the spirit of ancient discipline. Their brethren of Rome, embracing + the common cause of military license, demanded the head of the reformer. + Alexander, however, instead of yielding to their seditious clamors, showed + a just sense of his merit and services, by appointing him his colleague in + the consulship, and defraying from his own treasury the expense of that + vain dignity: but as was justly apprehended, that if the soldiers beheld + him with the ensigns of his office, they would revenge the insult in his + blood, the nominal first magistrate of the state retired, by the emperor’s + advice, from the city, and spent the greatest part of his consulship at + his villas in Campania. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch6-p4" id="linkch6-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The lenity of the emperor confirmed the insolence of the troops; the + legions imitated the example of the guards, and defended their prerogative + of licentiousness with the same furious obstinacy. The administration of + Alexander was an unavailing struggle against the corruption of his age. In + llyricum, in Mauritania, in Armenia, in Mesopotamia, in Germany, fresh + mutinies perpetually broke out; his officers were murdered, his authority + was insulted, and his life at last sacrificed to the fierce discontents of + the army. One particular fact well deserves to be recorded, as it + illustrates the manners of the troops, and exhibits a singular instance of + their return to a sense of duty and obedience. Whilst the emperor lay at + Antioch, in his Persian expedition, the particulars of which we shall + hereafter relate, the punishment of some soldiers, who had been discovered + in the baths of women, excited a sedition in the legion to which they + belonged. Alexander ascended his tribunal, and with a modest firmness + represented to the armed multitude the absolute necessity, as well as his + inflexible resolution, of correcting the vices introduced by his impure + predecessor, and of maintaining the discipline, which could not be relaxed + without the ruin of the Roman name and empire. Their clamors interrupted + his mild expostulation. “Reserve your shout,” said the undaunted emperor, + “till you take the field against the Persians, the Germans, and the + Sarmatians. Be silent in the presence of your sovereign and benefactor, + who bestows upon you the corn, the clothing, and the money of the + provinces. Be silent, or I shall no longer style you soldiers , but <i>citizens</i>, + if those indeed who disclaim the laws of Rome deserve to be ranked among + the meanest of the people.” His menaces inflamed the fury of the legion, + and their brandished arms already threatened his person. “Your courage,” + resumed the intrepid Alexander, “would be more nobly displayed in the + field of battle; <i>me</i> you may destroy, you cannot intimidate; and + the severe justice of the republic would punish your crime and revenge my + death.” The legion still persisted in clamorous sedition, when the emperor + pronounced, with a loud voice, the decisive sentence, “<i>Citizens!</i> + lay down your arms, and depart in peace to your respective habitations.” + The tempest was instantly appeased: the soldiers, filled with grief and + shame, silently confessed the justice of their punishment, and the power + of discipline, yielded up their arms and military ensigns, and retired in + confusion, not to their camp, but to the several inns of the city. + Alexander enjoyed, during thirty days, the edifying spectacle of their + repentance; nor did he restore them to their former rank in the army, till + he had punished with death those tribunes whose connivance had occasioned + the mutiny. The grateful legion served the emperor whilst living, and + revenged him when dead. + </p> + <p> + The resolutions of the multitude generally depend on a moment; and the + caprice of passion might equally determine the seditious legion to lay + down their arms at the emperor’s feet, or to plunge them into his breast. + Perhaps, if this singular transaction had been investigated by the + penetration of a philosopher, we should discover the secret causes which + on that occasion authorized the boldness of the prince, and commanded the + obedience of the troops; and perhaps, if it had been related by a + judicious historian, we should find this action, worthy of Cæsar + himself, reduced nearer to the level of probability and the common + standard of the character of Alexander Severus. The abilities of that + amiable prince seem to have been inadequate to the difficulties of his + situation, the firmness of his conduct inferior to the purity of his + intentions. His virtues, as well as the vices of Elagabalus, contracted a + tincture of weakness and effeminacy from the soft climate of Syria, of + which he was a native; though he blushed at his foreign origin, and + listened with a vain complacency to the flattering genealogists, who + derived his race from the ancient stock of Roman nobility. The pride and + avarice of his mother cast a shade on the glories of his reign; and by + exacting from his riper years the same dutiful obedience which she had + justly claimed from his unexperienced youth, Mamæa exposed to public + ridicule both her son’s character and her own. The fatigues of the Persian + war irritated the military discontent; the unsuccessful event * degraded + the reputation of the emperor as a general, and even as a soldier. Every + cause prepared, and every circumstance hastened, a revolution, which + distracted the Roman empire with a long series of intestine calamities. + </p> + <p> + The dissolute tyranny of Commodus, the civil wars occasioned by his death, + and the new maxims of policy introduced by the house of Severus, had all + contributed to increase the dangerous power of the army, and to obliterate + the faint image of laws and liberty that was still impressed on the minds + of the Romans. The internal change, which undermined the foundations of + the empire, we have endeavored to explain with some degree of order and + perspicuity. The personal characters of the emperors, their victories, + laws, follies, and fortunes, can interest us no farther than as they are + connected with the general history of the Decline and Fall of the + monarchy. Our constant attention to that great object will not suffer us + to overlook a most important edict of Antoninus Caracalla, which + communicated to all the free inhabitants of the empire the name and + privileges of Roman citizens. His unbounded liberality flowed not, + however, from the sentiments of a generous mind; it was the sordid result + of avarice, and will naturally be illustrated by some observations on the + finances of that state, from the victorious ages of the commonwealth to + the reign of Alexander Severus. + </p> + <p> + The siege of Veii in Tuscany, the first considerable enterprise of the + Romans, was protracted to the tenth year, much less by the strength of the + place than by the unskilfulness of the besiegers. The unaccustomed + hardships of so many winter campaigns, at the distance of near twenty + miles from home, required more than common encouragements; and the senate + wisely prevented the clamors of the people, by the institution of a + regular pay for the soldiers, which was levied by a general tribute, + assessed according to an equitable proportion on the property of the + citizens. During more than two hundred years after the conquest of Veii, + the victories of the republic added less to the wealth than to the power + of Rome. The states of Italy paid their tribute in military service only, + and the vast force, both by sea and land, which was exerted in the Punic + wars, was maintained at the expense of the Romans themselves. That + high-spirited people (such is often the generous enthusiasm of freedom) + cheerfully submitted to the most excessive but voluntary burdens, in the + just confidence that they should speedily enjoy the rich harvest of their + labors. Their expectations were not disappointed. In the course of a few + years, the riches of Syracuse, of Carthage, of Macedonia, and of Asia, + were brought in triumph to Rome. The treasures of Perseus alone amounted + to near two millions sterling, and the Roman people, the sovereign of so + many nations, was forever delivered from the weight of taxes. The + increasing revenue of the provinces was found sufficient to defray the + ordinary establishment of war and government, and the superfluous mass of + gold and silver was deposited in the temple of Saturn, and reserved for + any unforeseen emergency of the state. + </p> + <p> + History has never, perhaps, suffered a greater or more irreparable injury + than in the loss of the curious register * bequeathed by Augustus to the + senate, in which that experienced prince so accurately balanced the + revenues and expenses of the Roman empire. Deprived of this clear and + comprehensive estimate, we are reduced to collect a few imperfect hints + from such of the ancients as have accidentally turned aside from the + splendid to the more useful parts of history. We are informed that, by the + conquests of Pompey, the tributes of Asia were raised from fifty to one + hundred and thirty-five millions of drachms; or about four millions and a + half sterling. Under the last and most indolent of the Ptolemies, the + revenue of Egypt is said to have amounted to twelve thousand five hundred + talents; a sum equivalent to more than two millions and a half of our + money, but which was afterwards considerably improved by the more exact + economy of the Romans, and the increase of the trade of Æthiopia and + India. Gaul was enriched by rapine, as Egypt was by commerce, and the + tributes of those two great provinces have been compared as nearly equal + to each other in value. The ten thousand Euboic or Phœnician talents, about + four millions sterling, which vanquished Carthage was condemned to pay + within the term of fifty years, were a slight acknowledgment of the + superiority of Rome, and cannot bear the least proportion with the taxes + afterwards raised both on the lands and on the persons of the inhabitants, + when the fertile coast of Africa was reduced into a province. + </p> + <p> + Spain, by a very singular fatality, was the Peru and Mexico of the old + world. The discovery of the rich western continent by the Phœnicians, and + the oppression of the simple natives, who were compelled to labor in their + own mines for the benefit of strangers, form an exact type of the more + recent history of Spanish America. The Phœnicians were acquainted only with + the sea-coast of Spain; avarice, as well as ambition, carried the arms of + Rome and Carthage into the heart of the country, and almost every part of + the soil was found pregnant with copper, silver, and gold. * Mention is + made of a mine near Carthagena which yielded every day twenty-five + thousand drachmas of silver, or about three hundred thousand pounds a + year. Twenty thousand pound weight of gold was annually received from the + provinces of Asturia, Gallicia, and Lusitania. + </p> + <p> + We want both leisure and materials to pursue this curious inquiry through + the many potent states that were annihilated in the Roman empire. Some + notion, however, may be formed of the revenue of the provinces where + considerable wealth had been deposited by nature, or collected by man, if + we observe the severe attention that was directed to the abodes of + solitude and sterility. Augustus once received a petition from the + inhabitants of Gyarus, humbly praying that they might be relieved from one + third of their excessive impositions. Their whole tax amounted indeed to + no more than one hundred and fifty drachms, or about five pounds: but + Gyarus was a little island, or rather a rock, of the Ægean Sea, + destitute of fresh water and every necessary of life, and inhabited only + by a few wretched fishermen. + </p> + <p> + From the faint glimmerings of such doubtful and scattered lights, we + should be inclined to believe, 1st, That (with every fair allowance for + the differences of times and circumstances) the general income of the + Roman provinces could seldom amount to less than fifteen or twenty + millions of our money; and, 2dly, That so ample a revenue must have been + fully adequate to all the expenses of the moderate government instituted + by Augustus, whose court was the modest family of a private senator, and + whose military establishment was calculated for the defence of the + frontiers, without any aspiring views of conquest, or any serious + apprehension of a foreign invasion. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the seeming probability of both these conclusions, the + latter of them at least is positively disowned by the language and conduct + of Augustus. It is not easy to determine whether, on this occasion, he + acted as the common father of the Roman world, or as the oppressor of + liberty; whether he wished to relieve the provinces, or to impoverish the + senate and the equestrian order. But no sooner had he assumed the reins of + government, than he frequently intimated the insufficiency of the + tributes, and the necessity of throwing an equitable proportion of the + public burden upon Rome and Italy. In the prosecution of this unpopular + design, he advanced, however, by cautious and well-weighed steps. The + introduction of customs was followed by the establishment of an excise, + and the scheme of taxation was completed by an artful assessment on the + real and personal property of the Roman citizens, who had been exempted + from any kind of contribution above a century and a half. + </p> + <p> + I. In a great empire like that of Rome, a natural balance of money must + have gradually established itself. It has been already observed, that as + the wealth of the provinces was attracted to the capital by the strong + hand of conquest and power, so a considerable part of it was restored to + the industrious provinces by the gentle influence of commerce and arts. In + the reign of Augustus and his successors, duties were imposed on every + kind of merchandise, which through a thousand channels flowed to the great + centre of opulence and luxury; and in whatsoever manner the law was + expressed, it was the Roman purchaser, and not the provincial merchant, + who paid the tax. The rate of the customs varied from the eighth to the + fortieth part of the value of the commodity; and we have a right to + suppose that the variation was directed by the unalterable maxims of + policy; that a higher duty was fixed on the articles of luxury than on + those of necessity, and that the productions raised or manufactured by the + labor of the subjects of the empire were treated with more indulgence than + was shown to the pernicious, or at least the unpopular, commerce of Arabia + and India. There is still extant a long but imperfect catalogue of eastern + commodities, which about the time of Alexander Severus were subject to the + payment of duties; cinnamon, myrrh, pepper, ginger, and the whole tribe of + aromatics; a great variety of precious stones, among which the diamond was + the most remarkable for its price, and the emerald for its beauty; + Parthian and Babylonian leather, cottons, silks, both raw and + manufactured, ebony ivory, and eunuchs. We may observe that the use and + value of those effeminate slaves gradually rose with the decline of the + empire. + </p> + <p> + II. The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, was extremely + moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded one per cent.; but it + comprehended whatever was sold in the markets or by public auction, from + the most considerable purchases of lands and houses, to those minute + objects which can only derive a value from their infinite multitude and + daily consumption. Such a tax, as it affects the body of the people, has + ever been the occasion of clamor and discontent. An emperor well + acquainted with the wants and resources of the state was obliged to + declare, by a public edict, that the support of the army depended in a + great measure on the produce of the excise.* + </p> + <p> + III. When Augustus resolved to establish a permanent military force for + the defence of his government against foreign and domestic enemies, he + instituted a peculiar treasury for the pay of the soldiers, the rewards of + the veterans, and the extra-ordinary expenses of war. The ample revenue of + the excise, though peculiarly appropriated to those uses, was found + inadequate. To supply the deficiency, the emperor suggested a new tax of + five per cent. on all legacies and inheritances. But the nobles of Rome + were more tenacious of property than of freedom. Their indignant murmurs + were received by Augustus with his usual temper. He candidly referred the + whole business to the senate, and exhorted them to provide for the public + service by some other expedient of a less odious nature. They were divided + and perplexed. He insinuated to them, that their obstinacy would oblige + him to <i>propose</i> a general land tax and capitation. They acquiesced in + silence. The new imposition on legacies and inheritances was, however, + mitigated by some restrictions. It did not take place unless the object + was of a certain value, most probably of fifty or a hundred pieces of + gold; nor could it be exacted from the nearest of kin on the father’s + side. When the rights of nature and property were thus secured, it seemed + reasonable, that a stranger, or a distant relation, who acquired an + unexpected accession of fortune, should cheerfully resign a twentieth part + of it, for the benefit of the state. + </p> + <p> + Such a tax, plentiful as it must prove in every wealthy community, was + most happily suited to the situation of the Romans, who could frame their + arbitrary wills, according to the dictates of reason or caprice, without + any restraint from the modern fetters of entails and settlements. From + various causes, the partiality of paternal affection often lost its + influence over the stern patriots of the commonwealth, and the dissolute + nobles of the empire; and if the father bequeathed to his son the fourth + part of his estate, he removed all ground of legal complaint. But a rich + childish old man was a domestic tyrant, and his power increased with his + years and infirmities. A servile crowd, in which he frequently reckoned prætors + and consuls, courted his smiles, pampered his avarice, applauded his + follies, served his passions, and waited with impatience for his death. + The arts of attendance and flattery were formed into a most lucrative + science; those who professed it acquired a peculiar appellation; and the + whole city, according to the lively descriptions of satire, was divided + between two parties, the hunters and their game. Yet, while so many unjust + and extravagant wills were every day dictated by cunning and subscribed by + folly, a few were the result of rational esteem and virtuous gratitude. + Cicero, who had so often defended the lives and fortunes of his + fellow-citizens, was rewarded with legacies to the amount of a hundred and + seventy thousand pounds; nor do the friends of the younger Pliny seem to + have been less generous to that amiable orator. Whatever was the motive of + the testator, the treasury claimed, without distinction, the twentieth + part of his estate: and in the course of two or three generations, the + whole property of the subject must have gradually passed through the + coffers of the state. + </p> + <p> + In the first and golden years of the reign of Nero, that prince, from a + desire of popularity, and perhaps from a blind impulse of benevolence, + conceived a wish of abolishing the oppression of the customs and excise. + The wisest senators applauded his magnanimity: but they diverted him from + the execution of a design which would have dissolved the strength and + resources of the republic. Had it indeed been possible to realize this + dream of fancy, such princes as Trajan and the Antonines would surely have + embraced with ardor the glorious opportunity of conferring so signal an + obligation on mankind. Satisfied, however, with alleviating the public + burden, they attempted not to remove it. The mildness and precision of + their laws ascertained the rule and measure of taxation, and protected the + subject of every rank against arbitrary interpretations, antiquated + claims, and the insolent vexation of the farmers of the revenue. For it is + somewhat singular, that, in every age, the best and wisest of the Roman + governors persevered in this pernicious method of collecting the principal + branches at least of the excise and customs. + </p> + <p> + The sentiments, and, indeed, the situation, of Caracalla were very + different from those of the Antonines. Inattentive, or rather averse, to + the welfare of his people, he found himself under the necessity of + gratifying the insatiate avarice which he had excited in the army. Of the + several impositions introduced by Augustus, the twentieth on inheritances + and legacies was the most fruitful, as well as the most comprehensive. As + its influence was not confined to Rome or Italy, the produce continually + increased with the gradual extension of the Roman City. The new citizens, + though charged, on equal terms, with the payment of new taxes, which had + not affected them as subjects, derived an ample compensation from the rank + they obtained, the privileges they acquired, and the fair prospect of + honors and fortune that was thrown open to their ambition. But the favor + which implied a distinction was lost in the prodigality of Caracalla, and + the reluctant provincials were compelled to assume the vain title, and the + real obligations, of Roman citizens. * Nor was the rapacious son of + Severus contented with such a measure of taxation as had appeared + sufficient to his moderate predecessors. Instead of a twentieth, he + exacted a tenth of all legacies and inheritances; and during his reign + (for the ancient proportion was restored after his death) he crushed alike + every part of the empire under the weight of his iron sceptre. + </p> + <p> + When all the provincials became liable to the peculiar impositions of + Roman citizens, they seemed to acquire a legal exemption from the tributes + which they had paid in their former condition of subjects. Such were not + the maxims of government adopted by Caracalla and his pretended son. The + old as well as the new taxes were, at the same time, levied in the + provinces. It was reserved for the virtue of Alexander to relieve them in + a great measure from this intolerable grievance, by reducing the tributes + to a thirteenth part of the sum exacted at the time of his accession. It + is impossible to conjecture the motive that engaged him to spare so + trifling a remnant of the public evil; but the noxious weed, which had not + been totally eradicated, again sprang up with the most luxuriant growth, + and in the succeeding age darkened the Roman world with its deadly shade. + In the course of this history, we shall be too often summoned to explain + the land tax, the capitation, and the heavy contributions of corn, wine, + oil, and meat, which were exacted from the provinces for the use of the + court, the army, and the capital. + </p> + <p> + As long as Rome and Italy were respected as the centre of government, a + national spirit was preserved by the ancient, and insensibly imbibed by + the adopted, citizens. The principal commands of the army were filled by + men who had received a liberal education, were well instructed in the + advantages of laws and letters, and who had risen, by equal steps, through + the regular succession of civil and military honors. To their influence + and example we may partly ascribe the modest obedience of the legions + during the two first centuries of the Imperial history. + </p> + <p> + But when the last enclosure of the Roman constitution was trampled down by + Caracalla, the separation of professions gradually succeeded to the + distinction of ranks. The more polished citizens of the internal provinces + were alone qualified to act as lawyers and magistrates. The rougher trade + of arms was abandoned to the peasants and barbarians of the frontiers, who + knew no country but their camp, no science but that of war, no civil laws, + and scarcely those of military discipline. With bloody hands, savage + manners, and desperate resolutions, they sometimes guarded, but much + oftener subverted, the throne of the emperors. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch7-p1" id="linkch7-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa +And Italy, Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And +Seditions.—Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus +And Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians.—Usurpation And +Secular Games Of Philip. +</pre> + <p> + Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the world, an + hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope for ridicule. Is it + possible to relate without an indignant smile, that, on the father’s + decease, the property of a nation, like that of a drove of oxen, descends + to his infant son, as yet unknown to mankind and to himself; and that the + bravest warriors and the wisest statesmen, relinquishing their natural + right to empire, approach the royal cradle with bended knees and + protestations of inviolable fidelity? Satire and declamation may paint + these obvious topics in the most dazzling colors, but our more serious + thoughts will respect a useful prejudice, that establishes a rule of + succession, independent of the passions of mankind; and we shall + cheerfully acquiesce in any expedient which deprives the multitude of the + dangerous, and indeed the ideal, power of giving themselves a master. + </p> + <p> + In the cool shade of retirement, we may easily devise imaginary forms of + government, in which the sceptre shall be constantly bestowed on the most + worthy, by the free and incorrupt suffrage of the whole community. + Experience overturns these airy fabrics, and teaches us, that in a large + society, the election of a monarch can never devolve to the wisest, or to + the most numerous part of the people. The army is the only order of men + sufficiently united to concur in the same sentiments, and powerful enough + to impose them on the rest of their fellow-citizens; but the temper of + soldiers, habituated at once to violence and to slavery, renders them very + unfit guardians of a legal, or even a civil constitution. Justice, + humanity, or political wisdom, are qualities they are too little + acquainted with in themselves, to appreciate them in others. Valor will + acquire their esteem, and liberality will purchase their suffrage; but the + first of these merits is often lodged in the most savage breasts; the + latter can only exert itself at the expense of the public; and both may be + turned against the possessor of the throne, by the ambition of a daring + rival. + </p> + <p> + The superior prerogative of birth, when it has obtained the sanction of + time and popular opinion, is the plainest and least invidious of all + distinctions among mankind. The acknowledged right extinguishes the hopes + of faction, and the conscious security disarms the cruelty of the monarch. + To the firm establishment of this idea we owe the peaceful succession and + mild administration of European monarchies. To the defect of it we must + attribute the frequent civil wars, through which an Asiatic despot is + obliged to cut his way to the throne of his fathers. Yet, even in the + East, the sphere of contention is usually limited to the princes of the + reigning house, and as soon as the more fortunate competitor has removed + his brethren by the sword and the bowstring, he no longer entertains any + jealousy of his meaner subjects. But the Roman empire, after the authority + of the senate had sunk into contempt, was a vast scene of confusion. The + royal, and even noble, families of the provinces had long since been led + in triumph before the car of the haughty republicans. The ancient families + of Rome had successively fallen beneath the tyranny of the Cæsars; + and whilst those princes were shackled by the forms of a commonwealth, and + disappointed by the repeated failure of their posterity, it was impossible + that any idea of hereditary succession should have taken root in the minds + of their subjects. The right to the throne, which none could claim from + birth, every one assumed from merit. The daring hopes of ambition were set + loose from the salutary restraints of law and prejudice; and the meanest + of mankind might, without folly, entertain a hope of being raised by valor + and fortune to a rank in the army, in which a single crime would enable + him to wrest the sceptre of the world from his feeble and unpopular + master. After the murder of Alexander Severus, and the elevation of + Maximin, no emperor could think himself safe upon the throne, and every + barbarian peasant of the frontier might aspire to that august, but + dangerous station. + </p> + <p> + About thirty-two years before that event, the emperor Severus, returning + from an eastern expedition, halted in Thrace, to celebrate, with military + games, the birthday of his younger son, Geta. The country flocked in + crowds to behold their sovereign, and a young barbarian of gigantic + stature earnestly solicited, in his rude dialect, that he might be allowed + to contend for the prize of wrestling. As the pride of discipline would + have been disgraced in the overthrow of a Roman soldier by a Thracian + peasant, he was matched with the stoutest followers of the camp, sixteen + of whom he successively laid on the ground. His victory was rewarded by + some trifling gifts, and a permission to enlist in the troops. The next + day, the happy barbarian was distinguished above a crowd of recruits, + dancing and exulting after the fashion of his country. As soon as he + perceived that he had attracted the emperor’s notice, he instantly ran up + to his horse, and followed him on foot, without the least appearance of + fatigue, in a long and rapid career. “Thracian,” said Severus with + astonishment, “art thou disposed to wrestle after thy race?” “Most + willingly, sir,” replied the unwearied youth; and, almost in a breath, + overthrew seven of the strongest soldiers in the army. A gold collar was + the prize of his matchless vigor and activity, and he was immediately + appointed to serve in the horseguards who always attended on the person of + the sovereign. + </p> + <p> + Maximin, for that was his name, though born on the territories of the + empire, descended from a mixed race of barbarians. His father was a Goth, + and his mother of the nation of the Alani. He displayed on every occasion + a valor equal to his strength; and his native fierceness was soon tempered + or disguised by the knowledge of the world. Under the reign of Severus and + his son, he obtained the rank of centurion, with the favor and esteem of + both those princes, the former of whom was an excellent judge of merit. + Gratitude forbade Maximin to serve under the assassin of Caracalla. Honor + taught him to decline the effeminate insults of Elagabalus. On the + accession of Alexander he returned to court, and was placed by that prince + in a station useful to the service, and honorable to himself. The fourth + legion, to which he was appointed tribune, soon became, under his care, + the best disciplined of the whole army. With the general applause of the + soldiers, who bestowed on their favorite hero the names of Ajax and + Hercules, he was successively promoted to the first military command; and + had not he still retained too much of his savage origin, the emperor might + perhaps have given his own sister in marriage to the son of Maximin. + </p> + <p> + Instead of securing his fidelity, these favors served only to inflame the + ambition of the Thracian peasant, who deemed his fortune inadequate to his + merit, as long as he was constrained to acknowledge a superior. Though a + stranger to real wisdom, he was not devoid of a selfish cunning, which + showed him that the emperor had lost the affection of the army, and taught + him to improve their discontent to his own advantage. It is easy for + faction and calumny to shed their poison on the administration of the best + of princes, and to accuse even their virtues by artfully confounding them + with those vices to which they bear the nearest affinity. The troops + listened with pleasure to the emissaries of Maximin. They blushed at their + own ignominious patience, which, during thirteen years, had supported the + vexatious discipline imposed by an effeminate Syrian, the timid slave of + his mother and of the senate. It was time, they cried, to cast away that + useless phantom of the civil power, and to elect for their prince and + general a real soldier, educated in camps, exercised in war, who would + assert the glory, and distribute among his companions the treasures, of + the empire. A great army was at that time assembled on the banks of the + Rhine, under the command of the emperor himself, who, almost immediately + after his return from the Persian war, had been obliged to march against + the barbarians of Germany. The important care of training and reviewing + the new levies was intrusted to Maximin. One day, as he entered the field + of exercise, the troops, either from a sudden impulse, or a formed + conspiracy, saluted him emperor, silenced by their loud acclamations his + obstinate refusal, and hastened to consummate their rebellion by the + murder of Alexander Severus. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances of his death are variously related. The writers, who + suppose that he died in ignorance of the ingratitude and ambition of + Maximin affirm that, after taking a frugal repast in the sight of the + army, he retired to sleep, and that, about the seventh hour of the day, a + part of his own guards broke into the imperial tent, and, with many + wounds, assassinated their virtuous and unsuspecting prince. If we credit + another, and indeed a more probable account, Maximin was invested with the + purple by a numerous detachment, at the distance of several miles from the + head-quarters; and he trusted for success rather to the secret wishes than + to the public declarations of the great army. Alexander had sufficient + time to awaken a faint sense of loyalty among the troops; but their + reluctant professions of fidelity quickly vanished on the appearance of + Maximin, who declared himself the friend and advocate of the military + order, and was unanimously acknowledged emperor of the Romans by the + applauding legions. The son of Mamæa, betrayed and deserted, + withdrew into his tent, desirous at least to conceal his approaching fate + from the insults of the multitude. He was soon followed by a tribune and + some centurions, the ministers of death; but instead of receiving with + manly resolution the inevitable stroke, his unavailing cries and + entreaties disgraced the last moments of his life, and converted into + contempt some portion of the just pity which his innocence and misfortunes + must inspire. His mother, Mamæa, whose pride and avarice he loudly + accused as the cause of his ruin, perished with her son. The most faithful + of his friends were sacrificed to the first fury of the soldiers. Others + were reserved for the more deliberate cruelty of the usurper; and those + who experienced the mildest treatment, were stripped of their employments, + and ignominiously driven from the court and army. + </p> + <p> + The former tyrants, Caligula and Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla, were all + dissolute and unexperienced youths, educated in the purple, and corrupted + by the pride of empire, the luxury of Rome, and the perfidious voice of + flattery. The cruelty of Maximin was derived from a different source, the + fear of contempt. Though he depended on the attachment of the soldiers, + who loved him for virtues like their own, he was conscious that his mean + and barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his total ignorance of + the arts and institutions of civil life, formed a very unfavorable + contrast with the amiable manners of the unhappy Alexander. He remembered, + that, in his humbler fortune, he had often waited before the door of the + haughty nobles of Rome, and had been denied admittance by the insolence of + their slaves. He recollected too the friendship of a few who had relieved + his poverty, and assisted his rising hopes. But those who had spurned, and + those who had protected, the Thracian, were guilty of the same crime, the + knowledge of his original obscurity. For this crime many were put to + death; and by the execution of several of his benefactors, Maximin + published, in characters of blood, the indelible history of his baseness + and ingratitude. + </p> + <p> + The dark and sanguinary soul of the tyrant was open to every suspicion + against those among his subjects who were the most distinguished by their + birth or merit. Whenever he was alarmed with the sound of treason, his + cruelty was unbounded and unrelenting. A conspiracy against his life was + either discovered or imagined, and Magnus, a consular senator, was named + as the principal author of it. Without a witness, without a trial, and + without an opportunity of defence, Magnus, with four thousand of his + supposed accomplices, was put to death. Italy and the whole empire were + infested with innumerable spies and informers. On the slightest + accusation, the first of the Roman nobles, who had governed provinces, + commanded armies, and been adorned with the consular and triumphal + ornaments, were chained on the public carriages, and hurried away to the + emperor’s presence. Confiscation, exile, or simple death, were esteemed + uncommon instances of his lenity. Some of the unfortunate sufferers he + ordered to be sewed up in the hides of slaughtered animals, others to be + exposed to wild beasts, others again to be beaten to death with clubs. + During the three years of his reign, he disdained to visit either Rome or + Italy. His camp, occasionally removed from the banks of the Rhine to those + of the Danube, was the seat of his stern despotism, which trampled on + every principle of law and justice, and was supported by the avowed power + of the sword. No man of noble birth, elegant accomplishments, or knowledge + of civil business, was suffered near his person; and the court of a Roman + emperor revived the idea of those ancient chiefs of slaves and gladiators, + whose savage power had left a deep impression of terror and detestation. + </p> + <p> + As long as the cruelty of Maximin was confined to the illustrious + senators, or even to the bold adventurers, who in the court or army expose + themselves to the caprice of fortune, the body of the people viewed their + sufferings with indifference, or perhaps with pleasure. But the tyrant’s + avarice, stimulated by the insatiate desires of the soldiers, at length + attacked the public property. Every city of the empire was possessed of an + independent revenue, destined to purchase corn for the multitude, and to + supply the expenses of the games and entertainments. By a single act of + authority, the whole mass of wealth was at once confiscated for the use of + the Imperial treasury. The temples were stripped of their most valuable + offerings of gold and silver, and the statues of gods, heroes, and + emperors, were melted down and coined into money. These impious orders + could not be executed without tumults and massacres, as in many places the + people chose rather to die in the defence of their altars, than to behold + in the midst of peace their cities exposed to the rapine and cruelty of + war. The soldiers themselves, among whom this sacrilegious plunder was + distributed, received it with a blush; and hardened as they were in acts + of violence, they dreaded the just reproaches of their friends and + relations. Throughout the Roman world a general cry of indignation was + heard, imploring vengeance on the common enemy of human kind; and at + length, by an act of private oppression, a peaceful and unarmed province + was driven into rebellion against him. + </p> + <p> + The procurator of Africa was a servant worthy of such a master, who + considered the fines and confiscations of the rich as one of the most + fruitful branches of the Imperial revenue. An iniquitous sentence had been + pronounced against some opulent youths of that country, the execution of + which would have stripped them of far the greater part of their patrimony. + In this extremity, a resolution that must either complete or prevent their + ruin, was dictated by despair. A respite of three days, obtained with + difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was employed in collecting from + their estates a great number of slaves and peasants blindly devoted to the + commands of their lords, and armed with the rustic weapons of clubs and + axes. The leaders of the conspiracy, as they were admitted to the audience + of the procurator, stabbed him with the daggers concealed under their + garments, and, by the assistance of their tumultuary train, seized on the + little town of Thysdrus, and erected the standard of rebellion against the + sovereign of the Roman empire. They rested their hopes on the hatred of + mankind against Maximin, and they judiciously resolved to oppose to that + detested tyrant an emperor whose mild virtues had already acquired the + love and esteem of the Romans, and whose authority over the province would + give weight and stability to the enterprise. Gordianus, their proconsul, + and the object of their choice, refused, with unfeigned reluctance, the + dangerous honor, and begged with tears, that they would suffer him to + terminate in peace a long and innocent life, without staining his feeble + age with civil blood. Their menaces compelled him to accept the Imperial + purple, his only refuge, indeed, against the jealous cruelty of Maximin; + since, according to the reasoning of tyrants, those who have been esteemed + worthy of the throne deserve death, and those who deliberate have already + rebelled. + </p> + <p> + The family of Gordianus was one of the most illustrious of the Roman + senate. On the father’s side he was descended from the Gracchi; on his + mother’s, from the emperor Trajan. A great estate enabled him to support + the dignity of his birth, and in the enjoyment of it, he displayed an + elegant taste and beneficent disposition. The palace in Rome, formerly + inhabited by the great Pompey, had been, during several generations, in + the possession of Gordian’s family. It was distinguished by ancient + trophies of naval victories, and decorated with the works of modern + painting. His villa on the road to Præneste was celebrated for baths + of singular beauty and extent, for three stately rooms of a hundred feet + in length, and for a magnificent portico, supported by two hundred columns + of the four most curious and costly sorts of marble. The public shows + exhibited at his expense, and in which the people were entertained with + many hundreds of wild beasts and gladiators, seem to surpass the fortune + of a subject; and whilst the liberality of other magistrates was confined + to a few solemn festivals at Rome, the magnificence of Gordian was + repeated, when he was ædile, every month in the year, and extended, + during his consulship, to the principal cities of Italy. He was twice + elevated to the last-mentioned dignity, by Caracalla and by Alexander; for + he possessed the uncommon talent of acquiring the esteem of virtuous + princes, without alarming the jealousy of tyrants. His long life was + innocently spent in the study of letters and the peaceful honors of Rome; + and, till he was named proconsul of Africa by the voice of the senate and + the approbation of Alexander, he appears prudently to have declined the + command of armies and the government of provinces. * As long as that + emperor lived, Africa was happy under the administration of his worthy + representative: after the barbarous Maximin had usurped the throne, + Gordianus alleviated the miseries which he was unable to prevent. When he + reluctantly accepted the purple, he was above fourscore years old; a last + and valuable remains of the happy age of the Antonines, whose virtues he + revived in his own conduct, and celebrated in an elegant poem of thirty + books. With the venerable proconsul, his son, who had accompanied him into + Africa as his lieutenant, was likewise declared emperor. His manners were + less pure, but his character was equally amiable with that of his father. + Twenty-two acknowledged concubines, and a library of sixty-two thousand + volumes, attested the variety of his inclinations; and from the + productions which he left behind him, it appears that the former as well + as the latter were designed for use rather than for ostentation. The Roman + people acknowledged in the features of the younger Gordian the resemblance + of Scipio Africanus, recollected with pleasure that his mother was the + granddaughter of Antoninus Pius, and rested the public hope on those + latent virtues which had hitherto, as they fondly imagined, lain concealed + in the luxurious indolence of private life. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the Gordians had appeased the first tumult of a popular + election, they removed their court to Carthage. They were received with + the acclamations of the Africans, who honored their virtues, and who, + since the visit of Hadrian, had never beheld the majesty of a Roman + emperor. But these vain acclamations neither strengthened nor confirmed + the title of the Gordians. They were induced by principle, as well as + interest, to solicit the approbation of the senate; and a deputation of + the noblest provincials was sent, without delay, to Rome, to relate and + justify the conduct of their countrymen, who, having long suffered with + patience, were at length resolved to act with vigor. The letters of the + new princes were modest and respectful, excusing the necessity which had + obliged them to accept the Imperial title; but submitting their election + and their fate to the supreme judgment of the senate. + </p> + <p> + The inclinations of the senate were neither doubtful nor divided. The + birth and noble alliances of the Gordians had intimately connected them + with the most illustrious houses of Rome. Their fortune had created many + dependants in that assembly, their merit had acquired many friends. Their + mild administration opened the flattering prospect of the restoration, not + only of the civil but even of the republican government. The terror of + military violence, which had first obliged the senate to forget the murder + of Alexander, and to ratify the election of a barbarian peasant, now + produced a contrary effect, and provoked them to assert the injured rights + of freedom and humanity. The hatred of Maximin towards the senate was + declared and implacable; the tamest submission had not appeased his fury, + the most cautious innocence would not remove his suspicions; and even the + care of their own safety urged them to share the fortune of an enterprise, + of which (if unsuccessful) they were sure to be the first victims. These + considerations, and perhaps others of a more private nature, were debated + in a previous conference of the consuls and the magistrates. As soon as + their resolution was decided, they convoked in the temple of Castor the + whole body of the senate, according to an ancient form of secrecy, + calculated to awaken their attention, and to conceal their decrees. + “Conscript fathers,” said the consul Syllanus, “the two Gordians, both of + consular dignity, the one your proconsul, the other your lieutenant, have + been declared emperors by the general consent of Africa. Let us return + thanks,” he boldly continued, “to the youth of Thysdrus; let us return + thanks to the faithful people of Carthage, our generous deliverers from a + horrid monster—Why do you hear me thus coolly, thus timidly? Why do + you cast those anxious looks on each other? Why hesitate? Maximin is a + public enemy! may his enmity soon expire with him, and may we long enjoy + the prudence and felicity of Gordian the father, the valor and constancy + of Gordian the son!” The noble ardor of the consul revived the languid + spirit of the senate. By a unanimous decree, the election of the Gordians + was ratified, Maximin, his son, and his adherents, were pronounced enemies + of their country, and liberal rewards were offered to whomsoever had the + courage and good fortune to destroy them. + </p> + <p> + During the emperor’s absence, a detachment of the Prætorian guards + remained at Rome, to protect, or rather to command, the capital. The præfect + Vitalianus had signalized his fidelity to Maximin, by the alacrity with + which he had obeyed, and even prevented the cruel mandates of the tyrant. + His death alone could rescue the authority of the senate, and the lives of + the senators from a state of danger and suspense. Before their resolves + had transpired, a quæstor and some tribunes were commissioned to + take his devoted life. They executed the order with equal boldness and + success; and, with their bloody daggers in their hands, ran through the + streets, proclaiming to the people and the soldiers the news of the happy + revolution. The enthusiasm of liberty was seconded by the promise of a + large donative, in lands and money; the statues of Maximin were thrown + down; the capital of the empire acknowledged, with transport, the + authority of the two Gordians and the senate; and the example of Rome was + followed by the rest of Italy. + </p> + <p> + A new spirit had arisen in that assembly, whose long patience had been + insulted by wanton despotism and military license. The senate assumed the + reins of government, and, with a calm intrepidity, prepared to vindicate + by arms the cause of freedom. Among the consular senators recommended by + their merit and services to the favor of the emperor Alexander, it was + easy to select twenty, not unequal to the command of an army, and the + conduct of a war. To these was the defence of Italy intrusted. Each was + appointed to act in his respective department, authorized to enroll and + discipline the Italian youth; and instructed to fortify the ports and + highways, against the impending invasion of Maximin. A number of deputies, + chosen from the most illustrious of the senatorian and equestrian orders, + were despatched at the same time to the governors of the several + provinces, earnestly conjuring them to fly to the assistance of their + country, and to remind the nations of their ancient ties of friendship + with the Roman senate and people. The general respect with which these + deputies were received, and the zeal of Italy and the provinces in favor + of the senate, sufficiently prove that the subjects of Maximin were + reduced to that uncommon distress, in which the body of the people has + more to fear from oppression than from resistance. The consciousness of + that melancholy truth, inspires a degree of persevering fury, seldom to be + found in those civil wars which are artificially supported for the benefit + of a few factious and designing leaders. + </p> + <p> + For while the cause of the Gordians was embraced with such diffusive + ardor, the Gordians themselves were no more. The feeble court of Carthage + was alarmed by the rapid approach of Capelianus, governor of Mauritania, + who, with a small band of veterans, and a fierce host of barbarians, + attacked a faithful, but unwarlike province. The younger Gordian sallied + out to meet the enemy at the head of a few guards, and a numerous + undisciplined multitude, educated in the peaceful luxury of Carthage. His + useless valor served only to procure him an honorable death on the field + of battle. His aged father, whose reign had not exceeded thirty-six days, + put an end to his life on the first news of the defeat. Carthage, + destitute of defence, opened her gates to the conqueror, and Africa was + exposed to the rapacious cruelty of a slave, obliged to satisfy his + unrelenting master with a large account of blood and treasure. + </p> + <p> + The fate of the Gordians filled Rome with just but unexpected terror. The + senate, convoked in the temple of Concord, affected to transact the common + business of the day; and seemed to decline, with trembling anxiety, the + consideration of their own and the public danger. A silent consternation + prevailed in the assembly, till a senator, of the name and family of + Trajan, awakened his brethren from their fatal lethargy. He represented to + them that the choice of cautious, dilatory measures had been long since + out of their power; that Maximin, implacable by nature, and exasperated by + injuries, was advancing towards Italy, at the head of the military force + of the empire; and that their only remaining alternative was either to + meet him bravely in the field, or tamely to expect the tortures and + ignominious death reserved for unsuccessful rebellion. “We have lost,” + continued he, “two excellent princes; but unless we desert ourselves, the + hopes of the republic have not perished with the Gordians. Many are the + senators whose virtues have deserved, and whose abilities would sustain, + the Imperial dignity. Let us elect two emperors, one of whom may conduct + the war against the public enemy, whilst his colleague remains at Rome to + direct the civil administration. I cheerfully expose myself to the danger + and envy of the nomination, and give my vote in favor of Maximus and + Balbinus. Ratify my choice, conscript fathers, or appoint in their place, + others more worthy of the empire.” The general apprehension silenced the + whispers of jealousy; the merit of the candidates was universally + acknowledged; and the house resounded with the sincere acclamations of + “Long life and victory to the emperors Maximus and Balbinus. You are happy + in the judgment of the senate; may the republic be happy under your + administration!” + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch7-p2" id="linkch7-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + The virtues and the reputation of the new emperors justified the most + sanguine hopes of the Romans. The various nature of their talents seemed + to appropriate to each his peculiar department of peace and war, without + leaving room for jealous emulation. Balbinus was an admired orator, a poet + of distinguished fame, and a wise magistrate, who had exercised with + innocence and applause the civil jurisdiction in almost all the interior + provinces of the empire. His birth was noble, his fortune affluent, his + manners liberal and affable. In him the love of pleasure was corrected by + a sense of dignity, nor had the habits of ease deprived him of a capacity + for business. The mind of Maximus was formed in a rougher mould. By his + valor and abilities he had raised himself from the meanest origin to the + first employments of the state and army. His victories over the Sarmatians + and the Germans, the austerity of his life, and the rigid impartiality of + his justice, while he was a Præfect of the city, commanded the + esteem of a people whose affections were engaged in favor of the more + amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had both been consuls, (Balbinus had + twice enjoyed that honorable office,) both had been named among the twenty + lieutenants of the senate; and since the one was sixty and the other + seventy-four years old, they had both attained the full maturity of age + and experience. + </p> + <p> + After the senate had conferred on Maximus and Balbinus an equal portion of + the consular and tribunitian powers, the title of Fathers of their + country, and the joint office of Supreme Pontiff, they ascended to the + Capitol to return thanks to the gods, protectors of Rome. The solemn rites + of sacrifice were disturbed by a sedition of the people. The licentious + multitude neither loved the rigid Maximus, nor did they sufficiently fear + the mild and humane Balbinus. Their increasing numbers surrounded the + temple of Jupiter; with obstinate clamors they asserted their inherent + right of consenting to the election of their sovereign; and demanded, with + an apparent moderation, that, besides the two emperors, chosen by the + senate, a third should be added of the family of the Gordians, as a just + return of gratitude to those princes who had sacrificed their lives for + the republic. At the head of the city-guards, and the youth of the + equestrian order, Maximus and Balbinus attempted to cut their way through + the seditious multitude. The multitude, armed with sticks and stones, + drove them back into the Capitol. It is prudent to yield when the contest, + whatever may be the issue of it, must be fatal to both parties. A boy, + only thirteen years of age, the grandson of the elder, and nephew * of the + younger Gordian, was produced to the people, invested with the ornaments + and title of Cæsar. The tumult was appeased by this easy + condescension; and the two emperors, as soon as they had been peaceably + acknowledged in Rome, prepared to defend Italy against the common enemy. + </p> + <p> + Whilst in Rome and Africa, revolutions succeeded each other with such + amazing rapidity, that the mind of Maximin was agitated by the most + furious passions. He is said to have received the news of the rebellion of + the Gordians, and of the decree of the senate against him, not with the + temper of a man, but the rage of a wild beast; which, as it could not + discharge itself on the distant senate, threatened the life of his son, of + his friends, and of all who ventured to approach his person. The grateful + intelligence of the death of the Gordians was quickly followed by the + assurance that the senate, laying aside all hopes of pardon or + accommodation, had substituted in their room two emperors, with whose + merit he could not be unacquainted. Revenge was the only consolation left + to Maximin, and revenge could only be obtained by arms. The strength of + the legions had been assembled by Alexander from all parts of the empire. + Three successful campaigns against the Germans and the Sarmatians, had + raised their fame, confirmed their discipline, and even increased their + numbers, by filling the ranks with the flower of the barbarian youth. The + life of Maximin had been spent in war, and the candid severity of history + cannot refuse him the valor of a soldier, or even the abilities of an + experienced general. It might naturally be expected, that a prince of such + a character, instead of suffering the rebellion to gain stability by + delay, should immediately have marched from the banks of the Danube to + those of the Tyber, and that his victorious army, instigated by contempt + for the senate, and eager to gather the spoils of Italy, should have + burned with impatience to finish the easy and lucrative conquest. Yet as + far as we can trust to the obscure chronology of that period, it appears + that the operations of some foreign war deferred the Italian expedition + till the ensuing spring. From the prudent conduct of Maximin, we may learn + that the savage features of his character have been exaggerated by the + pencil of party, that his passions, however impetuous, submitted to the + force of reason, and that the barbarian possessed something of the + generous spirit of Sylla, who subdued the enemies of Rome before he + suffered himself to revenge his private injuries. + </p> + <p> + When the troops of Maximin, advancing in excellent order, arrived at the + foot of the Julian Alps, they were terrified by the silence and desolation + that reigned on the frontiers of Italy. The villages and open towns had + been abandoned on their approach by the inhabitants, the cattle was driven + away, the provisions removed or destroyed, the bridges broken down, nor + was any thing left which could afford either shelter or subsistence to an + invader. Such had been the wise orders of the generals of the senate: + whose design was to protract the war, to ruin the army of Maximin by the + slow operation of famine, and to consume his strength in the sieges of the + principal cities of Italy, which they had plentifully stored with men and + provisions from the deserted country. Aquileia received and withstood the + first shock of the invasion. The streams that issue from the head of the + Hadriatic Gulf, swelled by the melting of the winter snows, opposed an + unexpected obstacle to the arms of Maximin. At length, on a singular + bridge, constructed with art and difficulty, of large hogsheads, he + transported his army to the opposite bank, rooted up the beautiful + vineyards in the neighborhood of Aquileia, demolished the suburbs, and + employed the timber of the buildings in the engines and towers, with which + on every side he attacked the city. The walls, fallen to decay during the + security of a long peace, had been hastily repaired on this sudden + emergency: but the firmest defence of Aquileia consisted in the constancy + of the citizens; all ranks of whom, instead of being dismayed, were + animated by the extreme danger, and their knowledge of the tyrant’s + unrelenting temper. Their courage was supported and directed by Crispinus + and Menophilus, two of the twenty lieutenants of the senate, who, with a + small body of regular troops, had thrown themselves into the besieged + place. The army of Maximin was repulsed in repeated attacks, his machines + destroyed by showers of artificial fire; and the generous enthusiasm of + the Aquileians was exalted into a confidence of success, by the opinion + that Belenus, their tutelar deity, combated in person in the defence of + his distressed worshippers. + </p> + <p> + The emperor Maximus, who had advanced as far as Ravenna, to secure that + important place, and to hasten the military preparations, beheld the event + of the war in the more faithful mirror of reason and policy. He was too + sensible, that a single town could not resist the persevering efforts of a + great army; and he dreaded, lest the enemy, tired with the obstinate + resistance of Aquileia, should on a sudden relinquish the fruitless siege, + and march directly towards Rome. The fate of the empire and the cause of + freedom must then be committed to the chance of a battle; and what arms + could he oppose to the veteran legions of the Rhine and Danube? Some + troops newly levied among the generous but enervated youth of Italy; and a + body of German auxiliaries, on whose firmness, in the hour of trial, it + was dangerous to depend. In the midst of these just alarms, the stroke of + domestic conspiracy punished the crimes of Maximin, and delivered Rome and + the senate from the calamities that would surely have attended the victory + of an enraged barbarian. + </p> + <p> + The people of Aquileia had scarcely experienced any of the common miseries + of a siege; their magazines were plentifully supplied, and several + fountains within the walls assured them of an inexhaustible resource of + fresh water. The soldiers of Maximin were, on the contrary, exposed to the + inclemency of the season, the contagion of disease, and the horrors of + famine. The open country was ruined, the rivers filled with the slain, and + polluted with blood. A spirit of despair and disaffection began to diffuse + itself among the troops; and as they were cut off from all intelligence, + they easily believed that the whole empire had embraced the cause of the + senate, and that they were left as devoted victims to perish under the + impregnable walls of Aquileia. The fierce temper of the tyrant was + exasperated by disappointments, which he imputed to the cowardice of his + army; and his wanton and ill-timed cruelty, instead of striking terror, + inspired hatred, and a just desire of revenge. A party of Prætorian + guards, who trembled for their wives and children in the camp of Alba, + near Rome, executed the sentence of the senate. Maximin, abandoned by his + guards, was slain in his tent, with his son (whom he had associated to + the honors of the purple), Anulinus the præfect, and the principal + ministers of his tyranny. The sight of their heads, borne on the point of + spears, convinced the citizens of Aquileia that the siege was at an end; + the gates of the city were thrown open, a liberal market was provided for + the hungry troops of Maximin, and the whole army joined in solemn + protestations of fidelity to the senate and the people of Rome, and to + their lawful emperors Maximus and Balbinus. Such was the deserved fate of + a brutal savage, destitute, as he has generally been represented, of every + sentiment that distinguishes a civilized, or even a human being. The body + was suited to the soul. The stature of Maximin exceeded the measure of + eight feet, and circumstances almost incredible are related of his + matchless strength and appetite. Had he lived in a less enlightened age, + tradition and poetry might well have described him as one of those + monstrous giants, whose supernatural power was constantly exerted for the + destruction of mankind. + </p> + <p> + It is easier to conceive than to describe the universal joy of the Roman + world on the fall of the tyrant, the news of which is said to have been + carried in four days from Aquileia to Rome. The return of Maximus was a + triumphal procession; his colleague and young Gordian went out to meet + him, and the three princes made their entry into the capital, attended by + the ambassadors of almost all the cities of Italy, saluted with the + splendid offerings of gratitude and superstition, and received with the + unfeigned acclamations of the senate and people, who persuaded themselves + that a golden age would succeed to an age of iron. The conduct of the two + emperors corresponded with these expectations. They administered justice + in person; and the rigor of the one was tempered by the other’s clemency. + The oppressive taxes with which Maximin had loaded the rights of + inheritance and succession, were repealed, or at least moderated. + Discipline was revived, and with the advice of the senate many wise laws + were enacted by their imperial ministers, who endeavored to restore a + civil constitution on the ruins of military tyranny. “What reward may we + expect for delivering Rome from a monster?” was the question asked by + Maximus, in a moment of freedom and confidence. Balbinus answered it + without hesitation—“The love of the senate, of the people, and of + all mankind.” “Alas!” replied his more penetrating colleague—“alas! + I dread the hatred of the soldiers, and the fatal effects of their + resentment.” His apprehensions were but too well justified by the event. + </p> + <p> + Whilst Maximus was preparing to defend Italy against the common foe, + Balbinus, who remained at Rome, had been engaged in scenes of blood and + intestine discord. Distrust and jealousy reigned in the senate; and even + in the temples where they assembled, every senator carried either open or + concealed arms. In the midst of their deliberations, two veterans of the + guards, actuated either by curiosity or a sinister motive, audaciously + thrust themselves into the house, and advanced by degrees beyond the altar + of Victory. Gallicanus, a consular, and Mæcenas, a Prætorian + senator, viewed with indignation their insolent intrusion: drawing their + daggers, they laid the spies (for such they deemed them) dead at the foot + of the altar, and then, advancing to the door of the senate, imprudently + exhorted the multitude to massacre the Prætorians, as the secret + adherents of the tyrant. Those who escaped the first fury of the tumult + took refuge in the camp, which they defended with superior advantage + against the reiterated attacks of the people, assisted by the numerous + bands of gladiators, the property of opulent nobles. The civil war lasted + many days, with infinite loss and confusion on both sides. When the pipes + were broken that supplied the camp with water, the Prætorians were + reduced to intolerable distress; but in their turn they made desperate + sallies into the city, set fire to a great number of houses, and filled + the streets with the blood of the inhabitants. The emperor Balbinus + attempted, by ineffectual edicts and precarious truces, to reconcile the + factions at Rome. But their animosity, though smothered for a while, burnt + with redoubled violence. The soldiers, detesting the senate and the + people, despised the weakness of a prince, who wanted either the spirit or + the power to command the obedience of his subjects. + </p> + <p> + After the tyrant’s death, his formidable army had acknowledged, from + necessity rather than from choice, the authority of Maximus, who + transported himself without delay to the camp before Aquileia. As soon as + he had received their oath of fidelity, he addressed them in terms full of + mildness and moderation; lamented, rather than arraigned the wild + disorders of the times, and assured the soldiers, that of all their past + conduct the senate would remember only their generous desertion of the + tyrant, and their voluntary return to their duty. Maximus enforced his + exhortations by a liberal donative, purified the camp by a solemn + sacrifice of expiation, and then dismissed the legions to their several + provinces, impressed, as he hoped, with a lively sense of gratitude and + obedience. But nothing could reconcile the haughty spirit of the Prætorians. + They attended the emperors on the memorable day of their public entry into + Rome; but amidst the general acclamations, the sullen, dejected + countenance of the guards sufficiently declared that they considered + themselves as the object, rather than the partners, of the triumph. When + the whole body was united in their camp, those who had served under + Maximin, and those who had remained at Rome, insensibly communicated to + each other their complaints and apprehensions. The emperors chosen by the + army had perished with ignominy; those elected by the senate were seated + on the throne. The long discord between the civil and military powers was + decided by a war, in which the former had obtained a complete victory. The + soldiers must now learn a new doctrine of submission to the senate; and + whatever clemency was affected by that politic assembly, they dreaded a + slow revenge, colored by the name of discipline, and justified by fair + pretences of the public good. But their fate was still in their own hands; + and if they had courage to despise the vain terrors of an impotent + republic, it was easy to convince the world, that those who were masters + of the arms, were masters of the authority, of the state. + </p> + <p> + When the senate elected two princes, it is probable that, besides the + declared reason of providing for the various emergencies of peace and war, + they were actuated by the secret desire of weakening by division the + despotism of the supreme magistrate. Their policy was effectual, but it + proved fatal both to their emperors and to themselves. The jealousy of + power was soon exasperated by the difference of character. Maximus + despised Balbinus as a luxurious noble, and was in his turn disdained by + his colleague as an obscure soldier. Their silent discord was understood + rather than seen; but the mutual consciousness prevented them from uniting + in any vigorous measures of defence against their common enemies of the Prætorian + camp. The whole city was employed in the Capitoline games, and the + emperors were left almost alone in the palace. On a sudden, they were + alarmed by the approach of a troop of desperate assassins. Ignorant of + each other’s situation or designs (for they already occupied very distant + apartments), afraid to give or to receive assistance, they wasted the + important moments in idle debates and fruitless recriminations. The + arrival of the guards put an end to the vain strife. They seized on these + emperors of the senate, for such they called them with malicious contempt, + stripped them of their garments, and dragged them in insolent triumph + through the streets of Rome, with the design of inflicting a slow and + cruel death on these unfortunate princes. The fear of a rescue from the + faithful Germans of the Imperial guards shortened their tortures; and + their bodies, mangled with a thousand wounds, were left exposed to the + insults or to the pity of the populace. + </p> + <p> + In the space of a few months, six princes had been cut off by the sword. + Gordian, who had already received the title of Cæsar, was the only + person that occurred to the soldiers as proper to fill the vacant throne. + They carried him to the camp, and unanimously saluted him Augustus and + Emperor. His name was dear to the senate and people; his tender age + promised a long impunity of military license; and the submission of Rome + and the provinces to the choice of the Prætorian guards saved the + republic, at the expense indeed of its freedom and dignity, from the + horrors of a new civil war in the heart of the capital. + </p> + <p> + As the third Gordian was only nineteen years of age at the time of his + death, the history of his life, were it known to us with greater accuracy + than it really is, would contain little more than the account of his + education, and the conduct of the ministers, who by turns abused or guided + the simplicity of his unexperienced youth. Immediately after his + accession, he fell into the hands of his mother’s eunuchs, that pernicious + vermin of the East, who, since the days of Elagabalus, had infested the + Roman palace. By the artful conspiracy of these wretches, an impenetrable + veil was drawn between an innocent prince and his oppressed subjects, the + virtuous disposition of Gordian was deceived, and the honors of the empire + sold without his knowledge, though in a very public manner, to the most + worthless of mankind. We are ignorant by what fortunate accident the + emperor escaped from this ignominious slavery, and devolved his confidence + on a minister, whose wise counsels had no object except the glory of his + sovereign and the happiness of the people. It should seem that love and + learning introduced Misitheus to the favor of Gordian. The young prince + married the daughter of his master of rhetoric, and promoted his + father-in-law to the first offices of the empire. Two admirable letters + that passed between them are still extant. The minister, with the + conscious dignity of virtue, congratulates Gordian that he is delivered + from the tyranny of the eunuchs, and still more that he is sensible of his + deliverance. The emperor acknowledges, with an amiable confusion, the + errors of his past conduct; and laments, with singular propriety, the + misfortune of a monarch from whom a venal tribe of courtiers perpetually + labor to conceal the truth. + </p> + <p> + The life of Misitheus had been spent in the profession of letters, not of + arms; yet such was the versatile genius of that great man, that, when he + was appointed Prætorian Præfect, he discharged the military + duties of his place with vigor and ability. The Persians had invaded + Mesopotamia, and threatened Antioch. By the persuasion of his + father-in-law, the young emperor quitted the luxury of Rome, opened, for + the last time recorded in history, the temple of Janus, and marched in + person into the East. On his approach, with a great army, the Persians + withdrew their garrisons from the cities which they had already taken, and + retired from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Gordian enjoyed the pleasure of + announcing to the senate the first success of his arms, which he ascribed, + with a becoming modesty and gratitude, to the wisdom of his father and Præfect. + During the whole expedition, Misitheus watched over the safety and + discipline of the army; whilst he prevented their dangerous murmurs by + maintaining a regular plenty in the camp, and by establishing ample + magazines of vinegar, bacon, straw, barley, and wheat in all the cities of + the frontier. But the prosperity of Gordian expired with Misitheus, who + died of a flux, not without very strong suspicions of poison. Philip, his + successor in the præfecture, was an Arab by birth, and consequently, + in the earlier part of his life, a robber by profession. His rise from so + obscure a station to the first dignities of the empire, seems to prove + that he was a bold and able leader. But his boldness prompted him to + aspire to the throne, and his abilities were employed to supplant, not to + serve, his indulgent master. The minds of the soldiers were irritated by + an artificial scarcity, created by his contrivance in the camp; and the + distress of the army was attributed to the youth and incapacity of the + prince. It is not in our power to trace the successive steps of the secret + conspiracy and open sedition, which were at length fatal to Gordian. A + sepulchral monument was erected to his memory on the spot where he was + killed, near the conflux of the Euphrates with the little river Aboras. + The fortunate Philip, raised to the empire by the votes of the soldiers, + found a ready obedience from the senate and the provinces. + </p> + <p> + We cannot forbear transcribing the ingenious, though somewhat fanciful + description, which a celebrated writer of our own times has traced of the + military government of the Roman empire. “What in that age was called the + Roman empire, was only an irregular republic, not unlike the aristocracy + of Algiers, where the militia, possessed of the sovereignty, creates and + deposes a magistrate, who is styled a Dey. Perhaps, indeed, it may be laid + down as a general rule, that a military government is, in some respects, + more republican than monarchical. Nor can it be said that the soldiers + only partook of the government by their disobedience and rebellions. The + speeches made to them by the emperors, were they not at length of the same + nature as those formerly pronounced to the people by the consuls and the + tribunes? And although the armies had no regular place or forms of + assembly; though their debates were short, their action sudden, and their + resolves seldom the result of cool reflection, did they not dispose, with + absolute sway, of the public fortune? What was the emperor, except the + minister of a violent government, elected for the private benefit of the + soldiers? + </p> + <p> + “When the army had elected Philip, who was Prætorian præfect + to the third Gordian, the latter demanded that he might remain sole + emperor; he was unable to obtain it. He requested that the power might be + equally divided between them; the army would not listen to his speech. He + consented to be degraded to the rank of Cæsar; the favor was refused + him. He desired, at least, he might be appointed Prætorian præfect; + his prayer was rejected. Finally, he pleaded for his life. The army, in + these several judgments, exercised the supreme magistracy.” According to + the historian, whose doubtful narrative the President De Montesquieu has + adopted, Philip, who, during the whole transaction, had preserved a sullen + silence, was inclined to spare the innocent life of his benefactor; till, + recollecting that his innocence might excite a dangerous compassion in the + Roman world, he commanded, without regard to his suppliant cries, that he + should be seized, stripped, and led away to instant death. After a + moment’s pause, the inhuman sentence was executed. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch7-p3" id="linkch7-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + On his return from the East to Rome, Philip, desirous of obliterating the + memory of his crimes, and of captivating the affections of the people, + solemnized the secular games with infinite pomp and magnificence. Since + their institution or revival by Augustus, they had been celebrated by + Claudius, by Domitian, and by Severus, and were now renewed the fifth + time, on the accomplishment of the full period of a thousand years from + the foundation of Rome. Every circumstance of the secular games was + skillfully adapted to inspire the superstitious mind with deep and solemn + reverence. The long interval between them exceeded the term of human life; + and as none of the spectators had already seen them, none could flatter + themselves with the expectation of beholding them a second time. The + mystic sacrifices were performed, during three nights, on the banks of the + Tyber; and the Campus Martius resounded with music and dances, and was + illuminated with innumerable lamps and torches. Slaves and strangers were + excluded from any participation in these national ceremonies. A chorus of + twenty-seven youths, and as many virgins, of noble families, and whose + parents were both alive, implored the propitious gods in favor of the + present, and for the hope of the rising generation; requesting, in + religious hymns, that according to the faith of their ancient oracles, + they would still maintain the virtue, the felicity, and the empire of the + Roman people. The magnificence of Philip’s shows and entertainments + dazzled the eyes of the multitude. The devout were employed in the rites + of superstition, whilst the reflecting few revolved in their anxious minds + the past history and the future fate of the empire. + </p> + <p> + Since Romulus, with a small band of shepherds and outlaws, fortified + himself on the hills near the Tyber, ten centuries had already elapsed. + During the four first ages, the Romans, in the laborious school of + poverty, had acquired the virtues of war and government: by the vigorous + exertion of those virtues, and by the assistance of fortune, they had + obtained, in the course of the three succeeding centuries, an absolute + empire over many countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The last three + hundred years had been consumed in apparent prosperity and internal + decline. The nation of soldiers, magistrates, and legislators, who + composed the thirty-five tribes of the Roman people, were dissolved into + the common mass of mankind, and confounded with the millions of servile + provincials, who had received the name, without adopting the spirit, of + Romans. A mercenary army, levied among the subjects and barbarians of the + frontier, was the only order of men who preserved and abused their + independence. By their tumultuary election, a Syrian, a Goth, or an Arab, + was exalted to the throne of Rome, and invested with despotic power over + the conquests and over the country of the Scipios. + </p> + <p> + The limits of the Roman empire still extended from the Western Ocean to + the Tigris, and from Mount Atlas to the Rhine and the Danube. To the + undiscerning eye of the vulgar, Philip appeared a monarch no less powerful + than Hadrian or Augustus had formerly been. The form was still the same, + but the animating health and vigor were fled. The industry of the people + was discouraged and exhausted by a long series of oppression. The + discipline of the legions, which alone, after the extinction of every + other virtue, had propped the greatness of the state, was corrupted by the + ambition, or relaxed by the weakness, of the emperors. The strength of the + frontiers, which had always consisted in arms rather than in + fortifications, was insensibly undermined; and the fairest provinces were + left exposed to the rapaciousness or ambition of the barbarians, who soon + discovered the decline of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch8-p1" id="linkch8-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy +By Artaxerxes. +</pre> + <p> + Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those beautiful episodes, in which he + relates some domestic transaction of the Germans or of the Parthians, his + principal object is to relieve the attention of the reader from a uniform + scene of vice and misery. From the reign of Augustus to the time of + Alexander Severus, the enemies of Rome were in her bosom—the tyrants + and the soldiers; and her prosperity had a very distant and feeble + interest in the revolutions that might happen beyond the Rhine and the + Euphrates. But when the military order had levelled, in wild anarchy, the + power of the prince, the laws of the senate, and even the discipline of + the camp, the barbarians of the North and of the East, who had long + hovered on the frontier, boldly attacked the provinces of a declining + monarchy. Their vexatious inroads were changed into formidable irruptions, + and, after a long vicissitude of mutual calamities, many tribes of the + victorious invaders established themselves in the provinces of the Roman + Empire. To obtain a clearer knowledge of these great events, we shall + endeavor to form a previous idea of the character, forces, and designs of + those nations who avenged the cause of Hannibal and Mithridates. + </p> + <p> + In the more early ages of the world, whilst the forest that covered Europe + afforded a retreat to a few wandering savages, the inhabitants of Asia + were already collected into populous cities, and reduced under extensive + empires the seat of the arts, of luxury, and of despotism. The Assyrians + reigned over the East, till the sceptre of Ninus and Semiramis dropped + from the hands of their enervated successors. The Medes and the + Babylonians divided their power, and were themselves swallowed up in the + monarchy of the Persians, whose arms could not be confined within the + narrow limits of Asia. Followed, as it is said, by two millions of men, + Xerxes, the descendant of Cyrus, invaded Greece. Thirty thousand soldiers, + under the command of Alexander, the son of Philip, who was intrusted by + the Greeks with their glory and revenge, were sufficient to subdue Persia. + The princes of the house of Seleucus usurped and lost the Macedonian + command over the East. About the same time, that, by an ignominious + treaty, they resigned to the Romans the country on this side Mount Tarus, + they were driven by the Parthians, * an obscure horde of Scythian origin, + from all the provinces of Upper Asia. The formidable power of the + Parthians, which spread from India to the frontiers of Syria, was in its + turn subverted by Ardshir, or Artaxerxes; the founder of a new dynasty, + which, under the name of Sassanides, governed Persia till the invasion of + the Arabs. This great revolution, whose fatal influence was soon + experienced by the Romans, happened in the fourth year of Alexander + Severus, two hundred and twenty-six years after the Christian era. + </p> + <p> + Artaxerxes had served with great reputation in the armies of Artaban, the + last king of the Parthians, and it appears that he was driven into exile + and rebellion by royal ingratitude, the customary reward for superior + merit. His birth was obscure, and the obscurity equally gave room to the + aspersions of his enemies, and the flattery of his adherents. If we + credit the scandal of the former, Artaxerxes sprang from the illegitimate + commerce of a tanner’s wife with a common soldier. The latter represent + him as descended from a branch of the ancient kings of Persia, though + time and misfortune had gradually reduced his ancestors to the humble + station of private citizens. As the lineal heir of the monarchy, he + asserted his right to the throne, and challenged the noble task of + delivering the Persians from the oppression under which they groaned + above five centuries since the death of Darius. The Parthians were + defeated in three great battles. * In the last of these their king + Artaban was slain, and the spirit of the nation was forever broken. The + authority of Artaxerxes was solemnly acknowledged in a great assembly + held at Balch in Khorasan. Two younger branches of the royal house of + Arsaces were confounded among the prostrate satraps. A third, more + mindful of ancient grandeur than of present necessity, attempted to + retire, with a numerous train of vessels, towards their kinsman, the king + of Armenia; but this little army of deserters was intercepted, and cut + off, by the vigilance of the conqueror, who boldly assumed the double + diadem, and the title of King of Kings, which had been enjoyed by his + predecessor. But these pompous titles, instead of gratifying the vanity + of the Persian, served only to admonish him of his duty, and to inflame + in his soul the ambition of restoring in their full splendor, the + religion and empire of Cyrus. + </p> + <p> + I. During the long servitude of Persia under the Macedonian and the + Parthian yoke, the nations of Europe and Asia had mutually adopted and + corrupted each other’s superstitions. The Arsacides, indeed, practised the + worship of the Magi; but they disgraced and polluted it with a various + mixture of foreign idolatry. * The memory of Zoroaster, the ancient + prophet and philosopher of the Persians, was still revered in the East; + but the obsolete and mysterious language, in which the Zendavesta was + composed, opened a field of dispute to seventy sects, who variously + explained the fundamental doctrines of their religion, and were all + indifferently derided by a crowd of infidels, who rejected the divine + mission and miracles of the prophet. To suppress the idolaters, reunite + the schismatics, and confute the unbelievers, by the infallible decision + of a general council, the pious Artaxerxes summoned the Magi from all + parts of his dominions. These priests, who had so long sighed in contempt + and obscurity obeyed the welcome summons; and, on the appointed day, + appeared, to the number of about eighty thousand. But as the debates of so + tumultuous an assembly could not have been directed by the authority of + reason, or influenced by the art of policy, the Persian synod was reduced, + by successive operations, to forty thousand, to four thousand, to four + hundred, to forty, and at last to seven Magi, the most respected for their + learning and piety. One of these, Erdaviraph, a young but holy prelate, + received from the hands of his brethren three cups of soporiferous wine. + He drank them off, and instantly fell into a long and profound sleep. As + soon as he waked, he related to the king and to the believing multitude, + his journey to heaven, and his intimate conferences with the Deity. Every + doubt was silenced by this supernatural evidence; and the articles of the + faith of Zoroaster were fixed with equal authority and precision. A short + delineation of that celebrated system will be found useful, not only to + display the character of the Persian nation, but to illustrate many of + their most important transactions, both in peace and war, with the Roman + empire. + </p> + <p> + The great and fundamental article of the system was the celebrated + doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious attempt of Eastern + philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral and physical evil with the + attributes of a beneficent Creator and Governor of the world. The first + and original Being, in whom, or by whom, the universe exists, is + denominated in the writings of Zoroaster, <i>Time without bounds</i>; + but it must be confessed, that this infinite substance seems rather a + metaphysical abstraction of the mind than a real object endowed with + self-consciousness, or possessed of moral perfections. From either the + blind or the intelligent operation of this infinite Time, which bears but + too near an affinity with the chaos of the Greeks, the two secondary but + active principles of the universe were from all eternity produced, Ormusd + and Ahriman, each of them possessed of the powers of creation, but each + disposed, by his invariable nature, to exercise them with different + designs. * The principle of good is eternally absorbed in light; the + principle of evil eternally buried in darkness. The wise benevolence of + Ormusd formed man capable of virtue, and abundantly provided his fair + habitation with the materials of happiness. By his vigilant providence, + the motion of the planets, the order of the seasons, and the temperate + mixture of the elements, are preserved. But the malice of Ahriman has long + since pierced <i>Ormusd’s egg</i>; or, in other words, has violated the + harmony of his works. Since that fatal eruption, the most minute articles + of good and evil are intimately intermingled and agitated together; the + rankest poisons spring up amidst the most salutary plants; deluges, + earthquakes, and conflagrations attest the conflict of Nature, and the + little world of man is perpetually shaken by vice and misfortune. Whilst + the rest of human kind are led away captives in the chains of their + infernal enemy, the faithful Persian alone reserves his religious + adoration for his friend and protector Ormusd, and fights under his banner + of light, in the full confidence that he shall, in the last day, share the + glory of his triumph. At that decisive period, the enlightened wisdom of + goodness will render the power of Ormusd superior to the furious malice of + his rival. Ahriman and his followers, disarmed and subdued, will sink into + their native darkness; and virtue will maintain the eternal peace and + harmony of the universe. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch8-p2" id="linkch8-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by foreigners, and even + by the far greater number of his disciples; but the most careless + observers were struck with the philosophic simplicity of the Persian + worship. “That people,” said Herodotus, “rejects the use of temples, of + altars, and of statues, and smiles at the folly of those nations who + imagine that the gods are sprung from, or bear any affinity with, the + human nature. The tops of the highest mountains are the places chosen for + sacrifices. Hymns and prayers are the principal worship; the Supreme God, + who fills the wide circle of heaven, is the object to whom they are + addressed.” Yet, at the same time, in the true spirit of a polytheist, he + accuseth them of adoring Earth, Water, Fire, the Winds, and the Sun and + Moon. But the Persians of every age have denied the charge, and explained + the equivocal conduct, which might appear to give a color to it. The + elements, and more particularly Fire, Light, and the Sun, whom they called + Mithra, were the objects of their religious reverence because they + considered them as the purest symbols, the noblest productions, and the + most powerful agents of the Divine Power and Nature. + </p> + <p> + Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on the human + mind, must exercise our obedience, by enjoining practices of devotion, for + which we can assign no reason; and must acquire our esteem, by inculcating + moral duties analogous to the dictates of our own hearts. The religion of + Zoroaster was abundantly provided with the former and possessed a + sufficient portion of the latter. At the age of puberty, the faithful + Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the badge of the divine + protection; and from that moment all the actions of his life, even the + most indifferent, or the most necessary, were sanctified by their peculiar + prayers, ejaculations, or genuflections; the omission of which, under any + circumstances, was a grievous sin, not inferior in guilt to the violation + of the moral duties. The moral duties, however, of justice, mercy, + liberality, &c., were in their turn required of the disciple of + Zoroaster, who wished to escape the persecution of Ahriman, and to live + with Ormusd in a blissful eternity, where the degree of felicity will be + exactly proportioned to the degree of virtue and piety. + </p> + <p> + But there are some remarkable instances in which Zoroaster lays aside the + prophet, assumes the legislator, and discovers a liberal concern for + private and public happiness, seldom to be found among the grovelling or + visionary schemes of superstition. Fasting and celibacy, the common means + of purchasing the divine favor, he condemns with abhorrence as a criminal + rejection of the best gifts of Providence. The saint, in the Magian + religion, is obliged to beget children, to plant useful trees, to destroy + noxious animals, to convey water to the dry lands of Persia, and to work + out his salvation by pursuing all the labors of agriculture. * We may + quote from the Zendavesta a wise and benevolent maxim, which compensates + for many an absurdity. “He who sows the ground with care and diligence + acquires a greater stock of religious merit than he could gain by the + repetition of ten thousand prayers.” In the spring of every year a + festival was celebrated, destined to represent the primitive equality, and + the present connection, of mankind. The stately kings of Persia, + exchanging their vain pomp for more genuine greatness, freely mingled with + the humblest but most useful of their subjects. On that day the husbandmen + were admitted, without distinction, to the table of the king and his + satraps. The monarch accepted their petitions, inquired into their + grievances, and conversed with them on the most equal terms. “From your + labors,” was he accustomed to say, (and to say with truth, if not with + sincerity,) “from your labors we receive our subsistence; you derive your + tranquillity from our vigilance: since, therefore, we are mutually + necessary to each other, let us live together like brothers in concord and + love.” Such a festival must indeed have degenerated, in a wealthy and + despotic empire, into a theatrical representation; but it was at least a + comedy well worthy of a royal audience, and which might sometimes imprint + a salutary lesson on the mind of a young prince. + </p> + <p> + Had Zoroaster, in all his institutions, invariably supported this exalted + character, his name would deserve a place with those of Numa and + Confucius, and his system would be justly entitled to all the applause, + which it has pleased some of our divines, and even some of our + philosophers, to bestow on it. But in that motley composition, dictated by + reason and passion, by enthusiasm and by selfish motives, some useful and + sublime truths were disgraced by a mixture of the most abject and + dangerous superstition. The Magi, or sacerdotal order, were extremely + numerous, since, as we have already seen, fourscore thousand of them were + convened in a general council. Their forces were multiplied by discipline. + A regular hierarchy was diffused through all the provinces of Persia; and + the Archimagus, who resided at Balch, was respected as the visible head of + the church, and the lawful successor of Zoroaster. The property of the + Magi was very considerable. Besides the less invidious possession of a + large tract of the most fertile lands of Media, they levied a general tax + on the fortunes and the industry of the Persians. “Though your good + works,” says the interested prophet, “exceed in number the leaves of the + trees, the drops of rain, the stars in the heaven, or the sands on the + sea-shore, they will all be unprofitable to you, unless they are accepted + by the <i>destour</i>, or priest. To obtain the acceptation of this + guide to salvation, you must faithfully pay him <i>tithes</i> of all you + possess, of your goods, of your lands, and of your money. If the destour + be satisfied, your soul will escape hell tortures; you will secure praise + in this world and happiness in the next. For the destours are the teachers + of religion; they know all things, and they deliver all men.” * + </p> + <p> + These convenient maxims of reverence and implicit faith were doubtless imprinted + with care on the tender minds of youth; since the Magi were the masters of + education in Persia, and to their hands the children even of the royal + family were intrusted. The Persian priests, who were of a speculative + genius, preserved and investigated the secrets of Oriental philosophy; and + acquired, either by superior knowledge, or superior art, the reputation of + being well versed in some occult sciences, which have derived their + appellation from the Magi. Those of more active dispositions mixed with + the world in courts and cities; and it is observed, that the + administration of Artaxerxes was in a great measure directed by the + counsels of the sacerdotal order, whose dignity, either from policy or + devotion, that prince restored to its ancient splendor. + </p> + <p> + The first counsel of the Magi was agreeable to the unsociable genius of + their faith, to the practice of ancient kings, and even to the example of + their legislator, who had fallen a victim to a religious war, excited by his own + intolerant zeal. By an edict of Artaxerxes, the exercise of every worship, + except that of Zoroaster, was severely prohibited. The temples of the + Parthians, and the statues of their deified monarchs, were thrown down + with ignominy. The sword of Aristotle (such was the name given by the + Orientals to the polytheism and philosophy of the Greeks) was easily + broken; the flames of persecution soon reached the more stubborn Jews and + Christians; nor did they spare the heretics of their own nation and + religion. The majesty of Ormusd, who was jealous of a rival, was seconded + by the despotism of Artaxerxes, who could not suffer a rebel; and the + schismatics within his vast empire were soon reduced to the inconsiderable + number of eighty thousand. * This spirit of persecution reflects dishonor + on the religion of Zoroaster; but as it was not productive of any civil + commotion, it served to strengthen the new monarchy, by uniting all the + various inhabitants of Persia in the bands of religious zeal. + </p> + <p> + II. Artaxerxes, by his valor and conduct, had wrested the sceptre of the + East from the ancient royal family of Parthia. There still remained the + more difficult task of establishing, throughout the vast extent of Persia, + a uniform and vigorous administration. The weak indulgence of the + Arsacides had resigned to their sons and brothers the principal provinces, + and the greatest offices of the kingdom in the nature of hereditary + possessions. The <i>vitaxæ</i>, or eighteen most powerful satraps, were permitted + to assume the regal title; and the vain pride of the monarch was delighted + with a nominal dominion over so many vassal kings. Even tribes of + barbarians in their mountains, and the Greek cities of Upper Asia, within + their walls, scarcely acknowledged, or seldom obeyed, any superior; and + the Parthian empire exhibited, under other names, a lively image of the + feudal system which has since prevailed in Europe. But the active victor, + at the head of a numerous and disciplined army, visited in person every + province of Persia. The defeat of the boldest rebels, and the reduction of + the strongest fortifications, diffused the terror of his arms, and + prepared the way for the peaceful reception of his authority. An obstinate + resistance was fatal to the chiefs; but their followers were treated with + lenity. A cheerful submission was rewarded with honors and riches, but the + prudent Artaxerxes, suffering no person except himself to assume the title + of king, abolished every intermediate power between the throne and the + people. His kingdom, nearly equal in extent to modern Persia, was, on + every side, bounded by the sea, or by great rivers; by the Euphrates, the + Tigris, the Araxes, the Oxus, and the Indus, by the Caspian Sea, and the + Gulf of Persia. That country was computed to contain, in the last century, + five hundred and fifty-four cities, sixty thousand villages, and about + forty millions of souls. If we compare the administration of the house of + Sassan with that of the house of Sefi, the political influence of the + Magian with that of the Mahometan religion, we shall probably infer, that + the kingdom of Artaxerxes contained at least as great a number of cities, + villages, and inhabitants. But it must likewise be confessed, that in + every age the want of harbors on the sea-coast, and the scarcity of fresh + water in the inland provinces, have been very unfavorable to the commerce + and agriculture of the Persians; who, in the calculation of their numbers, + seem to have indulged one of the meanest, though most common, artifices of + national vanity. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxerxes had triumphed ever the + resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the neighboring states, + who, during the long slumber of his predecessors, had insulted Persia with + impunity. He obtained some easy victories over the wild Scythians and the + effeminate Indians; but the Romans were an enemy, who, by their past + injuries and present power, deserved the utmost efforts of his arms. A + forty years’ tranquillity, the fruit of valor and moderation, had + succeeded the victories of Trajan. During the period that elapsed from the + accession of Marcus to the reign of Alexander, the Roman and the Parthian + empires were twice engaged in war; and although the whole strength of the + Arsacides contended with a part only of the forces of Rome, the event was + most commonly in favor of the latter. Macrinus, indeed, prompted by his + precarious situation and pusillanimous temper, purchased a peace at the + expense of near two millions of our money; but the generals of Marcus, the + emperor Severus, and his son, erected many trophies in Armenia, + Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Among their exploits, the imperfect relation of + which would have unseasonably interrupted the more important series of + domestic revolutions, we shall only mention the repeated calamities of the + two great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. + </p> + <p> + Seleucia, on the western bank of the Tigris, about forty-five miles to the + north of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the Macedonian conquests in + Upper Asia. Many ages after the fall of their empire, Seleucia retained + the genuine characters of a Grecian colony, arts, military virtue, and the + love of freedom. The independent republic was governed by a senate of + three hundred nobles; the people consisted of six hundred thousand + citizens; the walls were strong, and as long as concord prevailed among + the several orders of the state, they viewed with contempt the power of + the Parthian: but the madness of faction was sometimes provoked to implore + the dangerous aid of the common enemy, who was posted almost at the gates + of the colony. The Parthian monarchs, like the Mogul sovereigns of + Hindostan, delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian ancestors; and + the Imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain of Ctesiphon, on the + eastern bank of the Tigris, at the distance of only three miles from + Seleucia. The innumerable attendants on luxury and despotism resorted to + the court, and the little village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a + great city. Under the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as + far as Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the Greek + colony; they attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian kings; yet both + cities experienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of + Seleucia, with the massacre of three hundred thousand of the inhabitants, + tarnished the glory of the Roman triumph. Seleucia, already exhausted by + the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but + Ctesiphon, in about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered its + strength to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The + city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in person, + escaped with precipitation; a hundred thousand captives, and a rich booty, + rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. Notwithstanding these + misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon and to Seleucia, as one of the + great capitals of the East. In summer, the monarch of Persia enjoyed at + Ecbatana the cool breezes of the mountains of Media; but the mildness of + the climate engaged him to prefer Ctesiphon for his winter residence. + </p> + <p> + From these successful inroads the Romans derived no real or lasting + benefit; nor did they attempt to preserve such distant conquests, + separated from the provinces of the empire by a large tract of + intermediate desert. The reduction of the kingdom of Osrhoene was an + acquisition of less splendor indeed, but of a far more solid advantage. + That little state occupied the northern and most fertile part of + Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the Tigris. Edessa, its capital, + was situated about twenty miles beyond the former of those rivers; and the + inhabitants, since the time of Alexander, were a mixed race of Greeks, + Arabs, Syrians, and Armenians. The feeble sovereigns of Osrhoene, placed + on the dangerous verge of two contending empires, were attached from + inclination to the Parthian cause; but the superior power of Rome exacted + from them a reluctant homage, which is still attested by their medals. + After the conclusion of the Parthian war under Marcus, it was judged + prudent to secure some substantial pledges of their doubtful fidelity. + Forts were constructed in several parts of the country, and a Roman + garrison was fixed in the strong town of Nisibis. During the troubles that + followed the death of Commodus, the princes of Osrhoene attempted to shake + off the yoke; but the stern policy of Severus confirmed their dependence, + and the perfidy of Caracalla completed the easy conquest. Abgarus, the + last king of Edessa, was sent in chains to Rome, his dominions reduced + into a province, and his capital dignified with the rank of colony; and + thus the Romans, about ten years before the fall of the Parthian monarchy, + obtained a firm and permanent establishment beyond the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + Prudence as well as glory might have justified a war on the side of + Artaxerxes, had his views been confined to the defence or acquisition of a + useful frontier. but the ambitious Persian openly avowed a far more + extensive design of conquest; and he thought himself able to support his + lofty pretensions by the arms of reason as well as by those of power. + Cyrus, he alleged, had first subdued, and his successors had for a long + time possessed, the whole extent of Asia, as far as the Propontis and the + Ægean Sea; the provinces of Caria and Ionia, under their empire, had + been governed by Persian satraps, and all Egypt, to the confines of + Æthiopia, had acknowledged their sovereignty. Their rights had been + suspended, but not destroyed, by a long usurpation; and as soon as he + received the Persian diadem, which birth and successful valor had placed + upon his head, the first great duty of his station called upon him to + restore the ancient limits and splendor of the monarchy. The Great King, + therefore, (such was the haughty style of his embassies to the emperor + Alexander,) commanded the Romans instantly to depart from all the + provinces of his ancestors, and, yielding to the Persians the empire of + Asia, to content themselves with the undisturbed possession of Europe. + This haughty mandate was delivered by four hundred of the tallest and most + beautiful of the Persians; who, by their fine horses, splendid arms, and + rich apparel, displayed the pride and greatness of their master. Such an + embassy was much less an offer of negotiation than a declaration of war. + Both Alexander Severus and Artaxerxes, collecting the military force of + the Roman and Persian monarchies, resolved in this important contest to + lead their armies in person. + </p> + <p> + If we credit what should seem the most authentic of all records, an + oration, still extant, and delivered by the emperor himself to the senate, + we must allow that the victory of Alexander Severus was not inferior to + any of those formerly obtained over the Persians by the son of Philip. The + army of the Great King consisted of one hundred and twenty thousand horse, + clothed in complete armor of steel; of seven hundred elephants, with + towers filled with archers on their backs, and of eighteen hundred + chariots armed with scythes. This formidable host, the like of which is + not to be found in eastern history, and has scarcely been imagined in + eastern romance, was discomfited in a great battle, in which the Roman + Alexander proved himself an intrepid soldier and a skilful general. The + Great King fled before his valor; an immense booty, and the conquest of + Mesopotamia, were the immediate fruits of this signal victory. Such are + the circumstances of this ostentatious and improbable relation, dictated, + as it too plainly appears, by the vanity of the monarch, adorned by the + unblushing servility of his flatterers, and received without contradiction + by a distant and obsequious senate. Far from being inclined to believe + that the arms of Alexander obtained any memorable advantage over the + Persians, we are induced to suspect that all this blaze of imaginary glory + was designed to conceal some real disgrace. + </p> + <p> + Our suspicions are confirmed by the authority of a contemporary historian, + who mentions the virtues of Alexander with respect, and his faults with + candor. He describes the judicious plan which had been formed for the + conduct of the war. Three Roman armies were destined to invade Persia at + the same time, and by different roads. But the operations of the campaign, + though wisely concerted, were not executed either with ability or success. + The first of these armies, as soon as it had entered the marshy plains of + Babylon, towards the artificial conflux of the Euphrates and the Tigris, + was encompassed by the superior numbers, and destroyed by the arrows of + the enemy. The alliance of Chosroes, king of Armenia, and the long tract + of mountainous country, in which the Persian cavalry was of little + service, opened a secure entrance into the heart of Media, to the second + of the Roman armies. These brave troops laid waste the adjacent provinces, + and by several successful actions against Artaxerxes, gave a faint color + to the emperor’s vanity. But the retreat of this victorious army was + imprudent, or at least unfortunate. In repassing the mountains, great + numbers of soldiers perished by the badness of the roads, and the severity + of the winter season. It had been resolved, that whilst these two great + detachments penetrated into the opposite extremes of the Persian + dominions, the main body, under the command of Alexander himself, should + support their attack, by invading the centre of the kingdom. But the + unexperienced youth, influenced by his mother’s counsels, and perhaps by + his own fears, deserted the bravest troops, and the fairest prospect of + victory; and after consuming in Mesopotamia an inactive and inglorious + summer, he led back to Antioch an army diminished by sickness, and + provoked by disappointment. The behavior of Artaxerxes had been very + different. Flying with rapidity from the hills of Media to the marshes of + the Euphrates, he had everywhere opposed the invaders in person; and in + either fortune had united with the ablest conduct the most undaunted + resolution. But in several obstinate engagements against the veteran + legions of Rome, the Persian monarch had lost the flower of his troops. + Even his victories had weakened his power. The favorable opportunities of + the absence of Alexander, and of the confusions that followed that + emperor’s death, presented themselves in vain to his ambition. Instead of + expelling the Romans, as he pretended, from the continent of Asia, he + found himself unable to wrest from their hands the little province of + Mesopotamia. + </p> + <p> + The reign of Artaxerxes, which, from the last defeat of the Parthians, + lasted only fourteen years, forms a memorable æra in the history of + the East, and even in that of Rome. His character seems to have been + marked by those bold and commanding features, that generally distinguish + the princes who conquer, from those who inherit, an empire. Till the last + period of the Persian monarchy, his code of laws was respected as the + groundwork of their civil and religious policy. Several of his sayings are + preserved. One of them in particular discovers a deep insight into the + constitution of government. “The authority of the prince,” said + Artaxerxes, “must be defended by a military force; that force can only be + maintained by taxes; all taxes must, at last, fall upon agriculture; and + agriculture can never flourish except under the protection of justice and + moderation.” Artaxerxes bequeathed his new empire, and his ambitious + designs against the Romans, to Sapor, a son not unworthy of his great + father; but those designs were too extensive for the power of Persia, and + served only to involve both nations in a long series of destructive wars + and reciprocal calamities. + </p> + <p> + The Persians, long since civilized and corrupted, were very far from + possessing the martial independence, and the intrepid hardiness, both of + mind and body, which have rendered the northern barbarians masters of the + world. The science of war, that constituted the more rational force of + Greece and Rome, as it now does of Europe, never made any considerable + progress in the East. Those disciplined evolutions which harmonize and + animate a confused multitude, were unknown to the Persians. They were + equally unskilled in the arts of constructing, besieging, or defending + regular fortifications. They trusted more to their numbers than to their + courage; more to their courage than to their discipline. The infantry was + a half-armed, spiritless crowd of peasants, levied in haste by the + allurements of plunder, and as easily dispersed by a victory as by a + defeat. The monarch and his nobles transported into the camp the pride and + luxury of the seraglio. Their military operations were impeded by a + useless train of women, eunuchs, horses, and camels; and in the midst of a + successful campaign, the Persian host was often separated or destroyed by + an unexpected famine. + </p> + <p> + But the nobles of Persia, in the bosom of luxury and despotism, preserved + a strong sense of personal gallantry and national honor. From the age of + seven years they were taught to speak truth, to shoot with the bow, and to + ride; and it was universally confessed that in the two last of these + arts they had made a more than common proficiency. The most distinguished + youth were educated under the monarch’s eye, practised their exercises in + the gate of his palace, and were severely trained up to the habits of + temperance and obedience, in their long and laborious parties of hunting. + In every province, the satrap maintained a like school of military virtue. + The Persian nobles (so natural is the idea of feudal tenures) received + from the king’s bounty lands and houses, on the condition of their service + in war. They were ready on the first summons to mount on horseback, with a + martial and splendid train of followers, and to join the numerous bodies + of guards, who were carefully selected from among the most robust slaves, + and the bravest adventurers of Asia. These armies, both of light and of + heavy cavalry, equally formidable by the impetuosity of their charge and + the rapidity of their motions, threatened, as an impending cloud, the + eastern provinces of the declining empire of Rome. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch9-p1" id="linkch9-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In +The Time Of The Emperor Decius.<br/> +</pre> + <p> + The government and religion of Persia have deserved some notice, from + their connection with the decline and fall of the Roman empire. We shall + occasionally mention the Scythian or Sarmatian tribes, * which, with their + arms and horses, their flocks and herds, their wives and families, + wandered over the immense plains which spread themselves from the Caspian + Sea to the Vistula, from the confines of Persia to those of Germany. But + the warlike Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and at length + overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a much more important + place in this history, and possess a stronger, and, if we may use the + expression, a more domestic, claim to our attention and regard. The most + civilized nations of modern Europe issued from the woods of Germany; and + in the rude institutions of those barbarians we may still distinguish the + original principles of our present laws and manners. In their primitive + state of simplicity and independence, the Germans were surveyed by the + discerning eye, and delineated by the masterly pencil, of Tacitus, the + first of historians who applied the science of philosophy to the study of + facts. The expressive conciseness of his descriptions has served to + exercise the diligence of innumerable antiquarians, and to excite the + genius and penetration of the philosophic historians of our own times. The + subject, however various and important, has already been so frequently, so + ably, and so successfully discussed, that it is now grown familiar to the + reader, and difficult to the writer. We shall therefore content ourselves + with observing, and indeed with repeating, some of the most important + circumstances of climate, of manners, and of institutions, which rendered + the wild barbarians of Germany such formidable enemies to the Roman power. + </p> + <p> + Ancient Germany, excluding from its independent limits the province + westward of the Rhine, which had submitted to the Roman yoke, extended + itself over a third part of Europe. Almost the whole of modern Germany, + Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Livonia, Prussia, and the greater part + of Poland, were peopled by the various tribes of one great nation, whose + complexion, manners, and language denoted a common origin, and preserved a + striking resemblance. On the west, ancient Germany was divided by the + Rhine from the Gallic, and on the south, by the Danube, from the Illyrian, + provinces of the empire. A ridge of hills, rising from the Danube, and + called the Carpathian Mountains, covered Germany on the side of Dacia or + Hungary. The eastern frontier was faintly marked by the mutual fears of + the Germans and the Sarmatians, and was often confounded by the mixture of + warring and confederating tribes of the two nations. In the remote + darkness of the north, the ancients imperfectly descried a frozen ocean + that lay beyond the Baltic Sea, and beyond the Peninsula, or islands of + Scandinavia. + </p> + <p> + Some ingenious writers have suspected that Europe was much colder formerly + than it is at present; and the most ancient descriptions of the climate of + Germany tend exceedingly to confirm their theory. The general complaints + of intense frost and eternal winter are perhaps little to be regarded, + since we have no method of reducing to the accurate standard of the + thermometer, the feelings, or the expressions, of an orator born in the + happier regions of Greece or Asia. But I shall select two remarkable + circumstances of a less equivocal nature. 1. The great rivers which + covered the Roman provinces, the Rhine and the Danube, were frequently + frozen over, and capable of supporting the most enormous weights. The + barbarians, who often chose that severe season for their inroads, + transported, without apprehension or danger, their numerous armies, their + cavalry, and their heavy wagons, over a vast and solid bridge of ice. + Modern ages have not presented an instance of a like phenomenon. 2. The + reindeer, that useful animal, from whom the savage of the North derives + the best comforts of his dreary life, is of a constitution that supports, + and even requires, the most intense cold. He is found on the rock of + Spitzberg, within ten degrees of the Pole; he seems to delight in the + snows of Lapland and Siberia: but at present he cannot subsist, much less + multiply, in any country to the south of the Baltic. In the time of Cæsar + the reindeer, as well as the elk and the wild bull, was a native of the + Hercynian forest, which then overshadowed a great part of Germany and + Poland. The modern improvements sufficiently explain the causes of the + diminution of the cold. These immense woods have been gradually cleared, + which intercepted from the earth the rays of the sun. The morasses have + been drained, and, in proportion as the soil has been cultivated, the air + has become more temperate. Canada, at this day, is an exact picture of + ancient Germany. Although situated in the same parallel with the finest + provinces of France and England, that country experiences the most + rigorous cold. The reindeer are very numerous, the ground is covered with + deep and lasting snow, and the great river of St. Lawrence is regularly + frozen, in a season when the waters of the Seine and the Thames are + usually free from ice. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to ascertain, and easy to exaggerate, the influence of the + climate of ancient Germany over the minds and bodies of the natives. Many + writers have supposed, and most have allowed, though, as it should seem, + without any adequate proof, that the rigorous cold of the North was + favorable to long life and generative vigor, that the women were more + fruitful, and the human species more prolific, than in warmer or more + temperate climates. We may assert, with greater confidence, that the keen + air of Germany formed the large and masculine limbs of the natives, who + were, in general, of a more lofty stature than the people of the South, + gave them a kind of strength better adapted to violent exertions than to + patient labor, and inspired them with constitutional bravery, which is the + result of nerves and spirits. The severity of a winter campaign, that + chilled the courage of the Roman troops, was scarcely felt by these hardy + children of the North, who, in their turn, were unable to resist the + summer heats, and dissolved away in languor and sickness under the beams + of an Italian sun. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch9-p2" id="linkch9-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + There is not anywhere upon the globe a large tract of country, which we + have discovered destitute of inhabitants, or whose first population can be + fixed with any degree of historical certainty. And yet, as the most + philosophic minds can seldom refrain from investigating the infancy of + great nations, our curiosity consumes itself in toilsome and disappointed + efforts. When Tacitus considered the purity of the German blood, and the + forbidding aspect of the country, he was disposed to pronounce those + barbarians <i>Indigenæ</i>, or natives of the soil. We may allow with + safety, and perhaps with truth, that ancient Germany was not originally + peopled by any foreign colonies already formed into a political society; + but that the name and nation received their existence from the gradual + union of some wandering savages of the Hercynian woods. To assert those + savages to have been the spontaneous production of the earth which they + inhabited would be a rash inference, condemned by religion, and + unwarranted by reason. + </p> + <p> + Such rational doubt is but ill suited with the genius of popular vanity. + Among the nations who have adopted the Mosaic history of the world, the + ark of Noah has been of the same use, as was formerly to the Greeks and + Romans the siege of Troy. On a narrow basis of acknowledged truth, an + immense but rude superstructure of fable has been erected; and the wild + Irishman, as well as the wild Tartar, could point out the individual son + of Japhet, from whose loins his ancestors were lineally descended. The + last century abounded with antiquarians of profound learning and easy + faith, who, by the dim light of legends and traditions, of conjectures and + etymologies, conducted the great grandchildren of Noah from the Tower of + Babel to the extremities of the globe. Of these judicious critics, one of + the most entertaining was Olaus Rudbeck, professor in the university of + Upsal. Whatever is celebrated either in history or fable this zealous + patriot ascribes to his country. From Sweden (which formed so considerable + a part of ancient Germany) the Greeks themselves derived their + alphabetical characters, their astronomy, and their religion. Of that + delightful region (for such it appeared to the eyes of a native) the + Atlantis of Plato, the country of the Hyperboreans, the gardens of the + Hesperides, the Fortunate Islands, and even the Elysian Fields, were all + but faint and imperfect transcripts. A clime so profusely favored by + Nature could not long remain desert after the flood. The learned Rudbeck + allows the family of Noah a few years to multiply from eight to about + twenty thousand persons. He then disperses them into small colonies to + replenish the earth, and to propagate the human species. The German or + Swedish detachment (which marched, if I am not mistaken, under the command + of Askenaz, the son of Gomer, the son of Japhet) distinguished itself by a + more than common diligence in the prosecution of this great work. The + northern hive cast its swarms over the greatest part of Europe, Africa, + and Asia; and (to use the author’s metaphor) the blood circulated from the + extremities to the heart. + </p> + <p> + But all this well-labored system of German antiquities is annihilated by a + single fact, too well attested to admit of any doubt, and of too decisive + a nature to leave room for any reply. The Germans, in the age of Tacitus, + were unacquainted with the use of letters; and the use of letters is the + principal circumstance that distinguishes a civilized people from a herd + of savages incapable of knowledge or reflection. Without that artificial + help, the human memory soon dissipates or corrupts the ideas intrusted to + her charge; and the nobler faculties of the mind, no longer supplied with + models or with materials, gradually forget their powers; the judgment + becomes feeble and lethargic, the imagination languid or irregular. Fully + to apprehend this important truth, let us attempt, in an improved society, + to calculate the immense distance between the man of learning and the <i>illiterate</i> + peasant. The former, by reading and reflection, multiplies his own + experience, and lives in distant ages and remote countries; whilst the + latter, rooted to a single spot, and confined to a few years of existence, + surpasses but very little his fellow-laborer, the ox, in the exercise of + his mental faculties. The same, and even a greater, difference will be + found between nations than between individuals; and we may safely + pronounce, that without some species of writing, no people has ever + preserved the faithful annals of their history, ever made any considerable + progress in the abstract sciences, or ever possessed, in any tolerable + degree of perfection, the useful and agreeable arts of life. + </p> + <p> + Of these arts, the ancient Germans were wretchedly destitute. They passed + their lives in a state of ignorance and poverty, which it has pleased some + declaimers to dignify with the appellation of virtuous simplicity. * + Modern Germany is said to contain about two thousand three hundred walled + towns. In a much wider extent of country, the geographer Ptolemy could + discover no more than ninety places which he decorates with the name of + cities; though, according to our ideas, they would but ill deserve that + splendid title. We can only suppose them to have been rude fortifications, + constructed in the centre of the woods, and designed to secure the women, + children, and cattle, whilst the warriors of the tribe marched out to + repel a sudden invasion. But Tacitus asserts, as a well-known fact, that + the Germans, in his time, had <i>no</i> cities; and that they affected + to despise the works of Roman industry, as places of confinement rather + than of security. Their edifices were not even contiguous, or formed into + regular villas; each barbarian fixed his independent dwelling on the spot + to which a plain, a wood, or a stream of fresh water, had induced him to + give the preference. Neither stone, nor brick, nor tiles, were employed in + these slight habitations. They were indeed no more than low huts, of a + circular figure, built of rough timber, thatched with straw, and pierced + at the top to leave a free passage for the smoke. In the most inclement + winter, the hardy German was satisfied with a scanty garment made of the + skin of some animal. The nations who dwelt towards the North clothed + themselves in furs; and the women manufactured for their own use a coarse + kind of linen. The game of various sorts, with which the forests of + Germany were plentifully stocked, supplied its inhabitants with food and + exercise. Their monstrous herds of cattle, less remarkable indeed for + their beauty than for their utility, formed the principal object of their + wealth. A small quantity of corn was the only produce exacted from the + earth; the use of orchards or artificial meadows was unknown to the + Germans; nor can we expect any improvements in agriculture from a people, + whose prosperity every year experienced a general change by a new division + of the arable lands, and who, in that strange operation, avoided disputes, + by suffering a great part of their territory to lie waste and without + tillage. + </p> + <p> + Gold, silver, and iron, were extremely scarce in Germany. Its barbarous + inhabitants wanted both skill and patience to investigate those rich veins + of silver, which have so liberally rewarded the attention of the princes + of Brunswick and Saxony. Sweden, which now supplies Europe with iron, was + equally ignorant of its own riches; and the appearance of the arms of the + Germans furnished a sufficient proof how little iron they were able to + bestow on what they must have deemed the noblest use of that metal. The + various transactions of peace and war had introduced some Roman coins + (chiefly silver) among the borderers of the Rhine and Danube; but the more + distant tribes were absolutely unacquainted with the use of money, carried + on their confined traffic by the exchange of commodities, and prized their + rude earthen vessels as of equal value with the silver vases, the presents + of Rome to their princes and ambassadors. To a mind capable of reflection, + such leading facts convey more instruction, than a tedious detail of + subordinate circumstances. The value of money has been settled by general + consent to express our wants and our property, as letters were invented to + express our ideas; and both these institutions, by giving a more active + energy to the powers and passions of human nature, have contributed to + multiply the objects they were designed to represent. The use of gold and + silver is in a great measure factitious; but it would be impossible to + enumerate the important and various services which agriculture, and all + the arts, have received from iron, when tempered and fashioned by the + operation of fire and the dexterous hand of man. Money, in a word, is the + most universal incitement, iron the most powerful instrument, of human + industry; and it is very difficult to conceive by what means a people, + neither actuated by the one, nor seconded by the other, could emerge from + the grossest barbarism. + </p> + <p> + If we contemplate a savage nation in any part of the globe, a supine + indolence and a carelessness of futurity will be found to constitute their + general character. In a civilized state every faculty of man is expanded + and exercised; and the great chain of mutual dependence connects and + embraces the several members of society. The most numerous portion of it + is employed in constant and useful labor. The select few, placed by + fortune above that necessity, can, however, fill up their time by the + pursuits of interest or glory, by the improvement of their estate or of + their understanding, by the duties, the pleasures, and even the follies of + social life. The Germans were not possessed of these varied resources. The + care of the house and family, the management of the land and cattle, were + delegated to the old and the infirm, to women and slaves. The lazy + warrior, destitute of every art that might employ his leisure hours, + consumed his days and nights in the animal gratifications of sleep and + food. And yet, by a wonderful diversity of nature, (according to the + remark of a writer who had pierced into its darkest recesses,) the same + barbarians are by turns the most indolent and the most restless of + mankind. They delight in sloth, they detest tranquility. The languid soul, + oppressed with its own weight, anxiously required some new and powerful + sensation; and war and danger were the only amusements adequate to its + fierce temper. The sound that summoned the German to arms was grateful to + his ear. It roused him from his uncomfortable lethargy, gave him an active + pursuit, and, by strong exercise of the body, and violent emotions of the + mind, restored him to a more lively sense of his existence. In the dull + intervals of peace, these barbarians were immoderately addicted to deep + gaming and excessive drinking; both of which, by different means, the one + by inflaming their passions, the other by extinguishing their reason, + alike relieved them from the pain of thinking. They gloried in passing + whole days and nights at table; and the blood of friends and relations + often stained their numerous and drunken assemblies. Their debts of honor + (for in that light they have transmitted to us those of play) they + discharged with the most romantic fidelity. The desperate gamester, who + had staked his person and liberty on a last throw of the dice, patiently + submitted to the decision of fortune, and suffered himself to be bound, + chastised, and sold into remote slavery, by his weaker but more lucky + antagonist. + </p> + <p> + Strong beer, a liquor extracted with very little art from wheat or barley, + and <i>corrupted</i> (as it is strongly expressed by Tacitus) into a + certain semblance of wine, was sufficient for the gross purposes of German + debauchery. But those who had tasted the rich wines of Italy, and + afterwards of Gaul, sighed for that more delicious species of + intoxication. They attempted not, however, (as has since been executed + with so much success,) to naturalize the vine on the banks of the Rhine + and Danube; nor did they endeavor to procure by industry the materials of + an advantageous commerce. To solicit by labor what might be ravished by + arms, was esteemed unworthy of the German spirit. The intemperate thirst + of strong liquors often urged the barbarians to invade the provinces on + which art or nature had bestowed those much envied presents. The Tuscan + who betrayed his country to the Celtic nations, attracted them into Italy + by the prospect of the rich fruits and delicious wines, the productions of + a happier climate. And in the same manner the German auxiliaries, invited + into France during the civil wars of the sixteenth century, were allured + by the promise of plenteous quarters in the provinces of Champaigne and + Burgundy. Drunkenness, the most illiberal, but not the most dangerous of + our <i>vices</i>, was sometimes capable, in a less civilized state of + mankind, of occasioning a battle, a war, or a revolution. + </p> + <p> + The climate of ancient Germany has been modified, and the soil fertilized, + by the labor of ten centuries from the time of Charlemagne. The same + extent of ground which at present maintains, in ease and plenty, a million + of husbandmen and artificers, was unable to supply a hundred thousand lazy + warriors with the simple necessaries of life. The Germans abandoned their + immense forests to the exercise of hunting, employed in pasturage the most + considerable part of their lands, bestowed on the small remainder a rude + and careless cultivation, and then accused the scantiness and sterility of + a country that refused to maintain the multitude of its inhabitants. When + the return of famine severely admonished them of the importance of the + arts, the national distress was sometimes alleviated by the emigration of + a third, perhaps, or a fourth part of their youth. The possession and the + enjoyment of property are the pledges which bind a civilized people to an + improved country. But the Germans, who carried with them what they most + valued, their arms, their cattle, and their women, cheerfully abandoned + the vast silence of their woods for the unbounded hopes of plunder and + conquest. The innumerable swarms that issued, or seemed to issue, from the + great storehouse of nations, were multiplied by the fears of the + vanquished, and by the credulity of succeeding ages. And from facts thus + exaggerated, an opinion was gradually established, and has been supported + by writers of distinguished reputation, that, in the age of Cæsar + and Tacitus, the inhabitants of the North were far more numerous than they + are in our days. A more serious inquiry into the causes of population + seems to have convinced modern philosophers of the falsehood, and indeed + the impossibility, of the supposition. To the names of Mariana and of + Machiavel, we can oppose the equal names of Robertson and Hume. + </p> + <p> + A warlike nation like the Germans, without either cities, letters, arts, + or money, found some compensation for this savage state in the enjoyment + of liberty. Their poverty secured their freedom, since our desires and our + possessions are the strongest fetters of despotism. “Among the Suiones + (says Tacitus) riches are held in honor. They are <i>therefore</i> + subject to an absolute monarch, who, instead of intrusting his people with + the free use of arms, as is practised in the rest of Germany, commits them + to the safe custody, not of a citizen, or even of a freedman, but of a + slave. The neighbors of the Suiones, the Sitones, are sunk even below + servitude; they obey a woman.” In the mention of these exceptions, the + great historian sufficiently acknowledges the general theory of + government. We are only at a loss to conceive by what means riches and + despotism could penetrate into a remote corner of the North, and + extinguish the generous flame that blazed with such fierceness on the + frontier of the Roman provinces, or how the ancestors of those Danes and + Norwegians, so distinguished in latter ages by their unconquered spirit, + could thus tamely resign the great character of German liberty. Some + tribes, however, on the coast of the Baltic, acknowledged the authority of + kings, though without relinquishing the rights of men, but in the far + greater part of Germany, the form of government was a democracy, tempered, + indeed, and controlled, not so much by general and positive laws, as by + the occasional ascendant of birth or valor, of eloquence or superstition. + </p> + <p> + Civil governments, in their first institution, are voluntary associations + for mutual defence. To obtain the desired end, it is absolutely necessary + that each individual should conceive himself obliged to submit his private + opinions and actions to the judgment of the greater number of his + associates. The German tribes were contented with this rude but liberal + outline of political society. As soon as a youth, born of free parents, + had attained the age of manhood, he was introduced into the general + council of his countrymen, solemnly invested with a shield and spear, and + adopted as an equal and worthy member of the military commonwealth. The + assembly of the warriors of the tribe was convened at stated seasons, or + on sudden emergencies. The trial of public offences, the election of + magistrates, and the great business of peace and war, were determined by + its independent voice. Sometimes indeed, these important questions were + previously considered and prepared in a more select council of the + principal chieftains. The magistrates might deliberate and persuade, the + people only could resolve and execute; and the resolutions of the Germans + were for the most part hasty and violent. Barbarians accustomed to place + their freedom in gratifying the present passion, and their courage in + overlooking all future consequences, turned away with indignant contempt + from the remonstrances of justice and policy, and it was the practice to + signify by a hollow murmur their dislike of such timid counsels. But + whenever a more popular orator proposed to vindicate the meanest citizen + from either foreign or domestic injury, whenever he called upon his + fellow-countrymen to assert the national honor, or to pursue some + enterprise full of danger and glory, a loud clashing of shields and spears + expressed the eager applause of the assembly. For the Germans always met + in arms, and it was constantly to be dreaded, lest an irregular multitude, + inflamed with faction and strong liquors, should use those arms to + enforce, as well as to declare, their furious resolves. We may recollect + how often the diets of Poland have been polluted with blood, and the more + numerous party has been compelled to yield to the more violent and + seditious. + </p> + <p> + A general of the tribe was elected on occasions of danger; and, if the + danger was pressing and extensive, several tribes concurred in the choice + of the same general. The bravest warrior was named to lead his countrymen + into the field, by his example rather than by his commands. But this + power, however limited, was still invidious. It expired with the war, and + in time of peace the German tribes acknowledged not any supreme chief. + Princes were, however, appointed, in the general assembly, to administer + justice, or rather to compose differences, in their respective districts. + In the choice of these magistrates, as much regard was shown to birth as + to merit. To each was assigned, by the public, a guard, and a council of a + hundred persons, and the first of the princes appears to have enjoyed a + preeminence of rank and honor which sometimes tempted the Romans to + compliment him with the regal title. + </p> + <p> + The comparative view of the powers of the magistrates, in two remarkable + instances, is alone sufficient to represent the whole system of German + manners. The disposal of the landed property within their district was + absolutely vested in their hands, and they distributed it every year + according to a new division. At the same time they were not authorized to + punish with death, to imprison, or even to strike a private citizen. A + people thus jealous of their persons, and careless of their possessions, + must have been totally destitute of industry and the arts, but animated + with a high sense of honor and independence. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch9-p3" id="linkch9-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The Germans respected only those duties which they imposed on themselves. + The most obscure soldier resisted with disdain the authority of the + magistrates. ”The noblest youths blushed not to be numbered among the + faithful companions of some renowned chief, to whom they devoted their + arms and service. A noble emulation prevailed among the companions to + obtain the first place in the esteem of their chief; amongst the chiefs, + to acquire the greatest number of valiant companions. To be ever + surrounded by a band of select youths was the pride and strength of the + chiefs, their ornament in peace, their defence in war. The glory of such + distinguished heroes diffused itself beyond the narrow limits of their own + tribe. Presents and embassies solicited their friendship, and the fame of + their arms often insured victory to the party which they espoused. In the + hour of danger it was shameful for the chief to be surpassed in valor by + his companions; shameful for the companions not to equal the valor of + their chief. To survive his fall in battle was indelible infamy. To + protect his person, and to adorn his glory with the trophies of their own + exploits, were the most sacred of their duties. The chiefs combated for + victory, the companions for the chief. The noblest warriors, whenever + their native country was sunk into the laziness of peace, maintained their + numerous bands in some distant scene of action, to exercise their restless + spirit, and to acquire renown by voluntary dangers. Gifts worthy of + soldiers—the warlike steed, the bloody and ever victorious lance—were + the rewards which the companions claimed from the liberality of their + chief. The rude plenty of his hospitable board was the only pay that <i>he</i>could + bestow, or <i>they</i> would accept. War, rapine, and the free-will + offerings of his friends, supplied the materials of this munificence.” This + institution, however it might accidentally weaken the several republics, + invigorated the general character of the Germans, and even ripened amongst + them all the virtues of which barbarians are susceptible; the faith and + valor, the hospitality and the courtesy, so conspicuous long afterwards in + the ages of chivalry. The honorable gifts, bestowed by the chief on his + brave companions, have been supposed, by an ingenious writer, to contain + the first rudiments of the fiefs, distributed after the conquest of the + Roman provinces, by the barbarian lords among their vassals, with a + similar duty of homage and military service. These conditions are, + however, very repugnant to the maxims of the ancient Germans, who + delighted in mutual presents, but without either imposing, or accepting, + the weight of obligations. + </p> + <p> + “In the days of chivalry, or more properly of romance, all the men were + brave and all the women were chaste;” and notwithstanding the latter of + these virtues is acquired and preserved with much more difficulty than the + former, it is ascribed, almost without exception, to the wives of the + ancient Germans. Polygamy was not in use, except among the princes, and + among them only for the sake of multiplying their alliances. Divorces were + prohibited by manners rather than by laws. Adulteries were punished as + rare and inexpiable crimes; nor was seduction justified by example and + fashion. We may easily discover that Tacitus indulges an honest pleasure + in the contrast of barbarian virtue with the dissolute conduct of the + Roman ladies; yet there are some striking circumstances that give an air + of truth, or at least probability, to the conjugal faith and chastity of + the Germans. + </p> + <p> + Although the progress of civilization has undoubtedly contributed to + assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have been less + favorable to the virtue of chastity, whose most dangerous enemy is the + softness of the mind. The refinements of life corrupt while they polish + the intercourse of the sexes. The gross appetite of love becomes most + dangerous when it is elevated, or rather, indeed, disguised by sentimental + passion. The elegance of dress, of motion, and of manners, gives a lustre + to beauty, and inflames the senses through the imagination. Luxurious + entertainments, midnight dances, and licentious spectacles, present at + once temptation and opportunity to female frailty. From such dangers the + unpolished wives of the barbarians were secured by poverty, solitude, and + the painful cares of a domestic life. The German huts, open, on every + side, to the eye of indiscretion or jealousy, were a better safeguard of + conjugal fidelity than the walls, the bolts, and the eunuchs of a Persian + harem. To this reason another may be added of a more honorable nature. + The Germans treated their women with esteem and confidence, consulted them + on every occasion of importance, and fondly believed, that in their + breasts resided a sanctity and wisdom more than human. Some of the + interpreters of fate, such as Velleda, in the Batavian war, governed, in + the name of the deity, the fiercest nations of Germany. The rest of the + sex, without being adored as goddesses, were respected as the free and + equal companions of soldiers; associated even by the marriage ceremony to + a life of toil, of danger, and of glory. In their great invasions, the + camps of the barbarians were filled with a multitude of women, who + remained firm and undaunted amidst the sound of arms, the various forms of + destruction, and the honorable wounds of their sons and husbands. Fainting + armies of Germans have, more than once, been driven back upon the enemy + by the generous despair of the women, who dreaded death much less than + servitude. If the day was irrecoverably lost, they well knew how to + deliver themselves and their children, with their own hands, from an + insulting victor. Heroines of such a cast may claim our admiration; but + they were most assuredly neither lovely nor very susceptible of love. + Whilst they affected to emulate the stern virtues of <i>man</i>, they + must have resigned that attractive softness in which principally consist + the charm and weakness of <i>woman</i>. Conscious pride taught the + German females to suppress every tender emotion that stood in competition + with honor, and the first honor of the sex has ever been that of chastity. + The sentiments and conduct of these high-spirited matrons may, at once, be + considered as a cause, as an effect, and as a proof of the general + character of the nation. Female courage, however it may be raised by + fanaticism, or confirmed by habit, can be only a faint and imperfect + imitation of the manly valor that distinguishes the age or country in + which it may be found. + </p> + <p> + The religious system of the Germans (if the wild opinions of savages can + deserve that name) was dictated by their wants, their fears, and their + ignorance. They adored the great visible objects and agents of nature, the + Sun and the Moon, the Fire and the Earth; together with those imaginary + deities, who were supposed to preside over the most important occupations + of human life. They were persuaded, that, by some ridiculous arts of + divination, they could discover the will of the superior beings, and that + human sacrifices were the most precious and acceptable offering to their + altars. Some applause has been hastily bestowed on the sublime notion, + entertained by that people, of the Deity, whom they neither confined + within the walls of the temple, nor represented by any human figure; but + when we recollect, that the Germans were unskilled in architecture, and + totally unacquainted with the art of sculpture, we shall readily assign + the true reason of a scruple, which arose not so much from a superiority + of reason, as from a want of ingenuity. The only temples in Germany were + dark and ancient groves, consecrated by the reverence of succeeding + generations. Their secret gloom, the imagined residence of an invisible + power, by presenting no distinct object of fear or worship, impressed the + mind with a still deeper sense of religious horror; and the priests, rude + and illiterate as they were, had been taught by experience the use of + every artifice that could preserve and fortify impressions so well suited + to their own interest. + </p> + <p> + The same ignorance, which renders barbarians incapable of conceiving or + embracing the useful restraints of laws, exposes them naked and unarmed to + the blind terrors of superstition. The German priests, improving this + favorable temper of their countrymen, had assumed a jurisdiction even in + temporal concerns, which the magistrate could not venture to exercise; and + the haughty warrior patiently submitted to the lash of correction, when it + was inflicted, not by any human power, but by the immediate order of the + god of war. The defects of civil policy were sometimes supplied by the + interposition of ecclesiastical authority. The latter was constantly + exerted to maintain silence and decency in the popular assemblies; and was + sometimes extended to a more enlarged concern for the national welfare. A + solemn procession was occasionally celebrated in the present countries of + Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The unknown symbol of the <i>Earth</i>, + covered with a thick veil, was placed on a carriage drawn by cows; and in + this manner the goddess, whose common residence was in the Isles of Rugen, + visited several adjacent tribes of her worshippers. During her progress + the sound of war was hushed, quarrels were suspended, arms laid aside, and + the restless Germans had an opportunity of tasting the blessings of peace + and harmony. The <i>truce of God</i>, so often and so ineffectually + proclaimed by the clergy of the eleventh century, was an obvious imitation + of this ancient custom. + </p> + <p> + But the influence of religion was far more powerful to inflame, than to + moderate, the fierce passions of the Germans. Interest and fanaticism + often prompted its ministers to sanctify the most daring and the most + unjust enterprises, by the approbation of Heaven, and full assurances of + success. The consecrated standards, long revered in the groves of + superstition, were placed in the front of the battle; and the hostile army + was devoted with dire execrations to the gods of war and of thunder. In + the faith of soldiers (and such were the Germans) cowardice is the most + unpardonable of sins. A brave man was the worthy favorite of their martial + deities; the wretch who had lost his shield was alike banished from the + religious and civil assemblies of his countrymen. Some tribes of the north + seem to have embraced the doctrine of transmigration, others imagined a + gross paradise of immortal drunkenness. All agreed that a life spent in + arms, and a glorious death in battle, were the best preparations for a + happy futurity, either in this or in another world. + </p> + <p> + The immortality so vainly promised by the priests, was, in some degree, + conferred by the bards. That singular order of men has most deservedly + attracted the notice of all who have attempted to investigate the + antiquities of the Celts, the Scandinavians, and the Germans. Their genius + and character, as well as the reverence paid to that important office, + have been sufficiently illustrated. But we cannot so easily express, or + even conceive, the enthusiasm of arms and glory which they kindled in the + breast of their audience. Among a polished people a taste for poetry is + rather an amusement of the fancy than a passion of the soul. And yet, + when in calm retirement we peruse the combats described by Homer or Tasso, + we are insensibly seduced by the fiction, and feel a momentary glow of + martial ardor. But how faint, how cold is the sensation which a peaceful + mind can receive from solitary study! It was in the hour of battle, or in + the feast of victory, that the bards celebrated the glory of the heroes of + ancient days, the ancestors of those warlike chieftains, who listened with + transport to their artless but animated strains. The view of arms and of + danger heightened the effect of the military song; and the passions which + it tended to excite, the desire of fame, and the contempt of death, were + the habitual sentiments of a German mind. * + </p> + <p> + Such was the situation, and such were the manners of the ancient Germans. + Their climate, their want of learning, of arts, and of laws, their notions + of honor, of gallantry, and of religion, their sense of freedom, + impatience of peace, and thirst of enterprise, all contributed to form a + people of military heroes. And yet we find, that during more than two + hundred and fifty years that elapsed from the defeat of Varus to the reign + of Decius, these formidable barbarians made few considerable attempts, and + not any material impression on the luxurious, and enslaved provinces of the + empire. Their progress was checked by their want of arms and discipline, + and their fury was diverted by the intestine divisions of ancient Germany. + </p> + <p> + I. It has been observed, with ingenuity, and not without truth, that the + command of iron soon gives a nation the command of gold. But the rude + tribes of Germany, alike destitute of both those valuable metals, were + reduced slowly to acquire, by their unassisted strength, the possession of + the one as well as the other. The face of a German army displayed their + poverty of iron. Swords, and the longer kind of lances, they could seldom + use. Their frame (as they called them in their own language) were long + spears headed with a sharp but narrow iron point, and which, as occasion + required, they either darted from a distance, or pushed in close onset. + With this spear, and with a shield, their cavalry was contented. A + multitude of darts, scattered with incredible force, were an additional + resource of the infantry. Their military dress, when they wore any, was + nothing more than a loose mantle. A variety of colors was the only + ornament of their wooden or osier shields. Few of the chiefs were + distinguished by cuirasses, scarcely any by helmets. Though the horses of + Germany were neither beautiful, swift, nor practised in the skilful + evolutions of the Roman manege, several of the nations obtained renown by + their cavalry; but, in general, the principal strength of the Germans + consisted in their infantry, which was drawn up in several deep columns, + according to the distinction of tribes and families. Impatient of fatigue + and delay, these half-armed warriors rushed to battle with dissonant + shouts and disordered ranks; and sometimes, by the effort of native valor, + prevailed over the constrained and more artificial bravery of the Roman + mercenaries. But as the barbarians poured forth their whole souls on the + first onset, they knew not how to rally or to retire. A repulse was a sure + defeat; and a defeat was most commonly total destruction. When we + recollect the complete armor of the Roman soldiers, their discipline, + exercises, evolutions, fortified camps, and military engines, it appears a + just matter of surprise, how the naked and unassisted valor of the + barbarians could dare to encounter, in the field, the strength of the + legions, and the various troops of the auxiliaries, which seconded their + operations. The contest was too unequal, till the introduction of luxury + had enervated the vigor, and a spirit of disobedience and sedition had + relaxed the discipline, of the Roman armies. The introduction of barbarian + auxiliaries into those armies, was a measure attended with very obvious + dangers, as it might gradually instruct the Germans in the arts of war and + of policy. Although they were admitted in small numbers and with the + strictest precaution, the example of Civilis was proper to convince the + Romans, that the danger was not imaginary, and that their precautions were + not always sufficient. During the civil wars that followed the death of + Nero, that artful and intrepid Batavian, whom his enemies condescended to + compare with Hannibal and Sertorius, formed a great design of freedom and + ambition. Eight Batavian cohorts renowned in the wars of Britain and + Italy, repaired to his standard. He introduced an army of Germans into + Gaul, prevailed on the powerful cities of Treves and Langres to embrace + his cause, defeated the legions, destroyed their fortified camps, and + employed against the Romans the military knowledge which he had acquired + in their service. When at length, after an obstinate struggle, he yielded + to the power of the empire, Civilis secured himself and his country by an + honorable treaty. The Batavians still continued to occupy the islands of + the Rhine, the allies, not the servants, of the Roman monarchy. + </p> + <p> + II. The strength of ancient Germany appears formidable, when we consider + the effects that might have been produced by its united effort. The wide + extent of country might very possibly contain a million of warriors, as + all who were of age to bear arms were of a temper to use them. But this + fierce multitude, incapable of concerting or executing any plan of + national greatness, was agitated by various and often hostile intentions. + Germany was divided into more than forty independent states; and, even in + each state, the union of the several tribes was extremely loose and + precarious. The barbarians were easily provoked; they knew not how to + forgive an injury, much less an insult; their resentments were bloody and + implacable. The casual disputes that so frequently happened in their + tumultuous parties of hunting or drinking were sufficient to inflame the + minds of whole nations; the private feuds of any considerable chieftains + diffused itself among their followers and allies. To chastise the + insolent, or to plunder the defenceless, were alike causes of war. The + most formidable states of Germany affected to encompass their territories + with a wide frontier of solitude and devastation. The awful distance + preserved by their neighbors attested the terror of their arms, and in + some measure defended them from the danger of unexpected incursions. + </p> + <p> + “The Bructeri * (it is Tacitus who now speaks) were totally exterminated + by the neighboring tribes, provoked by their insolence, allured by the + hopes of spoil, and perhaps inspired by the tutelar deities of the empire. + Above sixty thousand barbarians were destroyed; not by the Roman arms, but + in our sight, and for our entertainment. May the nations, enemies of Rome, + ever preserve this enmity to each other! We have now attained the utmost + verge of prosperity, and have nothing left to demand of fortune, except + the discord of the barbarians.”—These sentiments, less worthy of the + humanity than of the patriotism of Tacitus, express the invariable maxims + of the policy of his countrymen. They deemed it a much safer expedient to + divide than to combat the barbarians, from whose defeat they could derive + neither honor nor advantage. The money and negotiations of Rome insinuated + themselves into the heart of Germany; and every art of seduction was used + with dignity, to conciliate those nations whom their proximity to the + Rhine or Danube might render the most useful friends as well as the most + troublesome enemies. Chiefs of renown and power were flattered by the most + trifling presents, which they received either as marks of distinction, or + as the instruments of luxury. In civil dissensions the weaker faction + endeavored to strengthen its interest by entering into secret connections + with the governors of the frontier provinces. Every quarrel among the + Germans was fomented by the intrigues of Rome; and every plan of union and + public good was defeated by the stronger bias of private jealousy and + interest. + </p> + <p> + The general conspiracy which terrified the Romans under the reign of + Marcus Antoninus, comprehended almost all the nations of Germany, and even + Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that of the Danube. It is + impossible for us to determine whether this hasty confederation was formed + by necessity, by reason, or by passion; but we may rest assured, that the + barbarians were neither allured by the indolence, nor provoked by the + ambition, of the Roman monarch. This dangerous invasion required all the + firmness and vigilance of Marcus. He fixed generals of ability in the + several stations of attack, and assumed in person the conduct of the most + important province on the Upper Danube. After a long and doubtful + conflict, the spirit of the barbarians was subdued. The Quadi and the + Marcomanni, who had taken the lead in the war, were the most severely + punished in its catastrophe. They were commanded to retire five miles from + their own banks of the Danube, and to deliver up the flower of the youth, + who were immediately sent into Britain, a remote island, where they might + be secure as hostages, and useful as soldiers. On the frequent rebellions + of the Quadi and Marcomanni, the irritated emperor resolved to reduce + their country into the form of a province. His designs were disappointed + by death. This formidable league, however, the only one that appears in + the two first centuries of the Imperial history, was entirely dissipated, + without leaving any traces behind in Germany. + </p> + <p> + In the course of this introductory chapter, we have confined ourselves to + the general outlines of the manners of Germany, without attempting to + describe or to distinguish the various tribes which filled that great + country in the time of Cæsar, of Tacitus, or of Ptolemy. As the + ancient, or as new tribes successively present themselves in the series of + this history, we shall concisely mention their origin, their situation, + and their particular character. Modern nations are fixed and permanent + societies, connected among themselves by laws and government, bound to + their native soil by art and agriculture. The German tribes were + voluntary and fluctuating associations of soldiers, almost of savages. The + same territory often changed its inhabitants in the tide of conquest and + emigration. The same communities, uniting in a plan of defence or + invasion, bestowed a new title on their new confederacy. The dissolution + of an ancient confederacy restored to the independent tribes their + peculiar but long-forgotten appellation. A victorious state often + communicated its own name to a vanquished people. Sometimes crowds of + volunteers flocked from all parts to the standard of a favorite leader; + his camp became their country, and some circumstance of the enterprise + soon gave a common denomination to the mixed multitude. The distinctions + of the ferocious invaders were perpetually varied by themselves, and + confounded by the astonished subjects of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + Wars, and the administration of public affairs, are the principal subjects + of history; but the number of persons interested in these busy scenes is + very different, according to the different condition of mankind. In great + monarchies, millions of obedient subjects pursue their useful occupations + in peace and obscurity. The attention of the writer, as well as of the + reader, is solely confined to a court, a capital, a regular army, and the + districts which happen to be the occasional scene of military operations. + But a state of freedom and barbarism, the season of civil commotions, or + the situation of petty republics, raises almost every member of the + community into action, and consequently into notice. The irregular + divisions, and the restless motions, of the people of Germany, dazzle our + imagination, and seem to multiply their numbers. The profuse enumeration + of kings, of warriors, of armies and nations, inclines us to forget that + the same objects are continually repeated under a variety of appellations, + and that the most splendid appellations have been frequently lavished on + the most inconsiderable objects. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch10-p1" id="linkch10-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And +Gallienus.—The General Irruption Of The Barbarians.—The +Thirty Tyrants. +</pre> + <p> + From the great secular games celebrated by Philip, to the death of the + emperor Gallienus, there elapsed twenty years of shame and misfortune. + During that calamitous period, every instant of time was marked, every + province of the Roman world was afflicted, by barbarous invaders, and + military tyrants, and the ruined empire seemed to approach the last and + fatal moment of its dissolution. The confusion of the times, and the + scarcity of authentic memorials, oppose equal difficulties to the + historian, who attempts to preserve a clear and unbroken thread of + narration. Surrounded with imperfect fragments, always concise, often + obscure, and sometimes contradictory, he is reduced to collect, to + compare, and to conjecture: and though he ought never to place his + conjectures in the rank of facts, yet the knowledge of human nature, and + of the sure operation of its fierce and unrestrained passions, might, on + some occasions, supply the want of historical materials. + </p> + <p> + There is not, for instance, any difficulty in conceiving, that the + successive murders of so many emperors had loosened all the ties of + allegiance between the prince and people; that all the generals of Philip + were disposed to imitate the example of their master; and that the caprice + of armies, long since habituated to frequent and violent revolutions, + might every day raise to the throne the most obscure of their + fellow-soldiers. History can only add, that the rebellion against the + emperor Philip broke out in the summer of the year two hundred and + forty-nine, among the legions of Mæsia; and that a subaltern + officer, named Marinus, was the object of their seditious choice. Philip + was alarmed. He dreaded lest the treason of the Mæsian army should + prove the first spark of a general conflagration. Distracted with the + consciousness of his guilt and of his danger, he communicated the + intelligence to the senate. A gloomy silence prevailed, the effect of + fear, and perhaps of disaffection; till at length Decius, one of the + assembly, assuming a spirit worthy of his noble extraction, ventured to + discover more intrepidity than the emperor seemed to possess. He treated + the whole business with contempt, as a hasty and inconsiderate tumult, and + Philip’s rival as a phantom of royalty, who in a very few days would be + destroyed by the same inconstancy that had created him. The speedy + completion of the prophecy inspired Philip with a just esteem for so able + a counsellor; and Decius appeared to him the only person capable of + restoring peace and discipline to an army whose tumultuous spirit did not + immediately subside after the murder of Marinus. Decius, who long resisted + his own nomination, seems to have insinuated the danger of presenting a + leader of merit to the angry and apprehensive minds of the soldiers; and + his prediction was again confirmed by the event. The legions of Mæsia + forced their judge to become their accomplice. They left him only the + alternative of death or the purple. His subsequent conduct, after that + decisive measure, was unavoidable. He conducted, or followed, his army to + the confines of Italy, whither Philip, collecting all his force to repel + the formidable competitor whom he had raised up, advanced to meet him. The + Imperial troops were superior in number; but the rebels formed an army of + veterans, commanded by an able and experienced leader. Philip was either + killed in the battle, or put to death a few days afterwards at Verona. His + son and associate in the empire was massacred at Rome by the Prætorian + guards; and the victorious Decius, with more favorable circumstances than + the ambition of that age can usually plead, was universally acknowledged + by the senate and provinces. It is reported, that, immediately after his + reluctant acceptance of the title of Augustus, he had assured Philip, by a + private message, of his innocence and loyalty, solemnly protesting, that, + on his arrival on Italy, he would resign the Imperial ornaments, and + return to the condition of an obedient subject. His professions might be + sincere; but in the situation where fortune had placed him, it was + scarcely possible that he could either forgive or be forgiven. + </p> + <p> + The emperor Decius had employed a few months in the works of peace and the + administration of justice, when he was summoned to the banks of the Danube + by the invasion of the Goths. This is the first considerable occasion in + which history mentions that great people, who afterwards broke the Roman + power, sacked the Capitol, and reigned in Gaul, Spain, and Italy. So + memorable was the part which they acted in the subversion of the Western + empire, that the name of Goths is frequently but improperly used as a + general appellation of rude and warlike barbarism. + </p> + <p> + In the beginning of the sixth century, and after the conquest of Italy, + the Goths, in possession of present greatness, very naturally indulged + themselves in the prospect of past and of future glory. They wished to + preserve the memory of their ancestors, and to transmit to posterity their + own achievements. + </p> + <p> + The principal minister of the court of Ravenna, the learned Cassiodorus, + gratified the inclination of the conquerors in a Gothic history, which + consisted of twelve books, now reduced to the imperfect abridgment of + Jornandes. These writers passed with the most artful conciseness over the + misfortunes of the nation, celebrated its successful valor, and adorned + the triumph with many Asiatic trophies, that more properly belonged to the + people of Scythia. On the faith of ancient songs, the uncertain, but the + only memorials of barbarians, they deduced the first origin of the Goths + from the vast island, or peninsula, of Scandinavia. * That extreme country + of the North was not unknown to the conquerors of Italy: the ties of + ancient consanguinity had been strengthened by recent offices of + friendship; and a Scandinavian king had cheerfully abdicated his savage + greatness, that he might pass the remainder of his days in the peaceful + and polished court of Ravenna. Many vestiges, which cannot be ascribed to + the arts of popular vanity, attest the ancient residence of the Goths in + the countries beyond the Rhine. From the time of the geographer Ptolemy, + the southern part of Sweden seems to have continued in the possession of + the less enterprising remnant of the nation, and a large territory is even + at present divided into east and west Gothland. During the middle ages, + (from the ninth to the twelfth century,) whilst Christianity was advancing + with a slow progress into the North, the Goths and the Swedes composed two + distinct and sometimes hostile members of the same monarchy. The latter of + these two names has prevailed without extinguishing the former. The + Swedes, who might well be satisfied with their own fame in arms, have, in + every age, claimed the kindred glory of the Goths. In a moment of + discontent against the court of Rome, Charles the Twelfth insinuated, that + his victorious troops were not degenerated from their brave ancestors, who + had already subdued the mistress of the world. + </p> + <p> + Till the end of the eleventh century, a celebrated temple subsisted at + Upsal, the most considerable town of the Swedes and Goths. It was enriched + with the gold which the Scandinavians had acquired in their piratical + adventures, and sanctified by the uncouth representations of the three + principal deities, the god of war, the goddess of generation, and the god + of thunder. In the general festival, that was solemnized every ninth year, + nine animals of every species (without excepting the human) were + sacrificed, and their bleeding bodies suspended in the sacred grove + adjacent to the temple. The only traces that now subsist of this barbaric + superstition are contained in the Edda, * a system of mythology, compiled + in Iceland about the thirteenth century, and studied by the learned of + Denmark and Sweden, as the most valuable remains of their ancient + traditions. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the mysterious obscurity of the Edda, we can easily + distinguish two persons confounded under the name of Odin; the god of war, + and the great legislator of Scandinavia. The latter, the Mahomet of the + North, instituted a religion adapted to the climate and to the people. + Numerous tribes on either side of the Baltic were subdued by the + invincible valor of Odin, by his persuasive eloquence, and by the fame + which he acquired of a most skilful magician. The faith that he had + propagated, during a long and prosperous life, he confirmed by a voluntary + death. Apprehensive of the ignominious approach of disease and infirmity, + he resolved to expire as became a warrior. In a solemn assembly of the + Swedes and Goths, he wounded himself in nine mortal places, hastening away + (as he asserted with his dying voice) to prepare the feast of heroes in + the palace of the God of war. + </p> + <p> + The native and proper habitation of Odin is distinguished by the + appellation of As-gard. The happy resemblance of that name with As-burg, + or As-of, words of a similar signification, has given rise to an + historical system of so pleasing a contexture, that we could almost wish + to persuade ourselves of its truth. It is supposed that Odin was the chief + of a tribe of barbarians which dwelt on the banks of the Lake Mæotis, + till the fall of Mithridates and the arms of Pompey menaced the North with + servitude. That Odin, yielding with indignant fury to a power he was + unable to resist, conducted his tribe from the frontiers of the Asiatic + Sarmatia into Sweden, with the great design of forming, in that + inaccessible retreat of freedom, a religion and a people which, in some + remote age, might be subservient to his immortal revenge; when his + invincible Goths, armed with martial fanaticism, should issue in numerous + swarms from the neighborhood of the Polar circle, to chastise the + oppressors of mankind. + </p> + <p> + If so many successive generations of Goths were capable of preserving a + faint tradition of their Scandinavian origin, we must not expect, from + such unlettered barbarians, any distinct account of the time and + circumstances of their emigration. To cross the Baltic was an easy and + natural attempt. The inhabitants of Sweden were masters of a sufficient + number of large vessels, with oars, and the distance is little more than + one hundred miles from Carlscroon to the nearest ports of Pomerania and + Prussia. Here, at length, we land on firm and historic ground. At least as + early as the Christian æra, and as late as the age of the Antonines, + the Goths were established towards the mouth of the Vistula, and in that + fertile province where the commercial cities of Thorn, Elbing, + Köningsberg, and Dantzick, were long afterwards founded. Westward of the + Goths, the numerous tribes of the Vandals were spread along the banks of + the Oder, and the sea-coast of Pomerania and Mecklenburgh. A striking + resemblance of manners, complexion, religion, and language, seemed to + indicate that the Vandals and the Goths were originally one great people. + The latter appear to have been subdivided into Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and + Gepidæ. The distinction among the Vandals was more strongly marked + by the independent names of Heruli, Burgundians, Lombards, and a variety + of other petty states, many of which, in a future age, expanded themselves + into powerful monarchies. + </p> + <p> + In the age of the Antonines, the Goths were still seated in Prussia. + About the reign of Alexander Severus, the Roman province of Dacia had + already experienced their proximity by frequent and destructive inroads. + In this interval, therefore, of about seventy years we must place the + second migration of the Goths from the Baltic to the Euxine; but the + cause that produced it lies concealed among the various motives which + actuate the conduct of unsettled barbarians. Either a pestilence or a + famine, a victory or a defeat, an oracle of the gods or the eloquence of + a daring leader, were sufficient to impel the Gothic arms on the milder + climates of the south. Besides the influence of a martial religion, the + numbers and spirit of the Goths were equal to the most dangerous + adventures. The use of round bucklers and short swords rendered them + formidable in a close engagement; the manly obedience which they yielded + to hereditary kings, gave uncommon union and stability to their councils; + and the renowned Amala, the hero of that age, and the tenth ancestor of + Theodoric, king of Italy, enforced, by the ascendant of personal merit, + the prerogative of his birth, which he derived from the <i>Anses</i>, or + demigods of the Gothic nation. + </p> + <p> + The fame of a great enterprise excited the bravest warriors from all the + Vandalic states of Germany, many of whom are seen a few years afterwards + combating under the common standard of the Goths. The first motions of the + emigrants carried them to the banks of the Prypec, a river universally + conceived by the ancients to be the southern branch of the Borysthenes. + The windings of that great stream through the plains of Poland and Russia + gave a direction to their line of march, and a constant supply of fresh + water and pasturage to their numerous herds of cattle. They followed the + unknown course of the river, confident in their valor, and careless of + whatever power might oppose their progress. The Bastarnæ and the + Venedi were the first who presented themselves; and the flower of their + youth, either from choice or compulsion, increased the Gothic army. The + Bastarnæ dwelt on the northern side of the Carpathian Mountains: the + immense tract of land that separated the Bastarnæ from the savages + of Finland was possessed, or rather wasted, by the Venedi; we have some + reason to believe that the first of these nations, which distinguished + itself in the Macedonian war, and was afterwards divided into the + formidable tribes of the Peucini, the Borani, the Carpi, &c., derived + its origin from the Germans. * With better authority, a Sarmatian + extraction may be assigned to the Venedi, who rendered themselves so + famous in the middle ages. But the confusion of blood and manners on that + doubtful frontier often perplexed the most accurate observers. As the + Goths advanced near the Euxine Sea, they encountered a purer race of + Sarmatians, the Jazyges, the Alani, and the Roxolani; and they were + probably the first Germans who saw the mouths of the Borysthenes, and of + the Tanais. If we inquire into the characteristic marks of the people of + Germany and of Sarmatia, we shall discover that those two great portions + of human kind were principally distinguished by fixed huts or movable + tents, by a close dress or flowing garments, by the marriage of one or of + several wives, by a military force, consisting, for the most part, either + of infantry or cavalry; and above all, by the use of the Teutonic, or of + the Sclavonian language; the last of which has been diffused by conquest, + from the confines of Italy to the neighborhood of Japan. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch10-p2" id="linkch10-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The Goths were now in possession of the Ukraine, a country of considerable + extent and uncommon fertility, intersected with navigable rivers, which, + from either side, discharge themselves into the Borysthenes; and + interspersed with large and lofty forests of oaks. The plenty of game and + fish, the innumerable bee-hives deposited in the hollow of old trees, and + in the cavities of rocks, and forming, even in that rude age, a valuable + branch of commerce, the size of the cattle, the temperature of the air, + the aptness of the soil for every species of grain, and the luxuriancy of + the vegetation, all displayed the liberality of Nature, and tempted the + industry of man. But the Goths withstood all these temptations, and still + adhered to a life of idleness, of poverty, and of rapine. + </p> + <p> + The Scythian hordes, which, towards the east, bordered on the new + settlements of the Goths, presented nothing to their arms, except the + doubtful chance of an unprofitable victory. But the prospect of the Roman + territories was far more alluring; and the fields of Dacia were covered + with rich harvests, sown by the hands of an industrious, and exposed to be + gathered by those of a warlike, people. It is probable that the conquests + of Trajan, maintained by his successors, less for any real advantage than + for ideal dignity, had contributed to weaken the empire on that side. The + new and unsettled province of Dacia was neither strong enough to resist, + nor rich enough to satiate, the rapaciousness of the barbarians. As long + as the remote banks of the Niester were considered as the boundary of the + Roman power, the fortifications of the Lower Danube were more carelessly + guarded, and the inhabitants of Mæsia lived in supine security, + fondly conceiving themselves at an inaccessible distance from any + barbarian invaders. The irruptions of the Goths, under the reign of + Philip, fatally convinced them of their mistake. The king, or leader, of + that fierce nation, traversed with contempt the province of Dacia, and + passed both the Niester and the Danube without encountering any opposition + capable of retarding his progress. The relaxed discipline of the Roman + troops betrayed the most important posts, where they were stationed, and + the fear of deserved punishment induced great numbers of them to enlist + under the Gothic standard. The various multitude of barbarians appeared, + at length, under the walls of Marcianopolis, a city built by Trajan in + honor of his sister, and at that time the capital of the second Mæsia. + The inhabitants consented to ransom their lives and property by the + payment of a large sum of money, and the invaders retreated back into + their deserts, animated, rather than satisfied, with the first success of + their arms against an opulent but feeble country. Intelligence was soon + transmitted to the emperor Decius, that Cniva, king of the Goths, had + passed the Danube a second time, with more considerable forces; that his + numerous detachments scattered devastation over the province of Mæsia, + whilst the main body of the army, consisting of seventy thousand Germans + and Sarmatians, a force equal to the most daring achievements, required + the presence of the Roman monarch, and the exertion of his military power. + </p> + <p> + Decius found the Goths engaged before Nicopolis, one of the many monuments + of Trajan’s victories. On his approach they raised the siege, but with a + design only of marching away to a conquest of greater importance, the + siege of Philippopolis, a city of Thrace, founded by the father of + Alexander, near the foot of Mount Hæmus. Decius followed them + through a difficult country, and by forced marches; but when he imagined + himself at a considerable distance from the rear of the Goths, Cniva + turned with rapid fury on his pursuers. The camp of the Romans was + surprised and pillaged, and, for the first time, their emperor fled in + disorder before a troop of half-armed barbarians. After a long resistance, + Philippopolis, destitute of succor, was taken by storm. A hundred thousand + persons are reported to have been massacred in the sack of that great + city. Many prisoners of consequence became a valuable accession to the + spoil; and Priscus, a brother of the late emperor Philip, blushed not to + assume the purple, under the protection of the barbarous enemies of Rome. + The time, however, consumed in that tedious siege, enabled Decius to + revive the courage, restore the discipline, and recruit the numbers of his + troops. He intercepted several parties of Carpi, and other Germans, who + were hastening to share the victory of their countrymen, intrusted the + passes of the mountains to officers of approved valor and fidelity, + repaired and strengthened the fortifications of the Danube, and exerted + his utmost vigilance to oppose either the progress or the retreat of the + Goths. Encouraged by the return of fortune, he anxiously waited for an + opportunity to retrieve, by a great and decisive blow, his own glory, and + that of the Roman arms. + </p> + <p> + At the same time when Decius was struggling with the violence of the + tempest, his mind, calm and deliberate amidst the tumult of war, + investigated the more general causes that, since the age of the + Antonines, had so impetuously urged the decline of the Roman greatness. He + soon discovered that it was impossible to replace that greatness on a + permanent basis without restoring public virtue, ancient principles and + manners, and the oppressed majesty of the laws. To execute this noble but + arduous design, he first resolved to revive the obsolete office of censor; + an office which, as long as it had subsisted in its pristine integrity, + had so much contributed to the perpetuity of the state, till it was + usurped and gradually neglected by the Cæsars. Conscious that the + favor of the sovereign may confer power, but that the esteem of the people + can alone bestow authority, he submitted the choice of the censor to the + unbiased voice of the senate. By their unanimous votes, or rather + acclamations, Valerian, who was afterwards emperor, and who then served + with distinction in the army of Decius, was declared the most worthy of + that exalted honor. As soon as the decree of the senate was transmitted to + the emperor, he assembled a great council in his camp, and before the + investiture of the censor elect, he apprised him of the difficulty and + importance of his great office. “Happy Valerian,” said the prince to his + distinguished subject, “happy in the general approbation of the senate and + of the Roman republic! Accept the censorship of mankind; and judge of our + manners. You will select those who deserve to continue members of the + senate; you will restore the equestrian order to its ancient splendor; you + will improve the revenue, yet moderate the public burdens. You will + distinguish into regular classes the various and infinite multitude of + citizens, and accurately view the military strength, the wealth, the + virtue, and the resources of Rome. Your decisions shall obtain the force + of laws. The army, the palace, the ministers of justice, and the great + officers of the empire, are all subject to your tribunal. None are + exempted, excepting only the ordinary consuls, the præfect of the + city, the king of the sacrifices, and (as long as she preserves her + chastity inviolate) the eldest of the vestal virgins. Even these few, who + may not dread the severity, will anxiously solicit the esteem, of the + Roman censor.” + </p> + <p> + A magistrate, invested with such extensive powers, would have appeared not + so much the minister, as the colleague of his sovereign. Valerian justly + dreaded an elevation so full of envy and of suspicion. He modestly argued + the alarming greatness of the trust, his own insufficiency, and the + incurable corruption of the times. He artfully insinuated, that the office + of censor was inseparable from the Imperial dignity, and that the feeble + hands of a subject were unequal to the support of such an immense weight + of cares and of power. The approaching event of war soon put an end to the + prosecution of a project so specious, but so impracticable; and whilst it + preserved Valerian from the danger, saved the emperor Decius from the + disappointment, which would most probably have attended it. A censor may + maintain, he can never restore, the morals of a state. It is impossible + for such a magistrate to exert his authority with benefit, or even with + effect, unless he is supported by a quick sense of honor and virtue in the + minds of the people, by a decent reverence for the public opinion, and by + a train of useful prejudices combating on the side of national manners. In + a period when these principles are annihilated, the censorial jurisdiction + must either sink into empty pageantry, or be converted into a partial + instrument of vexatious oppression. It was easier to vanquish the Goths + than to eradicate the public vices; yet even in the first of these + enterprises, Decius lost his army and his life. + </p> + <p> + The Goths were now, on every side, surrounded and pursued by the Roman + arms. The flower of their troops had perished in the long siege of + Philippopolis, and the exhausted country could no longer afford + subsistence for the remaining multitude of licentious barbarians. Reduced + to this extremity, the Goths would gladly have purchased, by the surrender + of all their booty and prisoners, the permission of an undisturbed + retreat. But the emperor, confident of victory, and resolving, by the + chastisement of these invaders, to strike a salutary terror into the + nations of the North, refused to listen to any terms of accommodation. The + high-spirited barbarians preferred death to slavery. An obscure town of Mæsia, + called Forum Terebronii, was the scene of the battle. The Gothic army was + drawn up in three lines, and either from choice or accident, the front of + the third line was covered by a morass. In the beginning of the action, + the son of Decius, a youth of the fairest hopes, and already associated to + the honors of the purple, was slain by an arrow, in the sight of his + afflicted father; who, summoning all his fortitude, admonished the + dismayed troops, that the loss of a single soldier was of little + importance to the republic. The conflict was terrible; it was the combat + of despair against grief and rage. The first line of the Goths at length + gave way in disorder; the second, advancing to sustain it, shared its + fate; and the third only remained entire, prepared to dispute the passage + of the morass, which was imprudently attempted by the presumption of the + enemy. “Here the fortune of the day turned, and all things became adverse + to the Romans; the place deep with ooze, sinking under those who stood, + slippery to such as advanced; their armor heavy, the waters deep; nor + could they wield, in that uneasy situation, their weighty javelins. The + barbarians, on the contrary, were inured to encounter in the bogs, their + persons tall, their spears long, such as could wound at a distance.” In + this morass the Roman army, after an ineffectual struggle, was + irrecoverably lost; nor could the body of the emperor ever be found. Such + was the fate of Decius, in the fiftieth year of his age; an accomplished + prince, active in war and affable in peace; who, together with his son, + has deserved to be compared, both in life and death, with the brightest + examples of ancient virtue. + </p> + <p> + This fatal blow humbled, for a very little time, the insolence of the + legions. They appeared to have patiently expected, and submissively + obeyed, the decree of the senate which regulated the succession to the + throne. From a just regard for the memory of Decius, the Imperial title + was conferred on Hostilianus, his only surviving son; but an equal rank, + with more effectual power, was granted to Gallus, whose experience and + ability seemed equal to the great trust of guardian to the young prince + and the distressed empire. The first care of the new emperor was to + deliver the Illyrian provinces from the intolerable weight of the + victorious Goths. He consented to leave in their hands the rich fruits of + their invasion, an immense booty, and what was still more disgraceful, a + great number of prisoners of the highest merit and quality. He plentifully + supplied their camp with every conveniency that could assuage their angry + spirits or facilitate their so much wished-for departure; and he even + promised to pay them annually a large sum of gold, on condition they + should never afterwards infest the Roman territories by their incursions. + </p> + <p> + In the age of the Scipios, the most opulent kings of the earth, who + courted the protection of the victorious commonwealth, were gratified with + such trifling presents as could only derive a value from the hand that + bestowed them; an ivory chair, a coarse garment of purple, an + inconsiderable piece of plate, or a quantity of copper coin. After the + wealth of nations had centred in Rome, the emperors displayed their + greatness, and even their policy, by the regular exercise of a steady and + moderate liberality towards the allies of the state. They relieved the + poverty of the barbarians, honored their merit, and recompensed their + fidelity. These voluntary marks of bounty were understood to flow, not + from the fears, but merely from the generosity or the gratitude of the + Romans; and whilst presents and subsidies were liberally distributed among + friends and suppliants, they were sternly refused to such as claimed them + as a debt. But this stipulation, of an annual payment to a victorious + enemy, appeared without disguise in the light of an ignominious tribute; + the minds of the Romans were not yet accustomed to accept such unequal + laws from a tribe of barbarians; and the prince, who by a necessary + concession had probably saved his country, became the object of the + general contempt and aversion. The death of Hostilianus, though it + happened in the midst of a raging pestilence, was interpreted as the + personal crime of Gallus; and even the defeat of the later emperor was + ascribed by the voice of suspicion to the perfidious counsels of his hated + successor. The tranquillity which the empire enjoyed during the first year + of his administration, served rather to inflame than to appease the public + discontent; and as soon as the apprehensions of war were removed, the + infamy of the peace was more deeply and more sensibly felt. + </p> + <p> + But the Romans were irritated to a still higher degree, when they + discovered that they had not even secured their repose, though at the + expense of their honor. The dangerous secret of the wealth and weakness of + the empire had been revealed to the world. New swarms of barbarians, + encouraged by the success, and not conceiving themselves bound by the + obligation of their brethren, spread devastation through the Illyrian + provinces, and terror as far as the gates of Rome. The defence of the + monarchy, which seemed abandoned by the pusillanimous emperor, was assumed + by Æmilianus, governor of Pannonia and Mæsia; who rallied the + scattered forces, and revived the fainting spirits of the troops. The + barbarians were unexpectedly attacked, routed, chased, and pursued beyond + the Danube. The victorious leader distributed as a donative the money + collected for the tribute, and the acclamations of the soldiers proclaimed + him emperor on the field of battle. Gallus, who, careless of the general + welfare, indulged himself in the pleasures of Italy, was almost in the + same instant informed of the success, of the revolt, and of the rapid + approach of his aspiring lieutenant. He advanced to meet him as far as the + plains of Spoleto. When the armies came in sight of each other, the + soldiers of Gallus compared the ignominious conduct of their sovereign + with the glory of his rival. They admired the valor of Æmilianus; + they were attracted by his liberality, for he offered a considerable + increase of pay to all deserters. The murder of Gallus, and of his son + Volusianus, put an end to the civil war; and the senate gave a legal + sanction to the rights of conquest. The letters of Æmilianus to that + assembly displayed a mixture of moderation and vanity. He assured them, + that he should resign to their wisdom the civil administration; and, + contenting himself with the quality of their general, would in a short + time assert the glory of Rome, and deliver the empire from all the + barbarians both of the North and of the East. His pride was flattered by + the applause of the senate; and medals are still extant, representing him + with the name and attributes of Hercules the Victor, and Mars the Avenger. + </p> + <p> + If the new monarch possessed the abilities, he wanted the time, necessary + to fulfil these splendid promises. Less than four months intervened + between his victory and his fall. He had vanquished Gallus: he sunk under + the weight of a competitor more formidable than Gallus. That unfortunate + prince had sent Valerian, already distinguished by the honorable title of + censor, to bring the legions of Gaul and Germany to his aid. Valerian + executed that commission with zeal and fidelity; and as he arrived too + late to save his sovereign, he resolved to revenge him. The troops of + Æmilianus, who still lay encamped in the plains of Spoleto, were + awed by the sanctity of his character, but much more by the superior + strength of his army; and as they were now become as incapable of personal + attachment as they had always been of constitutional principle, they + readily imbrued their hands in the blood of a prince who so lately had + been the object of their partial choice. The guilt was theirs, * but the + advantage of it was Valerian’s; who obtained the possession of the throne + by the means indeed of a civil war, but with a degree of innocence + singular in that age of revolutions; since he owed neither gratitude nor + allegiance to his predecessor, whom he dethroned. + </p> + <p> + Valerian was about sixty years of age when he was invested with the + purple, not by the caprice of the populace, or the clamors of the army, + but by the unanimous voice of the Roman world. In his gradual ascent + through the honors of the state, he had deserved the favor of virtuous + princes, and had declared himself the enemy of tyrants. His noble birth, + his mild but unblemished manners, his learning, prudence, and experience, + were revered by the senate and people; and if mankind (according to the + observation of an ancient writer) had been left at liberty to choose a + master, their choice would most assuredly have fallen on Valerian. Perhaps + the merit of this emperor was inadequate to his reputation; perhaps his + abilities, or at least his spirit, were affected by the languor and + coldness of old age. The consciousness of his decline engaged him to share + the throne with a younger and more active associate; the emergency of the + times demanded a general no less than a prince; and the experience of the + Roman censor might have directed him where to bestow the Imperial purple, + as the reward of military merit. But instead of making a judicious choice, + which would have confirmed his reign and endeared his memory, Valerian, + consulting only the dictates of affection or vanity, immediately invested + with the supreme honors his son Gallienus, a youth whose effeminate vices + had been hitherto concealed by the obscurity of a private station. The + joint government of the father and the son subsisted about seven, and the + sole administration of Gallienus continued about eight, years. But the whole + period was one uninterrupted series of confusion and calamity. As the + Roman empire was at the same time, and on every side, attacked by the + blind fury of foreign invaders, and the wild ambition of domestic + usurpers, we shall consult order and perspicuity, by pursuing, not so much + the doubtful arrangement of dates, as the more natural distribution of + subjects. The most dangerous enemies of Rome, during the reigns of + Valerian and Gallienus, were, 1. The Franks; 2. The Alemanni; 3. The + Goths; and, 4. The Persians. Under these general appellations, we may + comprehend the adventures of less considerable tribes, whose obscure and + uncouth names would only serve to oppress the memory and perplex the + attention of the reader. + </p> + <p> + I. As the posterity of the Franks compose one of the greatest and most + enlightened nations of Europe, the powers of learning and ingenuity have + been exhausted in the discovery of their unlettered ancestors. To the + tales of credulity have succeeded the systems of fancy. Every passage has + been sifted, every spot has been surveyed, that might possibly reveal some + faint traces of their origin. It has been supposed that Pannonia, that + Gaul, that the northern parts of Germany, gave birth to that celebrated + colony of warriors. At length the most rational critics, rejecting the + fictitious emigrations of ideal conquerors, have acquiesced in a sentiment + whose simplicity persuades us of its truth. They suppose, that about the + year two hundred and forty, a new confederacy was formed under the name of + Franks, by the old inhabitants of the Lower Rhine and the Weser. * The + present circle of Westphalia, the Landgraviate of Hesse, and the duchies + of Brunswick and Luneburg, were the ancient seat of the Chauci, who, in their + inaccessible morasses, defied the Roman arms; of the Cherusci, proud of + the fame of Arminius; of the Catti, formidable by their firm and intrepid + infantry; and of several other tribes of inferior power and renown. The + love of liberty was the ruling passion of these Germans; the enjoyment of + it their best treasure; the word that expressed that enjoyment the most + pleasing to their ear. They deserved, they assumed, they maintained the + honorable epithet of Franks, or Freemen; which concealed, though it + did not extinguish, the peculiar names of the several states of the + confederacy. Tacit consent, and mutual advantage, dictated the first laws + of the union; it was gradually cemented by habit and experience. The + league of the Franks may admit of some comparison with the Helvetic body; + in which every canton, retaining its independent sovereignty, consults + with its brethren in the common cause, without acknowledging the authority + of any supreme head or representative assembly. But the principle of the + two confederacies was extremely different. A peace of two hundred years + has rewarded the wise and honest policy of the Swiss. An inconstant + spirit, the thirst of rapine, and a disregard to the most solemn treaties, + disgraced the character of the Franks. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch10-p3" id="linkch10-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The Romans had long experienced the daring valor of the people of Lower + Germany. The union of their strength threatened Gaul with a more + formidable invasion, and required the presence of Gallienus, the heir and + colleague of Imperial power. Whilst that prince, and his infant son + Salonius, displayed, in the court of Treves, the majesty of the empire, its + armies were ably conducted by their general, Posthumus, who, though he + afterwards betrayed the family of Valerian, was ever faithful to the great + interests of the monarchy. The treacherous language of panegyrics and + medals darkly announces a long series of victories. Trophies and titles + attest (if such evidence can attest) the fame of Posthumus, who is + repeatedly styled the Conqueror of the Germans, and the Savior of Gaul. + </p> + <p> + But a single fact, the only one indeed of which we have any distinct + knowledge, erases, in a great measure, these monuments of vanity and + adulation. The Rhine, though dignified with the title of Safeguard of the + provinces, was an imperfect barrier against the daring spirit of + enterprise with which the Franks were actuated. Their rapid devastations + stretched from the river to the foot of the Pyrenees; nor were they + stopped by those mountains. Spain, which had never dreaded, was unable to + resist, the inroads of the Germans. During twelve years, the greatest part + of the reign of Gallienus, that opulent country was the theatre of + unequal and destructive hostilities. Tarragona, the flourishing capital of + a peaceful province, was sacked and almost destroyed; and so late as the + days of Orosius, who wrote in the fifth century, wretched cottages, + scattered amidst the ruins of magnificent cities, still recorded the rage + of the barbarians. When the exhausted country no longer supplied a variety + of plunder, the Franks seized on some vessels in the ports of Spain, and + transported themselves into Mauritania. The distant province was + astonished with the fury of these barbarians, who seemed to fall from a + new world, as their name, manners, and complexion, were equally unknown on + the coast of Africa. + </p> + <p> + II. In that part of Upper Saxony, beyond the Elbe, which is at present + called the Marquisate of Lusace, there existed, in ancient times, a sacred + wood, the awful seat of the superstition of the Suevi. None were permitted + to enter the holy precincts, without confessing, by their servile bonds + and suppliant posture, the immediate presence of the sovereign Deity. + Patriotism contributed, as well as devotion, to consecrate the Sonnenwald, + or wood of the Semnones. It was universally believed, that the nation had + received its first existence on that sacred spot. At stated periods, the + numerous tribes who gloried in the Suevic blood, resorted thither by their + ambassadors; and the memory of their common extraction was perpetrated by + barbaric rites and human sacrifices. The wide-extended name of Suevi + filled the interior countries of Germany, from the banks of the Oder to + those of the Danube. They were distinguished from the other Germans by + their peculiar mode of dressing their long hair, which they gathered into + a rude knot on the crown of the head; and they delighted in an ornament + that showed their ranks more lofty and terrible in the eyes of the enemy. + Jealous as the Germans were of military renown, they all confessed the + superior valor of the Suevi; and the tribes of the Usipetes and Tencteri, + who, with a vast army, encountered the dictator Cæsar, declared that + they esteemed it not a disgrace to have fled before a people to whose arms + the immortal gods themselves were unequal. + </p> + <p> + In the reign of the emperor Caracalla, an innumerable swarm of Suevi + appeared on the banks of the Main, and in the neighborhood of the Roman + provinces, in quest either of food, of plunder, or of glory. The hasty + army of volunteers gradually coalesced into a great and permanent nation, + and, as it was composed from so many different tribes, assumed the name of + Alemanni, * or <i>Allmen</i>, to denote at once their various lineage + and their common bravery. The latter was soon felt by the Romans in many a + hostile inroad. The Alemanni fought chiefly on horseback; but their + cavalry was rendered still more formidable by a mixture of light infantry, + selected from the bravest and most active of the youth, whom frequent + exercise had inured to accompany the horsemen in the longest march, the + most rapid charge, or the most precipitate retreat. + </p> + <p> + This warlike people of Germans had been astonished by the immense + preparations of Alexander Severus; they were dismayed by the arms of his + successor, a barbarian equal in valor and fierceness to themselves. But + still hovering on the frontiers of the empire, they increased the general + disorder that ensued after the death of Decius. They inflicted severe + wounds on the rich provinces of Gaul; they were the first who removed the + veil that covered the feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the + Alemanni penetrated across the Danube and through the Rhætian Alps + into the plains of Lombardy, advanced as far as Ravenna, and displayed the + victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight of Rome. + </p> + <p> + The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks of their + ancient virtue. Both the emperors were engaged in far distant wars, + Valerian in the East, and Gallienus on the Rhine. All the hopes and + resources of the Romans were in themselves. In this emergency, the + senators resumed the defence of the republic, drew out the Prætorian + guards, who had been left to garrison the capital, and filled up their + numbers, by enlisting into the public service the stoutest and most + willing of the Plebeians. The Alemanni, astonished with the sudden + appearance of an army more numerous than their own, retired into Germany, + laden with spoil; and their retreat was esteemed as a victory by the + unwarlike Romans. + </p> + <p> + When Gallienus received the intelligence that his capital was delivered + from the barbarians, he was much less delighted than alarmed with the + courage of the senate, since it might one day prompt them to rescue the + public from domestic tyranny as well as from foreign invasion. His timid + ingratitude was published to his subjects, in an edict which prohibited + the senators from exercising any military employment, and even from + approaching the camps of the legions. But his fears were groundless. The + rich and luxurious nobles, sinking into their natural character, accepted, + as a favor, this disgraceful exemption from military service; and as long + as they were indulged in the enjoyment of their baths, their theatres, and + their villas, they cheerfully resigned the more dangerous cares of empire + to the rough hands of peasants and soldiers. + </p> + <p> + Another invasion of the Alemanni, of a more formidable aspect, but more + glorious event, is mentioned by a writer of the lower empire. Three + hundred thousand are said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, + by Gallienus in person, at the head of only ten thousand Romans. We may, + however, with great probability, ascribe this incredible victory either to + the credulity of the historian, or to some exaggerated exploits of one of + the emperor’s lieutenants. It was by arms of a very different nature, that + Gallienus endeavored to protect Italy from the fury of the Germans. He + espoused Pipa, the daughter of a king of the Marcomanni, a Suevic tribe, + which was often confounded with the Alemanni in their wars and conquests. + To the father, as the price of his alliance, he granted an ample + settlement in Pannonia. The native charms of unpolished beauty seem to + have fixed the daughter in the affections of the inconstant emperor, and + the bands of policy were more firmly connected by those of love. But the + haughty prejudice of Rome still refused the name of marriage to the + profane mixture of a citizen and a barbarian; and has stigmatized the + German princess with the opprobrious title of concubine of Gallienus. + </p> + <p> + III. We have already traced the emigration of the Goths from Scandinavia, + or at least from Prussia, to the mouth of the Borysthenes, and have + followed their victorious arms from the Borysthenes to the Danube. Under + the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the frontier of the last-mentioned + river was perpetually infested by the inroads of Germans and Sarmatians; + but it was defended by the Romans with more than usual firmness and + success. The provinces that were the seat of war, recruited the armies of + Rome with an inexhaustible supply of hardy soldiers; and more than one of + these Illyrian peasants attained the station, and displayed the abilities, + of a general. Though flying parties of the barbarians, who incessantly + hovered on the banks of the Danube, penetrated sometimes to the confines + of Italy and Macedonia, their progress was commonly checked, or their + return intercepted, by the Imperial lieutenants. But the great stream of + the Gothic hostilities was diverted into a very different channel. The + Goths, in their new settlement of the Ukraine, soon became masters of the + northern coast of the Euxine: to the south of that inland sea were + situated the soft and wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, which possessed all + that could attract, and nothing that could resist, a barbarian conqueror. + </p> + <p> + The banks of the Borysthenes are only sixty miles distant from the narrow + entrance of the peninsula of Crim Tartary, known to the ancients under the + name of Chersonesus Taurica. On that inhospitable shore, Euripides, + embellishing with exquisite art the tales of antiquity, has placed the + scene of one of his most affecting tragedies. The bloody sacrifices of + Diana, the arrival of Orestes and Pylades, and the triumph of virtue and + religion over savage fierceness, serve to represent an historical truth, + that the Tauri, the original inhabitants of the peninsula, were, in some + degree, reclaimed from their brutal manners by a gradual intercourse with + the Grecian colonies, which settled along the maritime coast. The little + kingdom of Bosphorus, whose capital was situated on the Straits, through + which the Mæotis communicates itself to the Euxine, was composed of + degenerate Greeks and half-civilized barbarians. It subsisted, as an + independent state, from the time of the Peloponnesian war, was at last + swallowed up by the ambition of Mithridates, and, with the rest of his + dominions, sunk under the weight of the Roman arms. From the reign of + Augustus, the kings of Bosphorus were the humble, but not useless, allies + of the empire. By presents, by arms, and by a slight fortification drawn + across the Isthmus, they effectually guarded, against the roving plunderers + of Sarmatia, the access of a country which, from its peculiar situation + and convenient harbors, commanded the Euxine Sea and Asia Minor. As long + as the sceptre was possessed by a lineal succession of kings, they + acquitted themselves of their important charge with vigilance and success. + Domestic factions, and the fears, or private interest, of obscure + usurpers, who seized on the vacant throne, admitted the Goths into the + heart of Bosphorus. With the acquisition of a superfluous waste of fertile + soil, the conquerors obtained the command of a naval force, sufficient to + transport their armies to the coast of Asia. This ships used in the + navigation of the Euxine were of a very singular construction. They were + slight flat-bottomed barks framed of timber only, without the least + mixture of iron, and occasionally covered with a shelving roof, on the + appearance of a tempest. In these floating houses, the Goths carelessly + trusted themselves to the mercy of an unknown sea, under the conduct of + sailors pressed into the service, and whose skill and fidelity were + equally suspicious. But the hopes of plunder had banished every idea of + danger, and a natural fearlessness of temper supplied in their minds the + more rational confidence, which is the just result of knowledge and + experience. Warriors of such a daring spirit must have often murmured + against the cowardice of their guides, who required the strongest + assurances of a settled calm before they would venture to embark; and + would scarcely ever be tempted to lose sight of the land. Such, at least, + is the practice of the modern Turks; and they are probably not inferior, + in the art of navigation, to the ancient inhabitants of Bosphorus. + </p> + <p> + The fleet of the Goths, leaving the coast of Circassia on the left hand, + first appeared before Pityus, the utmost limits of the Roman provinces; a + city provided with a convenient port, and fortified with a strong wall. + Here they met with a resistance more obstinate than they had reason to + expect from the feeble garrison of a distant fortress. They were repulsed; + and their disappointment seemed to diminish the terror of the Gothic name. + As long as Successianus, an officer of superior rank and merit, defended + that frontier, all their efforts were ineffectual; but as soon as he was + removed by Valerian to a more honorable but less important station, they + resumed the attack of Pityus; and by the destruction of that city, + obliterated the memory of their former disgrace. + </p> + <p> + Circling round the eastern extremity of the Euxine Sea, the navigation + from Pityus to Trebizond is about three hundred miles. The course of the + Goths carried them in sight of the country of Colchis, so famous by the + expedition of the Argonauts; and they even attempted, though without + success, to pillage a rich temple at the mouth of the River Phasis. + Trebizond, celebrated in the retreat of the ten thousand as an ancient + colony of Greeks, derived its wealth and splendor from the magnificence of + the emperor Hadrian, who had constructed an artificial port on a coast + left destitute by nature of secure harbors. The city was large and + populous; a double enclosure of walls seemed to defy the fury of the + Goths, and the usual garrison had been strengthened by a reënforcement of + ten thousand men. But there are not any advantages capable of supplying + the absence of discipline and vigilance. The numerous garrison of + Trebizond, dissolved in riot and luxury, disdained to guard their + impregnable fortifications. The Goths soon discovered the supine + negligence of the besieged, erected a lofty pile of fascines, ascended the + walls in the silence of the night, and entered the defenceless city sword + in hand. A general massacre of the people ensued, whilst the affrighted + soldiers escaped through the opposite gates of the town. The most holy + temples, and the most splendid edifices, were involved in a common + destruction. The booty that fell into the hands of the Goths was immense: + the wealth of the adjacent countries had been deposited in Trebizond, as + in a secure place of refuge. The number of captives was incredible, as the + victorious barbarians ranged without opposition through the extensive + province of Pontus. The rich spoils of Trebizond filled a great fleet of + ships that had been found in the port. The robust youth of the sea-coast + were chained to the oar; and the Goths, satisfied with the success of + their first naval expedition, returned in triumph to their new + establishment in the kingdom of Bosphorus. + </p> + <p> + The second expedition of the Goths was undertaken with greater powers of + men and ships; but they steered a different course, and, disdaining the + exhausted provinces of Pontus, followed the western coast of the Euxine, + passed before the wide mouths of the Borysthenes, the Niester, and the + Danube, and increasing their fleet by the capture of a great number of + fishing barks, they approached the narrow outlet through which the Euxine + Sea pours its waters into the Mediterranean, and divides the continents of + Europe and Asia. The garrison of Chalcedon was encamped near the temple of + Jupiter Urius, on a promontory that commanded the entrance of the Strait; + and so inconsiderable were the dreaded invasions of the barbarians that + this body of troops surpassed in number the Gothic army. But it was in + numbers alone that they surpassed it. They deserted with precipitation + their advantageous post, and abandoned the town of Chalcedon, most + plentifully stored with arms and money, to the discretion of the + conquerors. Whilst they hesitated whether they should prefer the sea or + land, Europe or Asia, for the scene of their hostilities, a perfidious + fugitive pointed out Nicomedia, * once the capital of the kings of + Bithynia, as a rich and easy conquest. He guided the march which was only + sixty miles from the camp of Chalcedon, directed the resistless attack, + and partook of the booty; for the Goths had learned sufficient policy to + reward the traitor whom they detested. Nice, Prusa, Apamæa, Cius, + cities that had sometimes rivalled, or imitated, the splendor of + Nicomedia, were involved in the same calamity, which, in a few weeks, + raged without control through the whole province of Bithynia. Three + hundred years of peace, enjoyed by the soft inhabitants of Asia, had + abolished the exercise of arms, and removed the apprehension of danger. + The ancient walls were suffered to moulder away, and all the revenue of + the most opulent cities was reserved for the construction of baths, + temples, and theatres. + </p> + <p> + When the city of Cyzicus withstood the utmost effort of Mithridates, it + was distinguished by wise laws, a naval power of two hundred galleys, and + three arsenals, of arms, of military engines, and of corn. It was still + the seat of wealth and luxury; but of its ancient strength, nothing + remained except the situation, in a little island of the Propontis, + connected with the continent of Asia only by two bridges. From the recent + sack of Prusa, the Goths advanced within eighteen miles of the city, + which they had devoted to destruction; but the ruin of Cyzicus was delayed + by a fortunate accident. The season was rainy, and the Lake Apolloniates, + the reservoir of all the springs of Mount Olympus, rose to an uncommon + height. The little river of Rhyndacus, which issues from the lake, swelled + into a broad and rapid stream, and stopped the progress of the Goths. + Their retreat to the maritime city of Heraclea, where the fleet had + probably been stationed, was attended by a long train of wagons, laden + with the spoils of Bithynia, and was marked by the flames of Nice and + Nicomedia, which they wantonly burnt. Some obscure hints are mentioned of + a doubtful combat that secured their retreat. But even a complete victory + would have been of little moment, as the approach of the autumnal equinox + summoned them to hasten their return. To navigate the Euxine before the + month of May, or after that of September, is esteemed by the modern Turks + the most unquestionable instance of rashness and folly. + </p> + <p> + When we are informed that the third fleet, equipped by the Goths in the + ports of Bosphorus, consisted of five hundred sails of ships, our ready + imagination instantly computes and multiplies the formidable armament; + but, as we are assured by the judicious Strabo, that the piratical vessels + used by the barbarians of Pontus and the Lesser Scythia, were not capable + of containing more than twenty-five or thirty men we may safely affirm, + that fifteen thousand warriors, at the most, embarked in this great + expedition. Impatient of the limits of the Euxine, they steered their + destructive course from the Cimmerian to the Thracian Bosphorus. When they + had almost gained the middle of the Straits, they were suddenly driven + back to the entrance of them; till a favorable wind, springing up the next + day, carried them in a few hours into the placid sea, or rather lake, of + the Propontis. Their landing on the little island of Cyzicus was attended + with the ruin of that ancient and noble city. From thence issuing again + through the narrow passage of the Hellespont, they pursued their winding + navigation amidst the numerous islands scattered over the Archipelago, or + the Ægean Sea. The assistance of captives and deserters must have + been very necessary to pilot their vessels, and to direct their various + incursions, as well on the coast of Greece as on that of Asia. At length + the Gothic fleet anchored in the port of Piræus, five miles distant + from Athens, which had attempted to make some preparations for a vigorous + defence. Cleodamus, one of the engineers employed by the emperor’s orders + to fortify the maritime cities against the Goths, had already begun to + repair the ancient walls, fallen to decay since the time of Scylla. The + efforts of his skill were ineffectual, and the barbarians became masters + of the native seat of the muses and the arts. But while the conquerors + abandoned themselves to the license of plunder and intemperance, their + fleet, that lay with a slender guard in the harbor of Piræus, was + unexpectedly attacked by the brave Daxippus, who, flying with the engineer + Cleodamus from the sack of Athens, collected a hasty band of volunteers, + peasants as well as soldiers, and in some measure avenged the calamities + of his country. + </p> + <p> + But this exploit, whatever lustre it might shed on the declining age of + Athens, served rather to irritate than to subdue the undaunted spirit of + the northern invaders. A general conflagration blazed out at the same time + in every district of Greece. Thebes and Argos, Corinth and Sparta, which + had formerly waged such memorable wars against each other, were now unable + to bring an army into the field, or even to defend their ruined + fortifications. The rage of war, both by land and by sea, spread from the + eastern point of Sunium to the western coast of Epirus. The Goths had + already advanced within sight of Italy, when the approach of such imminent + danger awakened the indolent Gallienus from his dream of pleasure. The + emperor appeared in arms; and his presence seems to have checked the + ardor, and to have divided the strength, of the enemy. Naulobatus, a chief + of the Heruli, accepted an honorable capitulation, entered with a large + body of his countrymen into the service of Rome, and was invested with the + ornaments of the consular dignity, which had never before been profaned by + the hands of a barbarian. Great numbers of the Goths, disgusted with the + perils and hardships of a tedious voyage, broke into Mæsia, with a + design of forcing their way over the Danube to their settlements in the + Ukraine. The wild attempt would have proved inevitable destruction, if the + discord of the Roman generals had not opened to the barbarians the means + of an escape. The small remainder of this destroying host returned on + board their vessels; and measuring back their way through the Hellespont + and the Bosphorus, ravaged in their passage the shores of Troy, whose + fame, immortalized by Homer, will probably survive the memory of the + Gothic conquests. As soon as they found themselves in safety within the + basin of the Euxine, they landed at Anchialus in Thrace, near the foot of + Mount Hæmus; and, after all their toils, indulged themselves in the + use of those pleasant and salutary hot baths. What remained of the voyage + was a short and easy navigation. Such was the various fate of this third + and greatest of their naval enterprises. It may seem difficult to conceive + how the original body of fifteen thousand warriors could sustain the + losses and divisions of so bold an adventure. But as their numbers were + gradually wasted by the sword, by shipwrecks, and by the influence of a + warm climate, they were perpetually renewed by troops of banditti and + deserters, who flocked to the standard of plunder, and by a crowd of + fugitive slaves, often of German or Sarmatian extraction, who eagerly + seized the glorious opportunity of freedom and revenge. In these + expeditions, the Gothic nation claimed a superior share of honor and + danger; but the tribes that fought under the Gothic banners are sometimes + distinguished and sometimes confounded in the imperfect histories of that + age; and as the barbarian fleets seemed to issue from the mouth of the + Tanais, the vague but familiar appellation of Scythians was frequently + bestowed on the mixed multitude. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch10-p4" id="linkch10-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + In the general calamities of mankind, the death of an individual, however + exalted, the ruin of an edifice, however famous, are passed over with + careless inattention. Yet we cannot forget that the temple of Diana at + Ephesus, after having risen with increasing splendor from seven repeated + misfortunes, was finally burnt by the Goths in their third naval invasion. + The arts of Greece, and the wealth of Asia, had conspired to erect that + sacred and magnificent structure. It was supported by a hundred and + twenty-seven marble columns of the Ionic order. They were the gifts of + devout monarchs, and each was sixty feet high. The altar was adorned with + the masterly sculptures of Praxiteles, who had, perhaps, selected from the + favorite legends of the place the birth of the divine children of Latona, + the concealment of Apollo after the slaughter of the Cyclops, and the + clemency of Bacchus to the vanquished Amazons. Yet the length of the + temple of Ephesus was only four hundred and twenty-five feet, about two + thirds of the measure of the church of St. Peter’s at Rome. In the other + dimensions, it was still more inferior to that sublime production of + modern architecture. The spreading arms of a Christian cross require a + much greater breadth than the oblong temples of the Pagans; and the + boldest artists of antiquity would have been startled at the proposal of + raising in the air a dome of the size and proportions of the Pantheon. The + temple of Diana was, however, admired as one of the wonders of the world. + Successive empires, the Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman, had + revered its sanctity and enriched its splendor. But the rude savages of + the Baltic were destitute of a taste for the elegant arts, and they + despised the ideal terrors of a foreign superstition. + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance is related of these invasions, which might deserve + our notice, were it not justly to be suspected as the fanciful conceit of + a recent sophist. We are told that in the sack of Athens the Goths had + collected all the libraries, and were on the point of setting fire to this + funeral pile of Grecian learning, had not one of their chiefs, of more + refined policy than his brethren, dissuaded them from the design; by the + profound observation, that as long as the Greeks were addicted to the + study of books, they would never apply themselves to the exercise of arms. + The sagacious counsellor (should the truth of the fact be admitted) + reasoned like an ignorant barbarian. In the most polite and powerful + nations, genius of every kind has displayed itself about the same period; + and the age of science has generally been the age of military virtue and + success. + </p> + <p> + IV. The new sovereign of Persia, Artaxerxes and his son Sapor, had + triumphed (as we have already seen) over the house of Arsaces. Of the many + princes of that ancient race, Chosroes, king of Armenia, had alone + preserved both his life and his independence. He defended himself by the + natural strength of his country; by the perpetual resort of fugitives and + malecontents; by the alliance of the Romans, and above all, by his own + courage. Invincible in arms, during a thirty years’ war, he was at length + assassinated by the emissaries of Sapor, king of Persia. The patriotic + satraps of Armenia, who asserted the freedom and dignity of the crown, + implored the protection of Rome in favor of Tiridates, the lawful heir. + But the son of Chosroes was an infant, the allies were at a distance, and + the Persian monarch advanced towards the frontier at the head of an + irresistible force. Young Tiridates, the future hope of his country, was + saved by the fidelity of a servant, and Armenia continued above + twenty-seven years a reluctant province of the great monarchy of Persia. + Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the distresses or the + degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor obliged the strong garrisons of Carrhæ + and Nisibis * to surrender, and spread devastation and terror on either + side of the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + The loss of an important frontier, the ruin of a faithful and natural + ally, and the rapid success of Sapor’s ambition, affected Rome with a deep + sense of the insult as well as of the danger. Valerian flattered himself, + that the vigilance of his lieutenants would sufficiently provide for the + safety of the Rhine and of the Danube; but he resolved, notwithstanding + his advanced age, to march in person to the defence of the Euphrates. + During his progress through Asia Minor, the naval enterprises of the Goths + were suspended, and the afflicted province enjoyed a transient and + fallacious calm. He passed the Euphrates, encountered the Persian monarch + near the walls of Edessa, was vanquished, and taken prisoner by Sapor. The + particulars of this great event are darkly and imperfectly represented; + yet, by the glimmering light which is afforded us, we may discover a long + series of imprudence, of error, and of deserved misfortunes on the side of + the Roman emperor. He reposed an implicit confidence in Macrianus, his Prætorian + præfect. That worthless minister rendered his master formidable only + to the oppressed subjects, and contemptible to the enemies of Rome. By his + weak or wicked counsels, the Imperial army was betrayed into a situation + where valor and military skill were equally unavailing. The vigorous + attempt of the Romans to cut their way through the Persian host was + repulsed with great slaughter; and Sapor, who encompassed the camp with + superior numbers, patiently waited till the increasing rage of famine and + pestilence had insured his victory. The licentious murmurs of the legions + soon accused Valerian as the cause of their calamities; their seditious + clamors demanded an instant capitulation. An immense sum of gold was + offered to purchase the permission of a disgraceful retreat. But the + Persian, conscious of his superiority, refused the money with disdain; and + detaining the deputies, advanced in order of battle to the foot of the + Roman rampart, and insisted on a personal conference with the emperor. + Valerian was reduced to the necessity of intrusting his life and dignity + to the faith of an enemy. The interview ended as it was natural to expect. + The emperor was made a prisoner, and his astonished troops laid down their + arms. In such a moment of triumph, the pride and policy of Sapor prompted + him to fill the vacant throne with a successor entirely dependent on his + pleasure. Cyriades, an obscure fugitive of Antioch, stained with every + vice, was chosen to dishonor the Roman purple; and the will of the Persian + victor could not fail of being ratified by the acclamations, however + reluctant, of the captive army. + </p> + <p> + The Imperial slave was eager to secure the favor of his master by an act + of treason to his native country. He conducted Sapor over the Euphrates, + and, by the way of Chalcis, to the metropolis of the East. So rapid were + the motions of the Persian cavalry, that, if we may credit a very + judicious historian, the city of Antioch was surprised when the idle + multitude was fondly gazing on the amusements of the theatre. The splendid + buildings of Antioch, private as well as public, were either pillaged or + destroyed; and the numerous inhabitants were put to the sword, or led away + into captivity. The tide of devastation was stopped for a moment by the + resolution of the high priest of Emesa. Arrayed in his sacerdotal robes, + he appeared at the head of a great body of fanatic peasants, armed only + with slings, and defended his god and his property from the sacrilegious + hands of the followers of Zoroaster. But the ruin of Tarsus, and of many + other cities, furnishes a melancholy proof that, except in this singular + instance, the conquest of Syria and Cilicia scarcely interrupted the + progress of the Persian arms. The advantages of the narrow passes of Mount + Taurus were abandoned, in which an invader, whose principal force + consisted in his cavalry, would have been engaged in a very unequal + combat: and Sapor was permitted to form the siege of Cæsarea, the + capital of Cappadocia; a city, though of the second rank, which was + supposed to contain four hundred thousand inhabitants. Demosthenes + commanded in the place, not so much by the commission of the emperor, as + in the voluntary defence of his country. For a long time he deferred its + fate; and when at last Cæsarea was betrayed by the perfidy of a + physician, he cut his way through the Persians, who had been ordered to + exert their utmost diligence to take him alive. This heroic chief escaped + the power of a foe who might either have honored or punished his obstinate + valor; but many thousands of his fellow-citizens were involved in a + general massacre, and Sapor is accused of treating his prisoners with + wanton and unrelenting cruelty. Much should undoubtedly be allowed for + national animosity, much for humbled pride and impotent revenge; yet, upon + the whole, it is certain, that the same prince, who, in Armenia, had + displayed the mild aspect of a legislator, showed himself to the Romans + under the stern features of a conqueror. He despaired of making any + permanent establishment in the empire, and sought only to leave behind him + a wasted desert, whilst he transported into Persia the people and the + treasures of the provinces. + </p> + <p> + At the time when the East trembled at the name of Sapor, he received a + present not unworthy of the greatest kings; a long train of camels, laden + with the most rare and valuable merchandises. The rich offering was + accompanied with an epistle, respectful, but not servile, from Odenathus, + one of the noblest and most opulent senators of Palmyra. “Who is this + Odenathus,” (said the haughty victor, and he commanded that the present + should be cast into the Euphrates,) “that he thus insolently presumes to + write to his lord? If he entertains a hope of mitigating his punishment, + let him fall prostrate before the foot of our throne, with his hands bound + behind his back. Should he hesitate, swift destruction shall be poured on + his head, on his whole race, and on his country.” The desperate extremity + to which the Palmyrenian was reduced, called into action all the latent + powers of his soul. He met Sapor; but he met him in arms. Infusing his own + spirit into a little army collected from the villages of Syria and the + tents of the desert, he hovered round the Persian host, harassed their + retreat, carried off part of the treasure, and, what was dearer than any + treasure, several of the women of the great king; who was at last obliged + to repass the Euphrates with some marks of haste and confusion. By this + exploit, Odenathus laid the foundations of his future fame and fortunes. + The majesty of Rome, oppressed by a Persian, was protected by a Syrian or + Arab of Palmyra. + </p> + <p> + The voice of history, which is often little more than the organ of hatred + or flattery, reproaches Sapor with a proud abuse of the rights of + conquest. We are told that Valerian, in chains, but invested with the + Imperial purple, was exposed to the multitude, a constant spectacle of + fallen greatness; and that whenever the Persian monarch mounted on + horseback, he placed his foot on the neck of a Roman emperor. + Notwithstanding all the remonstrances of his allies, who repeatedly + advised him to remember the vicissitudes of fortune, to dread the + returning power of Rome, and to make his illustrious captive the pledge of + peace, not the object of insult, Sapor still remained inflexible. When + Valerian sunk under the weight of shame and grief, his skin, stuffed with + straw, and formed into the likeness of a human figure, was preserved for + ages in the most celebrated temple of Persia; a more real monument of + triumph, than the fancied trophies of brass and marble so often erected by + Roman vanity. The tale is moral and pathetic, but the truth of it may very + fairly be called in question. The letters still extant from the princes of + the East to Sapor are manifest forgeries; nor is it natural to suppose + that a jealous monarch should, even in the person of a rival, thus + publicly degrade the majesty of kings. Whatever treatment the unfortunate + Valerian might experience in Persia, it is at least certain that the only + emperor of Rome who had ever fallen into the hands of the enemy, + languished away his life in hopeless captivity. + </p> + <p> + The emperor Gallienus, who had long supported with impatience the + censorial severity of his father and colleague, received the intelligence + of his misfortunes with secret pleasure and avowed indifference. “I knew + that my father was a mortal,” said he; “and since he has acted as it + becomes a brave man, I am satisfied.” Whilst Rome lamented the fate of her + sovereign, the savage coldness of his son was extolled by the servile + courtiers as the perfect firmness of a hero and a stoic. It is difficult + to paint the light, the various, the inconstant character of Gallienus, + which he displayed without constraint, as soon as he became sole possessor + of the empire. In every art that he attempted, his lively genius enabled + him to succeed; and as his genius was destitute of judgment, he attempted + every art, except the important ones of war and government. He was a + master of several curious, but useless sciences, a ready orator, an + elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible + prince. When the great emergencies of the state required his presence and + attention, he was engaged in conversation with the philosopher Plotinus, + wasting his time in trifling or licentious pleasures, preparing his + initiation to the Grecian mysteries, or soliciting a place in the + Areopagus of Athens. His profuse magnificence insulted the general + poverty; the solemn ridicule of his triumphs impressed a deeper sense of + the public disgrace. The repeated intelligence of invasions, defeats, and + rebellions, he received with a careless smile; and singling out, with + affected contempt, some particular production of the lost province, he + carelessly asked, whether Rome must be ruined, unless it was supplied with + linen from Egypt, and arras cloth from Gaul. There were, however, a few + short moments in the life of Gallienus, when, exasperated by some recent + injury, he suddenly appeared the intrepid soldier and the cruel tyrant; + till, satiated with blood, or fatigued by resistance, he insensibly sunk + into the natural mildness and indolence of his character. + </p> + <p> + At the time when the reins of government were held with so loose a hand, + it is not surprising that a crowd of usurpers should start up in every + province of the empire against the son of Valerian. It was probably some + ingenious fancy, of comparing the thirty tyrants of Rome with the thirty + tyrants of Athens, that induced the writers of the Augustan History to + select that celebrated number, which has been gradually received into a + popular appellation. But in every light the parallel is idle and + defective. What resemblance can we discover between a council of thirty + persons, the united oppressors of a single city, and an uncertain list of + independent rivals, who rose and fell in irregular succession through the + extent of a vast empire? Nor can the number of thirty be completed, unless + we include in the account the women and children who were honored with the + Imperial title. The reign of Gallienus, distracted as it was, produced + only nineteen pretenders to the throne: Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista, + Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; in Gaul, and the western provinces, + Posthumus, Lollianus, Victorinus, and his mother Victoria, Marius, and + Tetricus; in Illyricum and the confines of the Danube, Ingenuus, + Regillianus, and Aureolus; in Pontus, Saturninus; in Isauria, + Trebellianus; Piso in Thessaly; Valens in Achaia; Æmilianus in + Egypt; and Celsus in Africa. * To illustrate the obscure monuments of the + life and death of each individual, would prove a laborious task, alike + barren of instruction and of amusement. We may content ourselves with + investigating some general characters, that most strongly mark the + condition of the times, and the manners of the men, their pretensions, + their motives, their fate, and the destructive consequences of their + usurpation. + </p> + <p> + It is sufficiently known, that the odious appellation of <i>Tyrant</i> + was often employed by the ancients to express the illegal seizure of + supreme power, without any reference to the abuse of it. Several of the + pretenders, who raised the standard of rebellion against the emperor + Gallienus, were shining models of virtue, and almost all possessed a + considerable share of vigor and ability. Their merit had recommended them + to the favor of Valerian, and gradually promoted them to the most + important commands of the empire. The generals, who assumed the title of + Augustus, were either respected by their troops for their able conduct and + severe discipline, or admired for valor and success in war, or beloved for + frankness and generosity. The field of victory was often the scene of + their election; and even the armorer Marius, the most contemptible of all + the candidates for the purple, was distinguished, however, by intrepid + courage, matchless strength, and blunt honesty. His mean and recent trade + cast, indeed, an air of ridicule on his elevation; * but his birth could + not be more obscure than was that of the greater part of his rivals, who + were born of peasants, and enlisted in the army as private soldiers. In + times of confusion every active genius finds the place assigned him by + nature: in a general state of war military merit is the road to glory and + to greatness. Of the nineteen tyrants Tetricus only was a senator; Piso + alone was a noble. The blood of Numa, through twenty-eight successive + generations, ran in the veins of Calphurnius Piso, who, by female + alliances, claimed a right of exhibiting, in his house, the images of + Crassus and of the great Pompey. His ancestors had been repeatedly + dignified with all the honors which the commonwealth could bestow; and of + all the ancient families of Rome, the Calphurnian alone had survived the + tyranny of the Cæsars. The personal qualities of Piso added new + lustre to his race. The usurper Valens, by whose order he was killed, + confessed, with deep remorse, that even an enemy ought to have respected + the sanctity of Piso; and although he died in arms against Gallienus, the + senate, with the emperor’s generous permission, decreed the triumphal + ornaments to the memory of so virtuous a rebel. + </p> + <p> + The lieutenants of Valerian were grateful to the father, whom they + esteemed. They disdained to serve the luxurious indolence of his unworthy + son. The throne of the Roman world was unsupported by any principle of + loyalty; and treason against such a prince might easily be considered as + patriotism to the state. Yet if we examine with candor the conduct of + these usurpers, it will appear, that they were much oftener driven into + rebellion by their fears, than urged to it by their ambition. They dreaded + the cruel suspicions of Gallienus; they equally dreaded the capricious + violence of their troops. If the dangerous favor of the army had + imprudently declared them deserving of the purple, they were marked for + sure destruction; and even prudence would counsel them to secure a short + enjoyment of empire, and rather to try the fortune of war than to expect + the hand of an executioner. When the clamor of the soldiers invested the + reluctant victims with the ensigns of sovereign authority, they sometimes + mourned in secret their approaching fate. “You have lost,” said + Saturninus, on the day of his elevation, “you have lost a useful + commander, and you have made a very wretched emperor.” + </p> + <p> + The apprehensions of Saturninus were justified by the repeated experience + of revolutions. Of the nineteen tyrants who started up under the reign of + Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace, or a natural + death. As soon as they were invested with the bloody purple, they inspired + their adherents with the same fears and ambition which had occasioned + their own revolt. Encompassed with domestic conspiracy, military sedition, + and civil war, they trembled on the edge of precipices, in which, after a + longer or shorter term of anxiety, they were inevitably lost. These + precarious monarchs received, however, such honors as the flattery of + their respective armies and provinces could bestow; but their claim, + founded on rebellion, could never obtain the sanction of law or history. + Italy, Rome, and the senate, constantly adhered to the cause of Gallienus, + and he alone was considered as the sovereign of the empire. That prince + condescended, indeed, to acknowledge the victorious arms of Odenathus, who + deserved the honorable distinction, by the respectful conduct which he + always maintained towards the son of Valerian. With the general applause + of the Romans, and the consent of Gallienus, the senate conferred the + title of Augustus on the brave Palmyrenian; and seemed to intrust him with + the government of the East, which he already possessed, in so independent + a manner, that, like a private succession, he bequeathed it to his + illustrious widow, Zenobia. + </p> + <p> + The rapid and perpetual transitions from the cottage to the throne, and + from the throne to the grave, might have amused an indifferent + philosopher; were it possible for a philosopher to remain indifferent + amidst the general calamities of human kind. The election of these + precarious emperors, their power and their death, were equally destructive + to their subjects and adherents. The price of their fatal elevation was + instantly discharged to the troops by an immense donative, drawn from the + bowels of the exhausted people. However virtuous was their character, + however pure their intentions, they found themselves reduced to the hard + necessity of supporting their usurpation by frequent acts of rapine and + cruelty. When they fell, they involved armies and provinces in their fall. + There is still extant a most savage mandate from Gallienus to one of his + ministers, after the suppression of Ingenuus, who had assumed the purple + in Illyricum. “It is not enough,” says that soft but inhuman prince, “that + you exterminate such as have appeared in arms; the chance of battle might + have served me as effectually. The male sex of every age must be + extirpated; provided that, in the execution of the children and old men, + you can contrive means to save our reputation. Let every one die who has + dropped an expression, who has entertained a thought against me, against + me, the son of Valerian, the father and brother of so many princes. + Remember that Ingenuus was made emperor: tear, kill, hew in pieces. I + write to you with my own hand, and would inspire you with my own + feelings.” Whilst the public forces of the state were dissipated in + private quarrels, the defenceless provinces lay exposed to every invader. + The bravest usurpers were compelled, by the perplexity of their situation, + to conclude ignominious treaties with the common enemy, to purchase with + oppressive tributes the neutrality or services of the Barbarians, and to + introduce hostile and independent nations into the heart of the Roman + monarchy. + </p> + <p> + Such were the barbarians, and such the tyrants, who, under the reigns of + Valerian and Gallienus, dismembered the provinces, and reduced the empire + to the lowest pitch of disgrace and ruin, from whence it seemed impossible + that it should ever emerge. As far as the barrenness of materials would + permit, we have attempted to trace, with order and perspicuity, the + general events of that calamitous period. There still remain some + particular facts; I. The disorders of Sicily; II. The tumults of + Alexandria; and, III. The rebellion of the Isaurians, which may serve to + reflect a strong light on the horrid picture. + </p> + <p> + I. Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by success and + impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding, the justice of their country, + we may safely infer that the excessive weakness of the country is felt + and abused by the lowest ranks of the community. The situation of Sicily + preserved it from the Barbarians; nor could the disarmed province have + supported a usurper. The sufferings of that once flourishing and still + fertile island were inflicted by baser hands. A licentious crowd of slaves + and peasants reigned for a while over the plundered country, and renewed + the memory of the servile wars of more ancient times. Devastations, of + which the husbandman was either the victim or the accomplice, must have + ruined the agriculture of Sicily; and as the principal estates were the + property of the opulent senators of Rome, who often enclosed within a farm + the territory of an old republic, it is not improbable, that this private + injury might affect the capital more deeply, than all the conquests of the + Goths or the Persians. + </p> + <p> + II. The foundation of Alexandria was a noble design, at once conceived and + executed by the son of Philip. The beautiful and regular form of that + great city, second only to Rome itself, comprehended a circumference of + fifteen miles; it was peopled by three hundred thousand free inhabitants, + besides at least an equal number of slaves. The lucrative trade of Arabia + and India flowed through the port of Alexandria, to the capital and + provinces of the empire. * Idleness was unknown. Some were employed in + blowing of glass, others in weaving of linen, others again manufacturing + the papyrus. Either sex, and every age, was engaged in the pursuits of + industry, nor did even the blind or the lame want occupations suited to + their condition. But the people of Alexandria, a various mixture of + nations, united the vanity and inconstancy of the Greeks with the + superstition and obstinacy of the Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a + transient scarcity of flesh or lentils, the neglect of an accustomed + salutation, a mistake of precedency in the public baths, or even a + religious dispute, were at any time sufficient to kindle a sedition among + that vast multitude, whose resentments were furious and implacable. After + the captivity of Valerian and the insolence of his son had relaxed the + authority of the laws, the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to the + ungoverned rage of their passions, and their unhappy country was the + theatre of a civil war, which continued (with a few short and suspicious + truces) above twelve years. All intercourse was cut off between the + several quarters of the afflicted city, every street was polluted with + blood, every building of strength converted into a citadel; nor did the + tumults subside till a considerable part of Alexandria was irretrievably + ruined. The spacious and magnificent district of Bruchion, * with its + palaces and musæum, the residence of the kings and philosophers of + Egypt, is described above a century afterwards, as already reduced to its + present state of dreary solitude. + </p> + <p> + III. The obscure rebellion of Trebellianus, who assumed the purple in + Isauria, a petty province of Asia Minor, was attended with strange and + memorable consequences. The pageant of royalty was soon destroyed by an + officer of Gallienus; but his followers, despairing of mercy, resolved to + shake off their allegiance, not only to the emperor, but to the empire, + and suddenly returned to the savage manners from which they had never + perfectly been reclaimed. Their craggy rocks, a branch of the + wide-extended Taurus, protected their inaccessible retreat. The tillage of + some fertile valleys supplied them with necessaries, and a habit of rapine + with the luxuries of life. In the heart of the Roman monarchy, the + Isaurians long continued a nation of wild barbarians. Succeeding princes, + unable to reduce them to obedience, either by arms or policy, were + compelled to acknowledge their weakness, by surrounding the hostile and + independent spot with a strong chain of fortifications, which often proved + insufficient to restrain the incursions of these domestic foes. The + Isaurians, gradually extending their territory to the sea-coast, subdued + the western and mountainous part of Cilicia, formerly the nest of those + daring pirates, against whom the republic had once been obliged to exert + its utmost force, under the conduct of the great Pompey. + </p> + <p> + Our habits of thinking so fondly connect the order of the universe with + the fate of man, that this gloomy period of history has been decorated + with inundations, earthquakes, uncommon meteors, preternatural darkness, + and a crowd of prodigies fictitious or exaggerated. But a long and general + famine was a calamity of a more serious kind. It was the inevitable + consequence of rapine and oppression, which extirpated the produce of the + present and the hope of future harvests. Famine is almost always followed + by epidemical diseases, the effect of scanty and unwholesome food. Other + causes must, however, have contributed to the furious plague, which, from + the year two hundred and fifty to the year two hundred and sixty-five, + raged without interruption in every province, every city, and almost every + family, of the Roman empire. During some time five thousand persons died + daily in Rome; and many towns, that had escaped the hands of the + Barbarians, were entirely depopulated. + </p> + <p> + We have the knowledge of a very curious circumstance, of some use perhaps + in the melancholy calculation of human calamities. An exact register was + kept at Alexandria of all the citizens entitled to receive the + distribution of corn. It was found, that the ancient number of those + comprised between the ages of forty and seventy, had been equal to the + whole sum of claimants, from fourteen to fourscore years of age, who + remained alive after the reign of Gallienus. Applying this authentic fact + to the most correct tables of mortality, it evidently proves, that above + half the people of Alexandria had perished; and could we venture to extend + the analogy to the other provinces, we might suspect, that war, + pestilence, and famine, had consumed, in a few years, the moiety of the + human species. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch11-p1" id="linkch11-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, +Triumph, And Death Of Aurelian.<br/> +</pre> + <p> + Under the deplorable reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the empire was + oppressed and almost destroyed by the soldiers, the tyrants, and the + barbarians. It was saved by a series of great princes, who derived their + obscure origin from the martial provinces of Illyricum. Within a period of + about thirty years, Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and his + colleagues, triumphed over the foreign and domestic enemies of the state, + reëstablished, with the military discipline, the strength of the + frontiers, and deserved the glorious title of Restorers of the Roman + world. + </p> + <p> + The removal of an effeminate tyrant made way for a succession of heroes. + The indignation of the people imputed all their calamities to Gallienus, + and the far greater part were, indeed, the consequence of his dissolute + manners and careless administration. He was even destitute of a sense of + honor, which so frequently supplies the absence of public virtue; and as + long as he was permitted to enjoy the possession of Italy, a victory of + the barbarians, the loss of a province, or the rebellion of a general, + seldom disturbed the tranquil course of his pleasures. At length, a + considerable army, stationed on the Upper Danube, invested with the + Imperial purple their leader Aureolus; who, disdaining a confined and + barren reign over the mountains of Rhætia, passed the Alps, occupied + Milan, threatened Rome, and challenged Gallienus to dispute in the field + the sovereignty of Italy. The emperor, provoked by the insult, and alarmed + by the instant danger, suddenly exerted that latent vigor which sometimes + broke through the indolence of his temper. Forcing himself from the luxury + of the palace, he appeared in arms at the head of his legions, and + advanced beyond the Po to encounter his competitor. The corrupted name of + Pontirolo still preserves the memory of a bridge over the Adda, which, + during the action, must have proved an object of the utmost importance to + both armies. The Rhætian usurper, after receiving a total defeat and + a dangerous wound, retired into Milan. The siege of that great city was + immediately formed; the walls were battered with every engine in use among + the ancients; and Aureolus, doubtful of his internal strength, and + hopeless of foreign succors already anticipated the fatal consequences of + unsuccessful rebellion. + </p> + <p> + His last resource was an attempt to seduce the loyalty of the besiegers. + He scattered libels through the camp, inviting the troops to desert an + unworthy master, who sacrificed the public happiness to his luxury, and + the lives of his most valuable subjects to the slightest suspicions. The + arts of Aureolus diffused fears and discontent among the principal + officers of his rival. A conspiracy was formed by Heraclianus, the Prætorian + præfect, by Marcian, a general of rank and reputation, and by + Cecrops, who commanded a numerous body of Dalmatian guards. The death of + Gallienus was resolved; and notwithstanding their desire of first + terminating the siege of Milan, the extreme danger which accompanied every + moment’s delay obliged them to hasten the execution of their daring + purpose. At a late hour of the night, but while the emperor still + protracted the pleasures of the table, an alarm was suddenly given, that + Aureolus, at the head of all his forces, had made a desperate sally from + the town; Gallienus, who was never deficient in personal bravery, started + from his silken couch, and without allowing himself time either to put on + his armor, or to assemble his guards, he mounted on horseback, and rode + full speed towards the supposed place of the attack. Encompassed by his + declared or concealed enemies, he soon, amidst the nocturnal tumult, + received a mortal dart from an uncertain hand. Before he expired, a + patriotic sentiment rising in the mind of Gallienus, induced him to name a + deserving successor; and it was his last request, that the Imperial + ornaments should be delivered to Claudius, who then commanded a detached + army in the neighborhood of Pavia. The report at least was diligently + propagated, and the order cheerfully obeyed by the conspirators, who had + already agreed to place Claudius on the throne. On the first news of the + emperor’s death, the troops expressed some suspicion and resentment, till + the one was removed, and the other assuaged, by a donative of twenty + pieces of gold to each soldier. They then ratified the election, and + acknowledged the merit of their new sovereign. + </p> + <p> + The obscurity which covered the origin of Claudius, though it was + afterwards embellished by some flattering fictions, sufficiently betrays + the meanness of his birth. We can only discover that he was a native of + one of the provinces bordering on the Danube; that his youth was spent in + arms, and that his modest valor attracted the favor and confidence of + Decius. The senate and people already considered him as an excellent + officer, equal to the most important trusts; and censured the inattention + of Valerian, who suffered him to remain in the subordinate station of a + tribune. But it was not long before that emperor distinguished the merit + of Claudius, by declaring him general and chief of the Illyrian frontier, + with the command of all the troops in Thrace, Mæsia, Dacia, + Pannonia, and Dalmatia, the appointments of the præfect of Egypt, + the establishment of the proconsul of Africa, and the sure prospect of the + consulship. By his victories over the Goths, he deserved from the senate + the honor of a statue, and excited the jealous apprehensions of Gallienus. + It was impossible that a soldier could esteem so dissolute a sovereign, + nor is it easy to conceal a just contempt. Some unguarded expressions + which dropped from Claudius were officiously transmitted to the royal ear. + The emperor’s answer to an officer of confidence describes in very lively + colors his own character, and that of the times. “There is not any thing + capable of giving me more serious concern, than the intelligence contained + in your last despatch; that some malicious suggestions have indisposed + towards us the mind of our friend and parent Claudius. As you regard your + allegiance, use every means to appease his resentment, but conduct your + negotiation with secrecy; let it not reach the knowledge of the Dacian + troops; they are already provoked, and it might inflame their fury. I + myself have sent him some presents: be it your care that he accept them + with pleasure. Above all, let him not suspect that I am made acquainted + with his imprudence. The fear of my anger might urge him to desperate + counsels.” The presents which accompanied this humble epistle, in which + the monarch solicited a reconciliation with his discontented subject, + consisted of a considerable sum of money, a splendid wardrobe, and a + valuable service of silver and gold plate. By such arts Gallienus softened + the indignation and dispelled the fears of his Illyrian general; and + during the remainder of that reign, the formidable sword of Claudius was + always drawn in the cause of a master whom he despised. At last, indeed, + he received from the conspirators the bloody purple of Gallienus: but he + had been absent from their camp and counsels; and however he might applaud + the deed, we may candidly presume that he was innocent of the knowledge of + it. When Claudius ascended the throne, he was about fifty-four years of + age. + </p> + <p> + The siege of Milan was still continued, and Aureolus soon discovered that + the success of his artifices had only raised up a more determined + adversary. He attempted to negotiate with Claudius a treaty of alliance + and partition. “Tell him,” replied the intrepid emperor, “that such + proposals should have been made to Gallienus; <i>he</i>, perhaps, might + have listened to them with patience, and accepted a colleague as + despicable as himself.” This stern refusal, and a last unsuccessful + effort, obliged Aureolus to yield the city and himself to the discretion + of the conqueror. The judgment of the army pronounced him worthy of death; + and Claudius, after a feeble resistance, consented to the execution of the + sentence. Nor was the zeal of the senate less ardent in the cause of their + new sovereign. They ratified, perhaps with a sincere transport of zeal, + the election of Claudius; and, as his predecessor had shown himself the + personal enemy of their order, they exercised, under the name of justice, + a severe revenge against his friends and family. The senate was permitted + to discharge the ungrateful office of punishment, and the emperor reserved + for himself the pleasure and merit of obtaining by his intercession a + general act of indemnity. + </p> + <p> + Such ostentatious clemency discovers less of the real character of + Claudius, than a trifling circumstance in which he seems to have consulted + only the dictates of his heart. The frequent rebellions of the provinces + had involved almost every person in the guilt of treason, almost every + estate in the case of confiscation; and Gallienus often displayed his + liberality by distributing among his officers the property of his + subjects. On the accession of Claudius, an old woman threw herself at his + feet, and complained that a general of the late emperor had obtained an + arbitrary grant of her patrimony. This general was Claudius himself, who + had not entirely escaped the contagion of the times. The emperor blushed + at the reproach, but deserved the confidence which she had reposed in his + equity. The confession of his fault was accompanied with immediate and + ample restitution. + </p> + <p> + In the arduous task which Claudius had undertaken, of restoring the empire + to its ancient splendor, it was first necessary to revive among his troops + a sense of order and obedience. With the authority of a veteran commander, + he represented to them that the relaxation of discipline had introduced a + long train of disorders, the effects of which were at length experienced + by the soldiers themselves; that a people ruined by oppression, and + indolent from despair, could no longer supply a numerous army with the + means of luxury, or even of subsistence; that the danger of each + individual had increased with the despotism of the military order, since + princes who tremble on the throne will guard their safety by the instant + sacrifice of every obnoxious subject. The emperor expiated on the + mischiefs of a lawless caprice, which the soldiers could only gratify at + the expense of their own blood; as their seditious elections had so + frequently been followed by civil wars, which consumed the flower of the + legions either in the field of battle, or in the cruel abuse of victory. + He painted in the most lively colors the exhausted state of the treasury, + the desolation of the provinces, the disgrace of the Roman name, and the + insolent triumph of rapacious barbarians. It was against those barbarians, + he declared, that he intended to point the first effort of their arms. + Tetricus might reign for a while over the West, and even Zenobia might + preserve the dominion of the East. These usurpers were his personal + adversaries; nor could he think of indulging any private resentment till + he had saved an empire, whose impending ruin would, unless it was timely + prevented, crush both the army and the people. + </p> + <p> + The various nations of Germany and Sarmatia, who fought under the Gothic + standard, had already collected an armament more formidable than any which + had yet issued from the Euxine. On the banks of the Niester, one of the + great rivers that discharge themselves into that sea, they constructed a + fleet of two thousand, or even of six thousand vessels; numbers which, + however incredible they may seem, would have been insufficient to + transport their pretended army of three hundred and twenty thousand + barbarians. Whatever might be the real strength of the Goths, the vigor + and success of the expedition were not adequate to the greatness of the + preparations. In their passage through the Bosphorus, the unskilful pilots + were overpowered by the violence of the current; and while the multitude + of their ships were crowded in a narrow channel, many were dashed against + each other, or against the shore. The barbarians made several descents on + the coasts both of Europe and Asia; but the open country was already + plundered, and they were repulsed with shame and loss from the fortified + cities which they assaulted. A spirit of discouragement and division arose + in the fleet, and some of their chiefs sailed away towards the islands of + Crete and Cyprus; but the main body, pursuing a more steady course, + anchored at length near the foot of Mount Athos, and assaulted the city of + Thessalonica, the wealthy capital of all the Macedonian provinces. Their + attacks, in which they displayed a fierce but artless bravery, were soon + interrupted by the rapid approach of Claudius, hastening to a scene of + action that deserved the presence of a warlike prince at the head of the + remaining powers of the empire. Impatient for battle, the Goths + immediately broke up their camp, relinquished the siege of Thessalonica, + left their navy at the foot of Mount Athos, traversed the hills of + Macedonia, and pressed forwards to engage the last defence of Italy. + </p> + <p> + We still posses an original letter addressed by Claudius to the senate and + people on this memorable occasion. “Conscript fathers,” says the emperor, + “know that three hundred and twenty thousand Goths have invaded the Roman + territory. If I vanquish them, your gratitude will reward my services. + Should I fall, remember that I am the successor of Gallienus. The whole + republic is fatigued and exhausted. We shall fight after Valerian, after + Ingenuus, Regillianus, Lollianus, Posthumus, Celsus, and a thousand + others, whom a just contempt for Gallienus provoked into rebellion. We are + in want of darts, of spears, and of shields. The strength of the empire, + Gaul, and Spain, are usurped by Tetricus, and we blush to acknowledge that + the archers of the East serve under the banners of Zenobia. Whatever we + shall perform will be sufficiently great.” The melancholy firmness of this + epistle announces a hero careless of his fate, conscious of his danger, + but still deriving a well-grounded hope from the resources of his own + mind. + </p> + <p> + The event surpassed his own expectations and those of the world. By the + most signal victories he delivered the empire from this host of + barbarians, and was distinguished by posterity under the glorious + appellation of the Gothic Claudius. The imperfect historians of an + irregular war do not enable us to describe the order and circumstances of + his exploits; but, if we could be indulged in the allusion, we might + distribute into three acts this memorable tragedy. I. The decisive battle + was fought near Naissus, a city of Dardania. The legions at first gave + way, oppressed by numbers, and dismayed by misfortunes. Their ruin was + inevitable, had not the abilities of their emperor prepared a seasonable + relief. A large detachment, rising out of the secret and difficult passes + of the mountains, which, by his order, they had occupied, suddenly + assailed the rear of the victorious Goths. The favorable instant was + improved by the activity of Claudius. He revived the courage of his + troops, restored their ranks, and pressed the barbarians on every side. + Fifty thousand men are reported to have been slain in the battle of + Naissus. Several large bodies of barbarians, covering their retreat with a + movable fortification of wagons, retired, or rather escaped, from the + field of slaughter. II. We may presume that some insurmountable + difficulty, the fatigue, perhaps, or the disobedience, of the conquerors, + prevented Claudius from completing in one day the destruction of the + Goths. The war was diffused over the province of Mæsia, Thrace, and + Macedonia, and its operations drawn out into a variety of marches, + surprises, and tumultuary engagements, as well by sea as by land. When the + Romans suffered any loss, it was commonly occasioned by their own + cowardice or rashness; but the superior talents of the emperor, his + perfect knowledge of the country, and his judicious choice of measures as + well as officers, assured on most occasions the success of his arms. The + immense booty, the fruit of so many victories, consisted for the greater + part of cattle and slaves. A select body of the Gothic youth was received + among the Imperial troops; the remainder was sold into servitude; and so + considerable was the number of female captives that every soldier + obtained to his share two or three women. A circumstance from which we may + conclude, that the invaders entertained some designs of settlement as well + as of plunder; since even in a naval expedition, they were accompanied by + their families. III. The loss of their fleet, which was either taken or + sunk, had intercepted the retreat of the Goths. A vast circle of Roman + posts, distributed with skill, supported with firmness, and gradually + closing towards a common centre, forced the barbarians into the most + inaccessible parts of Mount Hæmus, where they found a safe refuge, + but a very scanty subsistence. During the course of a rigorous winter in + which they were besieged by the emperor’s troops, famine and pestilence, + desertion and the sword, continually diminished the imprisoned multitude. + On the return of spring, nothing appeared in arms except a hardy and + desperate band, the remnant of that mighty host which had embarked at the + mouth of the Niester. + </p> + <p> + The pestilence which swept away such numbers of the barbarians, at length + proved fatal to their conqueror. After a short but glorious reign of two + years, Claudius expired at Sirmium, amidst the tears and acclamations of + his subjects. In his last illness, he convened the principal officers of + the state and army, and in their presence recommended Aurelian, one of his + generals, as the most deserving of the throne, and the best qualified to + execute the great design which he himself had been permitted only to + undertake. The virtues of Claudius, his valor, affability, justice, and + temperance, his love of fame and of his country, place him in that short + list of emperors who added lustre to the Roman purple. Those virtues, + however, were celebrated with peculiar zeal and complacency by the courtly + writers of the age of Constantine, who was the great-grandson of Crispus, + the elder brother of Claudius. The voice of flattery was soon taught to + repeat, that gods, who so hastily had snatched Claudius from the earth, + rewarded his merit and piety by the perpetual establishment of the empire + in his family. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these oracles, the greatness of the Flavian family (a name + which it had pleased them to assume) was deferred above twenty years, and + the elevation of Claudius occasioned the immediate ruin of his brother + Quintilius, who possessed not sufficient moderation or courage to descend + into the private station to which the patriotism of the late emperor had + condemned him. Without delay or reflection, he assumed the purple at + Aquileia, where he commanded a considerable force; and though his reign + lasted only seventeen days, * he had time to obtain the sanction of the + senate, and to experience a mutiny of the troops. As soon as he was + informed that the great army of the Danube had invested the well-known + valor of Aurelian with Imperial power, he sunk under the fame and merit of + his rival; and ordering his veins to be opened, prudently withdrew himself + from the unequal contest. + </p> + <p> + The general design of this work will not permit us minutely to relate the + actions of every emperor after he ascended the throne, much less to deduce + the various fortunes of his private life. We shall only observe, that the + father of Aurelian was a peasant of the territory of Sirmium, who occupied + a small farm, the property of Aurelius, a rich senator. His warlike son + enlisted in the troops as a common soldier, successively rose to the rank + of a centurion, a tribune, the præfect of a legion, the inspector of + the camp, the general, or, as it was then called, the duke, of a frontier; + and at length, during the Gothic war, exercised the important office of + commander-in-chief of the cavalry. In every station he distinguished + himself by matchless valor, rigid discipline, and successful conduct. He + was invested with the consulship by the emperor Valerian, who styles him, + in the pompous language of that age, the deliverer of Illyricum, the + restorer of Gaul, and the rival of the Scipios. At the recommendation of + Valerian, a senator of the highest rank and merit, Ulpius Crinitus, whose + blood was derived from the same source as that of Trajan, adopted the + Pannonian peasant, gave him his daughter in marriage, and relieved with + his ample fortune the honorable poverty which Aurelian had preserved + inviolate. + </p> + <p> + The reign of Aurelian lasted only four years and about nine months; but + every instant of that short period was filled by some memorable + achievement. He put an end to the Gothic war, chastised the Germans who + invaded Italy, recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain out of the hands of + Tetricus, and destroyed the proud monarchy which Zenobia had erected in + the East on the ruins of the afflicted empire. + </p> + <p> + It was the rigid attention of Aurelian, even to the minutest articles of + discipline, which bestowed such uninterrupted success on his arms. His + military regulations are contained in a very concise epistle to one of his + inferior officers, who is commanded to enforce them, as he wishes to + become a tribune, or as he is desirous to live. Gaming, drinking, and the + arts of divination, were severely prohibited. Aurelian expected that his + soldiers should be modest, frugal, and laborious; that their armor should + be constantly kept bright, their weapons sharp, their clothing and horses + ready for immediate service; that they should live in their quarters with + chastity and sobriety, without damaging the cornfields, without stealing + even a sheep, a fowl, or a bunch of grapes, without exacting from their + landlords either salt, or oil, or wood. “The public allowance,” continues + the emperor, “is sufficient for their support; their wealth should be + collected from the spoils of the enemy, not from the tears of the + provincials.” A single instance will serve to display the rigor, and even + cruelty, of Aurelian. One of the soldiers had seduced the wife of his + host. The guilty wretch was fastened to two trees forcibly drawn towards + each other, and his limbs were torn asunder by their sudden separation. A + few such examples impressed a salutary consternation. The punishments of + Aurelian were terrible; but he had seldom occasion to punish more than + once the same offence. His own conduct gave a sanction to his laws, and + the seditious legions dreaded a chief who had learned to obey, and who was + worthy to command. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch11-p2" id="linkch11-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The death of Claudius had revived the fainting spirit of the Goths. The + troops which guarded the passes of Mount Hæmus, and the banks of the + Danube, had been drawn away by the apprehension of a civil war; and it + seems probable that the remaining body of the Gothic and Vandalic tribes + embraced the favorable opportunity, abandoned their settlements of the + Ukraine, traversed the rivers, and swelled with new multitudes the + destroying host of their countrymen. Their united numbers were at length + encountered by Aurelian, and the bloody and doubtful conflict ended only + with the approach of night. Exhausted by so many calamities, which they + had mutually endured and inflicted during a twenty years’ war, the Goths + and the Romans consented to a lasting and beneficial treaty. It was + earnestly solicited by the barbarians, and cheerfully ratified by the + legions, to whose suffrage the prudence of Aurelian referred the decision + of that important question. The Gothic nation engaged to supply the armies + of Rome with a body of two thousand auxiliaries, consisting entirely of + cavalry, and stipulated in return an undisturbed retreat, with a regular + market as far as the Danube, provided by the emperor’s care, but at their + own expense. The treaty was observed with such religious fidelity, that + when a party of five hundred men straggled from the camp in quest of + plunder, the king or general of the barbarians commanded that the guilty + leader should be apprehended and shot to death with darts, as a victim + devoted to the sanctity of their engagements. * It is, however, not + unlikely, that the precaution of Aurelian, who had exacted as hostages the + sons and daughters of the Gothic chiefs, contributed something to this + pacific temper. The youths he trained in the exercise of arms, and near + his own person: to the damsels he gave a liberal and Roman education, and + by bestowing them in marriage on some of his principal officers, gradually + introduced between the two nations the closest and most endearing + connections. + </p> + <p> + But the most important condition of peace was understood rather than + expressed in the treaty. Aurelian withdrew the Roman forces from Dacia, + and tacitly relinquished that great province to the Goths and Vandals. His + manly judgment convinced him of the solid advantages, and taught him to + despise the seeming disgrace, of thus contracting the frontiers of the + monarchy. The Dacian subjects, removed from those distant possessions + which they were unable to cultivate or defend, added strength and + populousness to the southern side of the Danube. A fertile territory, + which the repetition of barbarous inroads had changed into a desert, was + yielded to their industry, and a new province of Dacia still preserved the + memory of Trajan’s conquests. The old country of that name detained, + however, a considerable number of its inhabitants, who dreaded exile more + than a Gothic master. These degenerate Romans continued to serve the + empire, whose allegiance they had renounced, by introducing among their + conquerors the first notions of agriculture, the useful arts, and the + conveniences of civilized life. An intercourse of commerce and language + was gradually established between the opposite banks of the Danube; and + after Dacia became an independent state, it often proved the firmest + barrier of the empire against the invasions of the savages of the North. A + sense of interest attached these more settled barbarians to the alliance + of Rome, and a permanent interest very frequently ripens into sincere and + useful friendship. This various colony, which filled the ancient province, + and was insensibly blended into one great people, still acknowledged the + superior renown and authority of the Gothic tribe, and claimed the fancied + honor of a Scandinavian origin. At the same time, the lucky though + accidental resemblance of the name of Getæ, * infused among the + credulous Goths a vain persuasion, that in a remote age, their own + ancestors, already seated in the Dacian provinces, had received the + instructions of Zamolxis, and checked the victorious arms of Sesostris and + Darius. + </p> + <p> + While the vigorous and moderate conduct of Aurelian restored the Illyrian + frontier, the nation of the Alemanni violated the conditions of peace, + which either Gallienus had purchased, or Claudius had imposed, and, + inflamed by their impatient youth, suddenly flew to arms. Forty thousand + horse appeared in the field, and the numbers of the infantry doubled those + of the cavalry. The first objects of their avarice were a few cities of + the Rhætian frontier; but their hopes soon rising with success, the + rapid march of the Alemanni traced a line of devastation from the Danube + to the Po. + </p> + <p> + The emperor was almost at the same time informed of the irruption, and of + the retreat, of the barbarians. Collecting an active body of troops, he + marched with silence and celerity along the skirts of the Hercynian + forest; and the Alemanni, laden with the spoils of Italy, arrived at the + Danube, without suspecting, that on the opposite bank, and in an + advantageous post, a Roman army lay concealed and prepared to intercept + their return. Aurelian indulged the fatal security of the barbarians, and + permitted about half their forces to pass the river without disturbance + and without precaution. Their situation and astonishment gave him an easy + victory; his skilful conduct improved the advantage. Disposing the legions + in a semicircular form, he advanced the two horns of the crescent across + the Danube, and wheeling them on a sudden towards the centre, enclosed the + rear of the German host. The dismayed barbarians, on whatsoever side they + cast their eyes, beheld, with despair, a wasted country, a deep and rapid + stream, a victorious and implacable enemy. + </p> + <p> + Reduced to this distressed condition, the Alemanni no longer disdained to + sue for peace. Aurelian received their ambassadors at the head of his + camp, and with every circumstance of martial pomp that could display the + greatness and discipline of Rome. The legions stood to their arms in + well-ordered ranks and awful silence. The principal commanders, + distinguished by the ensigns of their rank, appeared on horseback on + either side of the Imperial throne. Behind the throne the consecrated + images of the emperor, and his predecessors, the golden eagles, and the + various titles of the legions, engraved in letters of gold, were exalted + in the air on lofty pikes covered with silver. When Aurelian assumed his + seat, his manly grace and majestic figure taught the barbarians to revere + the person as well as the purple of their conqueror. The ambassadors fell + prostrate on the ground in silence. They were commanded to rise, and + permitted to speak. By the assistance of interpreters they extenuated + their perfidy, magnified their exploits, expatiated on the vicissitudes of + fortune and the advantages of peace, and, with an ill-timed confidence, + demanded a large subsidy, as the price of the alliance which they offered + to the Romans. The answer of the emperor was stern and imperious. He + treated their offer with contempt, and their demand with indignation, + reproached the barbarians, that they were as ignorant of the arts of war + as of the laws of peace, and finally dismissed them with the choice only + of submitting to this unconditional mercy, or awaiting the utmost severity + of his resentment. Aurelian had resigned a distant province to the Goths; + but it was dangerous to trust or to pardon these perfidious barbarians, + whose formidable power kept Italy itself in perpetual alarms. + </p> + <p> + Immediately after this conference, it should seem that some unexpected + emergency required the emperor’s presence in Pannonia. He devolved on his + lieutenants the care of finishing the destruction of the Alemanni, either + by the sword, or by the surer operation of famine. But an active despair + has often triumphed over the indolent assurance of success. The + barbarians, finding it impossible to traverse the Danube and the Roman + camp, broke through the posts in their rear, which were more feebly or + less carefully guarded; and with incredible diligence, but by a different + road, returned towards the mountains of Italy. Aurelian, who considered + the war as totally extinguished, received the mortifying intelligence of + the escape of the Alemanni, and of the ravage which they already committed + in the territory of Milan. The legions were commanded to follow, with as + much expedition as those heavy bodies were capable of exerting, the rapid + flight of an enemy whose infantry and cavalry moved with almost equal + swiftness. A few days afterwards, the emperor himself marched to the + relief of Italy, at the head of a chosen body of auxiliaries, (among whom + were the hostages and cavalry of the Vandals,) and of all the Prætorian + guards who had served in the wars on the Danube. + </p> + <p> + As the light troops of the Alemanni had spread themselves from the Alps to + the Apennine, the incessant vigilance of Aurelian and his officers was + exercised in the discovery, the attack, and the pursuit of the numerous + detachments. Notwithstanding this desultory war, three considerable + battles are mentioned, in which the principal force of both armies was + obstinately engaged. The success was various. In the first, fought near + Placentia, the Romans received so severe a blow, that, according to the + expression of a writer extremely partial to Aurelian, the immediate + dissolution of the empire was apprehended. The crafty barbarians, who had + lined the woods, suddenly attacked the legions in the dusk of the evening, + and, it is most probable, after the fatigue and disorder of a long march. + The fury of their charge was irresistible; but, at length, after a + dreadful slaughter, the patient firmness of the emperor rallied his + troops, and restored, in some degree, the honor of his arms. The second + battle was fought near Fano in Umbria; on the spot which, five hundred + years before, had been fatal to the brother of Hannibal. Thus far the + successful Germans had advanced along the Æmilian and Flaminian way, + with a design of sacking the defenceless mistress of the world. But + Aurelian, who, watchful for the safety of Rome, still hung on their rear, + found in this place the decisive moment of giving them a total and + irretrievable defeat. The flying remnant of their host was exterminated in + a third and last battle near Pavia; and Italy was delivered from the + inroads of the Alemanni. + </p> + <p> + Fear has been the original parent of superstition, and every new calamity + urges trembling mortals to deprecate the wrath of their invisible enemies. + Though the best hope of the republic was in the valor and conduct of + Aurelian, yet such was the public consternation, when the barbarians were + hourly expected at the gates of Rome, that, by a decree of the senate the + Sibylline books were consulted. Even the emperor himself, from a motive + either of religion or of policy, recommended this salutary measure, chided + the tardiness of the senate, and offered to supply whatever expense, + whatever animals, whatever captives of any nation, the gods should + require. Notwithstanding this liberal offer, it does not appear, that any + human victims expiated with their blood the sins of the Roman people. The + Sibylline books enjoined ceremonies of a more harmless nature, processions + of priests in white robes, attended by a chorus of youths and virgins; + lustrations of the city and adjacent country; and sacrifices, whose + powerful influence disabled the barbarians from passing the mystic ground + on which they had been celebrated. However puerile in themselves, these + superstitious arts were subservient to the success of the war; and if, in + the decisive battle of Fano, the Alemanni fancied they saw an army of + spectres combating on the side of Aurelian, he received a real and + effectual aid from this imaginary reënforcement. + </p> + <p> + But whatever confidence might be placed in ideal ramparts, the experience + of the past, and the dread of the future, induced the Romans to construct + fortifications of a grosser and more substantial kind. The seven hills of + Rome had been surrounded by the successors of Romulus with an ancient + wall of more than thirteen miles. The vast enclosure may seem + disproportioned to the strength and numbers of the infant-state. But it + was necessary to secure an ample extent of pasture and arable land + against the frequent and sudden incursions of the tribes of Latium, the + perpetual enemies of the republic. With the progress of Roman greatness, + the city and its inhabitants gradually increased, filled up the vacant + space, pierced through the useless walls, covered the field of Mars, and, + on every side, followed the public highways in long and beautiful suburbs. + The extent of the new walls, erected by Aurelian, and finished in the + reign of Probus, was magnified by popular estimation to near fifty, but is + reduced by accurate measurement to about twenty-one miles. It was a great + but a melancholy labor, since the defence of the capital betrayed the + decline of monarchy. The Romans of a more prosperous age, who trusted + to the arms of the legions the safety of the frontier camps, were very far + from entertaining a suspicion that it would ever become necessary to + fortify the seat of empire against the inroads of the barbarians. + </p> + <p> + The victory of Claudius over the Goths, and the success of Aurelian + against the Alemanni, had already restored to the arms of Rome their + ancient superiority over the barbarous nations of the North. To chastise + domestic tyrants, and to reunite the dismembered parts of the empire, was + a task reserved for the second of those warlike emperors. Though he was + acknowledged by the senate and people, the frontiers of Italy, Africa, + Illyricum, and Thrace, confined the limits of his reign. Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, were still possessed by two rebels, + who alone, out of so numerous a list, had hitherto escaped the dangers of + their situation; and to complete the ignominy of Rome, these rival thrones + had been usurped by women. + </p> + <p> + A rapid succession of monarchs had arisen and fallen in the provinces of + Gaul. The rigid virtues of Posthumus served only to hasten his + destruction. After suppressing a competitor, who had assumed the purple at + Mentz, he refused to gratify his troops with the plunder of the rebellious + city; and in the seventh year of his reign, became the victim of their + disappointed avarice. The death of Victorinus, his friend and associate, + was occasioned by a less worthy cause. The shining accomplishments of that + prince were stained by a licentious passion, which he indulged in acts of + violence, with too little regard to the laws of society, or even to those + of love. He was slain at Cologne, by a conspiracy of jealous husbands, + whose revenge would have appeared more justifiable, had they spared the + innocence of his son. After the murder of so many valiant princes, it is + somewhat remarkable, that a female for a long time controlled the fierce + legions of Gaul, and still more singular, that she was the mother of the + unfortunate Victorinus. The arts and treasures of Victoria enabled her + successively to place Marius and Tetricus on the throne, and to reign with + a manly vigor under the name of those dependent emperors. Money of copper, + of silver, and of gold, was coined in her name; she assumed the titles of + Augusta and Mother of the Camps: her power ended only with her life; but + her life was perhaps shortened by the ingratitude of Tetricus. + </p> + <p> + When, at the instigation of his ambitious patroness, Tetricus assumed the + ensigns of royalty, he was governor of the peaceful province of Aquitaine, + an employment suited to his character and education. He reigned four or + five years over Gaul, Spain, and Britain, the slave and sovereign of a + licentious army, whom he dreaded, and by whom he was despised. The valor + and fortune of Aurelian at length opened the prospect of a deliverance. He + ventured to disclose his melancholy situation, and conjured the emperor to + hasten to the relief of his unhappy rival. Had this secret correspondence + reached the ears of the soldiers, it would most probably have cost + Tetricus his life; nor could he resign the sceptre of the West without + committing an act of treason against himself. He affected the appearances + of a civil war, led his forces into the field, against Aurelian, posted + them in the most disadvantageous manner, betrayed his own counsels to his + enemy, and with a few chosen friends deserted in the beginning of the + action. The rebel legions, though disordered and dismayed by the + unexpected treachery of their chief, defended themselves with desperate + valor, till they were cut in pieces almost to a man, in this bloody and + memorable battle, which was fought near Chalons in Champagne. The retreat + of the irregular auxiliaries, Franks and Batavians, whom the conqueror + soon compelled or persuaded to repass the Rhine, restored the general + tranquillity, and the power of Aurelian was acknowledged from the wall of + Antoninus to the columns of Hercules. + </p> + <p> + As early as the reign of Claudius, the city of Autun, alone and + unassisted, had ventured to declare against the legions of Gaul. After a + siege of seven months, they stormed and plundered that unfortunate city, + already wasted by famine. Lyons, on the contrary, had resisted with + obstinate disaffection the arms of Aurelian. We read of the punishment of + Lyons, but there is not any mention of the rewards of Autun. Such, indeed, + is the policy of civil war: severely to remember injuries, and to forget + the most important services. Revenge is profitable, gratitude is + expensive. + </p> + <p> + Aurelian had no sooner secured the person and provinces of Tetricus, than + he turned his arms against Zenobia, the celebrated queen of Palmyra and + the East. Modern Europe has produced several illustrious women who have + sustained with glory the weight of empire; nor is our own age destitute of + such distinguished characters. But if we except the doubtful achievements + of Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female whose superior genius + broke through the servile indolence imposed on her sex by the climate and + manners of Asia. She claimed her descent from the Macedonian kings of + Egypt, * equalled in beauty her ancestor Cleopatra, and far surpassed that + princess in chastity and valor. Zenobia was esteemed the most lovely as + well as the most heroic of her sex. She was of a dark complexion (for in + speaking of a lady these trifles become important). Her teeth were of a + pearly whiteness, and her large black eyes sparkled with uncommon fire, + tempered by the most attractive sweetness. Her voice was strong and + harmonious. Her manly understanding was strengthened and adorned by study. + She was not ignorant of the Latin tongue, but possessed in equal + perfection the Greek, the Syriac, and the Egyptian languages. She had + drawn up for her own use an epitome of oriental history, and familiarly + compared the beauties of Homer and Plato under the tuition of the sublime + Longinus. + </p> + <p> + This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, who, from a private + station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. She soon became the + friend and companion of a hero. In the intervals of war, Odenathus + passionately delighted in the exercise of hunting; he pursued with ardor + the wild beasts of the desert, lions, panthers, and bears; and the ardor + of Zenobia in that dangerous amusement was not inferior to his own. She + had inured her constitution to fatigue, disdained the use of a covered + carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a military habit, and + sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head of the troops. The + success of Odenathus was in a great measure ascribed to her incomparable + prudence and fortitude. Their splendid victories over the Great King, whom + they twice pursued as far as the gates of Ctesiphon, laid the foundations + of their united fame and power. The armies which they commanded, and the + provinces which they had saved, acknowledged not any other sovereigns than + their invincible chiefs. The senate and people of Rome revered a stranger + who had avenged their captive emperor, and even the insensible son of + Valerian accepted Odenathus for his legitimate colleague. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch11-p3" id="linkch11-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of Asia, the + Palmyrenian prince returned to the city of Emesa in Syria. Invincible in + war, he was there cut off by domestic treason, and his favorite amusement + of hunting was the cause, or at least the occasion, of his death. His + nephew Mæonius presumed to dart his javelin before that of his + uncle; and though admonished of his error, repeated the same insolence. As + a monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked, took away his + horse, a mark of ignominy among the barbarians, and chastised the rash + youth by a short confinement. The offence was soon forgot, but the + punishment was remembered; and Mæonius, with a few daring + associates, assassinated his uncle in the midst of a great entertainment. + Herod, the son of Odenathus, though not of Zenobia, a young man of a soft + and effeminate temper, was killed with his father. But Mæonius + obtained only the pleasure of revenge by this bloody deed. He had scarcely + time to assume the title of Augustus, before he was sacrificed by Zenobia + to the memory of her husband. + </p> + <p> + With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she immediately filled + the vacant throne, and governed with manly counsels Palmyra, Syria, and + the East, above five years. By the death of Odenathus, that authority was + at an end which the senate had granted him only as a personal distinction; + but his martial widow, disdaining both the senate and Gallienus, obliged + one of the Roman generals, who was sent against her, to retreat into + Europe, with the loss of his army and his reputation. Instead of the + little passions which so frequently perplex a female reign, the steady + administration of Zenobia was guided by the most judicious maxims of + policy. If it was expedient to pardon, she could calm her resentment; if + it was necessary to punish, she could impose silence on the voice of pity. + Her strict economy was accused of avarice; yet on every proper occasion + she appeared magnificent and liberal. The neighboring states of Arabia, + Armenia, and Persia, dreaded her enmity, and solicited her alliance. To + the dominions of Odenathus, which extended from the Euphrates to the + frontiers of Bithynia, his widow added the inheritance of her ancestors, + the populous and fertile kingdom of Egypt. * The emperor Claudius + acknowledged her merit, and was content, that, while <i>he</i> pursued + the Gothic war, <i>she</i>should assert the dignity of the empire in the + East. The conduct, however, of Zenobia was attended with some + ambiguity; not is it unlikely that she had conceived the design of + erecting an independent and hostile monarchy. She blended with the popular + manners of Roman princes the stately pomp of the courts of Asia, and + exacted from her subjects the same adoration that was paid to the + successor of Cyrus. She bestowed on her three sons a Latin education, and + often showed them to the troops adorned with the Imperial purple. For + herself she reserved the diadem, with the splendid but doubtful title of + Queen of the East. + </p> + <p> + When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary whose sex alone + could render her an object of contempt, his presence restored obedience to + the province of Bithynia, already shaken by the arms and intrigues of + Zenobia. Advancing at the head of his legions, he accepted the submission + of Ancyra, and was admitted into Tyana, after an obstinate siege, by the + help of a perfidious citizen. The generous though fierce temper of + Aurelian abandoned the traitor to the rage of the soldiers; a + superstitious reverence induced him to treat with lenity the countrymen of + Apollonius the philosopher. Antioch was deserted on his approach, till the + emperor, by his salutary edicts, recalled the fugitives, and granted a + general pardon to all who, from necessity rather than choice, had been + engaged in the service of the Palmyrenian Queen. The unexpected mildness + of such a conduct reconciled the minds of the Syrians, and as far as the + gates of Emesa, the wishes of the people seconded the terror of his arms. + </p> + <p> + Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she indolently + permitted the emperor of the West to approach within a hundred miles of + her capital. The fate of the East was decided in two great battles; so + similar in almost every circumstance, that we can scarcely distinguish + them from each other, except by observing that the first was fought near + Antioch, and the second near Emesa. In both the queen of Palmyra animated + the armies by her presence, and devolved the execution of her orders on + Zabdas, who had already signalized his military talents by the conquest of + Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted for the most part of light + archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in complete steel. The Moorish and + Illyrian horse of Aurelian were unable to sustain the ponderous charge of + their antagonists. They fled in real or affected disorder, engaged the + Palmyrenians in a laborious pursuit, harassed them by a desultory combat, + and at length discomfited this impenetrable but unwieldy body of cavalry. + The light infantry, in the mean time, when they had exhausted their + quivers, remaining without protection against a closer onset, exposed + their naked sides to the swords of the legions. Aurelian had chosen these + veteran troops, who were usually stationed on the Upper Danube, and whose + valor had been severely tried in the Alemannic war. After the defeat of + Emesa, Zenobia found it impossible to collect a third army. As far as the + frontier of Egypt, the nations subject to her empire had joined the + standard of the conqueror, who detached Probus, the bravest of his + generals, to possess himself of the Egyptian provinces. Palmyra was the + last resource of the widow of Odenathus. She retired within the walls of + her capital, made every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and + declared, with the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her + reign and of her life should be the same. + </p> + <p> + Amid the barren deserts of Arabia, a few cultivated spots rise like + islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or Palmyra, by + its signification in the Syriac as well as in the Latin language, denoted + the multitude of palm-trees which afforded shade and verdure to that + temperate region. The air was pure, and the soil, watered by some + invaluable springs, was capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A + place possessed of such singular advantages, and situated at a convenient + distance between the Gulf of Persia and the Mediterranean, was soon + frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the nations of Europe a + considerable part of the rich commodities of India. Palmyra insensibly + increased into an opulent and independent city, and connecting the Roman + and the Parthian monarchies by the mutual benefits of commerce, was + suffered to observe an humble neutrality, till at length, after the + victories of Trajan, the little republic sunk into the bosom of Rome, and + flourished more than one hundred and fifty years in the subordinate though + honorable rank of a colony. It was during that peaceful period, if we may + judge from a few remaining inscriptions, that the wealthy Palmyrenians + constructed those temples, palaces, and porticos of Grecian architecture, + whose ruins, scattered over an extent of several miles, have deserved the + curiosity of our travellers. The elevation of Odenathus and Zenobia + appeared to reflect new splendor on their country, and Palmyra, for a + while, stood forth the rival of Rome: but the competition was fatal, and + ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a moment of glory. + </p> + <p> + In his march over the sandy desert between Emesa and Palmyra, the emperor + Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor could he always defend + his army, and especially his baggage, from those flying troops of active + and daring robbers, who watched the moment of surprise, and eluded the + slow pursuit of the legions. The siege of Palmyra was an object far more + difficult and important, and the emperor, who, with incessant vigor, + pressed the attacks in person, was himself wounded with a dart. “The Roman + people,” says Aurelian, in an original letter, “speak with contempt of the + war which I am waging against a woman. They are ignorant both of the + character and of the power of Zenobia. It is impossible to enumerate her + warlike preparations, of stones, of arrows, and of every species of + missile weapons. Every part of the walls is provided with two or three <i>balistæ</i> + and artificial fires are thrown from her military engines. The fear of + punishment has armed her with a desperate courage. Yet still I trust in + the protecting deities of Rome, who have hitherto been favorable to all my + undertakings.” Doubtful, however, of the protection of the gods, and of + the event of the siege, Aurelian judged it more prudent to offer terms of + an advantageous capitulation; to the queen, a splendid retreat; to the + citizens, their ancient privileges. His proposals were obstinately + rejected, and the refusal was accompanied with insult. + </p> + <p> + The firmness of Zenobia was supported by the hope, that in a very short + time famine would compel the Roman army to repass the desert; and by the + reasonable expectation that the kings of the East, and particularly the + Persian monarch, would arm in the defence of their most natural ally. But + fortune, and the perseverance of Aurelian, overcame every obstacle. The + death of Sapor, which happened about this time, distracted the councils of + Persia, and the inconsiderable succors that attempted to relieve Palmyra + were easily intercepted either by the arms or the liberality of the + emperor. From every part of Syria, a regular succession of convoys safely + arrived in the camp, which was increased by the return of Probus with his + victorious troops from the conquest of Egypt. It was then that Zenobia + resolved to fly. She mounted the fleetest of her dromedaries, and had + already reached the banks of the Euphrates, about sixty miles from + Palmyra, when she was overtaken by the pursuit of Aurelian’s light horse, + seized, and brought back a captive to the feet of the emperor. Her capital + soon afterwards surrendered, and was treated with unexpected lenity. The + arms, horses, and camels, with an immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, + and precious stones, were all delivered to the conqueror, who, leaving + only a garrison of six hundred archers, returned to Emesa, and employed + some time in the distribution of rewards and punishments at the end of so + memorable a war, which restored to the obedience of Rome those provinces + that had renounced their allegiance since the captivity of Valerian. + </p> + <p> + When the Syrian queen was brought into the presence of Aurelian, he + sternly asked her, How she had presumed to rise in arms against the + emperors of Rome! The answer of Zenobia was a prudent mixture of respect + and firmness. “Because I disdained to consider as Roman emperors an + Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone I acknowledge as my conqueror and my + sovereign.” But as female fortitude is commonly artificial, so it is + seldom steady or consistent. The courage of Zenobia deserted her in the + hour of trial; she trembled at the angry clamors of the soldiers, who + called aloud for her immediate execution, forgot the generous despair of + Cleopatra, which she had proposed as her model, and ignominiously + purchased life by the sacrifice of her fame and her friends. It was to + their counsels, which governed the weakness of her sex, that she imputed + the guilt of her obstinate resistance; it was on their heads that she + directed the vengeance of the cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, who + was included among the numerous and perhaps innocent victims of her fear, + will survive that of the queen who betrayed, or the tyrant who condemned + him. Genius and learning were incapable of moving a fierce unlettered + soldier, but they had served to elevate and harmonize the soul of + Longinus. Without uttering a complaint, he calmly followed the + executioner, pitying his unhappy mistress, and bestowing comfort on his + afflicted friends. + </p> + <p> + Returning from the conquest of the East, Aurelian had already crossed the + Straits which divided Europe from Asia, when he was provoked by the + intelligence that the Palmyrenians had massacred the governor and garrison + which he had left among them, and again erected the standard of revolt. + Without a moment’s deliberation, he once more turned his face towards + Syria. Antioch was alarmed by his rapid approach, and the helpless city of + Palmyra felt the irresistible weight of his resentment. We have a letter + of Aurelian himself, in which he acknowledges, that old men, women, + children, and peasants, had been involved in that dreadful execution, + which should have been confined to armed rebellion; and although his + principal concern seems directed to the reëstablishment of a temple of the + Sun, he discovers some pity for the remnant of the Palmyrenians, to whom + he grants the permission of rebuilding and inhabiting their city. But it + is easier to destroy than to restore. The seat of commerce, of arts, and + of Zenobia, gradually sunk into an obscure town, a trifling fortress, and + at length a miserable village. The present citizens of Palmyra, consisting + of thirty or forty families, have erected their mud cottages within the + spacious court of a magnificent temple. + </p> + <p> + Another and a last labor still awaited the indefatigable Aurelian; to + suppress a dangerous though obscure rebel, who, during the revolt of + Palmyra, had arisen on the banks of the Nile. Firmus, the friend and ally, + as he proudly styled himself, of Odenathus and Zenobia, was no more than a + wealthy merchant of Egypt. In the course of his trade to India, he had + formed very intimate connections with the Saracens and the Blemmyes, whose + situation on either coast of the Red Sea gave them an easy introduction + into the Upper Egypt. The Egyptians he inflamed with the hope of freedom, + and, at the head of their furious multitude, broke into the city of + Alexandria, where he assumed the Imperial purple, coined money, published + edicts, and raised an army, which, as he vainly boasted, he was capable of + maintaining from the sole profits of his paper trade. Such troops were a + feeble defence against the approach of Aurelian; and it seems almost + unnecessary to relate, that Firmus was routed, taken, tortured, and put to + death. Aurelian might now congratulate the senate, the people, and + himself, that in little more than three years, he had restored universal + peace and order to the Roman world. + </p> + <p> + Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly deserved a triumph + than Aurelian; nor was a triumph ever celebrated with superior pride and + magnificence. The pomp was opened by twenty elephants, four royal tigers, + and above two hundred of the most curious animals from every climate of + the North, the East, and the South. They were followed by sixteen hundred + gladiators, devoted to the cruel amusement of the amphitheatre. The wealth + of Asia, the arms and ensigns of so many conquered nations, and the + magnificent plate and wardrobe of the Syrian queen, were disposed in exact + symmetry or artful disorder. The ambassadors of the most remote parts of + the earth, of Æthiopia, Arabia, Persia, Bactriana, India, and China, + all remarkable by their rich or singular dresses, displayed the fame and + power of the Roman emperor, who exposed likewise to the public view the + presents that he had received, and particularly a great number of crowns + of gold, the offerings of grateful cities. The victories of Aurelian were + attested by the long train of captives who reluctantly attended his + triumph, Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alemanni, Franks, Gauls, Syrians, and + Egyptians. Each people was distinguished by its peculiar inscription, and + the title of Amazons was bestowed on ten martial heroines of the Gothic + nation who had been taken in arms. But every eye, disregarding the crowd + of captives, was fixed on the emperor Tetricus and the queen of the East. + The former, as well as his son, whom he had created Augustus, was dressed + in Gallic trousers, a saffron tunic, and a robe of purple. The beauteous + figure of Zenobia was confined by fetters of gold; a slave supported the + gold chain which encircled her neck, and she almost fainted under the + intolerable weight of jewels. She preceded on foot the magnificent + chariot, in which she once hoped to enter the gates of Rome. It was + followed by two other chariots, still more sumptuous, of Odenathus and of + the Persian monarch. The triumphal car of Aurelian (it had formerly been + used by a Gothic king) was drawn, on this memorable occasion, either by + four stags or by four elephants. The most illustrious of the senate, the + people, and the army, closed the solemn procession. Unfeigned joy, wonder, + and gratitude, swelled the acclamations of the multitude; but the + satisfaction of the senate was clouded by the appearance of Tetricus; nor + could they suppress a rising murmur, that the haughty emperor should thus + expose to public ignominy the person of a Roman and a magistrate. + </p> + <p> + But however, in the treatment of his unfortunate rivals, Aurelian might + indulge his pride, he behaved towards them with a generous clemency, which + was seldom exercised by the ancient conquerors. Princes who, without + success, had defended their throne or freedom, were frequently strangled + in prison, as soon as the triumphal pomp ascended the Capitol. These + usurpers, whom their defeat had convicted of the crime of treason, were + permitted to spend their lives in affluence and honorable repose. The + emperor presented Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur, or Tivoli, about + twenty miles from the capital; the Syrian queen insensibly sunk into a + Roman matron, her daughters married into noble families, and her race was + not yet extinct in the fifth century. Tetricus and his son were reinstated + in their rank and fortunes. They erected on the Cælian hill a + magnificent palace, and as soon as it was finished, invited Aurelian to + supper. On his entrance, he was agreeably surprised with a picture which + represented their singular history. They were delineated offering to the + emperor a civic crown and the sceptre of Gaul, and again receiving at his + hands the ornaments of the senatorial dignity. The father was afterwards + invested with the government of Lucania, and Aurelian, who soon admitted + the abdicated monarch to his friendship and conversation, familiarly asked + him, Whether it were not more desirable to administer a province of Italy, + than to reign beyond the Alps. The son long continued a respectable member + of the senate; nor was there any one of the Roman nobility more esteemed + by Aurelian, as well as by his successors. + </p> + <p> + So long and so various was the pomp of Aurelian’s triumph, that although + it opened with the dawn of day, the slow majesty of the procession + ascended not the Capitol before the ninth hour; and it was already dark + when the emperor returned to the palace. The festival was protracted by + theatrical representations, the games of the circus, the hunting of wild + beasts, combats of gladiators, and naval engagements. Liberal donatives + were distributed to the army and people, and several institutions, + agreeable or beneficial to the city, contributed to perpetuate the glory + of Aurelian. A considerable portion of his oriental spoils was consecrated + to the gods of Rome; the Capitol, and every other temple, glittered with + the offerings of his ostentatious piety; and the temple of the Sun alone + received above fifteen thousand pounds of gold. This last was a + magnificent structure, erected by the emperor on the side of the Quirinal + hill, and dedicated, soon after the triumph, to that deity whom Aurelian + adored as the parent of his life and fortunes. His mother had been an + inferior priestess in a chapel of the Sun; a peculiar devotion to the god + of Light was a sentiment which the fortunate peasant imbibed in his + infancy; and every step of his elevation, every victory of his reign, + fortified superstition by gratitude. + </p> + <p> + The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic foes of the + republic. We are assured, that, by his salutary rigor, crimes and + factions, mischievous arts and pernicious connivance, the luxurious growth + of a feeble and oppressive government, were eradicated throughout the + Roman world. But if we attentively reflect how much swifter is the + progress of corruption than its cure, and if we remember that the years + abandoned to public disorders exceeded the months allotted to the martial + reign of Aurelian, we must confess that a few short intervals of peace + were insufficient for the arduous work of reformation. Even his attempt to + restore the integrity of the coin was opposed by a formidable + insurrection. The emperor’s vexation breaks out in one of his private + letters. “Surely,” says he, “the gods have decreed that my life should be + a perpetual warfare. A sedition within the walls has just now given birth + to a very serious civil war. The workmen of the mint, at the instigation + of Felicissimus, a slave to whom I had intrusted an employment in the + finances, have risen in rebellion. They are at length suppressed; but + seven thousand of my soldiers have been slain in the contest, of those + troops whose ordinary station is in Dacia, and the camps along the + Danube.” Other writers, who confirm the same fact, add likewise, that it + happened soon after Aurelian’s triumph; that the decisive engagement was + fought on the Cælian hill; that the workmen of the mint had + adulterated the coin; and that the emperor restored the public credit, by + delivering out good money in exchange for the bad, which the people was + commanded to bring into the treasury. + </p> + <p> + We might content ourselves with relating this extraordinary transaction, + but we cannot dissemble how much in its present form it appears to us + inconsistent and incredible. The debasement of the coin is indeed well + suited to the administration of Gallienus; nor is it unlikely that the + instruments of the corruption might dread the inflexible justice of + Aurelian. But the guilt, as well as the profit, must have been confined to + a very few; nor is it easy to conceive by what arts they could arm a + people whom they had injured, against a monarch whom they had betrayed. We + might naturally expect that such miscreants should have shared the public + detestation with the informers and the other ministers of oppression; and + that the reformation of the coin should have been an action equally + popular with the destruction of those obsolete accounts, which by the + emperor’s order were burnt in the forum of Trajan. In an age when the + principles of commerce were so imperfectly understood, the most desirable + end might perhaps be effected by harsh and injudicious means; but a + temporary grievance of such a nature can scarcely excite and support a + serious civil war. The repetition of intolerable taxes, imposed either on + the land or on the necessaries of life, may at last provoke those who will + not, or who cannot, relinquish their country. But the case is far + otherwise in every operation which, by whatsoever expedients, restores the + just value of money. The transient evil is soon obliterated by the + permanent benefit, the loss is divided among multitudes; and if a few + wealthy individuals experience a sensible diminution of treasure, with + their riches, they at the same time lose the degree of weight and + importance which they derived from the possession of them. However + Aurelian might choose to disguise the real cause of the insurrection, his + reformation of the coin could furnish only a faint pretence to a party + already powerful and discontented. Rome, though deprived of freedom, was + distracted by faction. The people, towards whom the emperor, himself a + plebeian, always expressed a peculiar fondness, lived in perpetual + dissension with the senate, the equestrian order, and the Prætorian + guards. Nothing less than the firm though secret conspiracy of those + orders, of the authority of the first, the wealth of the second, and the + arms of the third, could have displayed a strength capable of contending + in battle with the veteran legions of the Danube, which, under the conduct + of a martial sovereign, had achieved the conquest of the West and of the + East. + </p> + <p> + Whatever was the cause or the object of this rebellion, imputed with so + little probability to the workmen of the mint, Aurelian used his victory + with unrelenting rigor. He was naturally of a severe disposition. A + peasant and a soldier, his nerves yielded not easily to the impressions of + sympathy, and he could sustain without emotion the sight of tortures and + death. Trained from his earliest youth in the exercise of arms, he set too + small a value on the life of a citizen, chastised by military execution + the slightest offences, and transferred the stern discipline of the camp + into the civil administration of the laws. His love of justice often + became a blind and furious passion; and whenever he deemed his own or the + public safety endangered, he disregarded the rules of evidence, and the + proportion of punishments. The unprovoked rebellion with which the Romans + rewarded his services, exasperated his haughty spirit. The noblest + families of the capital were involved in the guilt or suspicion of this + dark conspiracy. A nasty spirit of revenge urged the bloody prosecution, + and it proved fatal to one of the nephews of the emperor. The executioners + (if we may use the expression of a contemporary poet) were fatigued, the + prisons were crowded, and the unhappy senate lamented the death or absence + of its most illustrious members. Nor was the pride of Aurelian less + offensive to that assembly than his cruelty. Ignorant or impatient of the + restraints of civil institutions, he disdained to hold his power by any + other title than that of the sword, and governed by right of conquest an + empire which he had saved and subdued. + </p> + <p> + It was observed by one of the most sagacious of the Roman princes, that + the talents of his predecessor Aurelian were better suited to the command + of an army, than to the government of an empire. Conscious of the + character in which nature and experience had enabled him to excel, he + again took the field a few months after his triumph. It was expedient to + exercise the restless temper of the legions in some foreign war, and the + Persian monarch, exulting in the shame of Valerian, still braved with + impunity the offended majesty of Rome. At the head of an army, less + formidable by its numbers than by its discipline and valor, the emperor + advanced as far as the Straits which divide Europe from Asia. He there + experienced that the most absolute power is a weak defence against the + effects of despair. He had threatened one of his secretaries who was + accused of extortion; and it was known that he seldom threatened in vain. + The last hope which remained for the criminal was to involve some of the + principal officers of the army in his danger, or at least in his fears. + Artfully counterfeiting his master’s hand, he showed them, in a long and + bloody list, their own names devoted to death. Without suspecting or + examining the fraud, they resolved to secure their lives by the murder of + the emperor. On his march, between Byzantium and Heraclea, Aurelian was + suddenly attacked by the conspirators, whose stations gave them a right to + surround his person, and after a short resistance, fell by the hand of + Mucapor, a general whom he had always loved and trusted. He died regretted + by the army, detested by the senate, but universally acknowledged as a + warlike and fortunate prince, the useful, though severe reformer of a + degenerate state. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch12-p1" id="linkch12-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.—Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons.<br/> +</pre> + <p> + Such was the unhappy condition of the Roman emperors, that, whatever + might be their conduct, their fate was commonly the same. A life of + pleasure or virtue, of severity or mildness, of indolence or glory, alike + led to an untimely grave; and almost every reign is closed by the same + disgusting repetition of treason and murder. The death of Aurelian, + however, is remarkable by its extraordinary consequences. The legions + admired, lamented, and revenged their victorious chief. The artifice of + his perfidious secretary was discovered and punished. The deluded + conspirators attended the funeral of their injured sovereign, with + sincere or well-feigned contrition, and submitted to the unanimous + resolution of the military order, which was signified by the following + epistle: “The brave and fortunate armies to the senate and people of + Rome.—The crime of one man, and the error of many, have deprived us + of the late emperor Aurelian. May it please you, venerable lords and + fathers! to place him in the number of the gods, and to appoint a + successor whom your judgment shall declare worthy of the Imperial purple! + None of those whose guilt or misfortune have contributed to our loss, + shall ever reign over us.” The Roman senators heard, without surprise, + that another emperor had been assassinated in his camp; they secretly + rejoiced in the fall of Aurelian; but the modest and dutiful address of + the legions, when it was communicated in full assembly by the consul, + diffused the most pleasing astonishment. Such honors as fear and perhaps + esteem could extort, they liberally poured forth on the memory of their + deceased sovereign. Such acknowledgments as gratitude could inspire, they + returned to the faithful armies of the republic, who entertained so just + a sense of the legal authority of the senate in the choice of an emperor. + Yet, notwithstanding this flattering appeal, the most prudent of the + assembly declined exposing their safety and dignity to the caprice of an + armed multitude. The strength of the legions was, indeed, a pledge of + their sincerity, since those who may command are seldom reduced to the + necessity of dissembling; but could it naturally be expected, that a + hasty repentance would correct the inveterate habits of fourscore years? + Should the soldiers relapse into their accustomed seditions, their + insolence might disgrace the majesty of the senate, and prove fatal to + the object of its choice. Motives like these dictated a decree, by which + the election of a new emperor was referred to the suffrage of the + military order. + </p> + <p> + The contention that ensued is one of the best attested, but most + improbable events in the history of mankind. The troops, as if satiated + with the exercise of power, again conjured the senate to invest one of its + own body with the Imperial purple. The senate still persisted in its + refusal; the army in its request. The reciprocal offer was pressed and + rejected at least three times, and, whilst the obstinate modesty of either + party was resolved to receive a master from the hands of the other, eight + months insensibly elapsed; an amazing period of tranquil anarchy, during + which the Roman world remained without a sovereign, without a usurper, and + without a sedition. * The generals and magistrates appointed by Aurelian + continued to execute their ordinary functions; and it is observed, that a + proconsul of Asia was the only considerable person removed from his office + in the whole course of the interregnum. + </p> + <p> + An event somewhat similar, but much less authentic, is supposed to have + happened after the death of Romulus, who, in his life and character, bore + some affinity with Aurelian. The throne was vacant during twelve months, + till the election of a Sabine philosopher, and the public peace was + guarded in the same manner, by the union of the several orders of the + state. But, in the time of Numa and Romulus, the arms of the people were + controlled by the authority of the Patricians; and the balance of freedom + was easily preserved in a small and virtuous community. The decline of the + Roman state, far different from its infancy, was attended with every + circumstance that could banish from an interregnum the prospect of + obedience and harmony: an immense and tumultuous capital, a wide extent of + empire, the servile equality of despotism, an army of four hundred + thousand mercenaries, and the experience of frequent revolutions. Yet, + notwithstanding all these temptations, the discipline and memory of + Aurelian still restrained the seditious temper of the troops, as well as + the fatal ambition of their leaders. The flower of the legions maintained + their stations on the banks of the Bosphorus, and the Imperial standard + awed the less powerful camps of Rome and of the provinces. A generous + though transient enthusiasm seemed to animate the military order; and we + may hope that a few real patriots cultivated the returning friendship of + the army and the senate as the only expedient capable of restoring the + republic to its ancient beauty and vigor. + </p> + <p> + On the twenty-fifth of September, near eight months after the murder of + Aurelian, the consul convoked an assembly of the senate, and reported the + doubtful and dangerous situation of the empire. He slightly insinuated, + that the precarious loyalty of the soldiers depended on the chance of + every hour, and of every accident; but he represented, with the most + convincing eloquence, the various dangers that might attend any further + delay in the choice of an emperor. Intelligence, he said, was already + received, that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and occupied some of the + strongest and most opulent cities of Gaul. The ambition of the Persian + king kept the East in perpetual alarms; Egypt, Africa, and Illyricum, were + exposed to foreign and domestic arms, and the levity of Syria would prefer + even a female sceptre to the sanctity of the Roman laws. The consul, then + addressing himself to Tacitus, the first of the senators, required his + opinion on the important subject of a proper candidate for the vacant + throne. + </p> + <p> + If we can prefer personal merit to accidental greatness, we shall esteem + the birth of Tacitus more truly noble than that of kings. He claimed his + descent from the philosophic historian whose writings will instruct the + last generations of mankind. The senator Tacitus was then seventy-five + years of age. The long period of his innocent life was adorned with wealth + and honors. He had twice been invested with the consular dignity, and + enjoyed with elegance and sobriety his ample patrimony of between two and + three millions sterling. The experience of so many princes, whom he had + esteemed or endured, from the vain follies of Elagabalus to the useful + rigor of Aurelian, taught him to form a just estimate of the duties, the + dangers, and the temptations of their sublime station. From the assiduous + study of his immortal ancestor, he derived the knowledge of the Roman + constitution, and of human nature. The voice of the people had already + named Tacitus as the citizen the most worthy of empire. The ungrateful + rumor reached his ears, and induced him to seek the retirement of one of + his villas in Campania. He had passed two months in the delightful privacy + of Baiæ, when he reluctantly obeyed the summons of the consul to + resume his honorable place in the senate, and to assist the republic with + his counsels on this important occasion. + </p> + <p> + He arose to speak, when from every quarter of the house, he was saluted + with the names of Augustus and emperor. “Tacitus Augustus, the gods + preserve thee! we choose thee for our sovereign; to thy care we intrust + the republic and the world. Accept the empire from the authority of the + senate. It is due to thy rank, to thy conduct, to thy manners.” As soon as + the tumult of acclamations subsided, Tacitus attempted to decline the + dangerous honor, and to express his wonder, that they should elect his age + and infirmities to succeed the martial vigor of Aurelian. “Are these + limbs, conscript fathers! fitted to sustain the weight of armor, or to + practise the exercises of the camp? The variety of climates, and the + hardships of a military life, would soon oppress a feeble constitution, + which subsists only by the most tender management. My exhausted strength + scarcely enables me to discharge the duty of a senator; how insufficient + would it prove to the arduous labors of war and government! Can you hope, + that the legions will respect a weak old man, whose days have been spent + in the shade of peace and retirement? Can you desire that I should ever + find reason to regret the favorable opinion of the senate?” + </p> + <p> + The reluctance of Tacitus (and it might possibly be sincere) was + encountered by the affectionate obstinacy of the senate. Five hundred + voices repeated at once, in eloquent confusion, that the greatest of the + Roman princes, Numa, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, had ascended the + throne in a very advanced season of life; that the mind, not the body, a + sovereign, not a soldier, was the object of their choice; and that they + expected from him no more than to guide by his wisdom the valor of the + legions. These pressing though tumultuary instances were seconded by a + more regular oration of Metius Falconius, the next on the consular bench + to Tacitus himself. He reminded the assembly of the evils which Rome had + endured from the vices of headstrong and capricious youths, congratulated + them on the election of a virtuous and experienced senator, and, with a + manly, though perhaps a selfish, freedom, exhorted Tacitus to remember the + reasons of his elevation, and to seek a successor, not in his own family, + but in the republic. The speech of Falconius was enforced by a general + acclamation. The emperor elect submitted to the authority of his country, + and received the voluntary homage of his equals. The judgment of the + senate was confirmed by the consent of the Roman people and of the Prætorian + guards. + </p> + <p> + The administration of Tacitus was not unworthy of his life and principles. + A grateful servant of the senate, he considered that national council as + the author, and himself as the subject, of the laws. He studied to heal + the wounds which Imperial pride, civil discord, and military violence, had + inflicted on the constitution, and to restore, at least, the image of the + ancient republic, as it had been preserved by the policy of Augustus, and + the virtues of Trajan and the Antonines. It may not be useless to + recapitulate some of the most important prerogatives which the senate + appeared to have regained by the election of Tacitus. 1. To invest one of + their body, under the title of emperor, with the general command of the + armies, and the government of the frontier provinces. 2. To determine the + list, or, as it was then styled, the College of Consuls. They were twelve + in number, who, in successive pairs, each, during the space of two months, + filled the year, and represented the dignity of that ancient office. The + authority of the senate, in the nomination of the consuls, was exercised + with such independent freedom, that no regard was paid to an irregular + request of the emperor in favor of his brother Florianus. “The senate,” + exclaimed Tacitus, with the honest transport of a patriot, “understand the + character of a prince whom they have chosen.” 3. To appoint the proconsuls + and presidents of the provinces, and to confer on all the magistrates + their civil jurisdiction. 4. To receive appeals through the intermediate + office of the præfect of the city from all the tribunals of the + empire. 5. To give force and validity, by their decrees, to such as they + should approve of the emperor’s edicts. 6. To these several branches of + authority we may add some inspection over the finances, since, even in the + stern reign of Aurelian, it was in their power to divert a part of the + revenue from the public service. + </p> + <p> + Circular epistles were sent, without delay, to all the principal cities of + the empire, Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Thessalonica, Corinth, Athens, + Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage, to claim their obedience, and to inform + them of the happy revolution, which had restored the Roman senate to its + ancient dignity. Two of these epistles are still extant. We likewise + possess two very singular fragments of the private correspondence of the + senators on this occasion. They discover the most excessive joy, and the + most unbounded hopes. “Cast away your indolence,” it is thus that one of + the senators addresses his friend, “emerge from your retirements of Baiæ + and Puteoli. Give yourself to the city, to the senate. Rome flourishes, + the whole republic flourishes. Thanks to the Roman army, to an army truly + Roman; at length we have recovered our just authority, the end of all our + desires. We hear appeals, we appoint proconsuls, we create emperors; + perhaps too we may restrain them—to the wise a word is sufficient.” + These lofty expectations were, however, soon disappointed; nor, indeed, + was it possible that the armies and the provinces should long obey the + luxurious and unwarlike nobles of Rome. On the slightest touch, the + unsupported fabric of their pride and power fell to the ground. The + expiring senate displayed a sudden lustre, blazed for a moment, and was + extinguished forever. + </p> + <p> + All that had yet passed at Rome was no more than a theatrical + representation, unless it was ratified by the more substantial power of + the legions. Leaving the senators to enjoy their dream of freedom and + ambition, Tacitus proceeded to the Thracian camp, and was there, by the Prætorian + præfect, presented to the assembled troops, as the prince whom they + themselves had demanded, and whom the senate had bestowed. As soon as the + præfect was silent, the emperor addressed himself to the soldiers + with eloquence and propriety. He gratified their avarice by a liberal + distribution of treasure, under the names of pay and donative. He engaged + their esteem by a spirited declaration, that although his age might + disable him from the performance of military exploits, his counsels should + never be unworthy of a Roman general, the successor of the brave Aurelian. + </p> + <p> + Whilst the deceased emperor was making preparations for a second + expedition into the East, he had negotiated with the Alani, * a Scythian + people, who pitched their tents in the neighborhood of the Lake Mæotis. + Those barbarians, allured by presents and subsidies, had promised to + invade Persia with a numerous body of light cavalry. They were faithful to + their engagements; but when they arrived on the Roman frontier, Aurelian + was already dead, the design of the Persian war was at least suspended, + and the generals, who, during the interregnum, exercised a doubtful + authority, were unprepared either to receive or to oppose them. Provoked + by such treatment, which they considered as trifling and perfidious, the + Alani had recourse to their own valor for their payment and revenge; and + as they moved with the usual swiftness of Tartars, they had soon spread + themselves over the provinces of Pontus, Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Galatia. + The legions, who from the opposite shores of the Bosphorus could almost + distinguish the flames of the cities and villages, impatiently urged their + general to lead them against the invaders. The conduct of Tacitus was + suitable to his age and station. He convinced the barbarians of the faith, + as well as the power, of the empire. Great numbers of the Alani, appeased + by the punctual discharge of the engagements which Aurelian had contracted + with them, relinquished their booty and captives, and quietly retreated to + their own deserts, beyond the Phasis. Against the remainder, who refused + peace, the Roman emperor waged, in person, a successful war. Seconded by + an army of brave and experienced veterans, in a few weeks he delivered the + provinces of Asia from the terror of the Scythian invasion. + </p> + <p> + But the glory and life of Tacitus were of short duration. Transported, in + the depth of winter, from the soft retirement of Campania to the foot of + Mount Caucasus, he sunk under the unaccustomed hardships of a military + life. The fatigues of the body were aggravated by the cares of the mind. + For a while, the angry and selfish passions of the soldiers had been + suspended by the enthusiasm of public virtue. They soon broke out with + redoubled violence, and raged in the camp, and even in the tent of the + aged emperor. His mild and amiable character served only to inspire + contempt, and he was incessantly tormented with factions which he could + not assuage, and by demands which it was impossible to satisfy. Whatever + flattering expectations he had conceived of reconciling the public + disorders, Tacitus soon was convinced that the licentiousness of the army + disdained the feeble restraint of laws, and his last hour was hastened by + anguish and disappointment. It may be doubtful whether the soldiers + imbrued their hands in the blood of this innocent prince. It is certain + that their insolence was the cause of his death. He expired at Tyana in + Cappadocia, after a reign of only six months and about twenty days. + </p> + <p> + The eyes of Tacitus were scarcely closed, before his brother Florianus + showed himself unworthy to reign, by the hasty usurpation of the purple, + without expecting the approbation of the senate. The reverence for the + Roman constitution, which yet influenced the camp and the provinces, was + sufficiently strong to dispose them to censure, but not to provoke them to + oppose, the precipitate ambition of Florianus. The discontent would have + evaporated in idle murmurs, had not the general of the East, the heroic + Probus, boldly declared himself the avenger of the senate. The contest, + however, was still unequal; nor could the most able leader, at the head of + the effeminate troops of Egypt and Syria, encounter, with any hopes of + victory, the legions of Europe, whose irresistible strength appeared to + support the brother of Tacitus. But the fortune and activity of Probus + triumphed over every obstacle. The hardy veterans of his rival, accustomed + to cold climates, sickened and consumed away in the sultry heats of + Cilicia, where the summer proved remarkably unwholesome. Their numbers + were diminished by frequent desertion; the passes of the mountains were + feebly defended; Tarsus opened its gates; and the soldiers of Florianus, + when they had permitted him to enjoy the Imperial title about three + months, delivered the empire from civil war by the easy sacrifice of a + prince whom they despised. + </p> + <p> + The perpetual revolutions of the throne had so perfectly erased every + notion of hereditary title, that the family of an unfortunate emperor was + incapable of exciting the jealousy of his successors. The children of + Tacitus and Florianus were permitted to descend into a private station, + and to mingle with the general mass of the people. Their poverty indeed + became an additional safeguard to their innocence. When Tacitus was + elected by the senate, he resigned his ample patrimony to the public + service; an act of generosity specious in appearance, but which evidently + disclosed his intention of transmitting the empire to his descendants. The + only consolation of their fallen state was the remembrance of transient + greatness, and a distant hope, the child of a flattering prophecy, that at + the end of a thousand years, a monarch of the race of Tacitus should + arise, the protector of the senate, the restorer of Rome, and the + conqueror of the whole earth. + </p> + <p> + The peasants of Illyricum, who had already given Claudius and Aurelian to + the sinking empire, had an equal right to glory in the elevation of + Probus. Above twenty years before, the emperor Valerian, with his usual + penetration, had discovered the rising merit of the young soldier, on whom + he conferred the rank of tribune, long before the age prescribed by the + military regulations. The tribune soon justified his choice, by a victory + over a great body of Sarmatians, in which he saved the life of a near + relation of Valerian; and deserved to receive from the emperor’s hand the + collars, bracelets, spears, and banners, the mural and the civic crown, + and all the honorable rewards reserved by ancient Rome for successful + valor. The third, and afterwards the tenth, legion were intrusted to the + command of Probus, who, in every step of his promotion, showed himself + superior to the station which he filled. Africa and Pontus, the Rhine, the + Danube, the Euphrates, and the Nile, by turns afforded him the most + splendid occasions of displaying his personal prowess and his conduct in + war. Aurelian was indebted for the honest courage with which he often + checked the cruelty of his master. Tacitus, who desired by the abilities + of his generals to supply his own deficiency of military talents, named + him commander-in-chief of all the eastern provinces, with five times the + usual salary, the promise of the consulship, and the hope of a triumph. + When Probus ascended the Imperial throne, he was about forty-four years of + age; in the full possession of his fame, of the love of the army, and of a + mature vigor of mind and body. + </p> + <p> + His acknowledged merit, and the success of his arms against Florianus, left + him without an enemy or a competitor. Yet, if we may credit his own + professions, very far from being desirous of the empire, he had accepted + it with the most sincere reluctance. “But it is no longer in my power,” + says Probus, in a private letter, “to lay down a title so full of envy and + of danger. I must continue to personate the character which the soldiers + have imposed upon me.” His dutiful address to the senate displayed the + sentiments, or at least the language, of a Roman patriot: “When you + elected one of your order, conscript fathers! to succeed the emperor + Aurelian, you acted in a manner suitable to your justice and wisdom. For + you are the legal sovereigns of the world, and the power which you derive + from your ancestors will descend to your posterity. Happy would it have + been, if Florianus, instead of usurping the purple of his brother, like a + private inheritance, had expected what your majesty might determine, + either in his favor, or in that of any other person. The prudent soldiers have + punished his rashness. To me they have offered the title of Augustus. But + I submit to your clemency my pretensions and my merits.” When this + respectful epistle was read by the consul, the senators were unable to + disguise their satisfaction, that Probus should condescend thus humbly to + solicit a sceptre which he already possessed. They celebrated with the + warmest gratitude his virtues, his exploits, and above all his moderation. + A decree immediately passed, without a dissenting voice, to ratify the + election of the eastern armies, and to confer on their chief all the + several branches of the Imperial dignity: the names of Cæsar and + Augustus, the title of Father of his country, the right of making in the + same day three motions in the senate, the office of Pontifex Maximus, the + tribunitian power, and the proconsular command; a mode of investiture, + which, though it seemed to multiply the authority of the emperor, + expressed the constitution of the ancient republic. The reign of Probus + corresponded with this fair beginning. The senate was permitted to direct + the civil administration of the empire. Their faithful general asserted + the honor of the Roman arms, and often laid at their feet crowns of gold + and barbaric trophies, the fruits of his numerous victories. Yet, whilst + he gratified their vanity, he must secretly have despised their indolence + and weakness. Though it was every moment in their power to repeal the + disgraceful edict of Gallienus, the proud successors of the Scipios + patiently acquiesced in their exclusion from all military employments. + They soon experienced, that those who refuse the sword must renounce the + sceptre. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch12-p2" id="linkch12-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The strength of Aurelian had crushed on every side the enemies of Rome. + After his death they seemed to revive with an increase of fury and of + numbers. They were again vanquished by the active vigor of Probus, who, in + a short reign of about six years, equalled the fame of ancient heroes, and + restored peace and order to every province of the Roman world. The + dangerous frontier of Rhætia he so firmly secured, that he left it + without the suspicion of an enemy. He broke the wandering power of the + Sarmatian tribes, and by the terror of his arms compelled those barbarians + to relinquish their spoil. The Gothic nation courted the alliance of so + warlike an emperor. He attacked the Isaurians in their mountains, besieged + and took several of their strongest castles, and flattered himself that he + had forever suppressed a domestic foe, whose independence so deeply + wounded the majesty of the empire. The troubles excited by the usurper + Firmus in the Upper Egypt had never been perfectly appeased, and the + cities of Ptolemais and Coptos, fortified by the alliance of the Blemmyes, + still maintained an obscure rebellion. The chastisement of those cities, + and of their auxiliaries the savages of the South, is said to have alarmed + the court of Persia, and the Great King sued in vain for the friendship of + Probus. Most of the exploits which distinguished his reign were achieved + by the personal valor and conduct of the emperor, insomuch that the writer + of his life expresses some amazement how, in so short a time, a single man + could be present in so many distant wars. The remaining actions he + intrusted to the care of his lieutenants, the judicious choice of whom + forms no inconsiderable part of his glory. Carus, Diocletian, Maximian, + Constantius, Galerius, Asclepiodatus, Annibalianus, and a crowd of other + chiefs, who afterwards ascended or supported the throne, were trained to + arms in the severe school of Aurelian and Probus. + </p> + <p> + But the most important service which Probus rendered to the republic was + the deliverance of Gaul, and the recovery of seventy flourishing cities + oppressed by the barbarians of Germany, who, since the death of Aurelian, + had ravaged that great province with impunity. Among the various multitude + of those fierce invaders we may distinguish, with some degree of + clearness, three great armies, or rather nations, successively vanquished + by the valor of Probus. He drove back the Franks into their morasses; a + descriptive circumstance from whence we may infer, that the confederacy + known by the manly appellation of <i>Free</i>, already occupied the flat + maritime country, intersected and almost overflown by the stagnating + waters of the Rhine, and that several tribes of the Frisians and Batavians + had acceded to their alliance. He vanquished the Burgundians, a + considerable people of the Vandalic race. * They had wandered in quest of + booty from the banks of the Oder to those of the Seine. They esteemed + themselves sufficiently fortunate to purchase, by the restitution of all + their booty, the permission of an undisturbed retreat. They attempted to + elude that article of the treaty. Their punishment was immediate and + terrible. But of all the invaders of Gaul, the most formidable were the + Lygians, a distant people, who reigned over a wide domain on the frontiers + of Poland and Silesia. In the Lygian nation, the Arii held the first rank + by their numbers and fierceness. “The Arii” (it is thus that they are + described by the energy of Tacitus) “study to improve by art and + circumstances the innate terrors of their barbarism. Their shields are + black, their bodies are painted black. They choose for the combat the + darkest hour of the night. Their host advances, covered as it were with a + funeral shade; nor do they often find an enemy capable of sustaining so + strange and infernal an aspect. Of all our senses, the eyes are the first + vanquished in battle.” Yet the arms and discipline of the Romans easily + discomfited these horrid phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general + engagement, and Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, fell alive into + the hands of Probus. That prudent emperor, unwilling to reduce a brave + people to despair, granted them an honorable capitulation, and permitted + them to return in safety to their native country. But the losses which + they suffered in the march, the battle, and the retreat, broke the power + of the nation: nor is the Lygian name ever repeated in the history either + of Germany or of the empire. The deliverance of Gaul is reported to have + cost the lives of four hundred thousand of the invaders; a work of labor + to the Romans, and of expense to the emperor, who gave a piece of gold for + the head of every barbarian. But as the fame of warriors is built on the + destruction of human kind, we may naturally suspect that the sanguinary + account was multiplied by the avarice of the soldiers, and accepted + without any very severe examination by the liberal vanity of Probus. + </p> + <p> + Since the expedition of Maximin, the Roman generals had confined their + ambition to a defensive war against the nations of Germany, who + perpetually pressed on the frontiers of the empire. The more daring Probus + pursued his Gallic victories, passed the Rhine, and displayed his + invincible eagles on the banks of the Elbe and the Neckar. He was fully + convinced that nothing could reconcile the minds of the barbarians to + peace, unless they experienced, in their own country, the calamities of + war. Germany, exhausted by the ill success of the last emigration, was + astonished by his presence. Nine of the most considerable princes repaired + to his camp, and fell prostrate at his feet. Such a treaty was humbly + received by the Germans, as it pleased the conqueror to dictate. He + exacted a strict restitution of the effects and captives which they had + carried away from the provinces; and obliged their own magistrates to + punish the more obstinate robbers who presumed to detain any part of the + spoil. A considerable tribute of corn, cattle, and horses, the only wealth + of barbarians, was reserved for the use of the garrisons which Probus + established on the limits of their territory. He even entertained some + thoughts of compelling the Germans to relinquish the exercise of arms, and + to trust their differences to the justice, their safety to the power, of + Rome. To accomplish these salutary ends, the constant residence of an + Imperial governor, supported by a numerous army, was indispensably + requisite. Probus therefore judged it more expedient to defer the + execution of so great a design; which was indeed rather of specious than + solid utility. Had Germany been reduced into the state of a province, the + Romans, with immense labor and expense, would have acquired only a more + extensive boundary to defend against the fiercer and more active + barbarians of Scythia. + </p> + <p> + Instead of reducing the warlike natives of Germany to the condition of + subjects, Probus contented himself with the humble expedient of raising a + bulwark against their inroads. The country which now forms the circle of + Swabia had been left desert in the age of Augustus by the emigration of + its ancient inhabitants. The fertility of the soil soon attracted a new + colony from the adjacent provinces of Gaul. Crowds of adventurers, of a + roving temper and of desperate fortunes, occupied the doubtful possession, + and acknowledged, by the payment of tithes, the majesty of the empire. To + protect these new subjects, a line of frontier garrisons was gradually + extended from the Rhine to the Danube. About the reign of Hadrian, when + that mode of defence began to be practised, these garrisons were connected + and covered by a strong intrenchment of trees and palisades. In the place + of so rude a bulwark, the emperor Probus constructed a stone wall of a + considerable height, and strengthened it by towers at convenient + distances. From the neighborhood of Neustadt and Ratisbon on the Danube, + it stretched across hills, valleys, rivers, and morasses, as far as + Wimpfen on the Neckar, and at length terminated on the banks of the Rhine, + after a winding course of near two hundred miles. This important barrier, + uniting the two mighty streams that protected the provinces of Europe, + seemed to fill up the vacant space through which the barbarians, and + particularly the Alemanni, could penetrate with the greatest facility into + the heart of the empire. But the experience of the world, from China to + Britain, has exposed the vain attempt of fortifying any extensive tract of + country. An active enemy, who can select and vary his points of attack, + must, in the end, discover some feeble spot, or some unguarded moment. The + strength, as well as the attention, of the defenders is divided; and such + are the blind effects of terror on the firmest troops, that a line broken + in a single place is almost instantly deserted. The fate of the wall which + Probus erected may confirm the general observation. Within a few years + after his death, it was overthrown by the Alemanni. Its scattered ruins, + universally ascribed to the power of the Dæmon, now serve only to + excite the wonder of the Swabian peasant. + </p> + <p> + Among the useful conditions of peace imposed by Probus on the vanquished + nations of Germany, was the obligation of supplying the Roman army with + sixteen thousand recruits, the bravest and most robust of their youth. The + emperor dispersed them through all the provinces, and distributed this + dangerous reënforcement, in small bands of fifty or sixty each, among the + national troops; judiciously observing, that the aid which the republic + derived from the barbarians should be felt but not seen. Their aid was now + become necessary. The feeble elegance of Italy and the internal provinces + could no longer support the weight of arms. The hardy frontiers of the + Rhine and Danube still produced minds and bodies equal to the labors of + the camp; but a perpetual series of wars had gradually diminished their + numbers. The infrequency of marriage, and the ruin of agriculture, + affected the principles of population, and not only destroyed the strength + of the present, but intercepted the hope of future, generations. The + wisdom of Probus embraced a great and beneficial plan of replenishing the + exhausted frontiers, by new colonies of captive or fugitive barbarians, on + whom he bestowed lands, cattle, instruments of husbandry, and every + encouragement that might engage them to educate a race of soldiers for the + service of the republic. Into Britain, and most probably into + Cambridgeshire, he transported a considerable body of Vandals. The + impossibility of an escape reconciled them to their situation, and in the + subsequent troubles of that island, they approved themselves the most + faithful servants of the state. Great numbers of Franks and Gepidæ + were settled on the banks of the Danube and the Rhine. A hundred thousand + Bastarnæ, expelled from their own country, cheerfully accepted an + establishment in Thrace, and soon imbibed the manners and sentiments of + Roman subjects. But the expectations of Probus were too often + disappointed. The impatience and idleness of the barbarians could ill + brook the slow labors of agriculture. Their unconquerable love of freedom, + rising against despotism, provoked them into hasty rebellions, alike fatal + to themselves and to the provinces; nor could these artificial supplies, + however repeated by succeeding emperors, restore the important limit of + Gaul and Illyricum to its ancient and native vigor. + </p> + <p> + Of all the barbarians who abandoned their new settlements, and disturbed + the public tranquillity, a very small number returned to their own + country. For a short season they might wander in arms through the empire; + but in the end they were surely destroyed by the power of a warlike + emperor. The successful rashness of a party of Franks was attended, + however, with such memorable consequences, that it ought not to be passed + unnoticed. They had been established by Probus, on the sea-coast of + Pontus, with a view of strengthening the frontier against the inroads of + the Alani. A fleet stationed in one of the harbors of the Euxine fell into + the hands of the Franks; and they resolved, through unknown seas, to + explore their way from the mouth of the Phasis to that of the Rhine. They + easily escaped through the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, and cruising + along the Mediterranean, indulged their appetite for revenge and plunder + by frequent descents on the unsuspecting shores of Asia, Greece, and + Africa. The opulent city of Syracuse, in whose port the natives of Athens + and Carthage had formerly been sunk, was sacked by a handful of + barbarians, who massacred the greatest part of the trembling inhabitants. + From the island of Sicily the Franks proceeded to the columns of + Hercules, trusted themselves to the ocean, coasted round Spain and Gaul, + and steering their triumphant course through the British Channel, at + length finished their surprising voyage, by landing in safety on the + Batavian or Frisian shores. The example of their success, instructing + their countrymen to conceive the advantages and to despise the dangers of + the sea, pointed out to their enterprising spirit a new road to wealth and + glory. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the vigilance and activity of Probus, it was almost + impossible that he could at once contain in obedience every part of his + wide-extended dominions. The barbarians, who broke their chains, had + seized the favorable opportunity of a domestic war. When the emperor + marched to the relief of Gaul, he devolved the command of the East on + Saturninus. That general, a man of merit and experience, was driven into + rebellion by the absence of his sovereign, the levity of the Alexandrian + people, the pressing instances of his friends, and his own fears; but from + the moment of his elevation, he never entertained a hope of empire, or + even of life. “Alas!” he said, “the republic has lost a useful servant, + and the rashness of an hour has destroyed the services of many years. You + know not,” continued he, “the misery of sovereign power; a sword is + perpetually suspended over our head. We dread our very guards, we distrust + our companions. The choice of action or of repose is no longer in our + disposition, nor is there any age, or character, or conduct, that can + protect us from the censure of envy. In thus exalting me to the throne, + you have doomed me to a life of cares, and to an untimely fate. The only + consolation which remains is the assurance that I shall not fall alone.” + But as the former part of his prediction was verified by the victory, so + the latter was disappointed by the clemency, of Probus. That amiable prince + attempted even to save the unhappy Saturninus from the fury of the + soldiers. He had more than once solicited the usurper himself to place + some confidence in the mercy of a sovereign who so highly esteemed his + character, that he had punished, as a malicious informer, the first who + related the improbable news of his disaffection. Saturninus might, + perhaps, have embraced the generous offer, had he not been restrained by + the obstinate distrust of his adherents. Their guilt was deeper, and their + hopes more sanguine, than those of their experienced leader. + </p> + <p> + The revolt of Saturninus was scarcely extinguished in the East, before new + troubles were excited in the West, by the rebellion of Bonosus and + Proculus, in Gaul. The most distinguished merit of those two officers was + their respective prowess, of the one in the combats of Bacchus, of the + other in those of Venus, yet neither of them was destitute of courage and + capacity, and both sustained, with honor, the august character which the + fear of punishment had engaged them to assume, till they sunk at length + beneath the superior genius of Probus. He used the victory with his + accustomed moderation, and spared the fortune, as well as the lives of + their innocent families. + </p> + <p> + The arms of Probus had now suppressed all the foreign and domestic enemies + of the state. His mild but steady administration confirmed the + re-ëstablishment of the public tranquillity; nor was there left in the + provinces a hostile barbarian, a tyrant, or even a robber, to revive the + memory of past disorders. It was time that the emperor should revisit + Rome, and celebrate his own glory and the general happiness. The triumph + due to the valor of Probus was conducted with a magnificence suitable to + his fortune, and the people, who had so lately admired the trophies of + Aurelian, gazed with equal pleasure on those of his heroic successor. We + cannot, on this occasion, forget the desperate courage of about fourscore + gladiators, reserved, with near six hundred others, for the inhuman sports + of the amphitheatre. Disdaining to shed their blood for the amusement of + the populace, they killed their keepers, broke from the place of their + confinement, and filled the streets of Rome with blood and confusion. + After an obstinate resistance, they were overpowered and cut in pieces by + the regular forces; but they obtained at least an honorable death, and the + satisfaction of a just revenge. + </p> + <p> + The military discipline which reigned in the camps of Probus was less + cruel than that of Aurelian, but it was equally rigid and exact. The + latter had punished the irregularities of the soldiers with unrelenting + severity, the former prevented them by employing the legions in constant + and useful labors. When Probus commanded in Egypt, he executed many + considerable works for the splendor and benefit of that rich country. The + navigation of the Nile, so important to Rome itself, was improved; and + temples, buildings, porticos, and palaces, were constructed by the hands of + the soldiers, who acted by turns as architects, as engineers, and as + husbandmen. It was reported of Hannibal, that, in order to preserve his + troops from the dangerous temptations of idleness, he had obliged them to + form large plantations of olive-trees along the coast of Africa. From a + similar principle, Probus exercised his legions in covering with rich + vineyards the hills of Gaul and Pannonia, and two considerable spots are + described, which were entirely dug and planted by military labor. One of + these, known under the name of Mount Almo, was situated near Sirmium, the + country where Probus was born, for which he ever retained a partial + affection, and whose gratitude he endeavored to secure, by converting into + tillage a large and unhealthy tract of marshy ground. An army thus + employed constituted perhaps the most useful, as well as the bravest, + portion of Roman subjects. + </p> + <p> + But in the prosecution of a favorite scheme, the best of men, satisfied + with the rectitude of their intentions, are subject to forget the bounds + of moderation; nor did Probus himself sufficiently consult the patience + and disposition of his fierce legionaries. The dangers of the military + profession seem only to be compensated by a life of pleasure and idleness; + but if the duties of the soldier are incessantly aggravated by the labors + of the peasant, he will at last sink under the intolerable burden, or + shake it off with indignation. The imprudence of Probus is said to have + inflamed the discontent of his troops. More attentive to the interests of + mankind than to those of the army, he expressed the vain hope, that, by + the establishment of universal peace, he should soon abolish the necessity + of a standing and mercenary force. The unguarded expression proved fatal + to him. In one of the hottest days of summer, as he severely urged the + unwholesome labor of draining the marshes of Sirmium, the soldiers, + impatient of fatigue, on a sudden threw down their tools, grasped their + arms, and broke out into a furious mutiny. The emperor, conscious of his + danger, took refuge in a lofty tower, constructed for the purpose of + surveying the progress of the work. The tower was instantly forced, and a + thousand swords were plunged at once into the bosom of the unfortunate + Probus. The rage of the troops subsided as soon as it had been gratified. + They then lamented their fatal rashness, forgot the severity of the + emperor whom they had massacred, and hastened to perpetuate, by an + honorable monument, the memory of his virtues and victories. + </p> + <p> + When the legions had indulged their grief and repentance for the death of + Probus, their unanimous consent declared Carus, his Prætorian præfect, + the most deserving of the Imperial throne. Every circumstance that relates + to this prince appears of a mixed and doubtful nature. He gloried in the + title of Roman Citizen; and affected to compare the purity of his blood + with the foreign and even barbarous origin of the preceding emperors; yet + the most inquisitive of his contemporaries, very far from admitting his + claim, have variously deduced his own birth, or that of his parents, from + Illyricum, from Gaul, or from Africa. Though a soldier, he had received a + learned education; though a senator, he was invested with the first + dignity of the army; and in an age when the civil and military professions + began to be irrecoverably separated from each other, they were united in + the person of Carus. Notwithstanding the severe justice which he exercised + against the assassins of Probus, to whose favor and esteem he was highly + indebted, he could not escape the suspicion of being accessory to a deed + from whence he derived the principal advantage. He enjoyed, at least + before his elevation, an acknowledged character of virtue and abilities; + but his austere temper insensibly degenerated into moroseness and cruelty; + and the imperfect writers of his life almost hesitate whether they shall + not rank him in the number of Roman tyrants. When Carus assumed the + purple, he was about sixty years of age, and his two sons, Carinus and + Numerian had already attained the season of manhood. + </p> + <p> + The authority of the senate expired with Probus; nor was the repentance of + the soldiers displayed by the same dutiful regard for the civil power, + which they had testified after the unfortunate death of Aurelian. The + election of Carus was decided without expecting the approbation of the + senate, and the new emperor contented himself with announcing, in a cold + and stately epistle, that he had ascended the vacant throne. A behavior so + very opposite to that of his amiable predecessor afforded no favorable + presage of the new reign: and the Romans, deprived of power and freedom, + asserted their privilege of licentious murmurs. The voice of + congratulation and flattery was not, however, silent; and we may still + peruse, with pleasure and contempt, an eclogue, which was composed on the + accession of the emperor Carus. Two shepherds, avoiding the noontide heat, + retire into the cave of Faunus. On a spreading beech they discover some + recent characters. The rural deity had described, in prophetic verses, the + felicity promised to the empire under the reign of so great a prince. + Faunus hails the approach of that hero, who, receiving on his shoulders + the sinking weight of the Roman world, shall extinguish war and faction, + and once again restore the innocence and security of the golden age. + </p> + <p> + It is more than probable, that these elegant trifles never reached the + ears of a veteran general, who, with the consent of the legions, was + preparing to execute the long-suspended design of the Persian war. Before + his departure for this distant expedition, Carus conferred on his two + sons, Carinus and Numerian, the title of Cæsar, and investing the + former with almost an equal share of the Imperial power, directed the + young prince first to suppress some troubles which had arisen in Gaul, + and afterwards to fix the seat of his residence at Rome, and to assume the + government of the Western provinces. The safety of Illyricum was confirmed + by a memorable defeat of the Sarmatians; sixteen thousand of those + barbarians remained on the field of battle, and the number of captives + amounted to twenty thousand. The old emperor, animated with the fame and + prospect of victory, pursued his march, in the midst of winter, through + the countries of Thrace and Asia Minor, and at length, with his younger + son, Numerian, arrived on the confines of the Persian monarchy. There, + encamping on the summit of a lofty mountain, he pointed out to his troops + the opulence and luxury of the enemy whom they were about to invade. + </p> + <p> + The successor of Artaxerxes, * Varanes, or Bahram, though he had subdued + the Segestans, one of the most warlike nations of Upper Asia, was alarmed + at the approach of the Romans, and endeavored to retard their progress by + a negotiation of peace. His ambassadors entered the camp about sunset, at + the time when the troops were satisfying their hunger with a frugal + repast. The Persians expressed their desire of being introduced to the + presence of the Roman emperor. They were at length conducted to a soldier, + who was seated on the grass. A piece of stale bacon and a few hard peas + composed his supper. A coarse woollen garment of purple was the only + circumstance that announced his dignity. The conference was conducted with + the same disregard of courtly elegance. Carus, taking off a cap which he + wore to conceal his baldness, assured the ambassadors, that, unless their + master acknowledged the superiority of Rome, he would speedily render + Persia as naked of trees as his own head was destitute of hair. + Notwithstanding some traces of art and preparation, we may discover in + this scene the manners of Carus, and the severe simplicity which the + martial princes, who succeeded Gallienus, had already restored in the + Roman camps. The ministers of the Great King trembled and retired. + </p> + <p> + The threats of Carus were not without effect. He ravaged Mesopotamia, cut + in pieces whatever opposed his passage, made himself master of the great + cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, (which seemed to have surrendered + without resistance,) and carried his victorious arms beyond the Tigris. He + had seized the favorable moment for an invasion. The Persian councils were + distracted by domestic factions, and the greater part of their forces were + detained on the frontiers of India. Rome and the East received with + transport the news of such important advantages. Flattery and hope + painted, in the most lively colors, the fall of Persia, the conquest of + Arabia, the submission of Egypt, and a lasting deliverance from the + inroads of the Scythian nations. But the reign of Carus was destined to + expose the vanity of predictions. They were scarcely uttered before they + were contradicted by his death; an event attended with such ambiguous + circumstances, that it may be related in a letter from his own secretary + to the præfect of the city. “Carus,” says he, “our dearest emperor, + was confined by sickness to his bed, when a furious tempest arose in the + camp. The darkness which overspread the sky was so thick, that we could no + longer distinguish each other; and the incessant flashes of lightning took + from us the knowledge of all that passed in the general confusion. + Immediately after the most violent clap of thunder, we heard a sudden cry + that the emperor was dead; and it soon appeared, that his chamberlains, in + a rage of grief, had set fire to the royal pavilion; a circumstance which + gave rise to the report that Carus was killed by lightning. But, as far as + we have been able to investigate the truth, his death was the natural + effect of his disorder.” + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch12-p3" id="linkch12-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + The vacancy of the throne was not productive of any disturbance. The + ambition of the aspiring generals was checked by their natural fears, and + young Numerian, with his absent brother Carinus, were unanimously + acknowledged as Roman emperors. The public expected that the successor of + Carus would pursue his father’s footsteps, and, without allowing the + Persians to recover from their consternation, would advance sword in hand + to the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana. But the legions, however strong in + numbers and discipline, were dismayed by the most abject superstition. + Notwithstanding all the arts that were practised to disguise the manner of + the late emperor’s death, it was found impossible to remove the opinion of + the multitude, and the power of opinion is irresistible. Places or persons + struck with lightning were considered by the ancients with pious horror, + as singularly devoted to the wrath of Heaven. An oracle was remembered, + which marked the River Tigris as the fatal boundary of the Roman arms. The + troops, terrified with the fate of Carus and with their own danger, called + aloud on young Numerian to obey the will of the gods, and to lead them + away from this inauspicious scene of war. The feeble emperor was unable to + subdue their obstinate prejudice, and the Persians wondered at the + unexpected retreat of a victorious enemy. + </p> + <p> + The intelligence of the mysterious fate of the late emperor was soon + carried from the frontiers of Persia to Rome; and the senate, as well as + the provinces, congratulated the accession of the sons of Carus. These + fortunate youths were strangers, however, to that conscious superiority, + either of birth or of merit, which can alone render the possession of a + throne easy, and, as it were, natural. Born and educated in a private + station, the election of their father raised them at once to the rank of + princes; and his death, which happened about sixteen months afterwards, + left them the unexpected legacy of a vast empire. To sustain with temper + this rapid elevation, an uncommon share of virtue and prudence was + requisite; and Carinus, the elder of the brothers, was more than commonly + deficient in those qualities. In the Gallic war he discovered some degree + of personal courage; but from the moment of his arrival at Rome, he + abandoned himself to the luxury of the capital, and to the abuse of his + fortune. He was soft, yet cruel; devoted to pleasure, but destitute of + taste; and though exquisitely susceptible of vanity, indifferent to the + public esteem. In the course of a few months, he successively married and + divorced nine wives, most of whom he left pregnant; and notwithstanding + this legal inconstancy, found time to indulge such a variety of irregular + appetites, as brought dishonor on himself and on the noblest houses of + Rome. He beheld with inveterate hatred all those who might remember his + former obscurity, or censure his present conduct. He banished, or put to + death, the friends and counsellors whom his father had placed about him, + to guide his inexperienced youth; and he persecuted with the meanest + revenge his school-fellows and companions who had not sufficiently + respected the latent majesty of the emperor. With the senators, Carinus + affected a lofty and regal demeanor, frequently declaring, that he + designed to distribute their estates among the populace of Rome. From the + dregs of that populace he selected his favorites, and even his ministers. + The palace, and even the Imperial table, were filled with singers, + dancers, prostitutes, and all the various retinue of vice and folly. One + of his doorkeepers he intrusted with the government of the city. In the + room of the Prætorian præfect, whom he put to death, Carinus + substituted one of the ministers of his looser pleasures. Another, who + possessed the same, or even a more infamous, title to favor, was invested + with the consulship. A confidential secretary, who had acquired uncommon + skill in the art of forgery, delivered the indolent emperor, with his own + consent from the irksome duty of signing his name. + </p> + <p> + When the emperor Carus undertook the Persian war, he was induced, by + motives of affection as well as policy, to secure the fortunes of his + family, by leaving in the hands of his eldest son the armies and provinces + of the West. The intelligence which he soon received of the conduct of + Carinus filled him with shame and regret; nor had he concealed his + resolution of satisfying the republic by a severe act of justice, and of + adopting, in the place of an unworthy son, the brave and virtuous + Constantius, who at that time was governor of Dalmatia. But the elevation + of Constantius was for a while deferred; and as soon as the father’s death + had released Carinus from the control of fear or decency, he displayed to + the Romans the extravagancies of Elagabalus, aggravated by the cruelty of + Domitian. + </p> + <p> + The only merit of the administration of Carinus that history could record, + or poetry celebrate, was the uncommon splendor with which, in his own and + his brother’s name, he exhibited the Roman games of the theatre, the + circus, and the amphitheatre. More than twenty years afterwards, when the + courtiers of Diocletian represented to their frugal sovereign the fame and + popularity of his munificent predecessor, he acknowledged that the reign + of Carinus had indeed been a reign of pleasure. But this vain prodigality, + which the prudence of Diocletian might justly despise, was enjoyed with + surprise and transport by the Roman people. The oldest of the citizens, + recollecting the spectacles of former days, the triumphal pomp of Probus + or Aurelian, and the secular games of the emperor Philip, acknowledged + that they were all surpassed by the superior magnificence of Carinus. + </p> + <p> + The spectacles of Carinus may therefore be best illustrated by the + observation of some particulars, which history has condescended to relate + concerning those of his predecessors. If we confine ourselves solely to + the hunting of wild beasts, however we may censure the vanity of the + design or the cruelty of the execution, we are obliged to confess that + neither before nor since the time of the Romans so much art and expense + have ever been lavished for the amusement of the people. By the order of + Probus, a great quantity of large trees, torn up by the roots, were + transplanted into the midst of the circus. The spacious and shady forest + was immediately filled with a thousand ostriches, a thousand stags, a + thousand fallow deer, and a thousand wild boars; and all this variety of + game was abandoned to the riotous impetuosity of the multitude. The + tragedy of the succeeding day consisted in the massacre of a hundred + lions, an equal number of lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three + hundred bears. The collection prepared by the younger Gordian for his + triumph, and which his successor exhibited in the secular games, was less + remarkable by the number than by the singularity of the animals. Twenty + zebras displayed their elegant forms and variegated beauty to the eyes of + the Roman people. Ten elks, and as many camelopards, the loftiest and most + harmless creatures that wander over the plains of Sarmatia and Æthiopia, + were contrasted with thirty African hyænas and ten Indian tigers, + the most implacable savages of the torrid zone. The unoffending strength + with which Nature has endowed the greater quadrupeds was admired in the + rhinoceros, the hippopotamus of the Nile, and a majestic troop of + thirty-two elephants. While the populace gazed with stupid wonder on the + splendid show, the naturalist might indeed observe the figure and + properties of so many different species, transported from every part of + the ancient world into the amphitheatre of Rome. But this accidental + benefit, which science might derive from folly, is surely insufficient to + justify such a wanton abuse of the public riches. There occurs, however, a + single instance in the first Punic war, in which the senate wisely + connected this amusement of the multitude with the interest of the state. + A considerable number of elephants, taken in the defeat of the + Carthaginian army, were driven through the circus by a few slaves, armed + only with blunt javelins. The useful spectacle served to impress the Roman + soldier with a just contempt for those unwieldy animals; and he no longer + dreaded to encounter them in the ranks of war. + </p> + <p> + The hunting or exhibition of wild beasts was conducted with a magnificence + suitable to a people who styled themselves the masters of the world; nor + was the edifice appropriated to that entertainment less expressive of + Roman greatness. Posterity admires, and will long admire, the awful + remains of the amphitheatre of Titus, which so well deserved the epithet + of Colossal. It was a building of an elliptic figure, five hundred and + sixty-four feet in length, and four hundred and sixty-seven in breadth, + founded on fourscore arches, and rising, with four successive orders of + architecture, to the height of one hundred and forty feet. The outside of + the edifice was encrusted with marble, and decorated with statues. The + slopes of the vast concave, which formed the inside, were filled and + surrounded with sixty or eighty rows of seats of marble likewise, covered + with cushions, and capable of receiving with ease about fourscore thousand + spectators. Sixty-four vomitories (for by that name the doors were very + aptly distinguished) poured forth the immense multitude; and the + entrances, passages, and staircases were contrived with such exquisite + skill, that each person, whether of the senatorial, the equestrian, or the + plebeian order, arrived at his destined place without trouble or + confusion. Nothing was omitted, which, in any respect, could be + subservient to the convenience and pleasure of the spectators. They were + protected from the sun and rain by an ample canopy, occasionally drawn + over their heads. The air was continally refreshed by the playing of + fountains, and profusely impregnated by the grateful scent of aromatics. + In the centre of the edifice, the arena, or stage, was strewed with the + finest sand, and successively assumed the most different forms. At one + moment it seemed to rise out of the earth, like the garden of the + Hesperides, and was afterwards broken into the rocks and caverns of + Thrace. The subterraneous pipes conveyed an inexhaustible supply of water; + and what had just before appeared a level plain, might be suddenly + converted into a wide lake, covered with armed vessels, and replenished + with the monsters of the deep. In the decoration of these scenes, the + Roman emperors displayed their wealth and liberality; and we read on + various occasions that the whole furniture of the amphitheatre consisted + either of silver, or of gold, or of amber. The poet who describes the + games of Carinus, in the character of a shepherd, attracted to the capital + by the fame of their magnificence, affirms that the nets designed as a + defence against the wild beasts were of gold wire; that the porticos were + gilded; and that the belt or circle which divided the several ranks of + spectators from each other was studded with a precious mosaic of beautiful + stones. + </p> + <p> + In the midst of this glittering pageantry, the emperor Carinus, secure of + his fortune, enjoyed the acclamations of the people, the flattery of his + courtiers, and the songs of the poets, who, for want of a more essential + merit, were reduced to celebrate the divine graces of his person. In the + same hour, but at the distance of nine hundred miles from Rome, his + brother expired; and a sudden revolution transferred into the hands of a + stranger the sceptre of the house of Carus. + </p> + <p> + The sons of Carus never saw each other after their father’s death. The + arrangements which their new situation required were probably deferred + till the return of the younger brother to Rome, where a triumph was + decreed to the young emperors for the glorious success of the Persian war. + It is uncertain whether they intended to divide between them the + administration, or the provinces, of the empire; but it is very unlikely + that their union would have proved of any long duration. The jealousy of + power must have been inflamed by the opposition of characters. In the most + corrupt of times, Carinus was unworthy to live: Numerian deserved to reign + in a happier period. His affable manners and gentle virtues secured him, + as soon as they became known, the regard and affections of the public. He + possessed the elegant accomplishments of a poet and orator, which dignify + as well as adorn the humblest and the most exalted station. His eloquence, + however it was applauded by the senate, was formed not so much on the + model of Cicero, as on that of the modern declaimers; but in an age very + far from being destitute of poetical merit, he contended for the prize + with the most celebrated of his contemporaries, and still remained the + friend of his rivals; a circumstance which evinces either the goodness of + his heart, or the superiority of his genius. But the talents of Numerian + were rather of the contemplative than of the active kind. When his + father’s elevation reluctantly forced him from the shade of retirement, + neither his temper nor his pursuits had qualified him for the command of + armies. His constitution was destroyed by the hardships of the Persian + war; and he had contracted, from the heat of the climate, such a weakness + in his eyes, as obliged him, in the course of a long retreat, to confine + himself to the solitude and darkness of a tent or litter. The + administration of all affairs, civil as well as military, was devolved on + Arrius Aper, the Prætorian præfect, who to the power of his + important office added the honor of being father-in-law to Numerian. The + Imperial pavilion was strictly guarded by his most trusty adherents; and + during many days, Aper delivered to the army the supposed mandates of + their invisible sovereign. + </p> + <p> + It was not till eight months after the death of Carus, that the Roman + army, returning by slow marches from the banks of the Tigris, arrived on + those of the Thracian Bosphorus. The legions halted at Chalcedon in Asia, + while the court passed over to Heraclea, on the European side of the + Propontis. But a report soon circulated through the camp, at first in + secret whispers, and at length in loud clamors, of the emperor’s death, + and of the presumption of his ambitious minister, who still exercised the + sovereign power in the name of a prince who was no more. The impatience of + the soldiers could not long support a state of suspense. With rude + curiosity they broke into the Imperial tent, and discovered only the + corpse of Numerian. The gradual decline of his health might have induced + them to believe that his death was natural; but the concealment was + interpreted as an evidence of guilt, and the measures which Aper had taken + to secure his election became the immediate occasion of his ruin. Yet, even + in the transport of their rage and grief, the troops observed a regular + proceeding, which proves how firmly discipline had been reëstablished by + the martial successors of Gallienus. A general assembly of the army was + appointed to be held at Chalcedon, whither Aper was transported in chains, + as a prisoner and a criminal. A vacant tribunal was erected in the midst + of the camp, and the generals and tribunes formed a great military + council. They soon announced to the multitude that their choice had fallen + on Diocletian, commander of the domestics or body-guards, as the person + the most capable of revenging and succeeding their beloved emperor. The + future fortunes of the candidate depended on the chance or conduct of the + present hour. Conscious that the station which he had filled exposed him + to some suspicions, Diocletian ascended the tribunal, and raising his eyes + towards the Sun, made a solemn profession of his own innocence, in the + presence of that all-seeing Deity. Then, assuming the tone of a sovereign + and a judge, he commanded that Aper should be brought in chains to the + foot of the tribunal. “This man,” said he, “is the murderer of Numerian;” + and without giving him time to enter on a dangerous justification, drew + his sword, and buried it in the breast of the unfortunate præfect. A + charge supported by such decisive proof was admitted without + contradiction, and the legions, with repeated acclamations, acknowledged + the justice and authority of the emperor Diocletian. + </p> + <p> + Before we enter upon the memorable reign of that prince, it will be proper + to punish and dismiss the unworthy brother of Numerian. Carinus possessed + arms and treasures sufficient to support his legal title to the empire. + But his personal vices overbalanced every advantage of birth and + situation. The most faithful servants of the father despised the + incapacity, and dreaded the cruel arrogance, of the son. The hearts of the + people were engaged in favor of his rival, and even the senate was + inclined to prefer a usurper to a tyrant. The arts of Diocletian inflamed + the general discontent; and the winter was employed in secret intrigues, + and open preparations for a civil war. In the spring, the forces of the + East and of the West encountered each other in the plains of Margus, a + small city of Mæsia, in the neighborhood of the Danube. The troops, + so lately returned from the Persian war, had acquired their glory at the + expense of health and numbers; nor were they in a condition to contend + with the unexhausted strength of the legions of Europe. Their ranks were + broken, and, for a moment, Diocletian despaired of the purple and of life. + But the advantage which Carinus had obtained by the valor of his soldiers, + he quickly lost by the infidelity of his officers. A tribune, whose wife + he had seduced, seized the opportunity of revenge, and, by a single blow, + extinguished civil discord in the blood of the adulterer. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch13-p1" id="linkch13-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, +Galerius, And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order +And Tranquillity.—The Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.—The New Form Of Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of +Diocletian And Maximian.<br/> +</pre> + <p> + As the reign of Diocletian was more illustrious than that of any of his + predecessors, so was his birth more abject and obscure. The strong claims + of merit and of violence had frequently superseded the ideal prerogatives + of nobility; but a distinct line of separation was hitherto preserved + between the free and the servile part of mankind. The parents of + Diocletian had been slaves in the house of Anulinus, a Roman senator; nor + was he himself distinguished by any other name than that which he derived + from a small town in Dalmatia, from whence his mother deduced her origin. + It is, however, probable that his father obtained the freedom of the + family, and that he soon acquired an office of scribe, which was commonly + exercised by persons of his condition. Favorable oracles, or rather the + consciousness of superior merit, prompted his aspiring son to pursue the + profession of arms and the hopes of fortune; and it would be extremely + curious to observe the gradation of arts and accidents which enabled him + in the end to fulfil those oracles, and to display that merit to the + world. Diocletian was successively promoted to the government of Mæsia, + the honors of the consulship, and the important command of the guards of + the palace. He distinguished his abilities in the Persian war; and after + the death of Numerian, the slave, by the confession and judgment of his + rivals, was declared the most worthy of the Imperial throne. The malice of + religious zeal, whilst it arraigns the savage fierceness of his colleague + Maximian, has affected to cast suspicions on the personal courage of the + emperor Diocletian. It would not be easy to persuade us of the cowardice + of a soldier of fortune, who acquired and preserved the esteem of the + legions as well as the favor of so many warlike princes. Yet even calumny + is sagacious enough to discover and to attack the most vulnerable part. + The valor of Diocletian was never found inadequate to his duty, or to the + occasion; but he appears not to have possessed the daring and generous + spirit of a hero, who courts danger and fame, disdains artifice, and + boldly challenges the allegiance of his equals. His abilities were useful + rather than splendid; a vigorous mind, improved by the experience and + study of mankind; dexterity and application in business; a judicious + mixture of liberality and economy, of mildness and rigor; profound + dissimulation, under the disguise of military frankness; steadiness to + pursue his ends; flexibility to vary his means; and, above all, the great + art of submitting his own passions, as well as those of others, to the + interest of his ambition, and of coloring his ambition with the most + specious pretences of justice and public utility. Like Augustus, + Diocletian may be considered as the founder of a new empire. Like the + adopted son of Cæsar, he was distinguished as a statesman rather + than as a warrior; nor did either of those princes employ force, whenever + their purpose could be effected by policy. + </p> + <p> + The victory of Diocletian was remarkable for its singular mildness. A + people accustomed to applaud the clemency of the conqueror, if the usual + punishments of death, exile, and confiscation, were inflicted with any + degree of temper and equity, beheld, with the most pleasing astonishment, + a civil war, the flames of which were extinguished in the field of battle. + Diocletian received into his confidence Aristobulus, the principal + minister of the house of Carus, respected the lives, the fortunes, and the + dignity, of his adversaries, and even continued in their respective + stations the greater number of the servants of Carinus. It is not + improbable that motives of prudence might assist the humanity of the + artful Dalmatian; of these servants, many had purchased his favor by + secret treachery; in others, he esteemed their grateful fidelity to an + unfortunate master. The discerning judgment of Aurelian, of Probus, and of + Carus, had filled the several departments of the state and army with + officers of approved merit, whose removal would have injured the public + service, without promoting the interest of his successor. Such a conduct, + however, displayed to the Roman world the fairest prospect of the new + reign, and the emperor affected to confirm this favorable prepossession, + by declaring, that, among all the virtues of his predecessors, he was the + most ambitious of imitating the humane philosophy of Marcus Antoninus. + </p> + <p> + The first considerable action of his reign seemed to evince his sincerity + as well as his moderation. After the example of Marcus, he gave himself a + colleague in the person of Maximian, on whom he bestowed at first the + title of Cæsar, and afterwards that of Augustus. But the motives of + his conduct, as well as the object of his choice, were of a very different + nature from those of his admired predecessor. By investing a luxurious + youth with the honors of the purple, Marcus had discharged a debt of + private gratitude, at the expense, indeed, of the happiness of the state. + By associating a friend and a fellow-soldier to the labors of government, + Diocletian, in a time of public danger, provided for the defence both of + the East and of the West. Maximian was born a peasant, and, like Aurelian, + in the territory of Sirmium. Ignorant of letters, careless of laws, the + rusticity of his appearance and manners still betrayed in the most + elevated fortune the meanness of his extraction. War was the only art + which he professed. In a long course of service he had distinguished + himself on every frontier of the empire; and though his military talents + were formed to obey rather than to command, though, perhaps, he never + attained the skill of a consummate general, he was capable, by his valor, + constancy, and experience, of executing the most arduous undertakings. Nor + were the vices of Maximian less useful to his benefactor. Insensible to + pity, and fearless of consequences, he was the ready instrument of every + act of cruelty which the policy of that artful prince might at once + suggest and disclaim. As soon as a bloody sacrifice had been offered to + prudence or to revenge, Diocletian, by his seasonable intercession, saved + the remaining few whom he had never designed to punish, gently censured + the severity of his stern colleague, and enjoyed the comparison of a + golden and an iron age, which was universally applied to their opposite + maxims of government. Notwithstanding the difference of their characters, + the two emperors maintained, on the throne, that friendship which they had + contracted in a private station. The haughty, turbulent spirit of + Maximian, so fatal, afterwards, to himself and to the public peace, was + accustomed to respect the genius of Diocletian, and confessed the + ascendant of reason over brutal violence. From a motive either of pride or + superstition, the two emperors assumed the titles, the one of Jovius, the + other of Herculius. Whilst the motion of the world (such was the language + of their venal orators) was maintained by the all-seeing wisdom of + Jupiter, the invincible arm of Hercules purged the earth from monsters and + tyrants. + </p> + <p> + But even the omnipotence of Jovius and Herculius was insufficient to + sustain the weight of the public administration. The prudence of + Diocletian discovered that the empire, assailed on every side by the + barbarians, required on every side the presence of a great army, and of an + emperor. With this view, he resolved once more to divide his unwieldy + power, and with the inferior title of Cæsars, * to confer on two + generals of approved merit an unequal share of the sovereign authority. + Galerius, surnamed Armentarius, from his original profession of a + herdsman, and Constantius, who from his pale complexion had acquired the + denomination of Chlorus, were the two persons invested with the second + honors of the Imperial purple. In describing the country, extraction, and + manners of Herculius, we have already delineated those of Galerius, who + was often, and not improperly, styled the younger Maximian, though, in + many instances both of virtue and ability, he appears to have possessed a + manifest superiority over the elder. The birth of Constantius was less + obscure than that of his colleagues. Eutropius, his father, was one of the + most considerable nobles of Dardania, and his mother was the niece of the + emperor Claudius. Although the youth of Constantius had been spent in + arms, he was endowed with a mild and amiable disposition, and the popular + voice had long since acknowledged him worthy of the rank which he at last + attained. To strengthen the bonds of political, by those of domestic, + union, each of the emperors assumed the character of a father to one of + the Cæsars, Diocletian to Galerius, and Maximian to Constantius; and + each, obliging them to repudiate their former wives, bestowed his daughter + in marriage or his adopted son. These four princes distributed among + themselves the wide extent of the Roman empire. The defence of Gaul, + Spain, and Britain, was intrusted to Constantius: Galerius was stationed + on the banks of the Danube, as the safeguard of the Illyrian provinces. + Italy and Africa were considered as the department of Maximian; and for + his peculiar portion, Diocletian reserved Thrace, Egypt, and the rich + countries of Asia. Every one was sovereign with his own jurisdiction; but + their united authority extended over the whole monarchy, and each of them + was prepared to assist his colleagues with his counsels or presence. The Cæsars, + in their exalted rank, revered the majesty of the emperors, and the three + younger princes invariably acknowledged, by their gratitude and obedience, + the common parent of their fortunes. The suspicious jealousy of power + found not any place among them; and the singular happiness of their union + has been compared to a chorus of music, whose harmony was regulated and + maintained by the skilful hand of the first artist. + </p> + <p> + This important measure was not carried into execution till about six years + after the association of Maximian, and that interval of time had not been + destitute of memorable incidents. But we have preferred, for the sake of + perspicuity, first to describe the more perfect form of Diocletian’s + government, and afterwards to relate the actions of his reign, following + rather the natural order of the events, than the dates of a very doubtful + chronology. + </p> + <p> + The first exploit of Maximian, though it is mentioned in a few words by + our imperfect writers, deserves, from its singularity, to be recorded in a + history of human manners. He suppressed the peasants of Gaul, who, under + the appellation of Bagaudæ, had risen in a general insurrection; + very similar to those which in the fourteenth century successively + afflicted both France and England. It should seem that very many of those + institutions, referred by an easy solution to the feudal system, are + derived from the Celtic barbarians. When Cæsar subdued the Gauls, + that great nation was already divided into three orders of men; the + clergy, the nobility, and the common people. The first governed by + superstition, the second by arms, but the third and last was not of any + weight or account in their public councils. It was very natural for the + plebeians, oppressed by debt, or apprehensive of injuries, to implore the + protection of some powerful chief, who acquired over their persons and + property the same absolute right as, among the Greeks and Romans, a master + exercised over his slaves. The greatest part of the nation was gradually + reduced into a state of servitude; compelled to perpetual labor on the + estates of the Gallic nobles, and confined to the soil, either by the real + weight of fetters, or by the no less cruel and forcible restraints of the + laws. During the long series of troubles which agitated Gaul, from the + reign of Gallienus to that of Diocletian, the condition of these servile + peasants was peculiarly miserable; and they experienced at once the + complicated tyranny of their masters, of the barbarians, of the soldiers, + and of the officers of the revenue. + </p> + <p> + Their patience was at last provoked into despair. On every side they rose + in multitudes, armed with rustic weapons, and with irresistible fury. The + ploughman became a foot soldier, the shepherd mounted on horseback, the + deserted villages and open towns were abandoned to the flames, and the + ravages of the peasants equalled those of the fiercest barbarians. They + asserted the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with + the most savage cruelty. The Gallic nobles, justly dreading their revenge, + either took refuge in the fortified cities, or fled from the wild scene of + anarchy. The peasants reigned without control; and two of their most + daring leaders had the folly and rashness to assume the Imperial + ornaments. Their power soon expired at the approach of the legions. The + strength of union and discipline obtained an easy victory over a + licentious and divided multitude. A severe retaliation was inflicted on + the peasants who were found in arms; the affrighted remnant returned to + their respective habitations, and their unsuccessful effort for freedom + served only to confirm their slavery. So strong and uniform is the current + of popular passions, that we might almost venture, from very scanty + materials, to relate the particulars of this war; but we are not disposed + to believe that the principal leaders, Ælianus and Amandus, were + Christians, or to insinuate, that the rebellion, as it happened in the + time of Luther, was occasioned by the abuse of those benevolent principles + of Christianity, which inculcate the natural freedom of mankind. + </p> + <p> + Maximian had no sooner recovered Gaul from the hands of the peasants, than + he lost Britain by the usurpation of Carausius. Ever since the rash but + successful enterprise of the Franks under the reign of Probus, their + daring countrymen had constructed squadrons of light brigantines, in which + they incessantly ravaged the provinces adjacent to the ocean. To repel + their desultory incursions, it was found necessary to create a naval + power; and the judicious measure was prosecuted with prudence and vigor. + Gessoriacum, or Boulogne, in the straits of the British Channel, was + chosen by the emperor for the station of the Roman fleet; and the command + of it was intrusted to Carausius, a Menapian of the meanest origin, but + who had long signalized his skill as a pilot, and his valor as a soldier. + The integrity of the new admiral corresponded not with his abilities. When + the German pirates sailed from their own harbors, he connived at their + passage, but he diligently intercepted their return, and appropriated to + his own use an ample share of the spoil which they had acquired. The + wealth of Carausius was, on this occasion, very justly considered as an + evidence of his guilt; and Maximian had already given orders for his + death. But the crafty Menapian foresaw and prevented the severity of the + emperor. By his liberality he had attached to his fortunes the fleet which + he commanded, and secured the barbarians in his interest. From the port of + Boulogne he sailed over to Britain, persuaded the legion, and the + auxiliaries which guarded that island, to embrace his party, and boldly + assuming, with the Imperial purple, the title of Augustus, defied the + justice and the arms of his injured sovereign. + </p> + <p> + When Britain was thus dismembered from the empire, its importance was + sensibly felt, and its loss sincerely lamented. The Romans celebrated, and + perhaps magnified, the extent of that noble island, provided on every side + with convenient harbors; the temperature of the climate, and the fertility + of the soil, alike adapted for the production of corn or of vines; the + valuable minerals with which it abounded; its rich pastures covered with + innumerable flocks, and its woods free from wild beasts or venomous + serpents. Above all, they regretted the large amount of the revenue of + Britain, whilst they confessed, that such a province well deserved to + become the seat of an independent monarchy. During the space of seven + years it was possessed by Carausius; and fortune continued propitious to a + rebellion supported with courage and ability. The British emperor defended + the frontiers of his dominions against the Caledonians of the North, + invited, from the continent, a great number of skilful artists, and + displayed, on a variety of coins that are still extant, his taste and + opulence. Born on the confines of the Franks, he courted the friendship of + that formidable people, by the flattering imitation of their dress and + manners. The bravest of their youth he enlisted among his land or sea + forces; and, in return for their useful alliance, he communicated to the + barbarians the dangerous knowledge of military and naval arts. Carausius + still preserved the possession of Boulogne and the adjacent country. His + fleets rode triumphant in the channel, commanded the mouths of the Seine + and of the Rhine, ravaged the coasts of the ocean, and diffused beyond the + columns of Hercules the terror of his name. Under his command, Britain, + destined in a future age to obtain the empire of the sea, already assumed + its natural and respectable station of a maritime power. + </p> + <p> + By seizing the fleet of Boulogne, Carausius had deprived his master of the + means of pursuit and revenge. And when, after a vast expense of time and + labor, a new armament was launched into the water, the Imperial troops, + unaccustomed to that element, were easily baffled and defeated by the + veteran sailors of the usurper. This disappointed effort was soon + productive of a treaty of peace. Diocletian and his colleague, who justly + dreaded the enterprising spirit of Carausius, resigned to him the + sovereignty of Britain, and reluctantly admitted their perfidious servant + to a participation of the Imperial honors. But the adoption of the two Cæsars + restored new vigor to the Romans arms; and while the Rhine was guarded by + the presence of Maximian, his brave associate Constantius assumed the + conduct of the British war. His first enterprise was against the important + place of Boulogne. A stupendous mole, raised across the entrance of the + harbor, intercepted all hopes of relief. The town surrendered after an + obstinate defence; and a considerable part of the naval strength of + Carausius fell into the hands of the besiegers. During the three years + which Constantius employed in preparing a fleet adequate to the conquest + of Britain, he secured the coast of Gaul, invaded the country of the + Franks, and deprived the usurper of the assistance of those powerful + allies. + </p> + <p> + Before the preparations were finished, Constantius received the + intelligence of the tyrant’s death, and it was considered as a sure + presage of the approaching victory. The servants of Carausius imitated the + example of treason which he had given. He was murdered by his first + minister, Allectus, and the assassin succeeded to his power and to his + danger. But he possessed not equal abilities either to exercise the one or + to repel the other. He beheld, with anxious terror, the opposite shores of + the continent already filled with arms, with troops, and with vessels; for + Constantius had very prudently divided his forces, that he might likewise + divide the attention and resistance of the enemy. The attack was at length + made by the principal squadron, which, under the command of the præfect + Asclepiodatus, an officer of distinguished merit, had been assembled in + the north of the Seine. So imperfect in those times was the art of + navigation, that orators have celebrated the daring courage of the Romans, + who ventured to set sail with a side-wind, and on a stormy day. The + weather proved favorable to their enterprise. Under the cover of a thick + fog, they escaped the fleet of Allectus, which had been stationed off the + Isle of Wight to receive them, landed in safety on some part of the + western coast, and convinced the Britons, that a superiority of naval + strength will not always protect their country from a foreign invasion. + Asclepiodatus had no sooner disembarked the imperial troops, then he set + fire to his ships; and, as the expedition proved fortunate, his heroic + conduct was universally admired. The usurper had posted himself near + London, to expect the formidable attack of Constantius, who commanded in + person the fleet of Boulogne; but the descent of a new enemy required his + immediate presence in the West. He performed this long march in so + precipitate a manner, that he encountered the whole force of the præfect + with a small body of harassed and disheartened troops. The engagement was + soon terminated by the total defeat and death of Allectus; a single + battle, as it has often happened, decided the fate of this great island; + and when Constantius landed on the shores of Kent, he found them covered + with obedient subjects. Their acclamations were loud and unanimous; and + the virtues of the conqueror may induce us to believe, that they sincerely + rejoiced in a revolution, which, after a separation of ten years, restored + Britain to the body of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch13-p2" id="linkch13-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Britain had none but domestic enemies to dread; and as long as the + governors preserved their fidelity, and the troops their discipline, the + incursions of the naked savages of Scotland or Ireland could never + materially affect the safety of the province. The peace of the continent, + and the defence of the principal rivers which bounded the empire, were + objects of far greater difficulty and importance. The policy of + Diocletian, which inspired the councils of his associates, provided for + the public tranquility, by encouraging a spirit of dissension among the + barbarians, and by strengthening the fortifications of the Roman limit. In + the East he fixed a line of camps from Egypt to the Persian dominions, and + for every camp, he instituted an adequate number of stationary troops, + commanded by their respective officers, and supplied with every kind of + arms, from the new arsenals which he had formed at Antioch, Emesa, and + Damascus. Nor was the precaution of the emperor less watchful against the + well-known valor of the barbarians of Europe. From the mouth of the Rhine + to that of the Danube, the ancient camps, towns, and citidels, were + diligently reëstablished, and, in the most exposed places, new ones were + skilfully constructed: the strictest vigilance was introduced among the + garrisons of the frontier, and every expedient was practised that could + render the long chain of fortifications firm and impenetrable. A barrier + so respectable was seldom violated, and the barbarians often turned + against each other their disappointed rage. The Goths, the Vandals, the + Gepidæ, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, wasted each other’s strength + by destructive hostilities: and whosoever vanquished, they vanquished the + enemies of Rome. The subjects of Diocletian enjoyed the bloody spectacle, + and congratulated each other, that the mischiefs of civil war were now + experienced only by the barbarians. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the policy of Diocletian, it was impossible to maintain an + equal and undisturbed tranquillity during a reign of twenty years, and + along a frontier of many hundred miles. Sometimes the barbarians suspended + their domestic animosities, and the relaxed vigilance of the garrisons + sometimes gave a passage to their strength or dexterity. Whenever the + provinces were invaded, Diocletian conducted himself with that calm + dignity which he always affected or possessed; reserved his presence for + such occasions as were worthy of his interposition, never exposed his + person or reputation to any unnecessary danger, insured his success by + every means that prudence could suggest, and displayed, with ostentation, + the consequences of his victory. In wars of a more difficult nature, and + more doubtful event, he employed the rough valor of Maximian; and that + faithful soldier was content to ascribe his own victories to the wise + counsels and auspicious influence of his benefactor. But after the + adoption of the two Cæsars, the emperors themselves, retiring to a + less laborious scene of action, devolved on their adopted sons the defence + of the Danube and of the Rhine. The vigilant Galerius was never reduced to + the necessity of vanquishing an army of barbarians on the Roman territory. + The brave and active Constantius delivered Gaul from a very furious inroad + of the Alemanni; and his victories of Langres and Vindonissa appear to + have been actions of considerable danger and merit. As he traversed the + open country with a feeble guard, he was encompassed on a sudden by the + superior multitude of the enemy. He retreated with difficulty towards + Langres; but, in the general consternation, the citizens refused to open + their gates, and the wounded prince was drawn up the wall by the means of + a rope. But, on the news of his distress, the Roman troops hastened from + all sides to his relief, and before the evening he had satisfied his honor + and revenge by the slaughter of six thousand Alemanni. From the monuments + of those times, the obscure traces of several other victories over the + barbarians of Sarmatia and Germany might possibly be collected; but the + tedious search would not be rewarded either with amusement or with + instruction. + </p> + <p> + The conduct which the emperor Probus had adopted in the disposal of the + vanquished was imitated by Diocletian and his associates. The captive + barbarians, exchanging death for slavery, were distributed among the + provincials, and assigned to those districts (in Gaul, the territories of + Amiens, Beauvais, Cambray, Treves, Langres, and Troyes, are particularly + specified ) which had been depopulated by the calamities of war. They were + usefully employed as shepherds and husbandmen, but were denied the + exercise of arms, except when it was found expedient to enroll them in the + military service. Nor did the emperors refuse the property of lands, with + a less servile tenure, to such of the barbarians as solicited the + protection of Rome. They granted a settlement to several colonies of the + Carpi, the Bastarnæ, and the Sarmatians; and, by a dangerous + indulgence, permitted them in some measure to retain their national + manners and independence. Among the provincials, it was a subject of + flattering exultation, that the barbarian, so lately an object of terror, + now cultivated their lands, drove their cattle to the neighboring fair, + and contributed by his labor to the public plenty. They congratulated + their masters on the powerful accession of subjects and soldiers; but they + forgot to observe, that multitudes of secret enemies, insolent from favor, + or desperate from oppression, were introduced into the heart of the + empire. + </p> + <p> + While the Cæsars exercised their valor on the banks of the Rhine and + Danube, the presence of the emperors was required on the southern confines + of the Roman world. From the Nile to Mount Atlas, Africa was in arms. A + confederacy of five Moorish nations issued from their deserts to invade + the peaceful provinces. Julian had assumed the purple at Carthage. + Achilleus at Alexandria, and even the Blemmyes, renewed, or rather + continued, their incursions into the Upper Egypt. Scarcely any + circumstances have been preserved of the exploits of Maximian in the + western parts of Africa; but it appears, by the event, that the progress + of his arms was rapid and decisive, that he vanquished the fiercest + barbarians of Mauritania, and that he removed them from the mountains, + whose inaccessible strength had inspired their inhabitants with a lawless + confidence, and habituated them to a life of rapine and violence. + Diocletian, on his side, opened the campaign in Egypt by the siege of + Alexandria, cut off the aqueducts which conveyed the waters of the Nile + into every quarter of that immense city, and rendering his camp + impregnable to the sallies of the besieged multitude, he pushed his + reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a siege of eight months, + Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by fire, implored the clemency of the + conqueror, but it experienced the full extent of his severity. Many + thousands of the citizens perished in a promiscuous slaughter, and there + were few obnoxious persons in Egypt who escaped a sentence either of death + or at least of exile. The fate of Busiris and of Coptos was still more + melancholy than that of Alexandria: those proud cities, the former + distinguished by its antiquity, the latter enriched by the passage of the + Indian trade, were utterly destroyed by the arms and by the severe order + of Diocletian. The character of the Egyptian nation, insensible to + kindness, but extremely susceptible of fear, could alone justify this + excessive rigor. The seditions of Alexandria had often affected the + tranquillity and subsistence of Rome itself. Since the usurpation of + Firmus, the province of Upper Egypt, incessantly relapsing into rebellion, + had embraced the alliance of the savages of Æthiopia. The number of + the Blemmyes, scattered between the Island of Meroe and the Red Sea, was + very inconsiderable, their disposition was unwarlike, their weapons rude + and inoffensive. Yet in the public disorders, these barbarians, whom + antiquity, shocked with the deformity of their figure, had almost excluded + from the human species, presumed to rank themselves among the enemies of + Rome. Such had been the unworthy allies of the Egyptians; and while the + attention of the state was engaged in more serious wars, their vexatious + inroads might again harass the repose of the province. With a view of + opposing to the Blemmyes a suitable adversary, Diocletian persuaded the + Nobatæ, or people of Nubia, to remove from their ancient habitations + in the deserts of Libya, and resigned to them an extensive but + unprofitable territory above Syene and the cataracts of the Nile, with the + stipulation, that they should ever respect and guard the frontier of the + empire. The treaty long subsisted; and till the establishment of + Christianity introduced stricter notions of religious worship, it was + annually ratified by a solemn sacrifice in the isle of Elephantine, in + which the Romans, as well as the barbarians, adored the same visible or + invisible powers of the universe. + </p> + <p> + At the same time that Diocletian chastised the past crimes of the + Egyptians, he provided for their future safety and happiness by many wise + regulations, which were confirmed and enforced under the succeeding + reigns. One very remarkable edict which he published, instead of being + condemned as the effect of jealous tyranny, deserves to be applauded as an + act of prudence and humanity. He caused a diligent inquiry to be made “for + all the ancient books which treated of the admirable art of making gold + and silver, and without pity, committed them to the flames; apprehensive, + as we are assumed, lest the opulence of the Egyptians should inspire them + with confidence to rebel against the empire.” But if Diocletian had been + convinced of the reality of that valuable art, far from extinguishing the + memory, he would have converted the operation of it to the benefit of the + public revenue. It is much more likely, that his good sense discovered to + him the folly of such magnificent pretensions, and that he was desirous of + preserving the reason and fortunes of his subjects from the mischievous + pursuit. It may be remarked, that these ancient books, so liberally + ascribed to Pythagoras, to Solomon, or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of + more recent adepts. The Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to + the abuse of chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has + deposited the discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind, there is + not the least mention of the transmutation of metals; and the persecution + of Diocletian is the first authentic event in the history of alchemy. The + conquest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused that vain science over the globe. + Congenial to the avarice of the human heart, it was studied in China as in + Europe, with equal eagerness, and with equal success. The darkness of the + middle ages insured a favorable reception to every tale of wonder, and the + revival of learning gave new vigor to hope, and suggested more specious + arts of deception. Philosophy, with the aid of experience, has at length + banished the study of alchemy; and the present age, however desirous of + riches, is content to seek them by the humbler means of commerce and + industry. + </p> + <p> + The reduction of Egypt was immediately followed by the Persian war. It was + reserved for the reign of Diocletian to vanquish that powerful nation, and + to extort a confession from the successors of Artaxerxes, of the superior + majesty of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + We have observed, under the reign of Valerian, that Armenia was subdued by + the perfidy and the arms of the Persians, and that, after the + assassination of Chosroes, his son Tiridates, the infant heir of the + monarchy, was saved by the fidelity of his friends, and educated under the + protection of the emperors. Tiridates derived from his exile such + advantages as he could never have obtained on the throne of Armenia; the + early knowledge of adversity, of mankind, and of the Roman discipline. He + signalized his youth by deeds of valor, and displayed a matchless + dexterity, as well as strength, in every martial exercise, and even in the + less honorable contests of the Olympian games. Those qualities were more + nobly exerted in the defence of his benefactor Licinius. That officer, in + the sedition which occasioned the death of Probus, was exposed to the most + imminent danger, and the enraged soldiers were forcing their way into his + tent, when they were checked by the single arm of the Armenian prince. The + gratitude of Tiridates contributed soon afterwards to his restoration. + Licinius was in every station the friend and companion of Galerius, and + the merit of Galerius, long before he was raised to the dignity of Cæsar, + had been known and esteemed by Diocletian. In the third year of that + emperor’s reign Tiridates was invested with the kingdom of Armenia. The + justice of the measure was not less evident than its expediency. It was + time to rescue from the usurpation of the Persian monarch an important + territory, which, since the reign of Nero, had been always granted under + the protection of the empire to a younger branch of the house of Arsaces. + </p> + <p> + When Tiridates appeared on the frontiers of Armenia, he was received with + an unfeigned transport of joy and loyalty. During twenty-six years, the + country had experienced the real and imaginary hardships of a foreign + yoke. The Persian monarchs adorned their new conquest with magnificent + buildings; but those monuments had been erected at the expense of the + people, and were abhorred as badges of slavery. The apprehension of a + revolt had inspired the most rigorous precautions: oppression had been + aggravated by insult, and the consciousness of the public hatred had been + productive of every measure that could render it still more implacable. We + have already remarked the intolerant spirit of the Magian religion. The + statues of the deified kings of Armenia, and the sacred images of the sun + and moon, were broke in pieces by the zeal of the conqueror; and the + perpetual fire of Ormuzd was kindled and preserved upon an altar erected + on the summit of Mount Bagavan. It was natural, that a people exasperated + by so many injuries, should arm with zeal in the cause of their + independence, their religion, and their hereditary sovereign. The torrent + bore down every obstacle, and the Persian garrisons retreated before its + fury. The nobles of Armenia flew to the standard of Tiridates, all + alleging their past merit, offering their future service, and soliciting + from the new king those honors and rewards from which they had been + excluded with disdain under the foreign government. The command of the + army was bestowed on Artavasdes, whose father had saved the infancy of + Tiridates, and whose family had been massacred for that generous action. + The brother of Artavasdes obtained the government of a province. One of + the first military dignities was conferred on the satrap Otas, a man of + singular temperance and fortitude, who presented to the king his sister + and a considerable treasure, both of which, in a sequestered fortress, + Otas had preserved from violation. Among the Armenian nobles appeared an + ally, whose fortunes are too remarkable to pass unnoticed. His name was + Mamgo, his origin was Scythian, and the horde which acknowledge his + authority had encamped a very few years before on the skirts of the + Chinese empire, which at that time extended as far as the neighborhood of + Sogdiana. Having incurred the displeasure of his master, Mamgo, with his + followers, retired to the banks of the Oxus, and implored the protection + of Sapor. The emperor of China claimed the fugitive, and alleged the + rights of sovereignty. The Persian monarch pleaded the laws of + hospitality, and with some difficulty avoided a war, by the promise that + he would banish Mamgo to the uttermost parts of the West, a punishment, as + he described it, not less dreadful than death itself. Armenia was chosen + for the place of exile, and a large district was assigned to the Scythian + horde, on which they might feed their flocks and herds, and remove their + encampment from one place to another, according to the different seasons + of the year. They were employed to repel the invasion of Tiridates; but + their leader, after weighing the obligations and injuries which he had + received from the Persian monarch, resolved to abandon his party. The + Armenian prince, who was well acquainted with the merit as well as power + of Mamgo, treated him with distinguished respect; and, by admitting him + into his confidence, acquired a brave and faithful servant, who + contributed very effectually to his restoration. + </p> + <p> + For a while, fortune appeared to favor the enterprising valor of + Tiridates. He not only expelled the enemies of his family and country from + the whole extent of Armenia, but in the prosecution of his revenge he + carried his arms, or at least his incursions, into the heart of Assyria. + The historian, who has preserved the name of Tiridates from oblivion, + celebrates, with a degree of national enthusiasm, his personal prowess: + and, in the true spirit of eastern romance, describes the giants and the + elephants that fell beneath his invincible arm. It is from other + information that we discover the distracted state of the Persian monarchy, + to which the king of Armenia was indebted for some part of his advantages. + The throne was disputed by the ambition of contending brothers; and + Hormuz, after exerting without success the strength of his own party, had + recourse to the dangerous assistance of the barbarians who inhabited the + banks of the Caspian Sea. The civil war was, however, soon terminated, + either by a victor or by a reconciliation; and Narses, who was universally + acknowledged as king of Persia, directed his whole force against the + foreign enemy. The contest then became too unequal; nor was the valor of + the hero able to withstand the power of the monarch. Tiridates, a second + time expelled from the throne of Armenia, once more took refuge in the + court of the emperors. * Narses soon reëstablished his authority over the + revolted province; and loudly complaining of the protection afforded by + the Romans to rebels and fugitives, aspired to the conquest of the East. + </p> + <p> + Neither prudence nor honor could permit the emperors to forsake the cause + of the Armenian king, and it was resolved to exert the force of the empire + in the Persian war. Diocletian, with the calm dignity which he constantly + assumed, fixed his own station in the city of Antioch, from whence he + prepared and directed the military operations. The conduct of the legions + was intrusted to the intrepid valor of Galerius, who, for that important + purpose, was removed from the banks of the Danube to those of the + Euphrates. The armies soon encountered each other in the plains of + Mesopotamia, and two battles were fought with various and doubtful + success; but the third engagement was of a more decisive nature; and the + Roman army received a total overthrow, which is attributed to the rashness + of Galerius, who, with an inconsiderable body of troops, attacked the + innumerable host of the Persians. But the consideration of the country + that was the scene of action, may suggest another reason for his defeat. + The same ground on which Galerius was vanquished, had been rendered + memorable by the death of Crassus, and the slaughter of ten legions. It + was a plain of more than sixty miles, which extended from the hills of + Carrhæ to the Euphrates; a smooth and barren surface of sandy + desert, without a hillock, without a tree, and without a spring of fresh + water. The steady infantry of the Romans, fainting with heat and thirst, + could neither hope for victory if they preserved their ranks, nor break + their ranks without exposing themselves to the most imminent danger. In + this situation they were gradually encompassed by the superior numbers, + harassed by the rapid evolutions, and destroyed by the arrows of the + barbarian cavalry. The king of Armenia had signalized his valor in the + battle, and acquired personal glory by the public misfortune. He was + pursued as far as the Euphrates; his horse was wounded, and it appeared + impossible for him to escape the victorious enemy. In this extremity + Tiridates embraced the only refuge which appeared before him: he + dismounted and plunged into the stream. His armor was heavy, the river + very deep, and at those parts at least half a mile in breadth; yet such + was his strength and dexterity, that he reached in safety the opposite + bank. With regard to the Roman general, we are ignorant of the + circumstances of his escape; but when he returned to Antioch, Diocletian + received him, not with the tenderness of a friend and colleague, but with + the indignation of an offended sovereign. The haughtiest of men, clothed + in his purple, but humbled by the sense of his fault and misfortune, was + obliged to follow the emperor’s chariot above a mile on foot, and to + exhibit, before the whole court, the spectacle of his disgrace. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Diocletian had indulged his private resentment, and asserted + the majesty of supreme power, he yielded to the submissive entreaties of + the Cæsar, and permitted him to retrieve his own honor, as well as + that of the Roman arms. In the room of the unwarlike troops of Asia, which + had most probably served in the first expedition, a second army was drawn + from the veterans and new levies of the Illyrian frontier, and a + considerable body of Gothic auxiliaries were taken into the Imperial pay. + At the head of a chosen army of twenty-five thousand men, Galerius again + passed the Euphrates; but, instead of exposing his legions in the open + plains of Mesopotamia he advanced through the mountains of Armenia, where + he found the inhabitants devoted to his cause, and the country as + favorable to the operations of infantry as it was inconvenient for the + motions of cavalry. Adversity had confirmed the Roman discipline, while + the barbarians, elated by success, were become so negligent and remiss, + that in the moment when they least expected it, they were surprised by the + active conduct of Galerius, who, attended only by two horsemen, had with + his own eyes secretly examined the state and position of their camp. A + surprise, especially in the night time, was for the most part fatal to a + Persian army. “Their horses were tied, and generally shackled, to prevent + their running away; and if an alarm happened, a Persian had his housing to + fix, his horse to bridle, and his corselet to put on, before he could + mount.” On this occasion, the impetuous attack of Galerius spread disorder + and dismay over the camp of the barbarians. A slight resistance was + followed by a dreadful carnage, and, in the general confusion, the wounded + monarch (for Narses commanded his armies in person) fled towards the + deserts of Media. His sumptuous tents, and those of his satraps, afforded + an immense booty to the conqueror; and an incident is mentioned, which + proves the rustic but martial ignorance of the legions in the elegant + superfluities of life. A bag of shining leather, filled with pearls, fell + into the hands of a private soldier; he carefully preserved the bag, but + he threw away its contents, judging that whatever was of no use could not + possibly be of any value. The principal loss of Narses was of a much more + affecting nature. Several of his wives, his sisters, and children, who had + attended the army, were made captives in the defeat. But though the + character of Galerius had in general very little affinity with that of + Alexander, he imitated, after his victory, the amiable behavior of the + Macedonian towards the family of Darius. The wives and children of Narses + were protected from violence and rapine, conveyed to a place of safety, + and treated with every mark of respect and tenderness, that was due from a + generous enemy to their age, their sex, and their royal dignity. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch13-p3" id="linkch13-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + While the East anxiously expected the decision of this great contest, the + emperor Diocletian, having assembled in Syria a strong army of + observation, displayed from a distance the resources of the Roman power, + and reserved himself for any future emergency of the war. On the + intelligence of the victory he condescended to advance towards the + frontier, with a view of moderating, by his presence and counsels, the + pride of Galerius. The interview of the Roman princes at Nisibis was + accompanied with every expression of respect on one side, and of esteem on + the other. It was in that city that they soon afterwards gave audience to + the ambassador of the Great King. The power, or at least the spirit, of + Narses, had been broken by his last defeat; and he considered an immediate + peace as the only means that could stop the progress of the Roman arms. He + despatched Apharban, a servant who possessed his favor and confidence, + with a commission to negotiate a treaty, or rather to receive whatever + conditions the conqueror should impose. Apharban opened the conference by + expressing his master’s gratitude for the generous treatment of his + family, and by soliciting the liberty of those illustrious captives. He + celebrated the valor of Galerius, without degrading the reputation of + Narses, and thought it no dishonor to confess the superiority of the + victorious Cæsar, over a monarch who had surpassed in glory all the + princes of his race. Notwithstanding the justice of the Persian cause, he + was empowered to submit the present differences to the decision of the + emperors themselves; convinced as he was, that, in the midst of + prosperity, they would not be unmindful of the vicissitudes of fortune. + Apharban concluded his discourse in the style of eastern allegory, by + observing that the Roman and Persian monarchies were the two eyes of the + world, which would remain imperfect and mutilated if either of them should + be put out. + </p> + <p> + “It well becomes the Persians,” replied Galerius, with a transport of + fury, which seemed to convulse his whole frame, “it well becomes the + Persians to expatiate on the vicissitudes of fortune, and calmly to read + us lectures on the virtues of moderation. Let them remember their own <i>moderation</i> + towards the unhappy Valerian. They vanquished him by fraud, they treated + him with indignity. They detained him till the last moment of his life in + shameful captivity, and after his death they exposed his body to perpetual + ignominy.” Softening, however, his tone, Galerius insinuated to the + ambassador, that it had never been the practice of the Romans to trample + on a prostrate enemy; and that, on this occasion, they should consult + their own dignity rather than the Persian merit. He dismissed Apharban + with a hope that Narses would soon be informed on what conditions he might + obtain, from the clemency of the emperors, a lasting peace, and the + restoration of his wives and children. In this conference we may discover + the fierce passions of Galerius, as well as his deference to the superior + wisdom and authority of Diocletian. The ambition of the former grasped at + the conquest of the East, and had proposed to reduce Persia into the state + of a province. The prudence of the latter, who adhered to the moderate + policy of Augustus and the Antonines, embraced the favorable opportunity + of terminating a successful war by an honorable and advantageous peace. + </p> + <p> + In pursuance of their promise, the emperors soon afterwards appointed + Sicorius Probus, one of their secretaries, to acquaint the Persian court + with their final resolution. As the minister of peace, he was received + with every mark of politeness and friendship; but, under the pretence of + allowing him the necessary repose after so long a journey, the audience of + Probus was deferred from day to day; and he attended the slow motions of + the king, till at length he was admitted to his presence, near the River + Asprudus in Media. The secret motive of Narses, in this delay, had been to + collect such a military force as might enable him, though sincerely + desirous of peace, to negotiate with the greater weight and dignity. Three + persons only assisted at this important conference, the minister Apharban, + the præfect of the guards, and an officer who had commanded on the + Armenian frontier. The first condition proposed by the ambassador is not + at present of a very intelligible nature; that the city of Nisibis might + be established for the place of mutual exchange, or, as we should formerly + have termed it, for the staple of trade, between the two empires. There is + no difficulty in conceiving the intention of the Roman princes to improve + their revenue by some restraints upon commerce; but as Nisibis was + situated within their own dominions, and as they were masters both of the + imports and exports, it should seem that such restraints were the objects + of an internal law, rather than of a foreign treaty. To render them more + effectual, some stipulations were probably required on the side of the + king of Persia, which appeared so very repugnant either to his interest or + to his dignity, that Narses could not be persuaded to subscribe them. As + this was the only article to which he refused his consent, it was no + longer insisted on; and the emperors either suffered the trade to flow in + its natural channels, or contented themselves with such restrictions, as + it depended on their own authority to establish. + </p> + <p> + As soon as this difficulty was removed, a solemn peace was concluded and + ratified between the two nations. The conditions of a treaty so glorious + to the empire, and so necessary to Persia, may deserve a more + peculiar attention, as the history of Rome presents very few transactions + of a similar nature; most of her wars having either been terminated by + absolute conquest, or waged against barbarians ignorant of the use of + letters. I. The Aboras, or, as it is called by Xenophon, the Araxes, was + fixed as the boundary between the two monarchies. That river, which rose + near the Tigris, was increased, a few miles below Nisibis, by the little + stream of the Mygdonius, passed under the walls of Singara, and fell into + the Euphrates at Circesium, a frontier town, which, by the care of + Diocletian, was very strongly fortified. Mesopotomia, the object of so + many wars, was ceded to the empire; and the Persians, by this treaty, + renounced all pretensions to that great province. II. They relinquished to + the Romans five provinces beyond the Tigris. Their situation formed a very + useful barrier, and their natural strength was soon improved by art and + military skill. Four of these, to the north of the river, were districts + of obscure fame and inconsiderable extent; Intiline, Zabdicene, Arzanene, + and Moxoene; but on the east of the Tigris, the empire acquired the large + and mountainous territory of Carduene, the ancient seat of the + Carduchians, who preserved for many ages their manly freedom in the heart + of the despotic monarchies of Asia. The ten thousand Greeks traversed + their country, after a painful march, or rather engagement, of seven days; + and it is confessed by their leader, in his incomparable relation of the + retreat, that they suffered more from the arrows of the Carduchians, than + from the power of the Great King. Their posterity, the Curds, with very + little alteration either of name or manners, * acknowledged the nominal + sovereignty of the Turkish sultan. III. It is almost needless to observe, + that Tiridates, the faithful ally of Rome, was restored to the throne of + his fathers, and that the rights of the Imperial supremacy were fully + asserted and secured. The limits of Armenia were extended as far as the + fortress of Sintha in Media, and this increase of dominion was not so much + an act of liberality as of justice. Of the provinces already mentioned + beyond the Tigris, the four first had been dismembered by the Parthians + from the crown of Armenia; and when the Romans acquired the possession of + them, they stipulated, at the expense of the usurpers, an ample + compensation, which invested their ally with the extensive and fertile + country of Atropatene. Its principal city, in the same situation perhaps + as the modern Tauris, was frequently honored by the residence of + Tiridates; and as it sometimes bore the name of Ecbatana, he imitated, in + the buildings and fortifications, the splendid capital of the Medes. IV. + The country of Iberia was barren, its inhabitants rude and savage. But + they were accustomed to the use of arms, and they separated from the + empire barbarians much fiercer and more formidable than themselves. The + narrow defiles of Mount Caucasus were in their hands, and it was in their + choice, either to admit or to exclude the wandering tribes of Sarmatia, + whenever a rapacious spirit urged them to penetrate into the richer climes + of the South. The nomination of the kings of Iberia, which was resigned by + the Persian monarch to the emperors, contributed to the strength and + security of the Roman power in Asia. The East enjoyed a profound + tranquillity during forty years; and the treaty between the rival + monarchies was strictly observed till the death of Tiridates; when a new + generation, animated with different views and different passions, + succeeded to the government of the world; and the grandson of Narses + undertook a long and memorable war against the princes of the house of + Constantine. + </p> + <p> + The arduous work of rescuing the distressed empire from tyrants and + barbarians had now been completely achieved by a succession of Illyrian + peasants. As soon as Diocletian entered into the twentieth year of his + reign, he celebrated that memorable æra, as well as the success of + his arms, by the pomp of a Roman triumph. Maximian, the equal partner of + his power, was his only companion in the glory of that day. The two Cæsars + had fought and conquered, but the merit of their exploits was ascribed, + according to the rigor of ancient maxims, to the auspicious influence of + their fathers and emperors. The triumph of Diocletian and Maximian was + less magnificent, perhaps, than those of Aurelian and Probus, but it was + dignified by several circumstances of superior fame and good fortune. + Africa and Britain, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Nile, furnished their + respective trophies; but the most distinguished ornament was of a more + singular nature, a Persian victory followed by an important conquest. The + representations of rivers, mountains, and provinces, were carried before + the Imperial car. The images of the captive wives, the sisters, and the + children of the Great King, afforded a new and grateful spectacle to the + vanity of the people. In the eyes of posterity, this triumph is + remarkable, by a distinction of a less honorable kind. It was the last + that Rome ever beheld. Soon after this period, the emperors ceased to + vanquish, and Rome ceased to be the capital of the empire. + </p> + <p> + The spot on which Rome was founded had been consecrated by ancient + ceremonies and imaginary miracles. The presence of some god, or the memory + of some hero, seemed to animate every part of the city, and the empire of + the world had been promised to the Capitol. The native Romans felt and + confessed the power of this agreeable illusion. It was derived from their + ancestors, had grown up with their earliest habits of life, and was + protected, in some measure, by the opinion of political utility. The form + and the seat of government were intimately blended together, nor was it + esteemed possible to transport the one without destroying the other. But + the sovereignty of the capital was gradually annihilated in the extent of + conquest; the provinces rose to the same level, and the vanquished nations + acquired the name and privileges, without imbibing the partial affections, + of Romans. During a long period, however, the remains of the ancient + constitution, and the influence of custom, preserved the dignity of Rome. + The emperors, though perhaps of African or Illyrian extraction, respected + their adopted country, as the seat of their power, and the centre of their + extensive dominions. The emergencies of war very frequently required their + presence on the frontiers; but Diocletian and Maximian were the first + Roman princes who fixed, in time of peace, their ordinary residence in the + provinces; and their conduct, however it might be suggested by private + motives, was justified by very specious considerations of policy. The + court of the emperor of the West was, for the most part, established at + Milan, whose situation, at the foot of the Alps, appeared far more + convenient than that of Rome, for the important purpose of watching the + motions of the barbarians of Germany. Milan soon assumed the splendor of + an Imperial city. The houses are described as numerous and well built; the + manners of the people as polished and liberal. A circus, a theatre, a + mint, a palace, baths, which bore the name of their founder Maximian; + porticos adorned with statues, and a double circumference of walls, + contributed to the beauty of the new capital; nor did it seem oppressed + even by the proximity of Rome. To rival the majesty of Rome was the + ambition likewise of Diocletian, who employed his leisure, and the wealth + of the East, in the embellishment of Nicomedia, a city placed on the verge + of Europe and Asia, almost at an equal distance between the Danube and the + Euphrates. By the taste of the monarch, and at the expense of the people, + Nicomedia acquired, in the space of a few years, a degree of magnificence + which might appear to have required the labor of ages, and became inferior + only to Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, in extent of populousness. The life + of Diocletian and Maximian was a life of action, and a considerable + portion of it was spent in camps, or in the long and frequent marches; but + whenever the public business allowed them any relaxation, they seemed to + have retired with pleasure to their favorite residences of Nicomedia and + Milan. Till Diocletian, in the twentieth year of his reign, celebrated his + Roman triumph, it is extremely doubtful whether he ever visited the + ancient capital of the empire. Even on that memorable occasion his stay + did not exceed two months. Disgusted with the licentious familiarity of + the people, he quitted Rome with precipitation thirteen days before it was + expected that he should have appeared in the senate, invested with the + ensigns of the consular dignity. + </p> + <p> + The dislike expressed by Diocletian towards Rome and Roman freedom was + not the effect of momentary caprice, but the result of the most artful + policy. That crafty prince had framed a new system of Imperial government, + which was afterwards completed by the family of Constantine; and as the + image of the old constitution was religiously preserved in the senate, he + resolved to deprive that order of its small remains of power and + consideration. We may recollect, about eight years before the elevation + of Diocletian, the transient greatness, and the ambitious hopes, of the + Roman senate. As long as that enthusiasm prevailed, many of the nobles + imprudently displayed their zeal in the cause of freedom; and after the + successes of Probus had withdrawn their countenance from the republican + party, the senators were unable to disguise their impotent resentment. + </p> + <p> + As the sovereign of Italy, Maximian was intrusted with the care of + extinguishing this troublesome, rather than dangerous spirit, and the + task was perfectly suited to his cruel temper. The most illustrious + members of the senate, whom Diocletian always affected to esteem, were + involved, by his colleague, in the accusation of imaginary plots; and the + possession of an elegant villa, or a well-cultivated estate, was + interpreted as a convincing evidence of guilt. The camp of the + Prætorians, which had so long oppressed, began to protect, the majesty of + Rome; and as those haughty troops were conscious of the decline of their + power, they were naturally disposed to unite their strength with the + authority of the senate. By the prudent measures of Diocletian, the + numbers of the Prætorians were insensibly reduced, their privileges + abolished, and their place supplied by two faithful legions of Illyricum, + who, under the new titles of Jovians and Herculians, were appointed to + perform the service of the Imperial guards. But the most fatal though + secret wound, which the senate received from the hands of Diocletian and + Maximian, was inflicted by the inevitable operation of their absence. As + long as the emperors resided at Rome, that assembly might be oppressed, + but it could scarcely be neglected. The successors of Augustus exercised + the power of dictating whatever laws their wisdom or caprice might + suggest; but those laws were ratified by the sanction of the senate. The + model of ancient freedom was preserved in its deliberations and decrees; + and wise princes, who respected the prejudices of the Roman people, were + in some measure obliged to assume the language and behavior suitable to + the general and first magistrate of the republic. In the armies and in + the provinces, they displayed the dignity of monarchs; and when they + fixed their residence at a distance from the capital, they forever laid + aside the dissimulation which Augustus had recommended to his successors. + In the exercise of the legislative as well as the executive power, the + sovereign advised with his ministers, instead of consulting the great + council of the nation. The name of the senate was mentioned with honor + till the last period of the empire; the vanity of its members was still + flattered with honorary distinctions; but the assembly which had so long + been the source, and so long the instrument of power, was respectfully + suffered to sink into oblivion. The senate of Rome, losing all connection + with the Imperial court and the actual constitution, was left a venerable + but useless monument of antiquity on the Capitoline hill. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch13-p4" id="linkch13-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of their ancient + capital, they easily forgot the origin and nature of their legal power. + The civil offices of consul, of proconsul, of censor, and of tribune, by + the union of which it had been formed, betrayed to the people its + republican extraction. Those modest titles were laid aside; and if they + still distinguished their high station by the appellation of Emperor, or + Imperator, that word was understood in a new and more dignified sense, and + no longer denoted the general of the Roman armies, but the sovereign of + the Roman world. The name of Emperor, which was at first of a military + nature, was associated with another of a more servile kind. The epithet of + Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive signification, was expressive not of + the authority of a prince over his subjects, or of a commander over his + soldiers, but of the despotic power of a master over his domestic slaves. + Viewing it in that odious light, it had been rejected with abhorrence by + the first Cæsars. Their resistance insensibly became more feeble, + and the name less odious; till at length the style of <i>our Lord + and Emperor</i> was not only bestowed by flattery, but was + regularly admitted into the laws and public monuments. Such lofty epithets + were sufficient to elate and satisfy the most excessive vanity; and if the + successors of Diocletian still declined the title of King, it seems to + have been the effect not so much of their moderation as of their delicacy. + Wherever the Latin tongue was in use, (and it was the language of + government throughout the empire,) the Imperial title, as it was peculiar + to themselves, conveyed a more respectable idea than the name of king, + which they must have shared with a hundred barbarian chieftains; or which, + at the best, they could derive only from Romulus, or from Tarquin. But the + sentiments of the East were very different from those of the West. From + the earliest period of history, the sovereigns of Asia had been celebrated + in the Greek language by the title of Basileus, or King; and since it was + considered as the first distinction among men, it was soon employed by the + servile provincials of the East, in their humble addresses to the Roman + throne. Even the attributes, or at least the titles, of the Divinity, were + usurped by Diocletian and Maximian, who transmitted them to a succession + of Christian emperors. Such extravagant compliments, however, soon lose + their impiety by losing their meaning; and when the ear is once accustomed + to the sound, they are heard with indifference, as vague though excessive + professions of respect. + </p> + <p> + From the time of Augustus to that of Diocletian, the Roman princes, + conversing in a familiar manner among their fellow-citizens, were saluted + only with the same respect that was usually paid to senators and + magistrates. Their principal distinction was the Imperial or military robe + of purple; whilst the senatorial garment was marked by a broad, and the + equestrian by a narrow, band or stripe of the same honorable color. The + pride, or rather the policy, of Diocletian engaged that artful prince to + introduce the stately magnificence of the court of Persia. He ventured to + assume the diadem, an ornament detested by the Romans as the odious ensign + of royalty, and the use of which had been considered as the most desperate + act of the madness of Caligula. It was no more than a broad white fillet + set with pearls, which encircled the emperor’s head. The sumptuous robes + of Diocletian and his successors were of silk and gold; and it is remarked + with indignation that even their shoes were studded with the most + precious gems. The access to their sacred person was every day rendered + more difficult by the institution of new forms and ceremonies. The avenues + of the palace were strictly guarded by the various <i>schools</i>, + as they began to be called, of domestic officers. The interior apartments + were intrusted to the jealous vigilance of the eunuchs, the increase of + whose numbers and influence was the most infallible symptom of the + progress of despotism. When a subject was at length admitted to the + Imperial presence, he was obliged, whatever might be his rank, to fall + prostrate on the ground, and to adore, according to the eastern fashion, + the divinity of his lord and master. Diocletian was a man of sense, who, + in the course of private as well as public life, had formed a just + estimate both of himself and of mankind; nor is it easy to conceive that + in substituting the manners of Persia to those of Rome he was seriously + actuated by so mean a principle as that of vanity. He flattered himself + that an ostentation of splendor and luxury would subdue the imagination of + the multitude; that the monarch would be less exposed to the rude license + of the people and the soldiers, as his person was secluded from the public + view; and that habits of submission would insensibly be productive of + sentiments of veneration. Like the modesty affected by Augustus, the state + maintained by Diocletian was a theatrical representation; but it must be + confessed, that of the two comedies, the former was of a much more liberal + and manly character than the latter. It was the aim of the one to + disguise, and the object of the other to display, the unbounded power + which the emperors possessed over the Roman world. + </p> + <p> + Ostentation was the first principle of the new system instituted by + Diocletian. The second was division. He divided the empire, the provinces, + and every branch of the civil as well as military administration. He + multiplied the wheels of the machine of government, and rendered its + operations less rapid, but more secure. Whatever advantages and whatever + defects might attend these innovations, they must be ascribed in a very + great degree to the first inventor; but as the new frame of policy was + gradually improved and completed by succeeding princes, it will be more + satisfactory to delay the consideration of it till the season of its full + maturity and perfection. Reserving, therefore, for the reign of + Constantine a more exact picture of the new empire, we shall content + ourselves with describing the principal and decisive outline, as it was + traced by the hand of Diocletian. He had associated three colleagues in + the exercise of the supreme power; and as he was convinced that the + abilities of a single man were inadequate to the public defence, he + considered the joint administration of four princes not as a temporary + expedient, but as a fundamental law of the constitution. It was his + intention that the two elder princes should be distinguished by the use + of the diadem, and the title of <i>Augusti</i>; that, + as affection or esteem might direct their choice, they should regularly + call to their assistance two subordinate colleagues; and that the <i>Cæsars</i>, + rising in their turn to the first rank, should supply an uninterrupted + succession of emperors. The empire was divided into four parts. The East + and Italy were the most honorable, the Danube and the Rhine the most + laborious stations. The former claimed the presence of the <i>Augusti</i>, + the latter were intrusted to the administration of the <i>Cæsars</i>. + The strength of the legions was in the hands of the four partners of + sovereignty, and the despair of successively vanquishing four formidable + rivals might intimidate the ambition of an aspiring general. In their + civil government the emperors were supposed to exercise the undivided + power of the monarch, and their edicts, inscribed with their joint names, + were received in all the provinces, as promulgated by their mutual + councils and authority. Notwithstanding these precautions, the political + union of the Roman world was gradually dissolved, and a principle of + division was introduced, which, in the course of a few years, occasioned + the perpetual separation of the Eastern and Western Empires. + </p> + <p> + The system of Diocletian was accompanied with another very material + disadvantage, which cannot even at present be totally overlooked; a more + expensive establishment, and consequently an increase of taxes, and the + oppression of the people. Instead of a modest family of slaves and + freedmen, such as had contented the simple greatness of Augustus and + Trajan, three or four magnificent courts were established in the various + parts of the empire, and as many Roman <i>kings</i> + contended with each other and with the Persian monarch for the vain + superiority of pomp and luxury. The number of ministers, of magistrates, + of officers, and of servants, who filled the different departments of the + state, was multiplied beyond the example of former times; and (if we may + borrow the warm expression of a contemporary) “when the proportion of + those who received exceeded the proportion of those who contributed, the + provinces were oppressed by the weight of tributes.” From this period to + the extinction of the empire, it would be easy to deduce an uninterrupted + series of clamors and complaints. According to his religion and situation, + each writer chooses either Diocletian, or Constantine, or Valens, or + Theodosius, for the object of his invectives; but they unanimously agree + in representing the burden of the public impositions, and particularly the + land tax and capitation, as the intolerable and increasing grievance of + their own times. From such a concurrence, an impartial historian, who is + obliged to extract truth from satire, as well as from panegyric, will be + inclined to divide the blame among the princes whom they accuse, and to + ascribe their exactions much less to their personal vices, than to the + uniform system of their administration. * The emperor Diocletian was + indeed the author of that system; but during his reign, the growing evil + was confined within the bounds of modesty and discretion, and he deserves + the reproach of establishing pernicious precedents, rather than of + exercising actual oppression. It may be added, that his revenues were + managed with prudent economy; and that after all the current expenses were + discharged, there still remained in the Imperial treasury an ample + provision either for judicious liberality or for any emergency of the + state. + </p> + <p> + It was in the twenty first year of his reign that Diocletian executed his + memorable resolution of abdicating the empire; an action more naturally to + have been expected from the elder or the younger Antoninus, than from a + prince who had never practised the lessons of philosophy either in the + attainment or in the use of supreme power. Diocletian acquired the glory + of giving to the world the first example of a resignation, which has not + been very frequently imitated by succeeding monarchs. The parallel of + Charles the Fifth, however, will naturally offer itself to our mind, not + only since the eloquence of a modern historian has rendered that name so + familiar to an English reader, but from the very striking resemblance + between the characters of the two emperors, whose political abilities were + superior to their military genius, and whose specious virtues were much + less the effect of nature than of art. The abdication of Charles appears + to have been hastened by the vicissitudes of fortune; and the + disappointment of his favorite schemes urged him to relinquish a power + which he found inadequate to his ambition. But the reign of Diocletian had + flowed with a tide of uninterrupted success; nor was it till after he had + vanquished all his enemies, and accomplished all his designs, that he + seems to have entertained any serious thoughts of resigning the empire. + Neither Charles nor Diocletian were arrived at a very advanced period of + life; since the one was only fifty-five, and the other was no more than + fifty-nine years of age; but the active life of those princes, their wars + and journeys, the cares of royalty, and their application to business, had + already impaired their constitution, and brought on the infirmities of a + premature old age. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the severity of a very cold and rainy winter, Diocletian + left Italy soon after the ceremony of his triumph, and began his progress + towards the East round the circuit of the Illyrian provinces. From the + inclemency of the weather, and the fatigue of the journey, he soon + contracted a slow illness; and though he made easy marches, and was + generally carried in a close litter, his disorder, before he arrived at + Nicomedia, about the end of the summer, was become very serious and + alarming. During the whole winter he was confined to his palace: his + danger inspired a general and unaffected concern; but the people could + only judge of the various alterations of his health, from the joy or + consternation which they discovered in the countenances and behavior of + his attendants. The rumor of his death was for some time universally + believed, and it was supposed to be concealed with a view to prevent the + troubles that might have happened during the absence of the Cæsar + Galerius. At length, however, on the first of March, Diocletian once more + appeared in public, but so pale and emaciated, that he could scarcely have + been recognized by those to whom his person was the most familiar. It was + time to put an end to the painful struggle, which he had sustained during + more than a year, between the care of his health and that of his dignity. + The former required indulgence and relaxation, the latter compelled him to + direct, from the bed of sickness, the administration of a great empire. He + resolved to pass the remainder of his days in honorable repose, to place + his glory beyond the reach of fortune, and to relinquish the theatre of + the world to his younger and more active associates. + </p> + <p> + The ceremony of his abdication was performed in a spacious plain, about + three miles from Nicomedia. The emperor ascended a lofty throne, and in a + speech, full of reason and dignity, declared his intention, both to the + people and to the soldiers who were assembled on this extraordinary + occasion. As soon as he had divested himself of his purple, he withdrew + from the gazing multitude; and traversing the city in a covered chariot, + proceeded, without delay, to the favorite retirement which he had chosen + in his native country of Dalmatia. On the same day, which was the first of + May, Maximian, as it had been previously concerted, made his resignation + of the Imperial dignity at Milan. Even in the splendor of the Roman + triumph, Diocletian had meditated his design of abdicating the government. + As he wished to secure the obedience of Maximian, he exacted from him + either a general assurance that he would submit his actions to the + authority of his benefactor, or a particular promise that he would descend + from the throne, whenever he should receive the advice and the example. + This engagement, though it was confirmed by the solemnity of an oath + before the altar of the Capitoline Jupiter, would have proved a feeble + restraint on the fierce temper of Maximian, whose passion was the love of + power, and who neither desired present tranquility nor future reputation. + But he yielded, however reluctantly, to the ascendant which his wiser + colleague had acquired over him, and retired, immediately after his + abdication, to a villa in Lucania, where it was almost impossible that + such an impatient spirit could find any lasting tranquility. + </p> + <p> + Diocletian, who, from a servile origin, had raised himself to the throne, + passed the nine last years of his life in a private condition. Reason had + dictated, and content seems to have accompanied, his retreat, in which he + enjoyed, for a long time, the respect of those princes to whom he had + resigned the possession of the world. It is seldom that minds long + exercised in business have formed any habits of conversing with + themselves, and in the loss of power they principally regret the want of + occupation. The amusements of letters and of devotion, which afford so + many resources in solitude, were incapable of fixing the attention of + Diocletian; but he had preserved, or at least he soon recovered, a taste + for the most innocent as well as natural pleasures, and his leisure hours + were sufficiently employed in building, planting, and gardening. His + answer to Maximian is deservedly celebrated. He was solicited by that + restless old man to reassume the reins of government, and the Imperial + purple. He rejected the temptation with a smile of pity, calmly observing, + that if he could show Maximian the cabbages which he had planted with his + own hands at Salona, he should no longer be urged to relinquish the + enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power. In his conversations with + his friends, he frequently acknowledged, that of all arts, the most + difficult was the art of reigning; and he expressed himself on that + favorite topic with a degree of warmth which could be the result only of + experience. “How often,” was he accustomed to say, “is it the interest of + four or five ministers to combine together to deceive their sovereign! + Secluded from mankind by his exalted dignity, the truth is concealed from + his knowledge; he can see only with their eyes, he hears nothing but their + misrepresentations. He confers the most important offices upon vice and + weakness, and disgraces the most virtuous and deserving among his + subjects. By such infamous arts,” added Diocletian, “the best and wisest + princes are sold to the venal corruption of their courtiers.” A just + estimate of greatness, and the assurance of immortal fame, improve our + relish for the pleasures of retirement; but the Roman emperor had filled + too important a character in the world, to enjoy without alloy the + comforts and security of a private condition. It was impossible that he + could remain ignorant of the troubles which afflicted the empire after his + abdication. It was impossible that he could be indifferent to their + consequences. Fear, sorrow, and discontent, sometimes pursued him into the + solitude of Salona. His tenderness, or at least his pride, was deeply + wounded by the misfortunes of his wife and daughter; and the last moments + of Diocletian were imbittered by some affronts, which Licinius and + Constantine might have spared the father of so many emperors, and the + first author of their own fortune. A report, though of a very doubtful + nature, has reached our times, that he prudently withdrew himself from + their power by a voluntary death. + </p> + <p> + Before we dismiss the consideration of the life and character of + Diocletian, we may, for a moment, direct our view to the place of his + retirement. Salona, a principal city of his native province of Dalmatia, + was near two hundred Roman miles (according to the measurement of the + public highways) from Aquileia and the confines of Italy, and about two + hundred and seventy from Sirmium, the usual residence of the emperors + whenever they visited the Illyrian frontier. A miserable village still + preserves the name of Salona; but so late as the sixteenth century, the + remains of a theatre, and a confused prospect of broken arches and marble + columns, continued to attest its ancient splendor. About six or seven + miles from the city Diocletian constructed a magnificent palace, and we + may infer, from the greatness of the work, how long he had meditated his + design of abdicating the empire. The choice of a spot which united all + that could contribute either to health or to luxury did not require the + partiality of a native. “The soil was dry and fertile, the air is pure and + wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the summer months, this country + seldom feels those sultry and noxious winds to which the coasts of Istria + and some parts of Italy are exposed. The views from the palace are no less + beautiful than the soil and climate were inviting. Towards the west lies + the fertile shore that stretches along the Adriatic, in which a number of + small islands are scattered in such a manner as to give this part of the + sea the appearance of a great lake. On the north side lies the bay, which + led to the ancient city of Salona; and the country beyond it, appearing in + sight, forms a proper contrast to that more extensive prospect of water, + which the Adriatic presents both to the south and to the east. Towards the + north, the view is terminated by high and irregular mountains, situated at + a proper distance, and in many places covered with villages, woods, and + vineyards.” + </p> + <p> + Though Constantine, from a very obvious prejudice, affects to mention the + palace of Diocletian with contempt, yet one of their successors, who could + only see it in a neglected and mutilated state, celebrates its + magnificence in terms of the highest admiration. It covered an extent of + ground consisting of between nine and ten English acres. The form was + quadrangular, flanked with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were near six + hundred, and the other two near seven hundred feet in length. The whole + was constructed of a beautiful freestone, extracted from the neighboring + quarries of Trau, or Tragutium, and very little inferior to marble itself. + Four streets, intersecting each other at right angles, divided the several + parts of this great edifice, and the approach to the principal apartment + was from a very stately entrance, which is still denominated the Golden + Gate. The approach was terminated by a peristylium of granite columns, on + one side of which we discover the square temple of Æsculapius, on + the other the octagon temple of Jupiter. The latter of those deities + Diocletian revered as the patron of his fortunes, the former as the + protector of his health. By comparing the present remains with the + precepts of Vitruvius, the several parts of the building, the baths, + bedchamber, the atrium, the basilica, and the Cyzicene, Corinthian, and + Egyptian halls have been described with some degree of precision, or at + least of probability. Their forms were various, their proportions just; + but they all were attended with two imperfections, very repugnant to our + modern notions of taste and conveniency. These stately rooms had neither + windows nor chimneys. They were lighted from the top, (for the building + seems to have consisted of no more than one story,) and they received + their heat by the help of pipes that were conveyed along the walls. The + range of principal apartments was protected towards the south-west by a + portico five hundred and seventeen feet long, which must have formed a + very noble and delightful walk, when the beauties of painting and + sculpture were added to those of the prospect. + </p> + <p> + Had this magnificent edifice remained in a solitary country, it would have + been exposed to the ravages of time; but it might, perhaps, have escaped + the rapacious industry of man. The village of Aspalathus, and, long + afterwards, the provincial town of Spalatro, have grown out of its ruins. + The Golden Gate now opens into the market-place. St. John the Baptist has + usurped the honors of Æsculapius; and the temple of Jupiter, under + the protection of the Virgin, is converted into the cathedral church. For + this account of Diocletian’s palace we are principally indebted to an + ingenious artist of our own time and country, whom a very liberal + curiosity carried into the heart of Dalmatia. But there is room to suspect + that the elegance of his designs and engraving has somewhat flattered the + objects which it was their purpose to represent. We are informed by a more + recent and very judicious traveller, that the awful ruins of Spalatro are + not less expressive of the decline of the art than of the greatness of the + Roman empire in the time of Diocletian. If such was indeed the state of + architecture, we must naturally believe that painting and sculpture had + experienced a still more sensible decay. The practice of architecture is + directed by a few general and even mechanical rules. But sculpture, and, + above all, painting, propose to themselves the imitation not only of the + forms of nature, but of the characters and passions of the human soul. In + those sublime arts the dexterity of the hand is of little avail, unless + it is animated by fancy, and guided by the most correct taste and + observation. + </p> + <p> + It is almost unnecessary to remark, that the civil distractions of the + empire, the license of the soldiers, the inroads of the barbarians, and + the progress of despotism, had proved very unfavorable to genius, and even + to learning. The succession of Illyrian princes restored the empire + without restoring the sciences. Their military education was not + calculated to inspire them with the love of letters; and even the mind of + Diocletian, however active and capacious in business, was totally + uninformed by study or speculation. The professions of law and physic are + of such common use and certain profit that they will always secure a + sufficient number of practitioners endowed with a reasonable degree of + abilities and knowledge; but it does not appear that the students in those + two faculties appeal to any celebrated masters who have flourished within + that period. The voice of poetry was silent. History was reduced to dry + and confused abridgments, alike destitute of amusement and instruction. A + languid and affected eloquence was still retained in the pay and service + of the emperors, who encouraged not any arts except those which + contributed to the gratification of their pride, or the defence of their + power. + </p> + <p> + The declining age of learning and of mankind is marked, however, by the + rise and rapid progress of the new Platonists. The school of Alexandria + silenced those of Athens; and the ancient sects enrolled themselves under + the banners of the more fashionable teachers, who recommended their system + by the novelty of their method, and the austerity of their manners. + Several of these masters, Ammonius, Plotinus, Amelius, and Porphyry, were + men of profound thought and intense application; but by mistaking the true + object of philosophy, their labors contributed much less to improve than + to corrupt the human understanding. The knowledge that is suited to our + situation and powers, the whole compass of moral, natural, and + mathematical science, was neglected by the new Platonists; whilst they + exhausted their strength in the verbal disputes of metaphysics, attempted + to explore the secrets of the invisible world, and studied to reconcile + Aristotle with Plato, on subjects of which both these philosophers were as + ignorant as the rest of mankind. Consuming their reason in these deep but + unsubstantial meditations, their minds were exposed to illusions of fancy. + They flattered themselves that they possessed the secret of disengaging + the soul from its corporal prison; claimed a familiar intercourse with + demons and spirits; and, by a very singular revolution, converted the + study of philosophy into that of magic. The ancient sages had derided the + popular superstition; after disguising its extravagance by the thin + pretence of allegory, the disciples of Plotinus and Porphyry became its + most zealous defenders. As they agreed with the Christians in a few + mysterious points of faith, they attacked the remainder of their + theological system with all the fury of civil war. The new Platonists + would scarcely deserve a place in the history of science, but in that of + the church the mention of them will very frequently occur. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch14-p1" id="linkch14-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of +Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxentius. ­ +Six Emperors At The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And Galerius.— +Victories Of Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.— +Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority Of Constantine. +</pre> + <p> + The balance of power established by Diocletian subsisted no longer than + while it was sustained by the firm and dexterous hand of the founder. It + required such a fortunate mixture of different tempers and abilities as + could scarcely be found or even expected a second time; two emperors + without jealousy, two Cæsars without ambition, and the same general + interest invariably pursued by four independent princes. The abdication of + Diocletian and Maximian was succeeded by eighteen years of discord and + confusion. The empire was afflicted by five civil wars; and the remainder + of the time was not so much a state of tranquillity as a suspension of + arms between several hostile monarchs, who, viewing each other with an eye + of fear and hatred, strove to increase their respective forces at the + expense of their subjects. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple, their station, + according to the rules of the new constitution, was filled by the two Cæsars, + Constantius and Galerius, who immediately assumed the title of Augustus. + </p> + <p> + The honors of seniority and precedence were allowed to the former of those + princes, and he continued under a new appellation to administer his + ancient department of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. The government of those + ample provinces was sufficient to exercise his talents and to satisfy his + ambition. Clemency, temperance, and moderation, distinguished the amiable + character of Constantius, and his fortunate subjects had frequently + occasion to compare the virtues of their sovereign with the passions of + Maximian, and even with the arts of Diocletian. Instead of imitating their + eastern pride and magnificence, Constantius preserved the modesty of a + Roman prince. He declared, with unaffected sincerity, that his most valued + treasure was in the hearts of his people, and that, whenever the dignity + of the throne, or the danger of the state, required any extraordinary + supply, he could depend with confidence on their gratitude and liberality. + The provincials of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, sensible of his worth, and of + their own happiness, reflected with anxiety on the declining health of the + emperor Constantius, and the tender age of his numerous family, the issue + of his second marriage with the daughter of Maximian. + </p> + <p> + The stern temper of Galerius was cast in a very different mould; and while + he commanded the esteem of his subjects, he seldom condescended to solicit + their affections. His fame in arms, and, above all, the success of the + Persian war, had elated his haughty mind, which was naturally impatient of + a superior, or even of an equal. If it were possible to rely on the + partial testimony of an injudicious writer, we might ascribe the + abdication of Diocletian to the menaces of Galerius, and relate the + particulars of a <i>private</i> conversation between + the two princes, in which the former discovered as much pusillanimity as + the latter displayed ingratitude and arrogance. But these obscure + anecdotes are sufficiently refuted by an impartial view of the character + and conduct of Diocletian. Whatever might otherwise have been his + intentions, if he had apprehended any danger from the violence of + Galerius, his good sense would have instructed him to prevent the + ignominious contest; and as he had held the sceptre with glory, he would + have resigned it without disgrace. + </p> + <p> + After the elevation of Constantius and Galerius to the rank of <i>Augusti</i>, + two new <i>Cæsars</i> were required to supply their + place, and to complete the system of the Imperial government. Diocletian + was sincerely desirous of withdrawing himself from the world; he + considered Galerius, who had married his daughter, as the firmest support + of his family and of the empire; and he consented, without reluctance, + that his successor should assume the merit as well as the envy of the + important nomination. It was fixed without consulting the interest or + inclination of the princes of the West. Each of them had a son who was + arrived at the age of manhood, and who might have been deemed the most + natural candidates for the vacant honor. But the impotent resentment of + Maximian was no longer to be dreaded; and the moderate Constantius, though + he might despise the dangers, was humanely apprehensive of the calamities, + of civil war. The two persons whom Galerius promoted to the rank of Cæsar + were much better suited to serve the views of his ambition; and their + principal recommendation seems to have consisted in the want of merit or + personal consequence. The first of these was Daza, or, as he was + afterwards called, Maximin, whose mother was the sister of Galerius. The + unexperienced youth still betrayed, by his manners and language, his + rustic education, when, to his own astonishment, as well as that of the + world, he was invested by Diocletian with the purple, exalted to the + dignity of Cæsar, and intrusted with the sovereign command of Egypt + and Syria. At the same time, Severus, a faithful servant, addicted to + pleasure, but not incapable of business, was sent to Milan, to receive, + from the reluctant hands of Maximian, the Cæsarian ornaments, and + the possession of Italy and Africa. According to the forms of the + constitution, Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the western emperor; + but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, + who, reserving to himself the intermediate countries from the confines of + Italy to those of Syria, firmly established his power over three fourths + of the monarchy. In the full confidence that the approaching death of + Constantius would leave him sole master of the Roman world, we are assured + that he had arranged in his mind a long succession of future princes, and + that he meditated his own retreat from public life, after he should have + accomplished a glorious reign of about twenty years. + </p> + <p> + But within less than eighteen months, two unexpected revolutions + overturned the ambitious schemes of Galerius. The hopes of uniting the + western provinces to his empire were disappointed by the elevation of + Constantine, whilst Italy and Africa were lost by the successful revolt of + Maxentius. + </p> + <p> + I. The fame of Constantine has rendered posterity attentive to the most + minute circumstances of his life and actions. The place of his birth, as + well as the condition of his mother Helena, have been the subject, not + only of literary, but of national disputes. Notwithstanding the recent + tradition, which assigns for her father a British king, we are obliged to + confess, that Helena was the daughter of an innkeeper; but at the same + time, we may defend the legality of her marriage, against those who have + represented her as the concubine of Constantius. The great Constantine was + most probably born at Naissus, in Dacia; and it is not surprising that, in + a family and province distinguished only by the profession of arms, the + youth should discover very little inclination to improve his mind by the + acquisition of knowledge. He was about eighteen years of age when his + father was promoted to the rank of Cæsar; but that fortunate event + was attended with his mother’s divorce; and the splendor of an Imperial + alliance reduced the son of Helena to a state of disgrace and humiliation. + Instead of following Constantius in the West, he remained in the service + of Diocletian, signalized his valor in the wars of Egypt and Persia, and + gradually rose to the honorable station of a tribune of the first order. + The figure of Constantine was tall and majestic; he was dexterous in all + his exercises, intrepid in war, affable in peace; in his whole conduct, + the active spirit of youth was tempered by habitual prudence; and while + his mind was engrossed by ambition, he appeared cold and insensible to the + allurements of pleasure. The favor of the people and soldiers, who had + named him as a worthy candidate for the rank of Cæsar, served only + to exasperate the jealousy of Galerius; and though prudence might restrain + him from exercising any open violence, an absolute monarch is seldom at a + loss how to execute a sure and secret evenge. Every hour increased the + danger of Constantine, and the anxiety of his father, who, by repeated + letters, expressed the warmest desire of embracing his son. For some time + the policy of Galerius supplied him with delays and excuses; but it was + impossible long to refuse so natural a request of his associate, without + maintaining his refusal by arms. The permission of the journey was + reluctantly granted, and whatever precautions the emperor might have taken + to intercept a return, the consequences of which he, with so much reason, + apprehended, they were effectually disappointed by the incredible + diligence of Constantine. Leaving the palace of Nicomedia in the night, he + travelled post through Bithynia, Thrace, Dacia, Pannonia, Italy, and Gaul, + and, amidst the joyful acclamations of the people, reached the port of + Boulogne in the very moment when his father was preparing to embark for + Britain. + </p> + <p> + The British expedition, and an easy victory over the barbarians of + Caledonia, were the last exploits of the reign of Constantius. He ended + his life in the Imperial palace of York, fifteen months after he had + received the title of Augustus, and almost fourteen years and a half after + he had been promoted to the rank of Cæsar. His death was immediately + succeeded by the elevation of Constantine. The ideas of inheritance and + succession are so very familiar, that the generality of mankind consider + them as founded not only in reason but in nature itself. Our imagination + readily transfers the same principles from private property to public + dominion: and whenever a virtuous father leaves behind him a son whose + merit seems to justify the esteem, or even the hopes, of the people, the + joint influence of prejudice and of affection operates with irresistible + weight. The flower of the western armies had followed Constantius into + Britain, and the national troops were reënforced by a numerous body of + Alemanni, who obeyed the orders of Crocus, one of their hereditary + chieftains. The opinion of their own importance, and the assurance that + Britain, Gaul, and Spain would acquiesce in their nomination, were + diligently inculcated to the legions by the adherents of Constantine. The + soldiers were asked, whether they could hesitate a moment between the + honor of placing at their head the worthy son of their beloved emperor, + and the ignominy of tamely expecting the arrival of some obscure stranger, + on whom it might please the sovereign of Asia to bestow the armies and + provinces of the West. It was insinuated to them, that gratitude and + liberality held a distinguished place among the virtues of Constantine; + nor did that artful prince show himself to the troops, till they were + prepared to salute him with the names of Augustus and Emperor. The throne + was the object of his desires; and had he been less actuated by ambition, + it was his only means of safety. He was well acquainted with the character + and sentiments of Galerius, and sufficiently apprised, that if he wished + to live he must determine to reign. The decent and even obstinate + resistance which he chose to affect, was contrived to justify his + usurpation; nor did he yield to the acclamations of the army, till he had + provided the proper materials for a letter, which he immediately + despatched to the emperor of the East. Constantine informed him of the + melancholy event of his father’s death, modestly asserted his natural + claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented, that the affectionate + violence of his troops had not permitted him to solicit the Imperial + purple in the regular and constitutional manner. The first emotions of + Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage; and as he could + seldom restrain his passions, he loudly threatened, that he would commit + to the flames both the letter and the messenger. But his resentment + insensibly subsided; and when he recollected the doubtful chance of war, + when he had weighed the character and strength of his adversary, he + consented to embrace the honorable accommodation which the prudence of + Constantine had left open to him. Without either condemning or ratifying + the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son of his deceased + colleague as the sovereign of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave + him only the title of Cæsar, and the fourth rank among the Roman + princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favorite + Severus. The apparent harmony of the empire was still preserved, and + Constantine, who already possessed the substance, expected, without + impatience, an opportunity of obtaining the honors, of supreme power. + </p> + <p> + The children of Constantius by his second marriage were six in number, + three of either sex, and whose Imperial descent might have solicited a + preference over the meaner extraction of the son of Helena. But + Constantine was in the thirty-second year of his age, in the full vigor + both of mind and body, at the time when the eldest of his brothers could + not possibly be more than thirteen years old. His claim of superior merit + had been allowed and ratified by the dying emperor. In his last moments + Constantius bequeathed to his eldest son the care of the safety as well as + greatness of the family; conjuring him to assume both the authority and + the sentiments of a father with regard to the children of Theodora. Their + liberal education, advantageous marriages, the secure dignity of their + lives, and the first honors of the state with which they were invested, + attest the fraternal affection of Constantine; and as those princes + possessed a mild and grateful disposition, they submitted without + reluctance to the superiority of his genius and fortune. + </p> + <p> + II. The ambitious spirit of Galerius was scarcely reconciled to the + disappointment of his views upon the Gallic provinces, before the + unexpected loss of Italy wounded his pride as well as power in a still + more sensible part. The long absence of the emperors had filled Rome with + discontent and indignation; and the people gradually discovered, that the + preference given to Nicomedia and Milan was not to be ascribed to the + particular inclination of Diocletian, but to the permanent form of + government which he had instituted. It was in vain that, a few months + after his abdication, his successors dedicated, under his name, those + magnificent baths, whose ruins still supply the ground as well as the + materials for so many churches and convents. The tranquility of those + elegant recesses of ease and luxury was disturbed by the impatient murmurs + of the Romans, and a report was insensibly circulated, that the sums + expended in erecting those buildings would soon be required at their + hands. About that time the avarice of Galerius, or perhaps the exigencies + of the state, had induced him to make a very strict and rigorous + inquisition into the property of his subjects, for the purpose of a + general taxation, both on their lands and on their persons. A very minute + survey appears to have been taken of their real estates; and wherever + there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was very freely + employed to obtain a sincere declaration of their personal wealth. The + privileges which had exalted Italy above the rank of the provinces were no + longer regarded: * and the officers of the revenue already began to number + the Roman people, and to settle the proportion of the new taxes. Even when + the spirit of freedom had been utterly extinguished, the tamest subjects + have sometimes ventured to resist an unprecedented invasion of their + property; but on this occasion the injury was aggravated by the insult, + and the sense of private interest was quickened by that of national honor. + The conquest of Macedonia, as we have already observed, had delivered the + Roman people from the weight of personal taxes. Though they had + experienced every form of despotism, they had now enjoyed that exemption + near five hundred years; nor could they patiently brook the insolence of + an Illyrian peasant, who, from his distant residence in Asia, presumed to + number Rome among the tributary cities of his empire. The rising fury of + the people was encouraged by the authority, or at least the connivance, of + the senate; and the feeble remains of the Prætorian guards, who had + reason to apprehend their own dissolution, embraced so honorable a + pretence, and declared their readiness to draw their swords in the service + of their oppressed country. It was the wish, and it soon became the hope, + of every citizen, that after expelling from Italy their foreign tyrants, + they should elect a prince who, by the place of his residence, and by his + maxims of government, might once more deserve the title of Roman emperor. + The name, as well as the situation, of Maxentius determined in his favor + the popular enthusiasm. + </p> + <p> + Maxentius was the son of the emperor Maximian, and he had married the + daughter of Galerius. His birth and alliance seemed to offer him the + fairest promise of succeeding to the empire; but his vices and incapacity + procured him the same exclusion from the dignity of Cæsar, which + Constantine had deserved by a dangerous superiority of merit. The policy + of Galerius preferred such associates as would never disgrace the choice, + nor dispute the commands, of their benefactor. An obscure stranger was + therefore raised to the throne of Italy, and the son of the late emperor + of the West was left to enjoy the luxury of a private fortune in a villa a + few miles distant from the capital. The gloomy passions of his soul, + shame, vexation, and rage, were inflamed by envy on the news of + Constantine’s success; but the hopes of Maxentius revived with the public + discontent, and he was easily persuaded to unite his personal injury and + pretensions with the cause of the Roman people. Two Prætorian + tribunes and a commissary of provisions undertook the management of the + conspiracy; and as every order of men was actuated by the same spirit, the + immediate event was neither doubtful nor difficult. The præfect of + the city, and a few magistrates, who maintained their fidelity to Severus, + were massacred by the guards; and Maxentius, invested with the Imperial + ornaments, was acknowledged by the applauding senate and people as the + protector of the Roman freedom and dignity. It is uncertain whether + Maximian was previously acquainted with the conspiracy; but as soon as the + standard of rebellion was erected at Rome, the old emperor broke from the + retirement where the authority of Diocletian had condemned him to pass a + life of melancholy and solitude, and concealed his returning ambition + under the disguise of paternal tenderness. At the request of his son and + of the senate, he condescended to reassume the purple. His ancient + dignity, his experience, and his fame in arms, added strength as well as + reputation to the party of Maxentius. + </p> + <p> + According to the advice, or rather the orders, of his colleague, the + emperor Severus immediately hastened to Rome, in the full confidence, + that, by his unexpected celerity, he should easily suppress the tumult of + an unwarlike populace, commanded by a licentious youth. But he found on + his arrival the gates of the city shut against him, the walls filled with + men and arms, an experienced general at the head of the rebels, and his + own troops without spirit or affection. A large body of Moors deserted to + the enemy, allured by the promise of a large donative; and, if it be true + that they had been levied by Maximian in his African war, preferring the + natural feelings of gratitude to the artificial ties of allegiance. + Anulinus, the Prætorian præfect, declared himself in favor of + Maxentius, and drew after him the most considerable part of the troops, + accustomed to obey his commands. Rome, according to the expression of an + orator, recalled her armies; and the unfortunate Severus, destitute of + force and of counsel, retired, or rather fled, with precipitation, to + Ravenna. Here he might for some time have been safe. The fortifications of + Ravenna were able to resist the attempts, and the morasses that surrounded + the town were sufficient to prevent the approach, of the Italian army. + The sea, which Severus commanded with a powerful fleet, secured him an + inexhaustible supply of provisions, and gave a free entrance to the + legions, which, on the return of spring, would advance to his assistance + from Illyricum and the East. Maximian, who conducted the siege in person, + was soon convinced that he might waste his time and his army in the + fruitless enterprise, and that he had nothing to hope either from force or + famine. With an art more suitable to the character of Diocletian than to + his own, he directed his attack, not so much against the walls of Ravenna, + as against the mind of Severus. The treachery which he had experienced + disposed that unhappy prince to distrust the most sincere of his friends + and adherents. The emissaries of Maximian easily persuaded his credulity, + that a conspiracy was formed to betray the town, and prevailed upon his + fears not to expose himself to the discretion of an irritated conqueror, + but to accept the faith of an honorable capitulation. He was at first + received with humanity and treated with respect. Maximian conducted the + captive emperor to Rome, and gave him the most solemn assurances that he + had secured his life by the resignation of the purple. But Severus could + obtain only an easy death and an Imperial funeral. When the sentence was + signified to him, the manner of executing it was left to his own choice; + he preferred the favorite mode of the ancients, that of opening his veins; + and as soon as he expired, his body was carried to the sepulchre which had + been constructed for the family of Gallienus. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch14-p2" id="linkch14-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Though the characters of Constantine and Maxentius had very little + affinity with each other, their situation and interest were the same; and + prudence seemed to require that they should unite their forces against the + common enemy. Notwithstanding the superiority of his age and dignity, the + indefatigable Maximian passed the Alps, and, courting a personal interview + with the sovereign of Gaul, carried with him his daughter Fausta as the + pledge of the new alliance. The marriage was celebrated at Arles with + every circumstance of magnificence; and the ancient colleague of + Diocletian, who again asserted his claim to the Western empire, conferred + on his son-in-law and ally the title of Augustus. By consenting to receive + that honor from Maximian, Constantine seemed to embrace the cause of Rome + and of the senate; but his professions were ambiguous, and his assistance + slow and ineffectual. He considered with attention the approaching contest + between the masters of Italy and the emperor of the East, and was prepared + to consult his own safety or ambition in the event of the war. + </p> + <p> + The importance of the occasion called for the presence and abilities of + Galerius. At the head of a powerful army, collected from Illyricum and the + East, he entered Italy, resolved to revenge the death of Severus, and to + chastise the rebellious Romans; or, as he expressed his intentions, in the + furious language of a barbarian, to extirpate the senate, and to destroy + the people by the sword. But the skill of Maximian had concerted a prudent + system of defence. The invader found every place hostile, fortified, and + inaccessible; and though he forced his way as far as Narni, within sixty + miles of Rome, his dominion in Italy was confined to the narrow limits of + his camp. Sensible of the increasing difficulties of his enterprise, the + haughty Galerius made the first advances towards a reconciliation, and + despatched two of his most considerable officers to tempt the Roman + princes by the offer of a conference, and the declaration of his paternal + regard for Maxentius, who might obtain much more from his liberality than + he could hope from the doubtful chance of war. The offers of Galerius were + rejected with firmness, his perfidious friendship refused with contempt, + and it was not long before he discovered, that, unless he provided for his + safety by a timely retreat, he had some reason to apprehend the fate of + Severus. The wealth which the Romans defended against his rapacious + tyranny, they freely contributed for his destruction. The name of + Maximian, the popular arts of his son, the secret distribution of large + sums, and the promise of still more liberal rewards, checked the ardor and + corrupted the fidelity of the Illyrian legions; and when Galerius at + length gave the signal of the retreat, it was with some difficulty that he + could prevail on his veterans not to desert a banner which had so often + conducted them to victory and honor. A contemporary writer assigns two + other causes for the failure of the expedition; but they are both of such + a nature, that a cautious historian will scarcely venture to adopt them. + We are told that Galerius, who had formed a very imperfect notion of the + greatness of Rome by the cities of the East with which he was acquainted, + found his forces inadequate to the siege of that immense capital. But the + extent of a city serves only to render it more accessible to the enemy: + Rome had long since been accustomed to submit on the approach of a + conqueror; nor could the temporary enthusiasm of the people have long + contended against the discipline and valor of the legions. We are likewise + informed that the legions themselves were struck with horror and remorse, + and that those pious sons of the republic refused to violate the sanctity + of their venerable parent. But when we recollect with how much ease, in + the more ancient civil wars, the zeal of party and the habits of military + obedience had converted the native citizens of Rome into her most + implacable enemies, we shall be inclined to distrust this extreme delicacy + of strangers and barbarians, who had never beheld Italy till they entered + it in a hostile manner. Had they not been restrained by motives of a more + interested nature, they would probably have answered Galerius in the words + of Cæsar’s veterans: “If our general wishes to lead us to the banks + of the Tyber, we are prepared to trace out his camp. Whatsoever walls he + has determined to level with the ground, our hands are ready to work the + engines: nor shall we hesitate, should the name of the devoted city be + Rome itself.” These are indeed the expressions of a poet; but of a poet + who has been distinguished, and even censured, for his strict adherence to + the truth of history. + </p> + <p> + The legions of Galerius exhibited a very melancholy proof of their + disposition, by the ravages which they committed in their retreat. They + murdered, they ravished, they plundered, they drove away the flocks and + herds of the Italians; they burnt the villages through which they passed, + and they endeavored to destroy the country which it had not been in their + power to subdue. During the whole march, Maxentius hung on their rear, but + he very prudently declined a general engagement with those brave and + desperate veterans. His father had undertaken a second journey into Gaul, + with the hope of persuading Constantine, who had assembled an army on the + frontier, to join in the pursuit, and to complete the victory. But the + actions of Constantine were guided by reason, and not by resentment. He + persisted in the wise resolution of maintaining a balance of power in the + divided empire, and he no longer hated Galerius, when that aspiring prince + had ceased to be an object of terror. + </p> + <p> + The mind of Galerius was the most susceptible of the sterner passions, but + it was not, however, incapable of a sincere and lasting friendship. + Licinius, whose manners as well as character were not unlike his own, + seems to have engaged both his affection and esteem. Their intimacy had + commenced in the happier period perhaps of their youth and obscurity. It + had been cemented by the freedom and dangers of a military life; they had + advanced almost by equal steps through the successive honors of the + service; and as soon as Galerius was invested with the Imperial dignity, + he seems to have conceived the design of raising his companion to the same + rank with himself. During the short period of his prosperity, he + considered the rank of Cæsar as unworthy of the age and merit of + Licinius, and rather chose to reserve for him the place of Constantius, + and the empire of the West. While the emperor was employed in the Italian + war, he intrusted his friend with the defence of the Danube; and + immediately after his return from that unfortunate expedition, he invested + Licinius with the vacant purple of Severus, resigning to his immediate + command the provinces of Illyricum. The news of his promotion was no + sooner carried into the East, than Maximin, who governed, or rather + oppressed, the countries of Egypt and Syria, betrayed his envy and + discontent, disdained the inferior name of Cæsar, and, + notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, exacted, + almost by violence, the equal title of Augustus. For the first, and indeed + for the last time, the Roman world was administered by six emperors. In + the West, Constantine and Maxentius affected to reverence their father + Maximian. In the East, Licinius and Maximin honored with more real + consideration their benefactor Galerius. The opposition of interest, and + the memory of a recent war, divided the empire into two great hostile + powers; but their mutual fears produced an apparent tranquillity, and even + a feigned reconciliation, till the death of the elder princes, of + Maximian, and more particularly of Galerius, gave a new direction to the + views and passions of their surviving associates. + </p> + <p> + When Maximian had reluctantly abdicated the empire, the venal orators of + the times applauded his philosophic moderation. When his ambition excited, + or at least encouraged, a civil war, they returned thanks to his generous + patriotism, and gently censured that love of ease and retirement which had + withdrawn him from the public service. But it was impossible that minds + like those of Maximian and his son could long possess in harmony an + undivided power. Maxentius considered himself as the legal sovereign of + Italy, elected by the Roman senate and people; nor would he endure the + control of his father, who arrogantly declared that by his name and + abilities the rash youth had been established on the throne. The cause was + solemnly pleaded before the Prætorian guards; and those troops, who + dreaded the severity of the old emperor, espoused the party of Maxentius. + The life and freedom of Maximian were, however, respected, and he retired + from Italy into Illyricum, affecting to lament his past conduct, and + secretly contriving new mischiefs. But Galerius, who was well acquainted + with his character, soon obliged him to leave his dominions, and the last + refuge of the disappointed Maximian was the court of his son-in-law + Constantine. He was received with respect by that artful prince, and with + the appearance of filial tenderness by the empress Fausta. That he might + remove every suspicion, he resigned the Imperial purple a second time, + professing himself at length convinced of the vanity of greatness and + ambition. Had he persevered in this resolution, he might have ended his + life with less dignity, indeed, than in his first retirement, yet, + however, with comfort and reputation. But the near prospect of a throne + brought back to his remembrance the state from whence he was fallen, and + he resolved, by a desperate effort, either to reign or to perish. An + incursion of the Franks had summoned Constantine, with a part of his army, + to the banks of the Rhine; the remainder of the troops were stationed in + the southern provinces of Gaul, which lay exposed to the enterprises of + the Italian emperor, and a considerable treasure was deposited in the city + of Arles. Maximian either craftily invented, or easily credited, a vain + report of the death of Constantine. Without hesitation he ascended the + throne, seized the treasure, and scattering it with his accustomed + profusion among the soldiers, endeavored to awake in their minds the + memory of his ancient dignity and exploits. Before he could establish his + authority, or finish the negotiation which he appears to have entered into + with his son Maxentius, the celerity of Constantine defeated all his + hopes. On the first news of his perfidy and ingratitude, that prince + returned by rapid marches from the Rhine to the Saone, embarked on the + last-mentioned river at Chalons, and, at Lyons trusting himself to the + rapidity of the Rhone, arrived at the gates of Arles with a military + force which it was impossible for Maximian to resist, and which scarcely + permitted him to take refuge in the neighboring city of Marseilles. The + narrow neck of land which joined that place to the continent was fortified + against the besiegers, whilst the sea was open, either for the escape of + Maximian, or for the succor of Maxentius, if the latter should choose to + disguise his invasion of Gaul under the honorable pretence of defending a + distressed, or, as he might allege, an injured father. Apprehensive of the + fatal consequences of delay, Constantine gave orders for an immediate + assault; but the scaling-ladders were found too short for the height of + the walls, and Marseilles might have sustained as long a siege as it + formerly did against the arms of Cæsar, if the garrison, conscious + either of their fault or of their danger, had not purchased their pardon + by delivering up the city and the person of Maximian. A secret but + irrevocable sentence of death was pronounced against the usurper; he + obtained only the same favor which he had indulged to Severus, and it was + published to the world, that, oppressed by the remorse of his repeated + crimes, he strangled himself with his own hands. After he had lost the + assistance, and disdained the moderate counsels, of Diocletian, the second + period of his active life was a series of public calamities and personal + mortifications, which were terminated, in about three years, by an + ignominious death. He deserved his fate; but we should find more reason to + applaud the humanity of Constantine, if he had spared an old man, the + benefactor of his father, and the father of his wife. During the whole of + this melancholy transaction, it appears that Fausta sacrificed the + sentiments of nature to her conjugal duties. + </p> + <p> + The last years of Galerius were less shameful and unfortunate; and though + he had filled with more glory the subordinate station of Cæsar than + the superior rank of Augustus, he preserved, till the moment of his death, + the first place among the princes of the Roman world. He survived his + retreat from Italy about four years; and wisely relinquishing his views of + universal empire, he devoted the remainder of his life to the enjoyment of + pleasure, and to the execution of some works of public utility, among + which we may distinguish the discharging into the Danube the superfluous + waters of the Lake Pelso, and the cutting down the immense forests that + encompassed it; an operation worthy of a monarch, since it gave an + extensive country to the agriculture of his Pannonian subjects. His death + was occasioned by a very painful and lingering disorder. His body, swelled + by an intemperate course of life to an unwieldy corpulence, was covered + with ulcers, and devoured by innumerable swarms of those insects which + have given their name to a most loathsome disease; but as Galerius had + offended a very zealous and powerful party among his subjects, his + sufferings, instead of exciting their compassion, have been celebrated as + the visible effects of divine justice. He had no sooner expired in his + palace of Nicomedia, than the two emperors who were indebted for their + purple to his favors, began to collect their forces, with the intention + either of disputing, or of dividing, the dominions which he had left + without a master. They were persuaded, however, to desist from the former + design, and to agree in the latter. The provinces of Asia fell to the + share of Maximin, and those of Europe augmented the portion of Licinius. + The Hellespont and the Thracian Bosphorus formed their mutual boundary, + and the banks of those narrow seas, which flowed in the midst of the Roman + world, were covered with soldiers, with arms, and with fortifications. The + deaths of Maximian and of Galerius reduced the number of emperors to four. + The sense of their true interest soon connected Licinius and Constantine; + a secret alliance was concluded between Maximin and Maxentius, and their + unhappy subjects expected with terror the bloody consequences of their + inevitable dissensions, which were no longer restrained by the fear or the + respect which they had entertained for Galerius. + </p> + <p> + Among so many crimes and misfortunes, occasioned by the passions of the + Roman princes, there is some pleasure in discovering a single action which + may be ascribed to their virtue. In the sixth year of his reign, + Constantine visited the city of Autun, and generously remitted the arrears + of tribute, reducing at the same time the proportion of their assessment + from twenty-five to eighteen thousand heads, subject to the real and + personal capitation. Yet even this indulgence affords the most + unquestionable proof of the public misery. This tax was so extremely + oppressive, either in itself or in the mode of collecting it, that whilst + the revenue was increased by extortion, it was diminished by despair: a + considerable part of the territory of Autun was left uncultivated; and + great numbers of the provincials rather chose to live as exiles and + outlaws, than to support the weight of civil society. It is but too + probable, that the bountiful emperor relieved, by a partial act of + liberality, one among the many evils which he had caused by his general + maxims of administration. But even those maxims were less the effect of + choice than of necessity. And if we except the death of Maximian, the + reign of Constantine in Gaul seems to have been the most innocent and even + virtuous period of his life. The provinces were protected by his presence + from the inroads of the barbarians, who either dreaded or experienced his + active valor. After a signal victory over the Franks and Alemanni, several + of their princes were exposed by his order to the wild beasts in the + amphitheatre of Treves, and the people seem to have enjoyed the spectacle, + without discovering, in such a treatment of royal captives, any thing that + was repugnant to the laws of nations or of humanity. * + </p> + <p> + The virtues of Constantine were rendered more illustrious by the vices of + Maxentius. Whilst the Gallic provinces enjoyed as much happiness as the + condition of the times was capable of receiving, Italy and Africa groaned + under the dominion of a tyrant, as contemptible as he was odious. The zeal + of flattery and faction has indeed too frequently sacrificed the + reputation of the vanquished to the glory of their successful rivals; but + even those writers who have revealed, with the most freedom and pleasure, + the faults of Constantine, unanimously confess that Maxentius was cruel, + rapacious, and profligate. He had the good fortune to suppress a slight + rebellion in Africa. The governor and a few adherents had been guilty; the + province suffered for their crime. The flourishing cities of Cirtha and + Carthage, and the whole extent of that fertile country, were wasted by + fire and sword. The abuse of victory was followed by the abuse of law and + justice. A formidable army of sycophants and delators invaded Africa; the + rich and the noble were easily convicted of a connection with the rebels; + and those among them who experienced the emperor’s clemency, were only + punished by the confiscation of their estates. So signal a victory was + celebrated by a magnificent triumph, and Maxentius exposed to the eyes of + the people the spoils and captives of a Roman province. The state of the + capital was no less deserving of compassion than that of Africa. The + wealth of Rome supplied an inexhaustible fund for his vain and prodigal + expenses, and the ministers of his revenue were skilled in the arts of + rapine. It was under his reign that the method of exacting a <i>free + gift</i> from the senators was first invented; and as the sum + was insensibly increased, the pretences of levying it, a victory, a birth, + a marriage, or an imperial consulship, were proportionably multiplied. + Maxentius had imbibed the same implacable aversion to the senate, which + had characterized most of the former tyrants of Rome; nor was it possible + for his ungrateful temper to forgive the generous fidelity which had + raised him to the throne, and supported him against all his enemies. The + lives of the senators were exposed to his jealous suspicions, the dishonor + of their wives and daughters heightened the gratification of his sensual + passions. It may be presumed that an Imperial lover was seldom reduced to + sigh in vain; but whenever persuasion proved ineffectual, he had recourse + to violence; and there remains <i>one</i> memorable + example of a noble matron, who preserved her chastity by a voluntary + death. The soldiers were the only order of men whom he appeared to + respect, or studied to please. He filled Rome and Italy with armed troops, + connived at their tumults, suffered them with impunity to plunder, and + even to massacre, the defenceless people; and indulging them in the same + licentiousness which their emperor enjoyed, Maxentius often bestowed on + his military favorites the splendid villa, or the beautiful wife, of a + senator. A prince of such a character, alike incapable of governing, + either in peace or in war, might purchase the support, but he could never + obtain the esteem, of the army. Yet his pride was equal to his other + vices. Whilst he passed his indolent life either within the walls of his + palace, or in the neighboring gardens of Sallust, he was repeatedly heard + to declare, that <i>he</i> <i>alone</i> + was emperor, and that the other princes were no more than his lieutenants, + on whom he had devolved the defence of the frontier provinces, that he + might enjoy without interruption the elegant luxury of the capital. Rome, + which had so long regretted the absence, lamented, during the six years of + his reign, the presence of her sovereign. + </p> + <p> + Though Constantine might view the conduct of Maxentius with abhorrence, + and the situation of the Romans with compassion, we have no reason to + presume that he would have taken up arms to punish the one or to relieve + the other. But the tyrant of Italy rashly ventured to provoke a formidable + enemy, whose ambition had been hitherto restrained by considerations of + prudence, rather than by principles of justice. After the death of + Maximian, his titles, according to the established custom, had been + erased, and his statues thrown down with ignominy. His son, who had + persecuted and deserted him when alive, effected to display the most pious + regard for his memory, and gave orders that a similar treatment should be + immediately inflicted on all the statues that had been erected in Italy + and Africa to the honor of Constantine. That wise prince, who sincerely + wished to decline a war, with the difficulty and importance of which he + was sufficiently acquainted, at first dissembled the insult, and sought + for redress by the milder expedient of negotiation, till he was convinced + that the hostile and ambitious designs of the Italian emperor made it + necessary for him to arm in his own defence. Maxentius, who openly avowed + his pretensions to the whole monarchy of the West, had already prepared a + very considerable force to invade the Gallic provinces on the side of Rhætia; + and though he could not expect any assistance from Licinius, he was + flattered with the hope that the legions of Illyricum, allured by his + presents and promises, would desert the standard of that prince, and + unanimously declare themselves his soldiers and subjects. Constantine no + longer hesitated. He had deliberated with caution, he acted with vigor. He + gave a private audience to the ambassadors, who, in the name of the senate + and people, conjured him to deliver Rome from a detested tyrant; and + without regarding the timid remonstrances of his council, he resolved to + prevent the enemy, and to carry the war into the heart of Italy. + </p> + <p> + The enterprise was as full of danger as of glory; and the unsuccessful + event of two former invasions was sufficient to inspire the most serious + apprehensions. The veteran troops, who revered the name of Maximian, had + embraced in both those wars the party of his son, and were now restrained + by a sense of honor, as well as of interest, from entertaining an idea of + a second desertion. Maxentius, who considered the Prætorian guards + as the firmest defence of his throne, had increased them to their ancient + establishment; and they composed, including the rest of the Italians who + were enlisted into his service, a formidable body of fourscore thousand + men. Forty thousand Moors and Carthaginians had been raised since the + reduction of Africa. Even Sicily furnished its proportion of troops; and + the armies of Maxentius amounted to one hundred and seventy thousand foot + and eighteen thousand horse. The wealth of Italy supplied the expenses of + the war; and the adjacent provinces were exhausted, to form immense + magazines of corn and every other kind of provisions. + </p> + <p> + The whole force of Constantine consisted of ninety thousand foot and eight + thousand horse; and as the defence of the Rhine required an extraordinary + attention during the absence of the emperor, it was not in his power to + employ above half his troops in the Italian expedition, unless he + sacrificed the public safety to his private quarrel. At the head of about + forty thousand soldiers he marched to encounter an enemy whose numbers + were at least four times superior to his own. But the armies of Rome, + placed at a secure distance from danger, were enervated by indulgence and + luxury. Habituated to the baths and theatres of Rome, they took the field + with reluctance, and were chiefly composed of veterans who had almost + forgotten, or of new levies who had never acquired, the use of arms and + the practice of war. The hardy legions of Gaul had long defended the + frontiers of the empire against the barbarians of the North; and in the + performance of that laborious service, their valor was exercised and their + discipline confirmed. There appeared the same difference between the + leaders as between the armies. Caprice or flattery had tempted Maxentius + with the hopes of conquest; but these aspiring hopes soon gave way to the + habits of pleasure and the consciousness of his inexperience. The intrepid + mind of Constantine had been trained from his earliest youth to war, to + action, and to military command. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch14-p3" id="linkch14-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + When Hannibal marched from Gaul into Italy, he was obliged, first to + discover, and then to open, a way over mountains, and through savage + nations, that had never yielded a passage to a regular army. The Alps were + then guarded by nature, they are now fortified by art. Citadels, + constructed with no less skill than labor and expense, command every + avenue into the plain, and on that side render Italy almost inaccessible + to the enemies of the king of Sardinia. But in the course of the + intermediate period, the generals, who have attempted the passage, have + seldom experienced any difficulty or resistance. In the age of + Constantine, the peasants of the mountains were civilized and obedient + subjects; the country was plentifully stocked with provisions, and the + stupendous highways, which the Romans had carried over the Alps, opened + several communications between Gaul and Italy. Constantine preferred the + road of the Cottian Alps, or, as it is now called, of Mount Cenis, and led + his troops with such active diligence, that he descended into the plain of + Piedmont before the court of Maxentius had received any certain + intelligence of his departure from the banks of the Rhine. The city of + Susa, however, which is situated at the foot of Mount Cenis, was + surrounded with walls, and provided with a garrison sufficiently numerous + to check the progress of an invader; but the impatience of Constantine’s + troops disdained the tedious forms of a siege. The same day that they + appeared before Susa, they applied fire to the gates, and ladders to the + walls; and mounting to the assault amidst a shower of stones and arrows, + they entered the place sword in hand, and cut in pieces the greatest part + of the garrison. The flames were extinguished by the care of Constantine, + and the remains of Susa preserved from total destruction. About forty + miles from thence, a more severe contest awaited him. A numerous army of + Italians was assembled under the lieutenants of Maxentius, in the plains + of Turin. Its principal strength consisted in a species of heavy cavalry, + which the Romans, since the decline of their discipline, had borrowed from + the nations of the East. The horses, as well as the men, were clothed in + complete armor, the joints of which were artfully adapted to the motions + of their bodies. The aspect of this cavalry was formidable, their weight + almost irresistible; and as, on this occasion, their generals had drawn + them up in a compact column or wedge, with a sharp point, and with + spreading flanks, they flattered themselves that they could easily break + and trample down the army of Constantine. They might, perhaps, have + succeeded in their design, had not their experienced adversary embraced + the same method of defence, which in similar circumstances had been + practised by Aurelian. The skilful evolutions of Constantine divided and + baffled this massy column of cavalry. The troops of Maxentius fled in + confusion towards Turin; and as the gates of the city were shut against + them, very few escaped the sword of the victorious pursuers. By this + important service, Turin deserved to experience the clemency and even + favor of the conqueror. He made his entry into the Imperial palace of + Milan, and almost all the cities of Italy between the Alps and the Po not + only acknowledged the power, but embraced with zeal the party, of + Constantine. + </p> + <p> + From Milan to Rome, the Æmilian and Flaminian highways offered an + easy march of about four hundred miles; but though Constantine was + impatient to encounter the tyrant, he prudently directed his operations + against another army of Italians, who, by their strength and position, + might either oppose his progress, or, in case of a misfortune, might + intercept his retreat. Ruricius Pompeianus, a general distinguished by his + valor and ability, had under his command the city of Verona, and all the + troops that were stationed in the province of Venetia. As soon as he was + informed that Constantine was advancing towards him, he detached a large + body of cavalry, which was defeated in an engagement near Brescia, and + pursued by the Gallic legions as far as the gates of Verona. The + necessity, the importance, and the difficulties of the siege of Verona, + immediately presented themselves to the sagacious mind of Constantine. The + city was accessible only by a narrow peninsula towards the west, as the + other three sides were surrounded by the Adige, a rapid river, which + covered the province of Venetia, from whence the besieged derived an + inexhaustible supply of men and provisions. It was not without great + difficulty, and after several fruitless attempts, that Constantine found + means to pass the river at some distance above the city, and in a place + where the torrent was less violent. He then encompassed Verona with strong + lines, pushed his attacks with prudent vigor, and repelled a desperate + sally of Pompeianus. That intrepid general, when he had used every means + of defence that the strength of the place or that of the garrison could + afford, secretly escaped from Verona, anxious not for his own, but for the + public safety. With indefatigable diligence he soon collected an army + sufficient either to meet Constantine in the field, or to attack him if he + obstinately remained within his lines. The emperor, attentive to the + motions, and informed of the approach of so formidable an enemy, left a + part of his legions to continue the operations of the siege, whilst, at + the head of those troops on whose valor and fidelity he more particularly + depended, he advanced in person to engage the general of Maxentius. The + army of Gaul was drawn up in two lines, according to the usual practice of + war; but their experienced leader, perceiving that the numbers of the + Italians far exceeded his own, suddenly changed his disposition, and, + reducing the second, extended the front of his first line to a just + proportion with that of the enemy. Such evolutions, which only veteran + troops can execute without confusion in a moment of danger, commonly prove + decisive; but as this engagement began towards the close of the day, and + was contested with great obstinacy during the whole night, there was less + room for the conduct of the generals than for the courage of the soldiers. + The return of light displayed the victory of Constantine, and a field of + carnage covered with many thousands of the vanquished Italians. Their + general, Pompeianus, was found among the slain; Verona immediately + surrendered at discretion, and the garrison was made prisoners of war. + When the officers of the victorious army congratulated their master on + this important success, they ventured to add some respectful complaints, + of such a nature, however, as the most jealous monarchs will listen to + without displeasure. They represented to Constantine, that, not contented + with all the duties of a commander, he had exposed his own person with an + excess of valor which almost degenerated into rashness; and they conjured + him for the future to pay more regard to the preservation of a life in + which the safety of Rome and of the empire was involved. + </p> + <p> + While Constantine signalized his conduct and valor in the field, the + sovereign of Italy appeared insensible of the calamities and danger of a + civil war which reigned in the heart of his dominions. Pleasure was still + the only business of Maxentius. Concealing, or at least attempting to + conceal, from the public knowledge the misfortunes of his arms, he + indulged himself in a vain confidence which deferred the remedies of the + approaching evil, without deferring the evil itself. The rapid progress of + Constantine was scarcely sufficient to awaken him from his fatal security; + he flattered himself, that his well-known liberality, and the majesty of + the Roman name, which had already delivered him from two invasions, would + dissipate with the same facility the rebellious army of Gaul. The officers + of experience and ability, who had served under the banners of Maximian, + were at length compelled to inform his effeminate son of the imminent + danger to which he was reduced; and, with a freedom that at once surprised + and convinced him, to urge the necessity of preventing his ruin by a + vigorous exertion of his remaining power. The resources of Maxentius, both + of men and money, were still considerable. The Prætorian guards felt + how strongly their own interest and safety were connected with his cause; + and a third army was soon collected, more numerous than those which had + been lost in the battles of Turin and Verona. It was far from the + intention of the emperor to lead his troops in person. A stranger to the + exercises of war, he trembled at the apprehension of so dangerous a + contest; and as fear is commonly superstitious, he listened with + melancholy attention to the rumors of omens and presages which seemed to + menace his life and empire. Shame at length supplied the place of courage, + and forced him to take the field. He was unable to sustain the contempt of + the Roman people. The circus resounded with their indignant clamors, and + they tumultuously besieged the gates of the palace, reproaching the + pusillanimity of their indolent sovereign, and celebrating the heroic + spirit of Constantine. Before Maxentius left Rome, he consulted the + Sibylline books. The guardians of these ancient oracles were as well + versed in the arts of this world as they were ignorant of the secrets of + fate; and they returned him a very prudent answer, which might adapt + itself to the event, and secure their reputation, whatever should be the + chance of arms. + </p> + <p> + The celerity of Constantine’s march has been compared to the rapid + conquest of Italy by the first of the Cæsars; nor is the flattering + parallel repugnant to the truth of history, since no more than fifty-eight + days elapsed between the surrender of Verona and the final decision of the + war. Constantine had always apprehended that the tyrant would consult the + dictates of fear, and perhaps of prudence; and that, instead of risking + his last hopes in a general engagement, he would shut himself up within + the walls of Rome. His ample magazines secured him against the danger of + famine; and as the situation of Constantine admitted not of delay, he + might have been reduced to the sad necessity of destroying with fire and + sword the Imperial city, the noblest reward of his victory, and the + deliverance of which had been the motive, or rather indeed the pretence, + of the civil war. It was with equal surprise and pleasure, that on his + arrival at a place called Saxa Rubra, about nine miles from Rome, he + discovered the army of Maxentius prepared to give him battle. Their long + front filled a very spacious plain, and their deep array reached to the + banks of the Tyber, which covered their rear, and forbade their retreat. + We are informed, and we may believe, that Constantine disposed his troops + with consummate skill, and that he chose for himself the post of honor and + danger. Distinguished by the splendor of his arms, he charged in person + the cavalry of his rival; and his irresistible attack determined the + fortune of the day. The cavalry of Maxentius was principally composed + either of unwieldy cuirassiers, or of light Moors and Numidians. They + yielded to the vigor of the Gallic horse, which possessed more activity + than the one, more firmness than the other. The defeat of the two wings + left the infantry without any protection on its flanks, and the + undisciplined Italians fled without reluctance from the standard of a + tyrant whom they had always hated, and whom they no longer feared. The Prætorians, + conscious that their offences were beyond the reach of mercy, were + animated by revenge and despair. Notwithstanding their repeated efforts, + those brave veterans were unable to recover the victory: they obtained, + however, an honorable death; and it was observed that their bodies covered + the same ground which had been occupied by their ranks. The confusion then + became general, and the dismayed troops of Maxentius, pursued by an + implacable enemy, rushed by thousands into the deep and rapid stream of + the Tyber. The emperor himself attempted to escape back into the city over + the Milvian bridge; but the crowds which pressed together through that + narrow passage forced him into the river, where he was immediately drowned + by the weight of his armor. His body, which had sunk very deep into the + mud, was found with some difficulty the next day. The sight of his head, + when it was exposed to the eyes of the people, convinced them of their + deliverance, and admonished them to receive with acclamations of loyalty + and gratitude the fortunate Constantine, who thus achieved by his valor + and ability the most splendid enterprise of his life. + </p> + <p> + In the use of victory, Constantine neither deserved the praise of + clemency, nor incurred the censure of immoderate rigor. He inflicted the + same treatment to which a defeat would have exposed his own person and + family, put to death the two sons of the tyrant, and carefully extirpated + his whole race. The most distinguished adherents of Maxentius must have + expected to share his fate, as they had shared his prosperity and his + crimes; but when the Roman people loudly demanded a greater number of + victims, the conqueror resisted, with firmness and humanity, those servile + clamors, which were dictated by flattery as well as by resentment. + Informers were punished and discouraged; the innocent, who had suffered + under the late tyranny, were recalled from exile, and restored to their + estates. A general act of oblivion quieted the minds and settled the + property of the people, both in Italy and in Africa. The first time that + Constantine honored the senate with his presence, he recapitulated his own + services and exploits in a modest oration, assured that illustrious order + of his sincere regard, and promised to reëstablish its ancient dignity and + privileges. The grateful senate repaid these unmeaning professions by the + empty titles of honor, which it was yet in their power to bestow; and + without presuming to ratify the authority of Constantine, they passed a + decree to assign him the first rank among the three <i>Augusti</i> + who governed the Roman world. Games and festivals were instituted to + preserve the fame of his victory, and several edifices, raised at the + expense of Maxentius, were dedicated to the honor of his successful rival. + The triumphal arch of Constantine still remains a melancholy proof of the + decline of the arts, and a singular testimony of the meanest vanity. As it + was not possible to find in the capital of the empire a sculptor who was + capable of adorning that public monument, the arch of Trajan, without any + respect either for his memory or for the rules of propriety, was stripped + of its most elegant figures. The difference of times and persons, of + actions and characters, was totally disregarded. The Parthian captives + appear prostrate at the feet of a prince who never carried his arms beyond + the Euphrates; and curious antiquarians can still discover the head of + Trajan on the trophies of Constantine. The new ornaments which it was + necessary to introduce between the vacancies of ancient sculpture are + executed in the rudest and most unskilful manner. + </p> + <p> + The final abolition of the Prætorian guards was a measure of + prudence as well as of revenge. Those haughty troops, whose numbers and + privileges had been restored, and even augmented, by Maxentius, were + forever suppressed by Constantine. Their fortified camp was destroyed, and + the few Prætorians who had escaped the fury of the sword were + dispersed among the legions, and banished to the frontiers of the empire, + where they might be serviceable without again becoming dangerous. By + suppressing the troops which were usually stationed in Rome, Constantine + gave the fatal blow to the dignity of the senate and people, and the + disarmed capital was exposed without protection to the insults or neglect + of its distant master. We may observe, that in this last effort to + preserve their expiring freedom, the Romans, from the apprehension of a + tribute, had raised Maxentius to the throne. He exacted that tribute from + the senate under the name of a free gift. They implored the assistance of + Constantine. He vanquished the tyrant, and converted the free gift into a + perpetual tax. The senators, according to the declaration which was + required of their property, were divided into several classes. The most + opulent paid annually eight pounds of gold, the next class paid four, the + last two, and those whose poverty might have claimed an exemption, were + assessed, however, at seven pieces of gold. Besides the regular members of + the senate, their sons, their descendants, and even their relations, + enjoyed the vain privileges, and supported the heavy burdens, of the + senatorial order; nor will it any longer excite our surprise, that + Constantine should be attentive to increase the number of persons who were + included under so useful a description. After the defeat of Maxentius, the + victorious emperor passed no more than two or three months in Rome, which + he visited twice during the remainder of his life, to celebrate the solemn + festivals of the tenth and of the twentieth years of his reign. + Constantine was almost perpetually in motion, to exercise the legions, or + to inspect the state of the provinces. Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Sirmium, + Naissus, and Thessalonica, were the occasional places of his residence, + till he founded a new Rome on the confines of Europe and Asia. + </p> + <p> + Before Constantine marched into Italy, he had secured the friendship, or + at least the neutrality, of Licinius, the Illyrian emperor. He had + promised his sister Constantia in marriage to that prince; but the + celebration of the nuptials was deferred till after the conclusion of the + war, and the interview of the two emperors at Milan, which was appointed + for that purpose, appeared to cement the union of their families and + interests. In the midst of the public festivity they were suddenly obliged + to take leave of each other. An inroad of the Franks summoned Constantine + to the Rhine, and the hostile approach of the sovereign of Asia demanded + the immediate presence of Licinius. Maximin had been the secret ally of + Maxentius, and without being discouraged by his fate, he resolved to try + the fortune of a civil war. He moved out of Syria, towards the frontiers + of Bithynia, in the depth of winter. The season was severe and + tempestuous; great numbers of men as well as horses perished in the snow; + and as the roads were broken up by incessant rains, he was obliged to + leave behind him a considerable part of the heavy baggage, which was + unable to follow the rapidity of his forced marches. By this extraordinary + effort of diligence, he arrived with a harassed but formidable army, on + the banks of the Thracian Bosphorus before the lieutenants of Licinius + were apprised of his hostile intentions. Byzantium surrendered to the + power of Maximin, after a siege of eleven days. He was detained some days + under the walls of Heraclea; and he had no sooner taken possession of that + city than he was alarmed by the intelligence that Licinius had pitched + his camp at the distance of only eighteen miles. After a fruitless + negotiation, in which the two princes attempted to seduce the fidelity of + each other’s adherents, they had recourse to arms. The emperor of the East + commanded a disciplined and veteran army of above seventy thousand men; + and Licinius, who had collected about thirty thousand Illyrians, was at + first oppressed by the superiority of numbers. His military skill, and the + firmness of his troops, restored the day, and obtained a decisive victory. + The incredible speed which Maximin exerted in his flight is much more + celebrated than his prowess in the battle. Twenty-four hours afterwards he + was seen, pale, trembling, and without his Imperial ornaments, at + Nicomedia, one hundred and sixty miles from the place of his defeat. The + wealth of Asia was yet unexhausted; and though the flower of his veterans + had fallen in the late action, he had still power, if he could obtain + time, to draw very numerous levies from Syria and Egypt. But he survived + his misfortune only three or four months. His death, which happened at + Tarsus, was variously ascribed to despair, to poison, and to the divine + justice. As Maximin was alike destitute of abilities and of virtue, he was + lamented neither by the people nor by the soldiers. The provinces of the + East, delivered from the terrors of civil war, cheerfully acknowledged the + authority of Licinius. + </p> + <p> + The vanquished emperor left behind him two children, a boy of about eight, + and a girl of about seven, years old. Their inoffensive age might have + excited compassion; but the compassion of Licinius was a very feeble + resource, nor did it restrain him from <i>extinguishing</i>the + name and memory of his adversary. The death of Severianus will admit of + less excuse, as it was dictated neither by revenge nor by policy. The + conqueror had never received any injury from the father of that unhappy + youth, and the short and obscure reign of Severus, in a distant part of + the empire, was already forgotten. But the execution of Candidianus was an + act of the blackest cruelty and ingratitude. He was the natural son of + Galerius, the friend and benefactor of Licinius. The prudent father had + judged him too young to sustain the weight of a diadem; but he hoped that, + under the protection of princes who were indebted to his favor for the + Imperial purple, Candidianus might pass a secure and honorable life. He + was now advancing towards the twentieth year of his age, and the royalty + of his birth, though unsupported either by merit or ambition, was + sufficient to exasperate the jealous mind of Licinius. To these innocent + and illustrious victims of his tyranny, we must add the wife and daughter + of the emperor Diocletian. When that prince conferred on Galerius the + title of Cæsar, he had given him in marriage his daughter Valeria, + whose melancholy adventures might furnish a very singular subject for + tragedy. She had fulfilled and even surpassed the duties of a wife. As she + had not any children herself, she condescended to adopt the illegitimate + son of her husband, and invariably displayed towards the unhappy + Candidianus the tenderness and anxiety of a real mother. After the death + of Galerius, her ample possessions provoked the avarice, and her personal + attractions excited the desires, of his successor, Maximin. He had a wife + still alive; but divorce was permitted by the Roman law, and the fierce + passions of the tyrant demanded an immediate gratification. The answer of + Valeria was such as became the daughter and widow of emperors; but it was + tempered by the prudence which her defenceless condition compelled her to + observe. She represented to the persons whom Maximin had employed on this + occasion, “that even if honor could permit a woman of her character and + dignity to entertain a thought of second nuptials, decency at least must + forbid her to listen to his addresses at a time when the ashes of her + husband and his benefactor were still warm, and while the sorrows of her + mind were still expressed by her mourning garments. She ventured to + declare, that she could place very little confidence in the professions of + a man whose cruel inconstancy was capable of repudiating a faithful and + affectionate wife.” On this repulse, the love of Maximin was converted + into fury; and as witnesses and judges were always at his disposal, it was + easy for him to cover his fury with an appearance of legal proceedings, + and to assault the reputation as well as the happiness of Valeria. Her + estates were confiscated, her eunuchs and domestics devoted to the most + inhuman tortures; and several innocent and respectable matrons, who were + honored with her friendship, suffered death, on a false accusation of + adultery. The empress herself, together with her mother Prisca, was + condemned to exile; and as they were ignominiously hurried from place to + place before they were confined to a sequestered village in the deserts of + Syria, they exposed their shame and distress to the provinces of the East, + which, during thirty years, had respected their august dignity. Diocletian + made several ineffectual efforts to alleviate the misfortunes of his + daughter; and, as the last return that he expected for the Imperial + purple, which he had conferred upon Maximin, he entreated that Valeria + might be permitted to share his retirement of Salona, and to close the + eyes of her afflicted father. He entreated; but as he could no longer + threaten, his prayers were received with coldness and disdain; and the + pride of Maximin was gratified, in treating Diocletian as a suppliant, and + his daughter as a criminal. The death of Maximin seemed to assure the + empresses of a favorable alteration in their fortune. The public disorders + relaxed the vigilance of their guard, and they easily found means to + escape from the place of their exile, and to repair, though with some + precaution, and in disguise, to the court of Licinius. His behavior, in + the first days of his reign, and the honorable reception which he gave to + young Candidianus, inspired Valeria with a secret satisfaction, both on + her own account and on that of her adopted son. But these grateful + prospects were soon succeeded by horror and astonishment; and the bloody + executions which stained the palace of Nicomedia sufficiently convinced + her that the throne of Maximin was filled by a tyrant more inhuman than + himself. Valeria consulted her safety by a hasty flight, and, still + accompanied by her mother Prisca, they wandered above fifteen months + through the provinces, concealed in the disguise of plebeian habits. They + were at length discovered at Thessalonica; and as the sentence of their + death was already pronounced, they were immediately beheaded, and their + bodies thrown into the sea. The people gazed on the melancholy spectacle; + but their grief and indignation were suppressed by the terrors of a + military guard. Such was the unworthy fate of the wife and daughter of + Diocletian. We lament their misfortunes, we cannot discover their crimes; + and whatever idea we may justly entertain of the cruelty of Licinius, it + remains a matter of surprise that he was not contented with some more + secret and decent method of revenge. + </p> + <p> + The Roman world was now divided between Constantine and Licinius, the + former of whom was master of the West, and the latter of the East. It + might perhaps have been expected that the conquerors, fatigued with civil + war, and connected by a private as well as public alliance, would have + renounced, or at least would have suspended, any further designs of + ambition. And yet a year had scarcely elapsed after the death of Maximin, + before the victorious emperors turned their arms against each other. The + genius, the success, and the aspiring temper of Constantine, may seem to + mark him out as the aggressor; but the perfidious character of Licinius + justifies the most unfavorable suspicions, and by the faint light which + history reflects on this transaction, we may discover a conspiracy + fomented by his arts against the authority of his colleague. Constantine + had lately given his sister Anastasia in marriage to Bassianus, a man of a + considerable family and fortune, and had elevated his new kinsman to the + rank of Cæsar. According to the system of government instituted by + Diocletian, Italy, and perhaps Africa, were designed for his department in + the empire. But the performance of the promised favor was either attended + with so much delay, or accompanied with so many unequal conditions, that + the fidelity of Bassianus was alienated rather than secured by the + honorable distinction which he had obtained. His nomination had been + ratified by the consent of Licinius; and that artful prince, by the means + of his emissaries, soon contrived to enter into a secret and dangerous + correspondence with the new Cæsar, to irritate his discontents, and + to urge him to the rash enterprise of extorting by violence what he might + in vain solicit from the justice of Constantine. But the vigilant emperor + discovered the conspiracy before it was ripe for execution; and after + solemnly renouncing the alliance of Bassianus, despoiled him of the + purple, and inflicted the deserved punishment on his treason and + ingratitude. The haughty refusal of Licinius, when he was required to + deliver up the criminals who had taken refuge in his dominions, confirmed + the suspicions already entertained of his perfidy; and the indignities + offered at Æmona, on the frontiers of Italy, to the statues of + Constantine, became the signal of discord between the two princes. + </p> + <p> + The first battle was fought near Cibalis, a city of Pannonia, situated on + the River Save, about fifty miles above Sirmium. From the inconsiderable + forces which in this important contest two such powerful monarchs brought + into the field, it may be inferred that the one was suddenly provoked, and + that the other was unexpectedly surprised. The emperor of the West had + only twenty thousand, and the sovereign of the East no more than five and + thirty thousand, men. The inferiority of number was, however, compensated + by the advantage of the ground. Constantine had taken post in a defile + about half a mile in breadth, between a steep hill and a deep morass, and + in that situation he steadily expected and repulsed the first attack of + the enemy. He pursued his success, and advanced into the plain. But the + veteran legions of Illyricum rallied under the standard of a leader who + had been trained to arms in the school of Probus and Diocletian. The + missile weapons on both sides were soon exhausted; the two armies, with + equal valor, rushed to a closer engagement of swords and spears, and the + doubtful contest had already lasted from the dawn of the day to a late + hour of the evening, when the right wing, which Constantine led in person, + made a vigorous and decisive charge. The judicious retreat of Licinius + saved the remainder of his troops from a total defeat; but when he + computed his loss, which amounted to more than twenty thousand men, he + thought it unsafe to pass the night in the presence of an active and + victorious enemy. Abandoning his camp and magazines, he marched away with + secrecy and diligence at the head of the greatest part of his cavalry, and + was soon removed beyond the danger of a pursuit. His diligence preserved + his wife, his son, and his treasures, which he had deposited at Sirmium. + Licinius passed through that city, and breaking down the bridge on the + Save, hastened to collect a new army in Dacia and Thrace. In his flight he + bestowed the precarious title of Cæsar on Valens, his general of the + Illyrian frontier. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch14-p4" id="linkch14-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + The plain of Mardia in Thrace was the theatre of a second battle no less + obstinate and bloody than the former. The troops on both sides displayed + the same valor and discipline; and the victory was once more decided by + the superior abilities of Constantine, who directed a body of five + thousand men to gain an advantageous height, from whence, during the heat + of the action, they attacked the rear of the enemy, and made a very + considerable slaughter. The troops of Licinius, however, presenting a + double front, still maintained their ground, till the approach of night + put an end to the combat, and secured their retreat towards the mountains + of Macedonia. The loss of two battles, and of his bravest veterans, + reduced the fierce spirit of Licinius to sue for peace. His ambassador + Mistrianus was admitted to the audience of Constantine: he expatiated on + the common topics of moderation and humanity, which are so familiar to the + eloquence of the vanquished; represented in the most insinuating language, + that the event of the war was still doubtful, whilst its inevitable + calamities were alike pernicious to both the contending parties; and + declared that he was authorized to propose a lasting and honorable peace + in the name of the <i>two</i> emperors his masters. + Constantine received the mention of Valens with indignation and contempt. + “It was not for such a purpose,” he sternly replied, “that we have + advanced from the shores of the western ocean in an uninterrupted course + of combats and victories, that, after rejecting an ungrateful kinsman, we + should accept for our colleague a contemptible slave. The abdication of + Valens is the first article of the treaty.” It was necessary to accept + this humiliating condition; and the unhappy Valens, after a reign of a few + days, was deprived of the purple and of his life. As soon as this obstacle + was removed, the tranquillity of the Roman world was easily restored. The + successive defeats of Licinius had ruined his forces, but they had + displayed his courage and abilities. His situation was almost desperate, + but the efforts of despair are sometimes formidable, and the good sense of + Constantine preferred a great and certain advantage to a third trial of + the chance of arms. He consented to leave his rival, or, as he again + styled Licinius, his friend and brother, in the possession of Thrace, Asia + Minor, Syria, and Egypt; but the provinces of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, + Macedonia, and Greece, were yielded to the Western empire, and the + dominions of Constantine now extended from the confines of Caledonia to + the extremity of Peloponnesus. It was stipulated by the same treaty, that + three royal youths, the sons of emperors, should be called to the hopes of + the succession. Crispus and the young Constantine were soon afterwards + declared Cæsars in the West, while the younger Licinius was invested + with the same dignity in the East. In this double proportion of honors, + the conqueror asserted the superiority of his arms and power. + </p> + <p> + The reconciliation of Constantine and Licinius, though it was imbittered + by resentment and jealousy, by the remembrance of recent injuries, and by + the apprehension of future dangers, maintained, however, above eight + years, the tranquility of the Roman world. As a very regular series of the + Imperial laws commences about this period, it would not be difficult to + transcribe the civil regulations which employed the leisure of + Constantine. But the most important of his institutions are intimately + connected with the new system of policy and religion, which was not + perfectly established till the last and peaceful years of his reign. There + are many of his laws, which, as far as they concern the rights and + property of individuals, and the practice of the bar, are more properly + referred to the private than to the public jurisprudence of the empire; + and he published many edicts of so local and temporary a nature, that they + would ill deserve the notice of a general history. Two laws, however, may + be selected from the crowd; the one for its importance, the other for its + singularity; the former for its remarkable benevolence, the latter for its + excessive severity. 1. The horrid practice, so familiar to the ancients, + of exposing or murdering their new-born infants, was become every day more + frequent in the provinces, and especially in Italy. It was the effect of + distress; and the distress was principally occasioned by the intolerant + burden of taxes, and by the vexatious as well as cruel prosecutions of the + officers of the revenue against their insolvent debtors. The less opulent + or less industrious part of mankind, instead of rejoicing in an increase + of family, deemed it an act of paternal tenderness to release their + children from the impending miseries of a life which they themselves were + unable to support. The humanity of Constantine, moved, perhaps, by some + recent and extraordinary instances of despair, * engaged him to address an + edict to all the cities of Italy, and afterwards of Africa, directing + immediate and sufficient relief to be given to those parents who should + produce before the magistrates the children whom their own poverty would + not allow them to educate. But the promise was too liberal, and the + provision too vague, to effect any general or permanent benefit. The law, + though it may merit some praise, served rather to display than to + alleviate the public distress. It still remains an authentic monument to + contradict and confound those venal orators, who were too well satisfied + with their own situation to discover either vice or misery under the + government of a generous sovereign. 2. The laws of Constantine against + rapes were dictated with very little indulgence for the most amiable + weaknesses of human nature; since the description of that crime was + applied not only to the brutal violence which compelled, but even to the + gentle seduction which might persuade, an unmarried woman, under the age + of twenty-five, to leave the house of her parents. “The successful + ravisher was punished with death; and as if simple death was inadequate to + the enormity of his guilt, he was either burnt alive, or torn in pieces by + wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The virgin’s declaration, that she had + been carried away with her own consent, instead of saving her lover, + exposed her to share his fate. The duty of a public prosecution was + intrusted to the parents of the guilty or unfortunate maid; and if the + sentiments of nature prevailed on them to dissemble the injury, and to + repair by a subsequent marriage the honor of their family, they were + themselves punished by exile and confiscation. The slaves, whether male or + female, who were convicted of having been accessory to rape or seduction, + were burnt alive, or put to death by the ingenious torture of pouring down + their throats a quantity of melted lead. As the crime was of a public + kind, the accusation was permitted even to strangers. The commencement of + the action was not limited to any term of years, and the consequences of + the sentence were extended to the innocent offspring of such an irregular + union.” But whenever the offence inspires less horror than the punishment, + the rigor of penal law is obliged to give way to the common feelings of + mankind. The most odious parts of this edict were softened or repealed in + the subsequent reigns; and even Constantine himself very frequently + alleviated, by partial acts of mercy, the stern temper of his general + institutions. Such, indeed, was the singular humor of that emperor, who + showed himself as indulgent, and even remiss, in the execution of his + laws, as he was severe, and even cruel, in the enacting of them. It is + scarcely possible to observe a more decisive symptom of weakness, either + in the character of the prince, or in the constitution of the government. + </p> + <p> + The civil administration was sometimes interrupted by the military defence + of the empire. Crispus, a youth of the most amiable character, who had + received with the title of Cæsar the command of the Rhine, + distinguished his conduct, as well as valor, in several victories over the + Franks and Alemanni, and taught the barbarians of that frontier to dread + the eldest son of Constantine, and the grandson of Constantius. The + emperor himself had assumed the more difficult and important province of + the Danube. The Goths, who in the time of Claudius and Aurelian had felt + the weight of the Roman arms, respected the power of the empire, even in + the midst of its intestine divisions. But the strength of that warlike + nation was now restored by a peace of near fifty years; a new generation + had arisen, who no longer remembered the misfortunes of ancient days; the + Sarmatians of the Lake Mæotis followed the Gothic standard either as + subjects or as allies, and their united force was poured upon the + countries of Illyricum. Campona, Margus, and Benonia, appear to have been + the scenes of several memorable sieges and battles; and though Constantine + encountered a very obstinate resistance, he prevailed at length in the + contest, and the Goths were compelled to purchase an ignominious retreat, + by restoring the booty and prisoners which they had taken. Nor was this + advantage sufficient to satisfy the indignation of the emperor. He + resolved to chastise as well as to repulse the insolent barbarians who had + dared to invade the territories of Rome. At the head of his legions he + passed the Danube, after repairing the bridge which had been constructed by + Trajan, penetrated into the strongest recesses of Dacia, and when he had + inflicted a severe revenge, condescended to give peace to the suppliant + Goths, on condition that, as often as they were required, they should + supply his armies with a body of forty thousand soldiers. Exploits like + these were no doubt honorable to Constantine, and beneficial to the state; + but it may surely be questioned, whether they can justify the exaggerated + assertion of Eusebius, that all Scythia, as far as the extremity of the + North, divided as it was into so many names and nations of the most + various and savage manners, had been added by his victorious arms to the + Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + In this exalted state of glory, it was impossible that Constantine should + any longer endure a partner in the empire. Confiding in the superiority of + his genius and military power, he determined, without any previous injury, + to exert them for the destruction of Licinius, whose advanced age and + unpopular vices seemed to offer a very easy conquest. But the old emperor, + awakened by the approaching danger, deceived the expectations of his + friends, as well as of his enemies. Calling forth that spirit and those + abilities by which he had deserved the friendship of Galerius and the + Imperial purple, he prepared himself for the contest, collected the forces + of the East, and soon filled the plains of Hadrianople with his troops, + and the straits of the Hellespont with his fleet. The army consisted of + one hundred and fifty thousand foot, and fifteen thousand horse; and as + the cavalry was drawn, for the most part, from Phrygia and Cappadocia, we + may conceive a more favorable opinion of the beauty of the horses, than of + the courage and dexterity of their riders. The fleet was composed of three + hundred and fifty galleys of three ranks of oars. A hundred and thirty of + these were furnished by Egypt and the adjacent coast of Africa. A hundred + and ten sailed from the ports of Phœnicia and the isle of Cyprus; and the + maritime countries of Bithynia, Ionia, and Caria were likewise obliged to + provide a hundred and ten galleys. The troops of Constantine were ordered + to a rendezvous at Thessalonica; they amounted to above a hundred and + twenty thousand horse and foot. Their emperor was satisfied with their + martial appearance, and his army contained more soldiers, though fewer + men, than that of his eastern competitor. The legions of Constantine were + levied in the warlike provinces of Europe; action had confirmed their + discipline, victory had elevated their hopes, and there were among them a + great number of veterans, who, after seventeen glorious campaigns under + the same leader, prepared themselves to deserve an honorable dismission by + a last effort of their valor. But the naval preparations of Constantine + were in every respect much inferior to those of Licinius. The maritime + cities of Greece sent their respective quotas of men and ships to the + celebrated harbor of Piræus, and their united forces consisted of no + more than two hundred small vessels—a very feeble armament, if it is + compared with those formidable fleets which were equipped and maintained + by the republic of Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Since Italy was no + longer the seat of government, the naval establishments of Misenum and + Ravenna had been gradually neglected; and as the shipping and mariners of + the empire were supported by commerce rather than by war, it was natural + that they should the most abound in the industrious provinces of Egypt and + Asia. It is only surprising that the eastern emperor, who possessed so + great a superiority at sea, should have neglected the opportunity of + carrying an offensive war into the centre of his rival’s dominions. + </p> + <p> + Instead of embracing such an active resolution, which might have changed + the whole face of the war, the prudent Licinius expected the approach of + his rival in a camp near Hadrianople, which he had fortified with an + anxious care that betrayed his apprehension of the event. Constantine + directed his march from Thessalonica towards that part of Thrace, till he + found himself stopped by the broad and rapid stream of the Hebrus, and + discovered the numerous army of Licinius, which filled the steep ascent of + the hill, from the river to the city of Hadrianople. Many days were spent + in doubtful and distant skirmishes; but at length the obstacles of the + passage and of the attack were removed by the intrepid conduct of + Constantine. In this place we might relate a wonderful exploit of + Constantine, which, though it can scarcely be paralleled either in poetry + or romance, is celebrated, not by a venal orator devoted to his fortune, + but by an historian, the partial enemy of his fame. We are assured that + the valiant emperor threw himself into the River Hebrus, accompanied only + by twelve horsemen, and that by the effort or terror of his invincible + arm, he broke, slaughtered, and put to flight a host of a hundred and + fifty thousand men. The credulity of Zosimus prevailed so strongly over + his passion, that among the events of the memorable battle of Hadrianople, + he seems to have selected and embellished, not the most important, but the + most marvellous. The valor and danger of Constantine are attested by a + slight wound which he received in the thigh; but it may be discovered even + from an imperfect narration, and perhaps a corrupted text, that the + victory was obtained no less by the conduct of the general than by the + courage of the hero; that a body of five thousand archers marched round to + occupy a thick wood in the rear of the enemy, whose attention was diverted + by the construction of a bridge, and that Licinius, perplexed by so many + artful evolutions, was reluctantly drawn from his advantageous post to + combat on equal ground on the plain. The contest was no longer equal. His + confused multitude of new levies was easily vanquished by the experienced + veterans of the West. Thirty-four thousand men are reported to have been + slain. The fortified camp of Licinius was taken by assault the evening of + the battle; the greater part of the fugitives, who had retired to the + mountains, surrendered themselves the next day to the discretion of the + conqueror; and his rival, who could no longer keep the field, confined + himself within the walls of Byzantium. + </p> + <p> + The siege of Byzantium, which was immediately undertaken by Constantine, + was attended with great labor and uncertainty. In the late civil wars, the + fortifications of that place, so justly considered as the key of Europe + and Asia, had been repaired and strengthened; and as long as Licinius + remained master of the sea, the garrison was much less exposed to the + danger of famine than the army of the besiegers. The naval commanders of + Constantine were summoned to his camp, and received his positive orders to + force the passage of the Hellespont, as the fleet of Licinius, instead of + seeking and destroying their feeble enemy, continued inactive in those + narrow straits, where its superiority of numbers was of little use or + advantage. Crispus, the emperor’s eldest son, was intrusted with the + execution of this daring enterprise, which he performed with so much + courage and success, that he deserved the esteem, and most probably + excited the jealousy, of his father. The engagement lasted two days; and + in the evening of the first, the contending fleets, after a considerable + and mutual loss, retired into their respective harbors of Europe and Asia. + The second day, about noon, a strong south wind sprang up, which carried + the vessels of Crispus against the enemy; and as the casual advantage was + improved by his skilful intrepidity, he soon obtained a complete victory. + A hundred and thirty vessels were destroyed, five thousand men were slain, + and Amandus, the admiral of the Asiatic fleet, escaped with the utmost + difficulty to the shores of Chalcedon. As soon as the Hellespont was open, + a plentiful convoy of provisions flowed into the camp of Constantine, who + had already advanced the operations of the siege. He constructed + artificial mounds of earth of an equal height with the ramparts of + Byzantium. The lofty towers which were erected on that foundation galled + the besieged with large stones and darts from the military engines, and + the battering rams had shaken the walls in several places. If Licinius + persisted much longer in the defence, he exposed himself to be involved in + the ruin of the place. Before he was surrounded, he prudently removed his + person and treasures to Chalcedon in Asia; and as he was always desirous + of associating companions to the hopes and dangers of his fortune, he now + bestowed the title of Cæsar on Martinianus, who exercised one of the + most important offices of the empire. + </p> + <p> + Such were still the resources, and such the abilities, of Licinius, that, + after so many successive defeats, he collected in Bithynia a new army of + fifty or sixty thousand men, while the activity of Constantine was + employed in the siege of Byzantium. The vigilant emperor did not, however, + neglect the last struggles of his antagonist. A considerable part of his + victorious army was transported over the Bosphorus in small vessels, and + the decisive engagement was fought soon after their landing on the heights + of Chrysopolis, or, as it is now called, of Scutari. The troops of + Licinius, though they were lately raised, ill armed, and worse + disciplined, made head against their conquerors with fruitless but + desperate valor, till a total defeat, and a slaughter of five and twenty + thousand men, irretrievably determined the fate of their leader. He + retired to Nicomedia, rather with the view of gaining some time for + negotiation, than with the hope of any effectual defence. Constantia, his + wife, and the sister of Constantine, interceded with her brother in favor + of her husband, and obtained from his policy, rather than from his + compassion, a solemn promise, confirmed by an oath, that after the + sacrifice of Martinianus, and the resignation of the purple, Licinius + himself should be permitted to pass the remainder of this life in peace + and affluence. The behavior of Constantia, and her relation to the + contending parties, naturally recalls the remembrance of that virtuous + matron who was the sister of Augustus, and the wife of Antony. But the + temper of mankind was altered, and it was no longer esteemed infamous for + a Roman to survive his honor and independence. Licinius solicited and + accepted the pardon of his offences, laid himself and his purple at the + feet of his lord and master, was raised from the ground with insulting + pity, was admitted the same day to the Imperial banquet, and soon + afterwards was sent away to Thessalonica, which had been chosen for the + place of his confinement. His confinement was soon terminated by death, + and it is doubtful whether a tumult of the soldiers, or a decree of the + senate, was suggested as the motive for his execution. According to the + rules of tyranny, he was accused of forming a conspiracy, and of holding a + treasonable correspondence with the barbarians; but as he was never + convicted, either by his own conduct or by any legal evidence, we may + perhaps be allowed, from his weakness, to presume his innocence. The + memory of Licinius was branded with infamy, his statues were thrown down, + and by a hasty edict, of such mischievous tendency that it was almost + immediately corrected, all his laws, and all the judicial proceedings of + his reign, were at once abolished. By this victory of Constantine, the + Roman world was again united under the authority of one emperor, + thirty-seven years after Diocletian had divided his power and provinces + with his associate Maximian. + </p> + <p> + The successive steps of the elevation of Constantine, from his first + assuming the purple at York, to the resignation of Licinius, at Nicomedia, + have been related with some minuteness and precision, not only as the + events are in themselves both interesting and important, but still more, + as they contributed to the decline of the empire by the expense of blood + and treasure, and by the perpetual increase, as well of the taxes, as of + the military establishment. The foundation of Constantinople, and the + establishment of the Christian religion, were the immediate and memorable + consequences of this revolution. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p1" id="linkch15-p1"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve">The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, +Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. +</pre> + <p> + A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment of + Christianity may be considered as a very essential part of the history of + the Roman empire. While that great body was invaded by open violence, or + undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion gently insinuated + itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived + new vigor from opposition, and finally erected the triumphant banner of + the Cross on the ruins of the Capitol. Nor was the influence of + Christianity confined to the period or to the limits of the Roman empire. + After a revolution of thirteen or fourteen centuries, that religion is + still professed by the nations of Europe, the most distinguished portion + of human kind in arts and learning as well as in arms. By the industry and + zeal of the Europeans, it has been widely diffused to the most distant + shores of Asia and Africa; and by the means of their colonies has been + firmly established from Canada to Chili, in a world unknown to the + ancients. + </p> + <p> + But this inquiry, however useful or entertaining, is attended with two + peculiar difficulties. The scanty and suspicious materials of + ecclesiastical history seldom enable us to dispel the dark cloud that + hangs over the first age of the church. The great law of impartiality too + often obliges us to reveal the imperfections of the uninspired teachers + and believers of the gospel; and, to a careless observer, their <i>faults</i> + may seem to cast a shade on the faith which they professed. But the + scandal of the pious Christian, and the fallacious triumph of the Infidel, + should cease as soon as they recollect not only <i>by whom</i>, + but likewise <i>to whom</i>, the Divine Revelation was + given. The theologian may indulge the pleasing task of describing Religion + as she descended from Heaven, arrayed in her native purity. A more + melancholy duty is imposed on the historian. He must discover the + inevitable mixture of error and corruption, which she contracted in a long + residence upon earth, among a weak and degenerate race of beings. * + </p> + <p> + Our curiosity is naturally prompted to inquire by what means the Christian + faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the established religions of + the earth. To this inquiry, an obvious but satisfactory answer may be + returned; that it was owing to the convincing evidence of the doctrine + itself, and to the ruling providence of its great Author. But as truth and + reason seldom find so favorable a reception in the world, and as the + wisdom of Providence frequently condescends to use the passions of the + human heart, and the general circumstances of mankind, as instruments to + execute its purpose, we may still be permitted, though with becoming + submission, to ask, not indeed what were the first, but what were the + secondary causes of the rapid growth of the Christian church. It will, + perhaps, appear, that it was most effectually favored and assisted by the + five following causes: I. The inflexible, and if we may use the + expression, the intolerant zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, + from the Jewish religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial + spirit, which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles from + embracing the law of Moses. II. The doctrine of a future life, improved by + every additional circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that + important truth. III. The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive + church. IV. The pure and austere morals of the Christians. V. The union + and discipline of the Christian republic, which gradually formed an + independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + I. We have already described the religious harmony of the ancient world, + and the facility * with which the most different and even hostile nations + embraced, or at least respected, each other’s superstitions. A single + people refused to join in the common intercourse of mankind. The Jews, + who, under the Assyrian and Persian monarchies, had languished for many + ages the most despised portion of their slaves, emerged from obscurity + under the successors of Alexander; and as they multiplied to a surprising + degree in the East, and afterwards in the West, they soon excited the + curiosity and wonder of other nations. The sullen obstinacy with which + they maintained their peculiar rites and unsocial manners seemed to mark + them out as a distinct species of men, who boldly professed, or who + faintly disguised, their implacable habits to the rest of human kind. + Neither the violence of Antiochus, nor the arts of Herod, nor the example + of the circumjacent nations, could ever persuade the Jews to associate + with the institutions of Moses the elegant mythology of the Greeks. + According to the maxims of universal toleration, the Romans protected a + superstition which they despised. The polite Augustus condescended to give + orders, that sacrifices should be offered for his prosperity in the temple + of Jerusalem; whilst the meanest of the posterity of Abraham, who should + have paid the same homage to the Jupiter of the Capitol, would have been + an object of abhorrence to himself and to his brethren. But the moderation + of the conquerors was insufficient to appease the jealous prejudices of + their subjects, who were alarmed and scandalized at the ensigns of + paganism, which necessarily introduced themselves into a Roman province. + The mad attempt of Caligula to place his own statue in the temple of + Jerusalem was defeated by the unanimous resolution of a people who dreaded + death much less than such an idolatrous profanation. Their attachment to + the law of Moses was equal to their detestation of foreign religions. The + current of zeal and devotion, as it was contracted into a narrow channel, + ran with the strength, and sometimes with the fury, of a torrent. + </p> + <p> + This inflexible perseverance, which appeared so odious or so ridiculous to + the ancient world, assumes a more awful character, since Providence has + deigned to reveal to us the mysterious history of the chosen people. But + the devout and even scrupulous attachment to the Mosaic religion, so + conspicuous among the Jews who lived under the second temple, becomes + still more surprising, if it is compared with the stubborn incredulity of + their forefathers. When the law was given in thunder from Mount Sinai, + when the tides of the ocean and the course of the planets were suspended + for the convenience of the Israelites, and when temporal rewards and + punishments were the immediate consequences of their piety or + disobedience, they perpetually relapsed into rebellion against the visible + majesty of their Divine King, placed the idols of the nations in the + sanctuary of Jehovah, and imitated every fantastic ceremony that was + practised in the tents of the Arabs, or in the cities of Phœnicia. As the + protection of Heaven was deservedly withdrawn from the ungrateful race, + their faith acquired a proportionable degree of vigor and purity. The + contemporaries of Moses and Joshua had beheld with careless indifference + the most amazing miracles. Under the pressure of every calamity, the + belief of those miracles has preserved the Jews of a later period from the + universal contagion of idolatry; and in contradiction to every known + principle of the human mind, that singular people seems to have yielded a + stronger and more ready assent to the traditions of their remote + ancestors, than to the evidence of their own senses. + </p> + <p> + The Jewish religion was admirably fitted for defence, but it was never + designed for conquest; and it seems probable that the number of proselytes + was never much superior to that of apostates. The divine promises were + originally made, and the distinguishing rite of circumcision was enjoined, + to a single family. When the posterity of Abraham had multiplied like the + sands of the sea, the Deity, from whose mouth they received a system of + laws and ceremonies, declared himself the proper and as it were the + national God of Israel; and with the most jealous care separated his + favorite people from the rest of mankind. The conquest of the land of + Canaan was accompanied with so many wonderful and with so many bloody + circumstances, that the victorious Jews were left in a state of + irreconcilable hostility with all their neighbors. They had been commanded + to extirpate some of the most idolatrous tribes, and the execution of the + divine will had seldom been retarded by the weakness of humanity. With the + other nations they were forbidden to contract any marriages or alliances; + and the prohibition of receiving them into the congregation, which in some + cases was perpetual, almost always extended to the third, to the seventh, + or even to the tenth generation. The obligation of preaching to the + Gentiles the faith of Moses had never been inculcated as a precept of the + law, nor were the Jews inclined to impose it on themselves as a voluntary + duty. + </p> + <p> + In the admission of new citizens that unsocial people was actuated by the + selfish vanity of the Greeks, rather than by the generous policy of Rome. + The descendants of Abraham were flattered by the opinion that they alone + were the heirs of the covenant, and they were apprehensive of diminishing + the value of their inheritance by sharing it too easily with the strangers + of the earth. A larger acquaintance with mankind extended their knowledge + without correcting their prejudices; and whenever the God of Israel + acquired any new votaries, he was much more indebted to the inconstant + humor of polytheism than to the active zeal of his own missionaries. The + religion of Moses seems to be instituted for a particular country as well + as for a single nation; and if a strict obedience had been paid to the + order, that every male, three times in the year, should present himself + before the Lord Jehovah, it would have been impossible that the Jews could + ever have spread themselves beyond the narrow limits of the promised land. + That obstacle was indeed removed by the destruction of the temple of + Jerusalem; but the most considerable part of the Jewish religion was + involved in its destruction; and the Pagans, who had long wondered at the + strange report of an empty sanctuary, were at a loss to discover what + could be the object, or what could be the instruments, of a worship which + was destitute of temples and of altars, of priests and of sacrifices. Yet + even in their fallen state, the Jews, still asserting their lofty and + exclusive privileges, shunned, instead of courting, the society of + strangers. They still insisted with inflexible rigor on those parts of the + law which it was in their power to practise. Their peculiar distinctions + of days, of meats, and a variety of trivial though burdensome observances, + were so many objects of disgust and aversion for the other nations, to + whose habits and prejudices they were diametrically opposite. The painful + and even dangerous rite of circumcision was alone capable of repelling a + willing proselyte from the door of the synagogue. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, Christianity offered itself to the world, armed + with the strength of the Mosaic law, and delivered from the weight of its + fetters. An exclusive zeal for the truth of religion, and the unity of + God, was as carefully inculcated in the new as in the ancient system; and + whatever was now revealed to mankind concerning the nature and designs of + the Supreme Being was fitted to increase their reverence for that + mysterious doctrine. The divine authority of Moses and the prophets was + admitted, and even established, as the firmest basis of Christianity. From + the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted series of predictions had + announced and prepared the long-expected coming of the Messiah, who, in + compliance with the gross apprehensions of the Jews, had been more + frequently represented under the character of a King and Conqueror, than + under that of a Prophet, a Martyr, and the Son of God. By his expiatory + sacrifice, the imperfect sacrifices of the temple were at once consummated + and abolished. The ceremonial law, which consisted only of types and + figures, was succeeded by a pure and spiritual worship equally adapted to + all climates, as well as to every condition of mankind; and to the + initiation of blood was substituted a more harmless initiation of water. + The promise of divine favor, instead of being partially confined to the + posterity of Abraham, was universally proposed to the freeman and the + slave, to the Greek and to the barbarian, to the Jew and to the Gentile. + Every privilege that could raise the proselyte from earth to heaven, that + could exalt his devotion, secure his happiness, or even gratify that + secret pride which, under the semblance of devotion, insinuates itself + into the human heart, was still reserved for the members of the Christian + church; but at the same time all mankind was permitted, and even + solicited, to accept the glorious distinction, which was not only + proffered as a favor, but imposed as an obligation. It became the most + sacred duty of a new convert to diffuse among his friends and relations + the inestimable blessing which he had received, and to warn them against a + refusal that would be severely punished as a criminal disobedience to the + will of a benevolent but all-powerful Deity. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p2" id="linkch15-p2"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The enfranchisement of the church from the bonds of the synagogue was a + work, however, of some time and of some difficulty. The Jewish converts, + who acknowledged Jesus in the character of the Messiah foretold by their + ancient oracles, respected him as a prophetic teacher of virtue and + religion; but they obstinately adhered to the ceremonies of their + ancestors, and were desirous of imposing them on the Gentiles, who + continually augmented the number of believers. These Judaizing Christians + seem to have argued with some degree of plausibility from the divine + origin of the Mosaic law, and from the immutable perfections of its great + Author. They affirmed, <i>that</i> if the Being, who is + the same through all eternity, had designed to abolish those sacred rites + which had served to distinguish his chosen people, the repeal of them + would have been no less clear and solemn than their first promulgation: + <i>that</i>, instead of those frequent declarations, + which either suppose or assert the perpetuity of the Mosaic religion, it + would have been represented as a provisionary scheme intended to last only + to the coming of the Messiah, who should instruct mankind in a more + perfect mode of faith and of worship: that the Messiah himself, and his + disciples who conversed with him on earth, instead of authorizing by their + example the most minute observances of the Mosaic law, would have + published to the world the abolition of those useless and obsolete + ceremonies, without suffering Christianity to remain during so many years + obscurely confounded among the sects of the Jewish church. Arguments like + these appear to have been used in the defence of the expiring cause of the + Mosaic law; but the industry of our learned divines has abundantly + explained the ambiguous language of the Old Testament, and the ambiguous + conduct of the apostolic teachers. It was proper gradually to unfold the + system of the gospel, and to pronounce, with the utmost caution and + tenderness, a sentence of condemnation so repugnant to the inclination and + prejudices of the believing Jews. + </p> + <p> + The history of the church of Jerusalem affords a lively proof of the + necessity of those precautions, and of the deep impression which the + Jewish religion had made on the minds of its sectaries. The first fifteen + bishops of Jerusalem were all circumcised Jews; and the congregation over + which they presided united the law of Moses with the doctrine of Christ. + It was natural that the primitive tradition of a church which was founded + only forty days after the death of Christ, and was governed almost as many + years under the immediate inspection of his apostle, should be received as + the standard of orthodoxy. The distant churches very frequently appealed + to the authority of their venerable Parent, and relieved her distresses by + a liberal contribution of alms. But when numerous and opulent societies + were established in the great cities of the empire, in Antioch, + Alexandria, Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome, the reverence which Jerusalem had + inspired to all the Christian colonies insensibly diminished. The Jewish + converts, or, as they were afterwards called, the Nazarenes, who had laid + the foundations of the church, soon found themselves overwhelmed by the + increasing multitudes, that from all the various religions of polytheism + enlisted under the banner of Christ: and the Gentiles, who, with the + approbation of their peculiar apostle, had rejected the intolerable weight + of the Mosaic ceremonies, at length refused to their more scrupulous + brethren the same toleration which at first they had humbly solicited for + their own practice. The ruin of the temple of the city, and of the public + religion of the Jews, was severely felt by the Nazarenes; as in their + manners, though not in their faith, they maintained so intimate a + connection with their impious countrymen, whose misfortunes were + attributed by the Pagans to the contempt, and more justly ascribed by the + Christians to the wrath, of the Supreme Deity. The Nazarenes retired from + the ruins of Jerusalem * to the little town of Pella beyond the Jordan, + where that ancient church languished above sixty years in solitude and + obscurity. They still enjoyed the comfort of making frequent and devout + visits to the <i>Holy City</i>, and the hope of being + one day restored to those seats which both nature and religion taught them + to love as well as to revere. But at length, under the reign of Hadrian, + the desperate fanaticism of the Jews filled up the measure of their + calamities; and the Romans, exasperated by their repeated rebellions, + exercised the rights of victory with unusual rigor. The emperor founded, + under the name of Ælia Capitolina, a new city on Mount Sion, to + which he gave the privileges of a colony; and denouncing the severest + penalties against any of the Jewish people who should dare to approach its + precincts, he fixed a vigilant garrison of a Roman cohort to enforce the + execution of his orders. The Nazarenes had only one way left to escape the + common proscription, and the force of truth was on this occasion assisted + by the influence of temporal advantages. They elected Marcus for their + bishop, a prelate of the race of the Gentiles, and most probably a native + either of Italy or of some of the Latin provinces. At his persuasion, the + most considerable part of the congregation renounced the Mosaic law, in + the practice of which they had persevered above a century. By this + sacrifice of their habits and prejudices, they purchased a free admission + into the colony of Hadrian, and more firmly cemented their union with the + Catholic church. + </p> + <p> + When the name and honors of the church of Jerusalem had been restored to + Mount Sion, the crimes of heresy and schism were imputed to the obscure + remnant of the Nazarenes, which refused to accompany their Latin bishop. + They still preserved their former habitation of Pella, spread themselves + into the villages adjacent to Damascus, and formed an inconsiderable + church in the city of Berœa, or, as it is now called, of Aleppo, in + Syria. The name of Nazarenes was deemed too honorable for those Christian + Jews, and they soon received, from the supposed poverty of their + understanding, as well as of their condition, the contemptuous epithet of + Ebionites. In a few years after the return of the church of Jerusalem, it + became a matter of doubt and controversy, whether a man who sincerely + acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah, but who still continued to observe the + law of Moses, could possibly hope for salvation. The humane temper of + Justin Martyr inclined him to answer this question in the affirmative; and + though he expressed himself with the most guarded diffidence, he ventured + to determine in favor of such an imperfect Christian, if he were content + to practise the Mosaic ceremonies, without pretending to assert their + general use or necessity. But when Justin was pressed to declare the + sentiment of the church, he confessed that there were very many among the + orthodox Christians, who not only excluded their Judaizing brethren from + the hope of salvation, but who declined any intercourse with them in the + common offices of friendship, hospitality, and social life. The more + rigorous opinion prevailed, as it was natural to expect, over the milder; + and an eternal bar of separation was fixed between the disciples of Moses + and those of Christ. The unfortunate Ebionites, rejected from one religion + as apostates, and from the other as heretics, found themselves compelled + to assume a more decided character; and although some traces of that + obsolete sect may be discovered as late as the fourth century, they + insensibly melted away, either into the church or the synagogue. + </p> + <p> + While the orthodox church preserved a just medium between excessive + veneration and improper contempt for the law of Moses, the various + heretics deviated into equal but opposite extremes of error and + extravagance. From the acknowledged truth of the Jewish religion, the + Ebionites had concluded that it could never be abolished. From its + supposed imperfections, the Gnostics as hastily inferred that it never was + instituted by the wisdom of the Deity. There are some objections against + the authority of Moses and the prophets, which too readily present + themselves to the sceptical mind; though they can only be derived from our + ignorance of remote antiquity, and from our incapacity to form an adequate + judgment of the divine economy. These objections were eagerly embraced and + as petulantly urged by the vain science of the Gnostics. As those heretics + were, for the most part, averse to the pleasures of sense, they morosely + arraigned the polygamy of the patriarchs, the gallantries of David, and + the seraglio of Solomon. The conquest of the land of Canaan, and the + extirpation of the unsuspecting natives, they were at a loss how to + reconcile with the common notions of humanity and justice. * But when they + recollected the sanguinary list of murders, of executions, and of + massacres, which stain almost every page of the Jewish annals, they + acknowledged that the barbarians of Palestine had exercised as much + compassion towards their idolatrous enemies, as they had ever shown to + their friends or countrymen. Passing from the sectaries of the law to the + law itself, they asserted that it was impossible that a religion which + consisted only of bloody sacrifices and trifling ceremonies, and whose + rewards as well as punishments were all of a carnal and temporal nature, + could inspire the love of virtue, or restrain the impetuosity of passion. + The Mosaic account of the creation and fall of man was treated with + profane derision by the Gnostics, who would not listen with patience to + the repose of the Deity after six days’ labor, to the rib of Adam, the + garden of Eden, the trees of life and of knowledge, the speaking serpent, + the forbidden fruit, and the condemnation pronounced against human kind + for the venial offence of their first progenitors. The God of Israel was + impiously represented by the Gnostics as a being liable to passion and to + error, capricious in his favor, implacable in his resentment, meanly + jealous of his superstitious worship, and confining his partial providence + to a single people, and to this transitory life. In such a character they + could discover none of the features of the wise and omnipotent Father of + the universe. They allowed that the religion of the Jews was somewhat less + criminal than the idolatry of the Gentiles; but it was their fundamental + doctrine that the Christ whom they adored as the first and brightest + emanation of the Deity appeared upon earth to rescue mankind from their + various errors, and to reveal a new system of truth and perfection. The + most learned of the fathers, by a very singular condescension, have + imprudently admitted the sophistry of the Gnostics. * Acknowledging that + the literal sense is repugnant to every principle of faith as well as + reason, they deem themselves secure and invulnerable behind the ample veil + of allegory, which they carefully spread over every tender part of the + Mosaic dispensation. + </p> + <p> + It has been remarked with more ingenuity than truth, that the virgin + purity of the church was never violated by schism or heresy before the + reign of Trajan or Hadrian, about one hundred years after the death of + Christ. We may observe with much more propriety, that, during that period, + the disciples of the Messiah were indulged in a freer latitude, both of + faith and practice, than has ever been allowed in succeeding ages. As the + terms of communion were insensibly narrowed, and the spiritual authority + of the prevailing party was exercised with increasing severity, many of + its most respectable adherents, who were called upon to renounce, were + provoked to assert their private opinions, to pursue the consequences of + their mistaken principles, and openly to erect the standard of rebellion + against the unity of the church. The Gnostics were distinguished as the + most polite, the most learned, and the most wealthy of the Christian name; + and that general appellation, which expressed a superiority of knowledge, + was either assumed by their own pride, or ironically bestowed by the envy + of their adversaries. They were almost without exception of the race of + the Gentiles, and their principal founders seem to have been natives of + Syria or Egypt, where the warmth of the climate disposes both the mind and + the body to indolent and contemplative devotion. The Gnostics blended with + the faith of Christ many sublime but obscure tenets, which they derived + from oriental philosophy, and even from the religion of Zoroaster, + concerning the eternity of matter, the existence of two principles, and + the mysterious hierarchy of the invisible world. As soon as they launched + out into that vast abyss, they delivered themselves to the guidance of a + disordered imagination; and as the paths of error are various and + infinite, the Gnostics were imperceptibly divided into more than fifty + particular sects, of whom the most celebrated appear to have been the + Basilidians, the Valentinians, the Marcionites, and, in a still later + period, the Manichæans. Each of these sects could boast of its + bishops and congregations, of its doctors and martyrs; and, instead of the + Four Gospels adopted by the church, the heretics produced a multitude of + histories, in which the actions and discourses of Christ and of his + apostles were adapted to their respective tenets. The success of the + Gnostics was rapid and extensive. They covered Asia and Egypt, established + themselves in Rome, and sometimes penetrated into the provinces of the + West. For the most part they arose in the second century, flourished + during the third, and were suppressed in the fourth or fifth, by the + prevalence of more fashionable controversies, and by the superior + ascendant of the reigning power. Though they constantly disturbed the + peace, and frequently disgraced the name, of religion, they contributed to + assist rather than to retard the progress of Christianity. The Gentile + converts, whose strongest objections and prejudices were directed against + the law of Moses, could find admission into many Christian societies, + which required not from their untutored mind any belief of an antecedent + revelation. Their faith was insensibly fortified and enlarged, and the + church was ultimately benefited by the conquests of its most inveterate + enemies. + </p> + <p> + But whatever difference of opinion might subsist between the Orthodox, the + Ebionites, and the Gnostics, concerning the divinity or the obligation of + the Mosaic law, they were all equally animated by the same exclusive zeal, + and by the same abhorrence for idolatry, which had distinguished the Jews + from the other nations of the ancient world. The philosopher, who + considered the system of polytheism as a composition of human fraud and + error, could disguise a smile of contempt under the mask of devotion, + without apprehending that either the mockery, or the compliance, would + expose him to the resentment of any invisible, or, as he conceived them, + imaginary powers. But the established religions of Paganism were seen by + the primitive Christians in a much more odious and formidable light. It + was the universal sentiment both of the church and of heretics, that the dæmons + were the authors, the patrons, and the objects of idolatry. Those + rebellious spirits who had been degraded from the rank of angels, and cast + down into the infernal pit, were still permitted to roam upon earth, to + torment the bodies, and to seduce the minds, of sinful men. The dæmons + soon discovered and abused the natural propensity of the human heart + towards devotion, and artfully withdrawing the adoration of mankind from + their Creator, they usurped the place and honors of the Supreme Deity. By + the success of their malicious contrivances, they at once gratified their + own vanity and revenge, and obtained the only comfort of which they were + yet susceptible, the hope of involving the human species in the + participation of their guilt and misery. It was confessed, or at least it + was imagined, that they had distributed among themselves the most + important characters of polytheism, one dæmon assuming the name and + attributes of Jupiter, another of Æsculapius, a third of Venus, and + a fourth perhaps of Apollo; and that, by the advantage of their long + experience and ærial nature, they were enabled to execute, with + sufficient skill and dignity, the parts which they had undertaken. They + lurked in the temples, instituted festivals and sacrifices, invented + fables, pronounced oracles, and were frequently allowed to perform + miracles. The Christians, who, by the interposition of evil spirits, could + so readily explain every præternatural appearance, were disposed and even + desirous to admit the most extravagant fictions of the Pagan mythology. + But the belief of the Christian was accompanied with horror. The most + trifling mark of respect to the national worship he considered as a direct + homage yielded to the dæmon, and as an act of rebellion against the + majesty of God. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p3" id="linkch15-p3"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + In consequence of this opinion, it was the first but arduous duty of a + Christian to preserve himself pure and undefiled by the practice of + idolatry. The religion of the nations was not merely a speculative + doctrine professed in the schools or preached in the temples. The + innumerable deities and rites of polytheism were closely interwoven with + every circumstance of business or pleasure, of public or of private life, + and it seemed impossible to escape the observance of them, without, at the + same time, renouncing the commerce of mankind, and all the offices and + amusements of society. The important transactions of peace and war were + prepared or concluded by solemn sacrifices, in which the magistrate, the + senator, and the soldier, were obliged to preside or to participate. The + public spectacles were an essential part of the cheerful devotion of the + Pagans, and the gods were supposed to accept, as the most grateful + offering, the games that the prince and people celebrated in honor of + their peculiar festivals. The Christians, who with pious horror avoided + the abomination of the circus or the theatre, found himself encompassed + with infernal snares in every convivial entertainment, as often as his + friends, invoking the hospitable deities, poured out libations to each + other’s happiness. When the bride, struggling with well-affected + reluctance, was forced in hymenæal pomp over the threshold of her + new habitation, or when the sad procession of the dead slowly moved + towards the funeral pile, the Christian, on these interesting occasions, + was compelled to desert the persons who were the dearest to him, rather + than contract the guilt inherent to those impious ceremonies. Every art + and every trade that was in the least concerned in the framing or adorning + of idols was polluted by the stain of idolatry; a severe sentence, since + it devoted to eternal misery the far greater part of the community, which + is employed in the exercise of liberal or mechanic professions. If we cast + our eyes over the numerous remains of antiquity, we shall perceive, that + besides the immediate representations of the gods, and the holy + instruments of their worship, the elegant forms and agreeable fictions + consecrated by the imagination of the Greeks, were introduced as the + richest ornaments of the houses, the dress, and the furniture of the + Pagans. Even the arts of music and painting, of eloquence and poetry, + flowed from the same impure origin. In the style of the fathers, Apollo + and the Muses were the organs of the infernal spirit; Homer and Virgil + were the most eminent of his servants; and the beautiful mythology which + pervades and animates the compositions of their genius, is destined to + celebrate the glory of the dæmons. Even the common language of + Greece and Rome abounded with familiar but impious expressions, which the + imprudent Christian might too carelessly utter, or too patiently hear. + </p> + <p> + The dangerous temptations which on every side lurked in ambush to surprise + the unguarded believer, assailed him with redoubled violence on the days + of solemn festivals. So artfully were they framed and disposed throughout + the year, that superstition always wore the appearance of pleasure, and + often of virtue. Some of the most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual + were destined to salute the new calends of January with vows of public and + private felicity; to indulge the pious remembrance of the dead and living; + to ascertain the inviolable bounds of property; to hail, on the return of + spring, the genial powers of fecundity; to perpetuate the two memorable + æras of Rome, the foundation of the city and that of the republic; and to + restore, during the humane license of the Saturnalia, the primitive + equality of mankind. Some idea may be conceived of the abhorrence of the + Christians for such impious ceremonies, by the scrupulous delicacy which + they displayed on a much less alarming occasion. On days of general + festivity it was the custom of the ancients to adorn their doors with + lamps and with branches of laurel, and to crown their heads with a garland + of flowers. This innocent and elegant practice might perhaps have been + tolerated as a mere civil institution. But it most unluckily happened that + the doors were under the protection of the household gods, that the laurel + was sacred to the lover of Daphne, and that garlands of flowers, though + frequently worn as a symbol either of joy or mourning, had been dedicated in + their first origin to the service of superstition. The trembling + Christians, who were persuaded in this instance to comply with the fashion + of their country, and the commands of the magistrate, labored under the + most gloomy apprehensions, from the reproaches of his own conscience, the + censures of the church, and the denunciations of divine vengeance. + </p> + <p> + Such was the anxious diligence which was required to guard the chastity of + the gospel from the infectious breath of idolatry. The superstitious + observances of public or private rites were carelessly practised, from + education and habit, by the followers of the established religion. But as + often as they occurred, they afforded the Christians an opportunity of + declaring and confirming their zealous opposition. By these frequent + protestations their attachment to the faith was continually fortified; and + in proportion to the increase of zeal, they combated with the more ardor + and success in the holy war, which they had undertaken against the empire + of the demons. + </p> + <p> + II. The writings of Cicero represent in the most lively colors the + ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the ancient philosophers + with regard to the immortality of the soul. When they are desirous of + arming their disciples against the fear of death, they inculcate, as an + obvious though melancholy position, that the fatal stroke of our + dissolution releases us from the calamities of life; and that those can no + longer suffer, who no longer exist. Yet there were a few sages of Greece + and Rome who had conceived a more exalted, and, in some respects, a juster + idea of human nature, though it must be confessed, that in the sublime + inquiry, their reason had been often guided by their imagination, and that + their imagination had been prompted by their vanity. When they viewed with + complacency the extent of their own mental powers, when they exercised the + various faculties of memory, of fancy, and of judgment, in the most + profound speculations, or the most important labors, and when they + reflected on the desire of fame, which transported them into future ages, + far beyond the bounds of death and of the grave, they were unwilling to + confound themselves with the beasts of the field, or to suppose that a + being, for whose dignity they entertained the most sincere admiration, + could be limited to a spot of earth, and to a few years of duration. With + this favorable prepossession they summoned to their aid the science, or + rather the language, of Metaphysics. They soon discovered, that as none of + the properties of matter will apply to the operations of the mind, the + human soul must consequently be a substance distinct from the body, pure, + simple, and spiritual, incapable of dissolution, and susceptible of a much + higher degree of virtue and happiness after the release from its corporeal + prison. From these specious and noble principles, the philosophers who + trod in the footsteps of Plato deduced a very unjustifiable conclusion, + since they asserted, not only the future immortality, but the past + eternity, of the human soul, which they were too apt to consider as a + portion of the infinite and self-existing spirit, which pervades and + sustains the universe. A doctrine thus removed beyond the senses and the + experience of mankind might serve to amuse the leisure of a philosophic + mind; or, in the silence of solitude, it might sometimes impart a ray of + comfort to desponding virtue; but the faint impression which had been + received in the schools was soon obliterated by the commerce and business + of active life. We are sufficiently acquainted with the eminent persons + who flourished in the age of Cicero and of the first Cæsars, with + their actions, their characters, and their motives, to be assured that + their conduct in this life was never regulated by any serious conviction + of the rewards or punishments of a future state. At the bar and in the + senate of Rome the ablest orators were not apprehensive of giving offence + to their hearers by exposing that doctrine as an idle and extravagant + opinion, which was rejected with contempt by every man of a liberal + education and understanding. + </p> + <p> + Since therefore the most sublime efforts of philosophy can extend no + further than feebly to point out the desire, the hope, or, at most, the + probability, of a future state, there is nothing, except a divine + revelation, that can ascertain the existence and describe the condition, + of the invisible country which is destined to receive the souls of men + after their separation from the body. But we may perceive several defects + inherent to the popular religions of Greece and Rome, which rendered them + very unequal to so arduous a task. 1. The general system of their + mythology was unsupported by any solid proofs; and the wisest among the + Pagans had already disclaimed its usurped authority. 2. The description + of the infernal regions had been abandoned to the fancy of painters and + of poets, who peopled them with so many phantoms and monsters, who + dispensed their rewards and punishments with so little equity, that a + solemn truth, the most congenial to the human heart, was oppressed and + disgraced by the absurd mixture of the wildest fictions. 3. The doctrine + of a future state was scarcely considered among the devout polytheists of + Greece and Rome as a fundamental article of faith. The providence of the + gods, as it related to public communities rather than to private + individuals, was principally displayed on the visible theatre of the + present world. The petitions which were offered on the altars of Jupiter + or Apollo expressed the anxiety of their worshippers for temporal + happiness, and their ignorance or indifference concerning a future life. + The important truth of the immortality of the soul was inculcated + with more diligence, as well as success, in India, in Assyria, in Egypt, + and in Gaul; and since we cannot attribute such a difference to the + superior knowledge of the barbarians, we must ascribe it to the influence + of an established priesthood, which employed the motives of virtue as the + instrument of ambition. + </p> + <p> + We might naturally expect that a principle so essential to religion, would + have been revealed in the clearest terms to the chosen people of + Palestine, and that it might safely have been intrusted to the hereditary + priesthood of Aaron. It is incumbent on us to adore the mysterious + dispensations of Providence, when we discover that the doctrine of the + immortality of the soul is omitted in the law of Moses; it is darkly + insinuated by the prophets; and during the long period which elapsed + between the Egyptian and the Babylonian servitudes, the hopes as well as + fears of the Jews appear to have been confined within the narrow compass + of the present life. After Cyrus had permitted the exiled nation to return + into the promised land, and after Ezra had restored the ancient records of + their religion, two celebrated sects, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, + insensibly arose at Jerusalem. The former, selected from the more opulent + and distinguished ranks of society, were strictly attached to the literal + sense of the Mosaic law, and they piously rejected the immortality of the + soul, as an opinion that received no countenance from the divine book, + which they revered as the only rule of their faith. To the authority of + Scripture the Pharisees added that of tradition, and they accepted, under + the name of traditions, several speculative tenets from the philosophy or + religion of the eastern nations. The doctrines of fate or predestination, + of angels and spirits, and of a future state of rewards and punishments, + were in the number of these new articles of belief; and as the Pharisees, + by the austerity of their manners, had drawn into their party the body of + the Jewish people, the immortality of the soul became the prevailing + sentiment of the synagogue, under the reign of the Asmonæan princes + and pontiffs. The temper of the Jews was incapable of contenting itself + with such a cold and languid assent as might satisfy the mind of a + Polytheist; and as soon as they admitted the idea of a future state, they + embraced it with the zeal which has always formed the characteristic of + the nation. Their zeal, however, added nothing to its evidence, or even + probability: and it was still necessary that the doctrine of life and + immortality, which had been dictated by nature, approved by reason, and + received by superstition, should obtain the sanction of divine truth from + the authority and example of Christ. + </p> + <p> + When the promise of eternal happiness was proposed to mankind on condition + of adopting the faith, and of observing the precepts, of the gospel, it is + no wonder that so advantageous an offer should have been accepted by great + numbers of every religion, of every rank, and of every province in the + Roman empire. The ancient Christians were animated by a contempt for their + present existence, and by a just confidence of immortality, of which the + doubtful and imperfect faith of modern ages cannot give us any adequate + notion. In the primitive church, the influence of truth was very + powerfully strengthened by an opinion, which, however it may deserve + respect for its usefulness and antiquity, has not been found agreeable to + experience. It was universally believed, that the end of the world, and + the kingdom of heaven, were at hand. * The near approach of this wonderful + event had been predicted by the apostles; the tradition of it was + preserved by their earliest disciples, and those who understood in their + literal senses the discourse of Christ himself, were obliged to expect the + second and glorious coming of the Son of Man in the clouds, before that + generation was totally extinguished, which had beheld his humble condition + upon earth, and which might still be witness of the calamities of the Jews + under Vespasian or Hadrian. The revolution of seventeen centuries has + instructed us not to press too closely the mysterious language of prophecy + and revelation; but as long as, for wise purposes, this error was + permitted to subsist in the church, it was productive of the most salutary + effects on the faith and practice of Christians, who lived in the awful + expectation of that moment, when the globe itself, and all the various + race of mankind, should tremble at the appearance of their divine Judge. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p4" id="linkch15-p4"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The ancient and popular doctrine of the Millennium was intimately + connected with the second coming of Christ. As the works of the creation + had been finished in six days, their duration in their present state, + according to a tradition which was attributed to the prophet Elijah, was + fixed to six thousand years. By the same analogy it was inferred, that + this long period of labor and contention, which was now almost elapsed, + would be succeeded by a joyful Sabbath of a thousand years; and that + Christ, with the triumphant band of the saints and the elect who had + escaped death, or who had been miraculously revived, would reign upon + earth till the time appointed for the last and general resurrection. So + pleasing was this hope to the mind of believers, that the <i>New + Jerusalem</i>, the seat of this blissful kingdom, was quickly + adorned with all the gayest colors of the imagination. A felicity + consisting only of pure and spiritual pleasure would have appeared too + refined for its inhabitants, who were still supposed to possess their + human nature and senses. A garden of Eden, with the amusements of the + pastoral life, was no longer suited to the advanced state of society which + prevailed under the Roman empire. A city was therefore erected of gold and + precious stones, and a supernatural plenty of corn and wine was bestowed + on the adjacent territory; in the free enjoyment of whose spontaneous + productions the happy and benevolent people was never to be restrained by + any jealous laws of exclusive property. The assurance of such a Millennium + was carefully inculcated by a succession of fathers from Justin Martyr, + and Irenæus, who conversed with the immediate disciples of the + apostles, down to Lactantius, who was preceptor to the son of Constantine. + Though it might not be universally received, it appears to have been the + reigning sentiment of the orthodox believers; and it seems so well adapted + to the desires and apprehensions of mankind, that it must have contributed + in a very considerable degree to the progress of the Christian faith. But + when the edifice of the church was almost completed, the temporary support + was laid aside. The doctrine of Christ’s reign upon earth was at first + treated as a profound allegory, was considered by degrees as a doubtful + and useless opinion, and was at length rejected as the absurd invention of + heresy and fanaticism. A mysterious prophecy, which still forms a part of + the sacred canon, but which was thought to favor the exploded sentiment, + has very narrowly escaped the proscription of the church. + </p> + <p> + Whilst the happiness and glory of a temporal reign were promised to the + disciples of Christ, the most dreadful calamities were denounced against + an unbelieving world. The edification of a new Jerusalem was to advance by + equal steps with the destruction of the mystic Babylon; and as long as the + emperors who reigned before Constantine persisted in the profession of + idolatry, the epithet of babylon was applied to the city and to the empire + of Rome. A regular series was prepared of all the moral and physical evils + which can afflict a flourishing nation; intestine discord, and the + invasion of the fiercest barbarians from the unknown regions of the North; + pestilence and famine, comets and eclipses, earthquakes and inundations. + All these were only so many preparatory and alarming signs of the great + catastrophe of Rome, when the country of the Scipios and Cæsars + should be consumed by a flame from Heaven, and the city of the seven + hills, with her palaces, her temples, and her triumphal arches, should be + buried in a vast lake of fire and brimstone. It might, however, afford + some consolation to Roman vanity, that the period of their empire would be + that of the world itself; which, as it had once perished by the element of + water, was destined to experience a second and a speedy destruction from + the element of fire. In the opinion of a general conflagration, the faith + of the Christian very happily coincided with the tradition of the East, + the philosophy of the Stoics, and the analogy of Nature; and even the + country, which, from religious motives, had been chosen for the origin and + principal scene of the conflagration, was the best adapted for that + purpose by natural and physical causes; by its deep caverns, beds of + sulphur, and numerous volcanoes, of which those of Ætna, of + Vesuvius, and of Lipari, exhibit a very imperfect representation. The + calmest and most intrepid sceptic could not refuse to acknowledge that the + destruction of the present system of the world by fire was in itself + extremely probable. The Christian, who founded his belief much less on the + fallacious arguments of reason than on the authority of tradition and the + interpretation of Scripture, expected it with terror and confidence as a + certain and approaching event; and as his mind was perpetually filled with + the solemn idea, he considered every disaster that happened to the empire + as an infallible symptom of an expiring world. + </p> + <p> + The condemnation of the wisest and most virtuous of the Pagans, on account + of their ignorance or disbelief of the divine truth, seems to offend the + reason and the humanity of the present age. But the primitive church, + whose faith was of a much firmer consistence, delivered over, without + hesitation, to eternal torture, the far greater part of the human species. + A charitable hope might perhaps be indulged in favor of Socrates, or some + other sages of antiquity, who had consulted the light of reason before + that of the gospel had arisen. But it was unanimously affirmed, that those + who, since the birth or the death of Christ, had obstinately persisted in + the worship of the dæmons, neither deserved nor could expect a + pardon from the irritated justice of the Deity. These rigid sentiments, + which had been unknown to the ancient world, appear to have infused a + spirit of bitterness into a system of love and harmony. The ties of blood + and friendship were frequently torn asunder by the difference of religious + faith; and the Christians, who, in this world, found themselves oppressed + by the power of the Pagans, were sometimes seduced by resentment and + spiritual pride to delight in the prospect of their future triumph. “You + are fond of spectacles,” exclaims the stern Tertullian; “expect the + greatest of all spectacles, the last and eternal judgment of the universe. + How shall I admire, how laugh, how rejoice, how exult, when I behold so + many proud monarchs, so many fancied gods, groaning in the lowest abyss of + darkness; so many magistrates, who persecuted the name of the Lord, + liquefying in fiercer fires than they ever kindled against the Christians; + so many sage philosophers blushing in red-hot flames with their deluded + scholars; so many celebrated poets trembling before the tribunal, not of + Minos, but of Christ; so many tragedians, more tuneful in the expression + of their own sufferings; so many dancers.” * But the humanity of the + reader will permit me to draw a veil over the rest of this infernal + description, which the zealous African pursues in a long variety of + affected and unfeeling witticisms. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless there were many among the primitive Christians of a temper more + suitable to the meekness and charity of their profession. There were many + who felt a sincere compassion for the danger of their friends and + countrymen, and who exerted the most benevolent zeal to save them from the + impending destruction. The careless Polytheist, assailed by new and + unexpected terrors, against which neither his priests nor his philosophers + could afford him any certain protection, was very frequently terrified and + subdued by the menace of eternal tortures. His fears might assist the + progress of his faith and reason; and if he could once persuade himself to + suspect that the Christian religion might possibly be true, it became an + easy task to convince him that it was the safest and most prudent party + that he could possibly embrace. + </p> + <p> + III. The supernatural gifts, which even in this life were ascribed to the + Christians above the rest of mankind, must have conduced to their own + comfort, and very frequently to the conviction of infidels. Besides the + occasional prodigies, which might sometimes be effected by the immediate + interposition of the Deity when he suspended the laws of Nature for the + service of religion, the Christian church, from the time of the apostles + and their first disciples, has claimed an uninterrupted succession of + miraculous powers, the gift of tongues, of vision, and of prophecy, the + power of expelling dæmons, of healing the sick, and of raising the + dead. The knowledge of foreign languages was frequently communicated to + the contemporaries of Irenæus, though Irenæus himself was left + to struggle with the difficulties of a barbarous dialect, whilst he + preached the gospel to the natives of Gaul. The divine inspiration, + whether it was conveyed in the form of a waking or of a sleeping vision, + is described as a favor very liberally bestowed on all ranks of the + faithful, on women as on elders, on boys as well as upon bishops. When + their devout minds were sufficiently prepared by a course of prayer, of + fasting, and of vigils, to receive the extraordinary impulse, they were + transported out of their senses, and delivered in ecstasy what was + inspired, being mere organs of the Holy Spirit, just as a pipe or flute is + of him who blows into it. We may add, that the design of these visions + was, for the most part, either to disclose the future history, or to guide + the present administration, of the church. The expulsion of the dæmons + from the bodies of those unhappy persons whom they had been permitted to + torment, was considered as a signal though ordinary triumph of religion, + and is repeatedly alleged by the ancient apologists, as the most + convincing evidence of the truth of Christianity. The awful ceremony was + usually performed in a public manner, and in the presence of a great + number of spectators; the patient was relieved by the power or skill of + the exorcist, and the vanquished dæmon was heard to confess that he + was one of the fabled gods of antiquity, who had impiously usurped the + adoration of mankind. But the miraculous cure of diseases of the most + inveterate or even preternatural kind can no longer occasion any + surprise, when we recollect, that in the days of Irenæus, about the + end of the second century, the resurrection of the dead was very far from + being esteemed an uncommon event; that the miracle was frequently + performed on necessary occasions, by great fasting and the joint + supplication of the church of the place, and that the persons thus + restored to their prayers had lived afterwards among them many years. At + such a period, when faith could boast of so many wonderful victories over + death, it seems difficult to account for the scepticism of those + philosophers, who still rejected and derided the doctrine of the + resurrection. A noble Grecian had rested on this important ground the + whole controversy, and promised Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, that if he + could be gratified with the sight of a single person who had been actually + raised from the dead, he would immediately embrace the Christian religion. + It is somewhat remarkable, that the prelate of the first eastern church, + however anxious for the conversion of his friend, thought proper to + decline this fair and reasonable challenge. + </p> + <p> + The miracles of the primitive church, after obtaining the sanction of + ages, have been lately attacked in a very free and ingenious inquiry, + which, though it has met with the most favorable reception from the + public, appears to have excited a general scandal among the divines of our + own as well as of the other Protestant churches of Europe. Our different + sentiments on this subject will be much less influenced by any particular + arguments, than by our habits of study and reflection; and, above all, by + the degree of evidence which we have accustomed ourselves to require for + the proof of a miraculous event. The duty of an historian does not call + upon him to interpose his private judgment in this nice and important + controversy; but he ought not to dissemble the difficulty of adopting such + a theory as may reconcile the interest of religion with that of reason, of + making a proper application of that theory, and of defining with precision + the limits of that happy period, exempt from error and from deceit, to + which we might be disposed to extend the gift of supernatural powers. From + the first of the fathers to the last of the popes, a succession of + bishops, of saints, of martyrs, and of miracles, is continued without + interruption; and the progress of superstition was so gradual, and almost + imperceptible, that we know not in what particular link we should break + the chain of tradition. Every age bears testimony to the wonderful events + by which it was distinguished, and its testimony appears no less weighty + and respectable than that of the preceding generation, till we are + insensibly led on to accuse our own inconsistency, if in the eighth or in + the twelfth century we deny to the venerable Bede, or to the holy Bernard, + the same degree of confidence which, in the second century, we had so + liberally granted to Justin or to Irenæus. If the truth of any of + those miracles is appreciated by their apparent use and propriety, every + age had unbelievers to convince, heretics to confute, and idolatrous + nations to convert; and sufficient motives might always be produced to + justify the interposition of Heaven. And yet, since every friend to + revelation is persuaded of the reality, and every reasonable man is + convinced of the cessation, of miraculous powers, it is evident that there + must have been <i>some period</i> in which they were + either suddenly or gradually withdrawn from the Christian church. Whatever + æra is chosen for that purpose, the death of the apostles, the + conversion of the Roman empire, or the extinction of the Arian heresy, the + insensibility of the Christians who lived at that time will equally afford + a just matter of surprise. They still supported their pretensions after + they had lost their power. Credulity performed the office of faith; + fanaticism was permitted to assume the language of inspiration, and the + effects of accident or contrivance were ascribed to supernatural causes. + The recent experience of genuine miracles should have instructed the + Christian world in the ways of Providence, and habituated their eye (if we + may use a very inadequate expression) to the style of the divine artist. + Should the most skilful painter of modern Italy presume to decorate his + feeble imitations with the name of Raphael or of Correggio, the insolent + fraud would be soon discovered, and indignantly rejected. + </p> + <p> + Whatever opinion may be entertained of the miracles of the primitive + church since the time of the apostles, this unresisting softness of + temper, so conspicuous among the believers of the second and third + centuries, proved of some accidental benefit to the cause of truth and + religion. In modern times, a latent and even involuntary scepticism + adheres to the most pious dispositions. Their admission of supernatural + truths is much less an active consent than a cold and passive + acquiescence. Accustomed long since to observe and to respect the invariable + order of Nature, our reason, or at least our imagination, is not + sufficiently prepared to sustain the visible action of the Deity. But, in + the first ages of Christianity, the situation of mankind was extremely + different. The most curious, or the most credulous, among the Pagans, were + often persuaded to enter into a society which asserted an actual claim of + miraculous powers. The primitive Christians perpetually trod on mystic + ground, and their minds were exercised by the habits of believing the most + extraordinary events. They felt, or they fancied, that on every side they + were incessantly assaulted by dæmons, comforted by visions, + instructed by prophecy, and surprisingly delivered from danger, sickness, + and from death itself, by the supplications of the church. The real or + imaginary prodigies, of which they so frequently conceived themselves to + be the objects, the instruments, or the spectators, very happily disposed + them to adopt with the same ease, but with far greater justice, the + authentic wonders of the evangelic history; and thus miracles that + exceeded not the measure of their own experience, inspired them with the + most lively assurance of mysteries which were acknowledged to surpass the + limits of their understanding. It is this deep impression of supernatural + truths which has been so much celebrated under the name of faith; a state + of mind described as the surest pledge of the divine favor and of future + felicity, and recommended as the first, or perhaps the only merit of a + Christian. According to the more rigid doctors, the moral virtues, which + may be equally practised by infidels, are destitute of any value or + efficacy in the work of our justification. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p5" id="linkch15-p5"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + IV. But the primitive Christian demonstrated his faith by his virtues; and + it was very justly supposed that the divine persuasion, which enlightened + or subdued the understanding, must, at the same time, purify the heart, + and direct the actions, of the believer. The first apologists of + Christianity who justify the innocence of their brethren, and the writers + of a later period who celebrate the sanctity of their ancestors, display, + in the most lively colors, the reformation of manners which was introduced + into the world by the preaching of the gospel. As it is my intention to + remark only such human causes as were permitted to second the influence of + revelation, I shall slightly mention two motives which might naturally + render the lives of the primitive Christians much purer and more austere + than those of their Pagan contemporaries, or their degenerate successors; + repentance for their past sins, and the laudable desire of supporting the + reputation of the society in which they were engaged. * + </p> + <p> + It is a very ancient reproach, suggested by the ignorance or the malice of + infidelity, that the Christians allured into their party the most + atrocious criminals, who, as soon as they were touched by a sense of + remorse, were easily persuaded to wash away, in the water of baptism, the + guilt of their past conduct, for which the temples of the gods refused to + grant them any expiation. But this reproach, when it is cleared from + misrepresentation, contributes as much to the honor as it did to the + increase of the church. The friends of Christianity may acknowledge + without a blush that many of the most eminent saints had been before + their baptism the most abandoned sinners. Those persons, who in the world + had followed, though in an imperfect manner, the dictates of benevolence + and propriety, derived such a calm satisfaction from the opinion of their + own rectitude, as rendered them much less susceptible of the sudden + emotions of shame, of grief, and of terror, which have given birth to so + many wonderful conversions. After the example of their divine Master, the + missionaries of the gospel disdained not the society of men, and + especially of women, oppressed by the consciousness, and very often by the + effects, of their vices. As they emerged from sin and superstition to the + glorious hope of immortality, they resolved to devote themselves to a + life, not only of virtue, but of penitence. The desire of perfection + became the ruling passion of their soul; and it is well known that, while + reason embraces a cold mediocrity, our passions hurry us, with rapid + violence, over the space which lies between the most opposite extremes. + </p> + <p> + When the new converts had been enrolled in the number of the faithful, and + were admitted to the sacraments of the church, they found themselves + restrained from relapsing into their past disorders by another + consideration of a less spiritual, but of a very innocent and respectable + nature. Any particular society that has departed from the great body of + the nation, or the religion to which it belonged, immediately becomes the + object of universal as well as invidious observation. In proportion to the + smallness of its numbers, the character of the society may be affected by + the virtues and vices of the persons who compose it; and every member is + engaged to watch with the most vigilant attention over his own behavior, + and over that of his brethren, since, as he must expect to incur a part of + the common disgrace, he may hope to enjoy a share of the common + reputation. When the Christians of Bithynia were brought before the + tribunal of the younger Pliny, they assured the proconsul, that, far from + being engaged in any unlawful conspiracy, they were bound by a solemn + obligation to abstain from the commission of those crimes which disturb + the private or public peace of society, from theft, robbery, adultery, + perjury, and fraud. Near a century afterwards, Tertullian, with an honest + pride, could boast, that very few Christians had suffered by the hand of + the executioner, except on account of their religion. Their serious and + sequestered life, averse to the gay luxury of the age, inured them to + chastity, temperance, economy, and all the sober and domestic virtues. As + the greater number were of some trade or profession, it was incumbent on + them, by the strictest integrity and the fairest dealing, to remove the + suspicions which the profane are too apt to conceive against the + appearances of sanctity. The contempt of the world exercised them in the + habits of humility, meekness, and patience. The more they were persecuted, + the more closely they adhered to each other. Their mutual charity and + unsuspecting confidence has been remarked by infidels, and was too often + abused by perfidious friends. + </p> + <p> + It is a very honorable circumstance for the morals of the primitive + Christians, that even their faults, or rather errors, were derived from an + excess of virtue. The bishops and doctors of the church, whose evidence + attests, and whose authority might influence, the professions, the + principles, and even the practice of their contemporaries, had studied the + Scriptures with less skill than devotion; and they often received, in the + most literal sense, those rigid precepts of Christ and the apostles, to + which the prudence of succeeding commentators has applied a looser and + more figurative mode of interpretation. Ambitious to exalt the perfection + of the gospel above the wisdom of philosophy, the zealous fathers have + carried the duties of self-mortification, of purity, and of patience, to a + height which it is scarcely possible to attain, and much less to preserve, + in our present state of weakness and corruption. A doctrine so + extraordinary and so sublime must inevitably command the veneration of the + people; but it was ill calculated to obtain the suffrage of those worldly + philosophers who, in the conduct of this transitory life, consult only + the feelings of nature and the interest of society. + </p> + <p> + There are two very natural propensities which we may distinguish in the + most virtuous and liberal dispositions, the love of pleasure and the love + of action. If the former is refined by art and learning, improved by the + charms of social intercourse, and corrected by a just regard to economy, + to health, and to reputation, it is productive of the greatest part of the + happiness of private life. The love of action is a principle of a much + stronger and more doubtful nature. It often leads to anger, to ambition, + and to revenge; but when it is guided by the sense of propriety and + benevolence, it becomes the parent of every virtue, and if those virtues + are accompanied with equal abilities, a family, a state, or an empire may + be indebted for their safety and prosperity to the undaunted courage of a + single man. To the love of pleasure we may therefore ascribe most of the + agreeable, to the love of action we may attribute most of the useful and + respectable, qualifications. The character in which both the one and the + other should be united and harmonized would seem to constitute the most + perfect idea of human nature. The insensible and inactive disposition, + which should be supposed alike destitute of both, would be rejected, by + the common consent of mankind, as utterly incapable of procuring any + happiness to the individual, or any public benefit to the world. But it + was not in this world that the primitive Christians were desirous of + making themselves either agreeable or useful. * + </p> + <p> + The acquisition of knowledge, the exercise of our reason or fancy, and the + cheerful flow of unguarded conversation, may employ the leisure of a + liberal mind. Such amusements, however, were rejected with abhorrence, or + admitted with the utmost caution, by the severity of the fathers, who + despised all knowledge that was not useful to salvation, and who + considered all levity of discours as a criminal abuse of the gift of + speech. In our present state of existence the body is so inseparably + connected with the soul, that it seems to be our interest to taste, with + innocence and moderation, the enjoyments of which that faithful companion + is susceptible. Very different was the reasoning of our devout + predecessors; vainly aspiring to imitate the perfection of angels, they + disdained, or they affected to disdain, every earthly and corporeal + delight. Some of our senses indeed are necessary for our preservation, + others for our subsistence, and others again for our information; and thus + far it was impossible to reject the use of them. The first sensation of + pleasure was marked as the first moment of their abuse. The unfeeling + candidate for heaven was instructed, not only to resist the grosser + allurements of the taste or smell, but even to shut his ears against the + profane harmony of sounds, and to view with indifference the most finished + productions of human art. Gay apparel, magnificent houses, and elegant + furniture, were supposed to unite the double guilt of pride and of + sensuality; a simple and mortified appearance was more suitable to the + Christian who was certain of his sins and doubtful of his salvation. In + their censures of luxury the fathers are extremely minute and + circumstantial; and among the various articles which excite their pious + indignation we may enumerate false hair, garments of any color except + white, instruments of music, vases of gold or silver, downy pillows, (as + Jacob reposed his head on a stone,) white bread, foreign wines, public + salutations, the use of warm baths, and the practice of shaving the beard, + which, according to the expression of Tertullian, is a lie against our own + faces, and an impious attempt to improve the works of the Creator. When + Christianity was introduced among the rich and the polite, the observation + of these singular laws was left, as it would be at present, to the few who + were ambitious of superior sanctity. But it is always easy, as well as + agreeable, for the inferior ranks of mankind to claim a merit from the + contempt of that pomp and pleasure which fortune has placed beyond their + reach. The virtue of the primitive Christians, like that of the first + Romans, was very frequently guarded by poverty and ignorance. + </p> + <p> + The chaste severity of the fathers, in whatever related to the commerce of + the two sexes, flowed from the same principle; their abhorrence of every + enjoyment which might gratify the sensual, and degrade the spiritual + nature of man. It was their favorite opinion, that if Adam had preserved + his obedience to the Creator, he would have lived forever in a state of + virgin purity, and that some harmless mode of vegetation might have + peopled paradise with a race of innocent and immortal beings. The use of + marriage was permitted only to his fallen posterity, as a necessary + expedient to continue the human species, and as a restraint, however + imperfect, on the natural licentiousness of desire. The hesitation of the + orthodox casuists on this interesting subject, betrays the perplexity of + men, unwilling to approve an institution which they were compelled to + tolerate. The enumeration of the very whimsical laws, which they most + circumstantially imposed on the marriage-bed, would force a smile from the + young and a blush from the fair. It was their unanimous sentiment that a + first marriage was adequate to all the purposes of nature and of society. + The sensual connection was refined into a resemblance of the mystic union + of Christ with his church, and was pronounced to be indissoluble either by + divorce or by death. The practice of second nuptials was branded with the + name of a legal adultery; and the persons who were guilty of so scandalous + an offence against Christian purity, were soon excluded from the honors, + and even from the alms, of the church. Since desire was imputed as a + crime, and marriage was tolerated as a defect, it was consistent with the + same principles to consider a state of celibacy as the nearest approach to + the divine perfection. It was with the utmost difficulty that ancient Rome + could support the institution of six vestals; but the primitive church was + filled with a number of persons of either sex, who had devoted + themselves to the profession of perpetual chastity. A few of these, among + whom we may reckon the learned Origen, judged it the most prudent to + disarm the tempter. Some were insensible and some were invincible against + the assaults of the flesh. Disdaining an ignominious flight, the virgins + of the warm climate of Africa encountered the enemy in the closest + engagement; they permitted priests and deacons to share their bed, and + gloried amidst the flames in their unsullied purity. But insulted Nature + sometimes vindicated her rights, and this new species of martyrdom served + only to introduce a new scandal into the church. Among the Christian + ascetics, however, (a name which they soon acquired from their painful + exercise,) many, as they were less presumptuous, were probably more + successful. The loss of sensual pleasure was supplied and compensated by + spiritual pride. Even the multitude of Pagans were inclined to estimate + the merit of the sacrifice by its apparent difficulty; and it was in the + praise of these chaste spouses of Christ that the fathers have poured + forth the troubled stream of their eloquence. Such are the early traces of + monastic principles and institutions, which, in a subsequent age, have + counterbalanced all the temporal advantages of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + The Christians were not less averse to the business than to the pleasures + of this world. The defence of our persons and property they knew not how + to reconcile with the patient doctrine which enjoined an unlimited + forgiveness of past injuries, and commanded them to invite the repetition + of fresh insults. Their simplicity was offended by the use of oaths, by + the pomp of magistracy, and by the active contention of public life; nor + could their humane ignorance be convinced that it was lawful on any + occasion to shed the blood of our fellow-creatures, either by the sword of + justice, or by that of war; even though their criminal or hostile attempts + should threaten the peace and safety of the whole community. It was + acknowledged that, under a less perfect law, the powers of the Jewish + constitution had been exercised, with the approbation of heaven, by + inspired prophets and by anointed kings. The Christians felt and confessed + that such institutions might be necessary for the present system of the + world, and they cheerfully submitted to the authority of their Pagan + governors. But while they inculcated the maxims of passive obedience, they + refused to take any active part in the civil administration or the + military defence of the empire. Some indulgence might, perhaps, be allowed + to those persons who, before their conversion, were already engaged in + such violent and sanguinary occupations; but it was impossible that the + Christians, without renouncing a more sacred duty, could assume the + character of soldiers, of magistrates, or of princes. This indolent, or + even criminal disregard to the public welfare, exposed them to the + contempt and reproaches of the Pagans, who very frequently asked, what must + be the fate of the empire, attacked on every side by the barbarians, if + all mankind should adopt the pusillanimous sentiments of the new sect. To + this insulting question the Christian apologists returned obscure and + ambiguous answers, as they were unwilling to reveal the secret cause of + their security; the expectation that, before the conversion of mankind was + accomplished, war, government, the Roman empire, and the world itself, + would be no more. It may be observed, that, in this instance likewise, the + situation of the first Christians coincided very happily with their + religious scruples, and that their aversion to an active life contributed + rather to excuse them from the service, than to exclude them from the + honors, of the state and army. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p6" id="linkch15-p6"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + V. But the human character, however it may be exalted or depressed by a + temporary enthusiasm, will return by degrees to its proper and natural + level, and will resume those passions that seem the most adapted to its + present condition. The primitive Christians were dead to the business and + pleasures of the world; but their love of action, which could never be + entirely extinguished, soon revived, and found a new occupation in the + government of the church. A separate society, which attacked the + established religion of the empire, was obliged to adopt some form of + internal policy, and to appoint a sufficient number of ministers, + intrusted not only with the spiritual functions, but even with the + temporal direction of the Christian commonwealth. The safety of that + society, its honor, its aggrandizement, were productive, even in the most + pious minds, of a spirit of patriotism, such as the first of the Romans + had felt for the republic, and sometimes of a similar indifference, in the + use of whatever means might probably conduce to so desirable an end. The + ambition of raising themselves or their friends to the honors and offices + of the church, was disguised by the laudable intention of devoting to the + public benefit the power and consideration, which, for that purpose only, + it became their duty to solicit. In the exercise of their functions, they + were frequently called upon to detect the errors of heresy or the arts of + faction, to oppose the designs of perfidious brethren, to stigmatize their + characters with deserved infamy, and to expel them from the bosom of a + society whose peace and happiness they had attempted to disturb. The + ecclesiastical governors of the Christians were taught to unite the wisdom + of the serpent with the innocence of the dove; but as the former was + refined, so the latter was insensibly corrupted, by the habits of + government. In the church as well as in the world, the persons who were + placed in any public station rendered themselves considerable by their + eloquence and firmness, by their knowledge of mankind, and by their + dexterity in business; and while they concealed from others, and perhaps + from themselves, the secret motives of their conduct, they too frequently + relapsed into all the turbulent passions of active life, which were + tinctured with an additional degree of bitterness and obstinacy from the + infusion of spiritual zeal. + </p> + <p> + The government of the church has often been the subject, as well as the + prize, of religious contention. The hostile disputants of Rome, of Paris, + of Oxford, and of Geneva, have alike struggled to reduce the primitive and + apostolic model to the respective standards of their own policy. The few + who have pursued this inquiry with more candor and impartiality, are of + opinion, that the apostles declined the office of legislation, and rather + chose to endure some partial scandals and divisions, than to exclude the + Christians of a future age from the liberty of varying their forms of + ecclesiastical government according to the changes of times and + circumstances. The scheme of policy, which, under their approbation, was + adopted for the use of the first century, may be discovered from the + practice of Jerusalem, of Ephesus, or of Corinth. The societies which were + instituted in the cities of the Roman empire were united only by the ties + of faith and charity. Independence and equality formed the basis of their + internal constitution. The want of discipline and human learning was + supplied by the occasional assistance of the <i>prophets</i>, + who were called to that function without distinction of age, of sex, * or + of natural abilities, and who, as often as they felt the divine impulse, + poured forth the effusions of the Spirit in the assembly of the faithful. + But these extraordinary gifts were frequently abused or misapplied by the + prophetic teachers. They displayed them at an improper season, + presumptuously disturbed the service of the assembly, and, by their pride + or mistaken zeal, they introduced, particularly into the apostolic church + of Corinth, a long and melancholy train of disorders. As the institution + of prophets became useless, and even pernicious, their powers were + withdrawn, and their office abolished. The public functions of religion + were solely intrusted to the established ministers of the church, the + <i>bishops</i> and the <i>presbyters</i>; + two appellations which, in their first origin, appear to have + distinguished the same office and the same order of persons. The name of + Presbyter was expressive of their age, or rather of their gravity and + wisdom. The title of Bishop denoted their inspection over the faith and + manners of the Christians who were committed to their pastoral care. In + proportion to the respective numbers of the faithful, a larger or smaller + number of these <i>episcopal</i> <i>presbyters</i> + guided each infant congregation with equal authority and with united + counsels. + </p> + <p> + But the most perfect equality of freedom requires the directing hand of a + superior magistrate: and the order of public deliberations soon introduces + the office of a president, invested at least with the authority of + collecting the sentiments, and of executing the resolutions, of the + assembly. A regard for the public tranquillity, which would so frequently + have been interrupted by annual or by occasional elections, induced the + primitive Christians to constitute an honorable and perpetual magistracy, + and to choose one of the wisest and most holy among their presbyters to + execute, during his life, the duties of their ecclesiastical governor. It + was under these circumstances that the lofty title of Bishop began to + raise itself above the humble appellation of Presbyter; and while the + latter remained the most natural distinction for the members of every + Christian senate, the former was appropriated to the dignity of its new + president. The advantages of this episcopal form of government, which + appears to have been introduced before the end of the first century, were + so obvious, and so important for the future greatness, as well as the + present peace, of Christianity, that it was adopted without delay by all + the societies which were already scattered over the empire, had acquired + in a very early period the sanction of antiquity, and is still revered by + the most powerful churches, both of the East and of the West, as a + primitive and even as a divine establishment. It is needless to observe, + that the pious and humble presbyters, who were first dignified with the + episcopal title, could not possess, and would probably have rejected, the + power and pomp which now encircles the tiara of the Roman pontiff, or the + mitre of a German prelate. But we may define, in a few words, the narrow + limits of their original jurisdiction, which was chiefly of a spiritual, + though in some instances of a temporal nature. It consisted in the + administration of the sacraments and discipline of the church, the + superintendency of religious ceremonies, which imperceptibly increased in + number and variety, the consecration of ecclesiastical ministers, to whom + the bishop assigned their respective functions, the management of the + public fund, and the determination of all such differences as the faithful + were unwilling to expose before the tribunal of an idolatrous judge. These + powers, during a short period, were exercised according to the advice of + the presbyteral college, and with the consent and approbation of the + assembly of Christians. The primitive bishops were considered only as the + first of their equals, and the honorable servants of a free people. + Whenever the episcopal chair became vacant by death, a new president was + chosen among the presbyters by the suffrage of the whole congregation, + every member of which supposed himself invested with a sacred and + sacerdotal character. + </p> + <p> + Such was the mild and equal constitution by which the Christians were + governed more than a hundred years after the death of the apostles. Every + society formed within itself a separate and independent republic; and + although the most distant of these little states maintained a mutual as + well as friendly intercourse of letters and deputations, the Christian + world was not yet connected by any supreme authority or legislative + assembly. As the numbers of the faithful were gradually multiplied, they + discovered the advantages that might result from a closer union of their + interest and designs. Towards the end of the second century, the churches + of Greece and Asia adopted the useful institutions of provincial synods, * + and they may justly be supposed to have borrowed the model of a + representative council from the celebrated examples of their own country, + the Amphictyons, the Achæan league, or the assemblies of the Ionian + cities. It was soon established as a custom and as a law, that the bishops + of the independent churches should meet in the capital of the province at + the stated periods of spring and autumn. Their deliberations were assisted + by the advice of a few distinguished presbyters, and moderated by the + presence of a listening multitude. Their decrees, which were styled + Canons, regulated every important controversy of faith and discipline; and + it was natural to believe that a liberal effusion of the Holy Spirit would + be poured on the united assembly of the delegates of the Christian people. + The institution of synods was so well suited to private ambition, and to + public interest, that in the space of a few years it was received + throughout the whole empire. A regular correspondence was established + between the provincial councils, which mutually communicated and approved + their respective proceedings; and the catholic church soon assumed the + form, and acquired the strength, of a great fœderative republic. + </p> + <p> + As the legislative authority of the particular churches was insensibly + superseded by the use of councils, the bishops obtained by their alliance + a much larger share of executive and arbitrary power; and as soon as they + were connected by a sense of their common interest, they were enabled to + attack, with united vigor, the original rights of their clergy and people. + The prelates of the third century imperceptibly changed the language of + exhortation into that of command, scattered the seeds of future + usurpations, and supplied, by scripture allegories and declamatory + rhetoric, their deficiency of force and of reason. They exalted the unity + and power of the church, as it was represented in the episcopal office, of + which every bishop enjoyed an equal and undivided portion. Princes and + magistrates, it was often repeated, might boast an earthly claim to a + transitory dominion; it was the episcopal authority alone which was + derived from the Deity, and extended itself over this and over another + world. The bishops were the vicegerents of Christ, the successors of the + apostles, and the mystic substitutes of the high priest of the Mosaic law. + Their exclusive privilege of conferring the sacerdotal character invaded + the freedom both of clerical and of popular elections; and if, in the + administration of the church, they still consulted the judgment of the + presbyters, or the inclination of the people, they most carefully + inculcated the merit of such a voluntary condescension. The bishops + acknowledged the supreme authority which resided in the assembly of their + brethren; but in the government of his peculiar diocese, each of them + exacted from his flock the same implicit obedience as if that favorite + metaphor had been literally just, and as if the shepherd had been of a + more exalted nature than that of his sheep. This obedience, however, was + not imposed without some efforts on one side, and some resistance on the + other. The democratical part of the constitution was, in many places, very + warmly supported by the zealous or interested opposition of the inferior + clergy. But their patriotism received the ignominious epithets of faction + and schism; and the episcopal cause was indebted for its rapid progress to + the labors of many active prelates, who, like Cyprian of Carthage, could + reconcile the arts of the most ambitious statesman with the Christian + virtues which seem adapted to the character of a saint and martyr. + </p> + <p> + The same causes which at first had destroyed the equality of the + presbyters introduced among the bishops a preeminence of rank, and from + thence a superiority of jurisdiction. As often as in the spring and autumn + they met in provincial synod, the difference of personal merit and + reputation was very sensibly felt among the members of the assembly, and + the multitude was governed by the wisdom and eloquence of the few. But the + order of public proceedings required a more regular and less invidious + distinction; the office of perpetual presidents in the councils of each + province was conferred on the bishops of the principal city; and these + aspiring prelates, who soon acquired the lofty titles of Metropolitans and + Primates, secretly prepared themselves to usurp over their episcopal + brethren the same authority which the bishops had so lately assumed above + the college of presbyters. Nor was it long before an emulation of + preeminence and power prevailed among the Metropolitans themselves, each + of them affecting to display, in the most pompous terms, the temporal + honors and advantages of the city over which he presided; the numbers and + opulence of the Christians who were subject to their pastoral care; the + saints and martyrs who had arisen among them; and the purity with which + they preserved the tradition of the faith, as it had been transmitted + through a series of orthodox bishops from the apostle or the apostolic + disciple, to whom the foundation of their church was ascribed. From every + cause, either of a civil or of an ecclesiastical nature, it was easy to + foresee that Rome must enjoy the respect, and would soon claim the + obedience, of the provinces. The society of the faithful bore a just + proportion to the capital of the empire; and the Roman church was the + greatest, the most numerous, and, in regard to the West, the most ancient + of all the Christian establishments, many of which had received their + religion from the pious labors of her missionaries. Instead of <i>one</i>apostolic + founder, the utmost boast of Antioch, of Ephesus, or of Corinth, the banks + of the Tyber were supposed to have been honored with the preaching and + martyrdom of the <i>two</i> most eminent among the + apostles; and the bishops of Rome very prudently claimed the inheritance + of whatsoever prerogatives were attributed either to the person or to the + office of St. Peter. The bishops of Italy and of the provinces were + disposed to allow them a primacy of order and association (such was their + very accurate expression) in the Christian aristocracy. But the power of a + monarch was rejected with abhorrence, and the aspiring genius of Rome + experienced from the nations of Asia and Africa a more vigorous resistance + to her spiritual, than she had formerly done to her temporal, dominion. + The patriotic Cyprian, who ruled with the most absolute sway the church of + Carthage and the provincial synods, opposed with resolution and success + the ambition of the Roman pontiff, artfully connected his own cause with + that of the eastern bishops, and, like Hannibal, sought out new allies in + the heart of Asia. If this Punic war was carried on without any effusion + of blood, it was owing much less to the moderation than to the weakness of + the contending prelates. Invectives and excommunications were <i>their</i> + only weapons; and these, during the progress of the whole controversy, + they hurled against each other with equal fury and devotion. The hard + necessity of censuring either a pope, or a saint and martyr, distresses + the modern Catholics whenever they are obliged to relate the particulars + of a dispute in which the champions of religion indulged such passions as + seem much more adapted to the senate or to the camp. + </p> + <p> + The progress of the ecclesiastical authority gave birth to the memorable + distinction of the laity and of the clergy, which had been unknown to the + Greeks and Romans. The former of these appellations comprehended the body + of the Christian people; the latter, according to the signification of the + word, was appropriated to the chosen portion that had been set apart for + the service of religion; a celebrated order of men, which has furnished + the most important, though not always the most edifying, subjects for + modern history. Their mutual hostilities sometimes disturbed the peace of + the infant church, but their zeal and activity were united in the common + cause, and the love of power, which (under the most artful disguises) + could insinuate itself into the breasts of bishops and martyrs, animated + them to increase the number of their subjects, and to enlarge the limits + of the Christian empire. They were destitute of any temporal force, and + they were for a long time discouraged and oppressed, rather than assisted, + by the civil magistrate; but they had acquired, and they employed within + their own society, the two most efficacious instruments of government, + rewards and punishments; the former derived from the pious liberality, the + latter from the devout apprehensions, of the faithful. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p7" id="linkch15-p7"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VII + </h2> + <p> + I. The community of goods, which had so agreeably amused the imagination + of Plato, and which subsisted in some degree among the austere sect of the + Essenians, was adopted for a short time in the primitive church. The + fervor of the first proselytes prompted them to sell those worldly + possessions, which they despised, to lay the price of them at the feet of + the apostles, and to content themselves with receiving an equal share out + of the general distribution. The progress of the Christian religion + relaxed, and gradually abolished, this generous institution, which, in + hands less pure than those of the apostles, would too soon have been + corrupted and abused by the returning selfishness of human nature; and the + converts who embraced the new religion were permitted to retain the + possession of their patrimony, to receive legacies and inheritances, and + to increase their separate property by all the lawful means of trade and + industry. Instead of an absolute sacrifice, a moderate proportion was + accepted by the ministers of the gospel; and in their weekly or monthly + assemblies, every believer, according to the exigency of the occasion, and + the measure of his wealth and piety, presented his voluntary offering for + the use of the common fund. Nothing, however inconsiderable, was refused; + but it was diligently inculcated that, in the article of Tithes, the + Mosaic law was still of divine obligation; and that since the Jews, under + a less perfect discipline, had been commanded to pay a tenth part of all + that they possessed, it would become the disciples of Christ to + distinguish themselves by a superior degree of liberality, and to acquire + some merit by resigning a superfluous treasure, which must so soon be + annihilated with the world itself. It is almost unnecessary to observe, + that the revenue of each particular church, which was of so uncertain and + fluctuating a nature, must have varied with the poverty or the opulence of + the faithful, as they were dispersed in obscure villages, or collected in + the great cities of the empire. In the time of the emperor Decius, it was + the opinion of the magistrates, that the Christians of Rome were possessed + of very considerable wealth; that vessels of gold and silver were used in + their religious worship, and that many among their proselytes had sold + their lands and houses to increase the public riches of the sect, at the + expense, indeed, of their unfortunate children, who found themselves + beggars, because their parents had been saints. We should listen with + distrust to the suspicions of strangers and enemies: on this occasion, + however, they receive a very specious and probable color from the two + following circumstances, the only ones that have reached our knowledge, + which define any precise sums, or convey any distinct idea. Almost at the + same period, the bishop of Carthage, from a society less opulent than that + of Rome, collected a hundred thousand sesterces, (above eight hundred and + fifty pounds sterling,) on a sudden call of charity to redeem the brethren + of Numidia, who had been carried away captives by the barbarians of the + desert. About a hundred years before the reign of Decius, the Roman church + had received, in a single donation, the sum of two hundred thousand + sesterces from a stranger of Pontus, who proposed to fix his residence in + the capital. These oblations, for the most part, were made in money; nor + was the society of Christians either desirous or capable of acquiring, to + any considerable degree, the encumbrance of landed property. It had been + provided by several laws, which were enacted with the same design as our + statutes of mortmain, that no real estates should be given or bequeathed + to any corporate body, without either a special privilege or a particular + dispensation from the emperor or from the senate; who were seldom disposed + to grant them in favor of a sect, at first the object of their contempt, + and at last of their fears and jealousy. A transaction, however, is + related under the reign of Alexander Severus, which discovers that the + restraint was sometimes eluded or suspended, and that the Christians were + permitted to claim and to possess lands within the limits of Rome itself. + The progress of Christianity, and the civil confusion of the empire, + contributed to relax the severity of the laws; and before the close of the + third century many considerable estates were bestowed on the opulent + churches of Rome, Milan, Carthage, Antioch, Alexandria, and the other + great cities of Italy and the provinces. + </p> + <p> + The bishop was the natural steward of the church; the public stock was + intrusted to his care without account or control; the presbyters were + confined to their spiritual functions, and the more dependent order of the + deacons was solely employed in the management and distribution of the + ecclesiastical revenue. If we may give credit to the vehement declamations + of Cyprian, there were too many among his African brethren, who, in the + execution of their charge, violated every precept, not only of evangelical + perfection, but even of moral virtue. By some of these unfaithful stewards + the riches of the church were lavished in sensual pleasures; by others + they were perverted to the purposes of private gain, of fraudulent + purchases, and of rapacious usury. But as long as the contributions of the + Christian people were free and unconstrained, the abuse of their + confidence could not be very frequent, and the general uses to which their + liberality was applied reflected honor on the religious society. A decent + portion was reserved for the maintenance of the bishop and his clergy; a + sufficient sum was allotted for the expenses of the public worship, of + which the feasts of love, the <i>agapæ</i>, as they were + called, constituted a very pleasing part. The whole remainder was the + sacred patrimony of the poor. According to the discretion of the bishop, + it was distributed to support widows and orphans, the lame, the sick, and + the aged of the community; to comfort strangers and pilgrims, and to + alleviate the misfortunes of prisoners and captives, more especially when + their sufferings had been occasioned by their firm attachment to the cause + of religion. A generous intercourse of charity united the most distant + provinces, and the smaller congregations were cheerfully assisted by the + alms of their more opulent brethren. Such an institution, which paid less + regard to the merit than to the distress of the object, very materially + conduced to the progress of Christianity. The Pagans, who were actuated by + a sense of humanity, while they derided the doctrines, acknowledged the + benevolence, of the new sect. The prospect of immediate relief and of + future protection allured into its hospitable bosom many of those unhappy + persons whom the neglect of the world would have abandoned to the miseries + of want, of sickness, and of old age. There is some reason likewise to + believe that great numbers of infants, who, according to the inhuman + practice of the times, had been exposed by their parents, were frequently + rescued from death, baptized, educated, and maintained by the piety of the + Christians, and at the expense of the public treasure. + </p> + <p> + II. It is the undoubted right of every society to exclude from its + communion and benefits such among its members as reject or violate those + regulations which have been established by general consent. In the + exercise of this power, the censures of the Christian church were chiefly + directed against scandalous sinners, and particularly those who were + guilty of murder, of fraud, or of incontinence; against the authors or the + followers of any heretical opinions which had been condemned by the + judgment of the episcopal order; and against those unhappy persons, who, + whether from choice or compulsion, had polluted themselves after their + baptism by any act of idolatrous worship. The consequences of + excommunication were of a temporal as well as a spiritual nature. The + Christian against whom it was pronounced was deprived of any part in the + oblations of the faithful. The ties both of religious and of private + friendship were dissolved: he found himself a profane object of abhorrence + to the persons whom he the most esteemed, or by whom he had been the most + tenderly beloved; and as far as an expulsion from a respectable society + could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace, he was shunned or + suspected by the generality of mankind. The situation of these unfortunate + exiles was in itself very painful and melancholy; but, as it usually + happens, their apprehensions far exceeded their sufferings. The benefits + of the Christian communion were those of eternal life; nor could they + erase from their minds the awful opinion, that to those ecclesiastical + governors by whom they were condemned, the Deity had committed the keys of + Hell and of Paradise. The heretics, indeed, who might be supported by the + consciousness of their intentions, and by the flattering hope that they + alone had discovered the true path of salvation, endeavored to regain, in + their separate assemblies, those comforts, temporal as well as spiritual, + which they no longer derived from the great society of Christians. But + almost all those who had reluctantly yielded to the power of vice or + idolatry were sensible of their fallen condition, and anxiously desirous + of being restored to the benefits of the Christian communion. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the treatment of these penitents, two opposite opinions, + the one of justice, the other of mercy, divided the primitive church. The + more rigid and inflexible casuists refused them forever, and without + exception, the meanest place in the holy community, which they had + disgraced or deserted; and leaving them to the remorse of a guilty + conscience, indulged them only with a faint ray of hope that the + contrition of their life and death might possibly be accepted by the + Supreme Being. A milder sentiment was embraced, in practice as well as in + theory, by the purest and most respectable of the Christian churches. The + gates of reconciliation and of heaven were seldom shut against the + returning penitent; but a severe and solemn form of discipline was + instituted, which, while it served to expiate his crime, might powerfully + deter the spectators from the imitation of his example. Humbled by a + public confession, emaciated by fasting and clothed in sackcloth, the + penitent lay prostrate at the door of the assembly, imploring with tears + the pardon of his offences, and soliciting the prayers of the faithful. If + the fault was of a very heinous nature, whole years of penance were + esteemed an inadequate satisfaction to the divine justice; and it was + always by slow and painful gradations that the sinner, the heretic, or the + apostate, was readmitted into the bosom of the church. A sentence of + perpetual excommunication was, however, reserved for some crimes of an + extraordinary magnitude, and particularly for the inexcusable relapses of + those penitents who had already experienced and abused the clemency of + their ecclesiastical superiors. According to the circumstances or the + number of the guilty, the exercise of the Christian discipline was varied + by the discretion of the bishops. The councils of Ancyra and Illiberis + were held about the same time, the one in Galatia, the other in Spain; but + their respective canons, which are still extant, seem to breathe a very + different spirit. The Galatian, who after his baptism had repeatedly + sacrificed to idols, might obtain his pardon by a penance of seven years; + and if he had seduced others to imitate his example, only three years more + were added to the term of his exile. But the unhappy Spaniard, who had + committed the same offence, was deprived of the hope of reconciliation, + even in the article of death; and his idolatry was placed at the head of a + list of seventeen other crimes, against which a sentence no less terrible + was pronounced. Among these we may distinguish the inexpiable guilt of + calumniating a bishop, a presbyter, or even a deacon. + </p> + <p> + The well-tempered mixture of liberality and rigor, the judicious + dispensation of rewards and punishments, according to the maxims of policy + as well as justice, constituted the <i>human</i> + strength of the church. The Bishops, whose paternal care extended itself + to the government of both worlds, were sensible of the importance of these + prerogatives; and covering their ambition with the fair pretence of the + love of order, they were jealous of any rival in the exercise of a + discipline so necessary to prevent the desertion of those troops which had + enlisted themselves under the banner of the cross, and whose numbers every + day became more considerable. From the imperious declamations of Cyprian, + we should naturally conclude that the doctrines of excommunication and + penance formed the most essential part of religion; and that it was much + less dangerous for the disciples of Christ to neglect the observance of + the moral duties, than to despise the censures and authority of their + bishops. Sometimes we might imagine that we were listening to the voice of + Moses, when he commanded the earth to open, and to swallow up, in + consuming flames, the rebellious race which refused obedience to the + priesthood of Aaron; and we should sometimes suppose that we heard a Roman + consul asserting the majesty of the republic, and declaring his inflexible + resolution to enforce the rigor of the laws. * “If such irregularities are + suffered with impunity,” (it is thus that the bishop of Carthage chides + the lenity of his colleague,) “if such irregularities are suffered, there + is an end of Episcopal Vigor; an end of the sublime and divine power of + governing the Church, an end of Christianity itself.” Cyprian had + renounced those temporal honors which it is probable he would never have + obtained; * but the acquisition of such absolute command over the + consciences and understanding of a congregation, however obscure or + despised by the world, is more truly grateful to the pride of the human + heart than the possession of the most despotic power, imposed by arms and + conquest on a reluctant people. + </p> + <p> + In the course of this important, though perhaps tedious inquiry, I have + attempted to display the secondary causes which so efficaciously assisted + the truth of the Christian religion. If among these causes we have + discovered any artificial ornaments, any accidental circumstances, or any + mixture of error and passion, it cannot appear surprising that mankind + should be the most sensibly affected by such motives as were suited to + their imperfect nature. It was by the aid of these causes, exclusive zeal, + the immediate expectation of another world, the claim of miracles, the + practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of the primitive church, + that Christianity spread itself with so much success in the Roman empire. + To the first of these the Christians were indebted for their invincible + valor, which disdained to capitulate with the enemy whom they were + resolved to vanquish. The three succeeding causes supplied their valor + with the most formidable arms. The last of these causes united their + courage, directed their arms, and gave their efforts that irresistible + weight, which even a small band of well-trained and intrepid volunteers + has so often possessed over an undisciplined multitude, ignorant of the + subject and careless of the event of the war. In the various religions of + Polytheism, some wandering fanatics of Egypt and Syria, who addressed + themselves to the credulous superstition of the populace, were perhaps the + only order of priests that derived their whole support and credit from + their sacerdotal profession, and were very deeply affected by a personal + concern for the safety or prosperity of their tutelar deities. The + ministers of Polytheism, both in Rome and in the provinces, were, for the + most part, men of a noble birth, and of an affluent fortune, who received, + as an honorable distinction, the care of a celebrated temple, or of a + public sacrifice, exhibited, very frequently at their own expense, the + sacred games, and with cold indifference performed the ancient rites, + according to the laws and fashion of their country. As they were engaged + in the ordinary occupations of life, their zeal and devotion were seldom + animated by a sense of interest, or by the habits of an ecclesiastical + character. Confined to their respective temples and cities, they remained + without any connection of discipline or government; and whilst they + acknowledged the supreme jurisdiction of the senate, of the college of + pontiffs, and of the emperor, those civil magistrates contented themselves + with the easy task of maintaining in peace and dignity the general worship + of mankind. We have already seen how various, how loose, and how uncertain + were the religious sentiments of Polytheists. They were abandoned, almost + without control, to the natural workings of a superstitious fancy. The + accidental circumstances of their life and situation determined the object + as well as the degree of their devotion; and as long as their adoration + was successively prostituted to a thousand deities, it was scarcely + possible that their hearts could be susceptible of a very sincere or + lively passion for any of them. + </p> + <p> + When Christianity appeared in the world, even these faint and imperfect + impressions had lost much of their original power. Human reason, which by + its unassisted strength is incapable of perceiving the mysteries of faith, + had already obtained an easy triumph over the folly of Paganism; and when + Tertullian or Lactantius employ their labors in exposing its falsehood and + extravagance, they are obliged to transcribe the eloquence of Cicero or + the wit of Lucian. The contagion of these sceptical writings had been + diffused far beyond the number of their readers. The fashion of + incredulity was communicated from the philosopher to the man of pleasure + or business, from the noble to the plebeian, and from the master to the + menial slave who waited at his table, and who eagerly listened to the + freedom of his conversation. On public occasions the philosophic part of + mankind affected to treat with respect and decency the religious + institutions of their country; but their secret contempt penetrated + through the thin and awkward disguise; and even the people, when they + discovered that their deities were rejected and derided by those whose + rank or understanding they were accustomed to reverence, were filled with + doubts and apprehensions concerning the truth of those doctrines, to which + they had yielded the most implicit belief. The decline of ancient + prejudice exposed a very numerous portion of human kind to the danger of a + painful and comfortless situation. A state of scepticism and suspense may + amuse a few inquisitive minds. But the practice of superstition is so + congenial to the multitude, that if they are forcibly awakened, they still + regret the loss of their pleasing vision. Their love of the marvellous and + supernatural, their curiosity with regard to future events, and their + strong propensity to extend their hopes and fears beyond the limits of the + visible world, were the principal causes which favored the establishment + of Polytheism. So urgent on the vulgar is the necessity of believing, that + the fall of any system of mythology will most probably be succeeded by the + introduction of some other mode of superstition. Some deities of a more + recent and fashionable cast might soon have occupied the deserted temples + of Jupiter and Apollo, if, in the decisive moment, the wisdom of + Providence had not interposed a genuine revelation, fitted to inspire the + most rational esteem and conviction, whilst, at the same time, it was + adorned with all that could attract the curiosity, the wonder, and the + veneration of the people. In their actual disposition, as many were almost + disengaged from their artificial prejudices, but equally susceptible and + desirous of a devout attachment; an object much less deserving would have + been sufficient to fill the vacant place in their hearts, and to gratify + the uncertain eagerness of their passions. Those who are inclined to + pursue this reflection, instead of viewing with astonishment the rapid + progress of Christianity, will perhaps be surprised that its success was + not still more rapid and still more universal. + </p> + <p> + It has been observed, with truth as well as propriety, that the conquests + of Rome prepared and facilitated those of Christianity. In the second + chapter of this work we have attempted to explain in what manner the most + civilized provinces of Europe, Asia, and Africa were united under the + dominion of one sovereign, and gradually connected by the most intimate + ties of laws, of manners, and of language. The Jews of Palestine, who had + fondly expected a temporal deliverer, gave so cold a reception to the + miracles of the divine prophet, that it was found unnecessary to publish, + or at least to preserve, any Hebrew gospel. The authentic histories of the + actions of Christ were composed in the Greek language, at a considerable + distance from Jerusalem, and after the Gentile converts were grown + extremely numerous. As soon as those histories were translated into the + Latin tongue, they were perfectly intelligible to all the subjects of + Rome, excepting only to the peasants of Syria and Egypt, for whose benefit + particular versions were afterwards made. The public highways, which had + been constructed for the use of the legions, opened an easy passage for + the Christian missionaries from Damascus to Corinth, and from Italy to the + extremity of Spain or Britain; nor did those spiritual conquerors + encounter any of the obstacles which usually retard or prevent the + introduction of a foreign religion into a distant country. There is the + strongest reason to believe, that before the reigns of Diocletian and + Constantine, the faith of Christ had been preached in every province, and + in all the great cities of the empire; but the foundation of the several + congregations, the numbers of the faithful who composed them, and their + proportion to the unbelieving multitude, are now buried in obscurity, or + disguised by fiction and declamation. Such imperfect circumstances, + however, as have reached our knowledge concerning the increase of the + Christian name in Asia and Greece, in Egypt, in Italy, and in the West, we + shall now proceed to relate, without neglecting the real or imaginary + acquisitions which lay beyond the frontiers of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p8" id="linkch15-p8"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VIII. + </h2> + <p> + The rich provinces that extend from the Euphrates to the Ionian Sea were + the principal theatre on which the apostle of the Gentiles displayed his + zeal and piety. The seeds of the gospel, which he had scattered in a + fertile soil, were diligently cultivated by his disciples; and it should + seem that, during the two first centuries, the most considerable body of + Christians was contained within those limits. Among the societies which + were instituted in Syria, none were more ancient or more illustrious than + those of Damascus, of Berea or Aleppo, and of Antioch. The prophetic + introduction of the Apocalypse has described and immortalized the seven + churches of Asia; Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardes, Laodicea, + and Philadelphia; and their colonies were soon diffused over that populous + country. In a very early period, the islands of Cyprus and Crete, the + provinces of Thrace and Macedonia, gave a favorable reception to the new + religion; and Christian republics were soon founded in the cities of + Corinth, of Sparta, and of Athens. The antiquity of the Greek and Asiatic + churches allowed a sufficient space of time for their increase and + multiplication; and even the swarms of Gnostics and other heretics serve + to display the flourishing condition of the orthodox church, since the + appellation of heretics has always been applied to the less numerous + party. To these domestic testimonies we may add the confession, the + complaints, and the apprehensions of the Gentiles themselves. From the + writings of Lucian, a philosopher who had studied mankind, and who + describes their manners in the most lively colors, we may learn that, + under the reign of Commodus, his native country of Pontus was filled with + Epicureans and <i>Christians</i>. Within fourscore + years after the death of Christ, the humane Pliny laments the magnitude of + the evil which he vainly attempted to eradicate. In his very curious + epistle to the emperor Trajan, he affirms that the temples were almost + deserted, that the sacred victims scarcely found any purchasers, and that + the superstition had not only infected the cities, but had even spread + itself into the villages and the open country of Pontus and Bithynia. + </p> + <p> + Without descending into a minute scrutiny of the expressions or of the + motives of those writers who either celebrate or lament the progress of + Christianity in the East, it may in general be observed that none of them + have left us any grounds from whence a just estimate might be formed of + the real numbers of the faithful in those provinces. One circumstance, + however, has been fortunately preserved, which seems to cast a more + distinct light on this obscure but interesting subject. Under the reign of + Theodosius, after Christianity had enjoyed, during more than sixty years, + the sunshine of Imperial favor, the ancient and illustrious church of + Antioch consisted of one hundred thousand persons, three thousand of whom + were supported out of the public oblations. The splendor and dignity of + the queen of the East, the acknowledged populousness of Cæsarea, + Seleucia, and Alexandria, and the destruction of two hundred and fifty + thousand souls in the earthquake which afflicted Antioch under the elder + Justin, are so many convincing proofs that the whole number of its + inhabitants was not less than half a million, and that the Christians, + however multiplied by zeal and power, did not exceed a fifth part of that + great city. How different a proportion must we adopt when we compare the + persecuted with the triumphant church, the West with the East, remote + villages with populous towns, and countries recently converted to the + faith with the place where the believers first received the appellation of + Christians! It must not, however, be dissembled, that, in another passage, + Chrysostom, to whom we are indebted for this useful information, computes + the multitude of the faithful as even superior to that of the Jews and + Pagans. But the solution of this apparent difficulty is easy and obvious. + The eloquent preacher draws a parallel between the civil and the + ecclesiastical constitution of Antioch; between the list of Christians who + had acquired heaven by baptism, and the list of citizens who had a right + to share the public liberality. Slaves, strangers, and infants were + comprised in the former; they were excluded from the latter. + </p> + <p> + The extensive commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to Palestine, gave + an easy entrance to the new religion. It was at first embraced by great + numbers of the Theraputæ, or Essenians, of the Lake Mareotis, a + Jewish sect which had abated much of its reverence for the Mosaic + ceremonies. The austere life of the Essenians, their fasts and + excommunications, the community of goods, the love of celibacy, their zeal + for martyrdom, and the warmth though not the purity of their faith, + already offered a very lively image of the primitive discipline. It was in + the school of Alexandria that the Christian theology appears to have + assumed a regular and scientific form; and when Hadrian visited Egypt, he + found a church composed of Jews and of Greeks, sufficiently important to + attract the notice of that inquisitive prince. But the progress of + Christianity was for a long time confined within the limits of a single + city, which was itself a foreign colony, and till the close of the second + century the predecessors of Demetrius were the only prelates of the + Egyptian church. Three bishops were consecrated by the hands of Demetrius, + and the number was increased to twenty by his successor Heraclas. The body + of the natives, a people distinguished by a sullen inflexibility of + temper, entertained the new doctrine with coldness and reluctance; and + even in the time of Origen, it was rare to meet with an Egyptian who had + surmounted his early prejudices in favor of the sacred animals of his + country. As soon, indeed, as Christianity ascended the throne, the zeal of + those barbarians obeyed the prevailing impulsion; the cities of Egypt were + filled with bishops, and the deserts of Thebais swarmed with hermits. + </p> + <p> + A perpetual stream of strangers and provincials flowed into the capacious + bosom of Rome. Whatever was strange or odious, whoever was guilty or + suspected, might hope, in the obscurity of that immense capital, to elude + the vigilance of the law. In such a various conflux of nations, every + teacher, either of truth or falsehood, every founder, whether of a + virtuous or a criminal association, might easily multiply his disciples or + accomplices. The Christians of Rome, at the time of the accidental + persecution of Nero, are represented by Tacitus as already amounting to a + very great multitude, and the language of that great historian is almost + similar to the style employed by Livy, when he relates the introduction + and the suppression of the rites of Bacchus. After the Bacchanals had + awakened the severity of the senate, it was likewise apprehended that a + very great multitude, as it were <i>another people</i>, + had been initiated into those abhorred mysteries. A more careful inquiry + soon demonstrated that the offenders did not exceed seven thousand; a + number indeed sufficiently alarming, when considered as the object of + public justice. It is with the same candid allowance that we should + interpret the vague expressions of Tacitus, and in a former instance of + Pliny, when they exaggerate the crowds of deluded fanatics who had + forsaken the established worship of the gods. The church of Rome was + undoubtedly the first and most populous of the empire; and we are + possessed of an authentic record which attests the state of religion in + that city about the middle of the third century, and after a peace of + thirty-eight years. The clergy, at that time, consisted of a bishop, + forty-six presbyters, seven deacons, as many sub-deacons, forty-two + acolythes, and fifty readers, exorcists, and porters. The number of + widows, of the infirm, and of the poor, who were maintained by the + oblations of the faithful, amounted to fifteen hundred. From reason, as + well as from the analogy of Antioch, we may venture to estimate the + Christians of Rome at about fifty thousand. The populousness of that great + capital cannot perhaps be exactly ascertained; but the most modest + calculation will not surely reduce it lower than a million of inhabitants, + of whom the Christians might constitute at the most a twentieth part. + </p> + <p> + The western provincials appeared to have derived the knowledge of + Christianity from the same source which had diffused among them the + language, the sentiments, and the manners of Rome. In this more important + circumstance, Africa, as well as Gaul, was gradually fashioned to the + imitation of the capital. Yet notwithstanding the many favorable occasions + which might invite the Roman missionaries to visit their Latin provinces, + it was late before they passed either the sea or the Alps; nor can we + discover in those great countries any assured traces either of faith or of + persecution that ascend higher than the reign of the Antonines. The slow + progress of the gospel in the cold climate of Gaul was extremely + different from the eagerness with which it seems to have been received on + the burning sands of Africa. The African Christians soon formed one of the + principal members of the primitive church. The practice introduced into + that province of appointing bishops to the most inconsiderable towns, and + very frequently to the most obscure villages, contributed to multiply the + splendor and importance of their religious societies, which during the + course of the third century were animated by the zeal of Tertullian, + directed by the abilities of Cyprian, and adorned by the eloquence of + Lactantius. But if, on the contrary, we turn our eyes towards Gaul, we + must content ourselves with discovering, in the time of Marcus Antoninus, + the feeble and united congregations of Lyons and Vienna; and even as late + as the reign of Decius we are assured, that in a few cities only, Arles, + Narbonne, Thoulouse, Limoges, Clermont, Tours, and Paris, some scattered + churches were supported by the devotion of a small number of Christians. + Silence is indeed very consistent with devotion; but as it is seldom + compatible with zeal, we may perceive and lament the languid state of + Christianity in those provinces which had exchanged the Celtic for the + Latin tongue, since they did not, during the three first centuries, give + birth to a single ecclesiastical writer. From Gaul, which claimed a just + preeminence of learning and authority over all the countries on this side + of the Alps, the light of the gospel was more faintly reflected on the + remote provinces of Spain and Britain; and if we may credit the vehement + assertions of Tertullian, they had already received the first rays of the + faith, when he addressed his apology to the magistrates of the emperor + Severus. But the obscure and imperfect origin of the western churches of + Europe has been so negligently recorded, that if we would relate the time + and manner of their foundation, we must supply the silence of antiquity by + those legends which avarice or superstition long afterwards dictated to + the monks in the lazy gloom of their convents. Of these holy romances, + that of the apostle St. James can alone, by its singular extravagance, + deserve to be mentioned. From a peaceful fisherman of the Lake of + Gennesareth, he was transformed into a valorous knight, who charged at the + head of the Spanish chivalry in their battles against the Moors. The + gravest historians have celebrated his exploits; the miraculous shrine of + Compostella displayed his power; and the sword of a military order, + assisted by the terrors of the Inquisition, was sufficient to remove every + objection of profane criticism. + </p> + <p> + The progress of Christianity was not confined to the Roman empire; and + according to the primitive fathers, who interpret facts by prophecy, the + new religion, within a century after the death of its divine Author, had + already visited every part of the globe. “There exists not,” says Justin + Martyr, “a people, whether Greek or Barbarian, or any other race of men, + by whatsoever appellation or manners they may be distinguished, however + ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell under tents, or wander + about in covered wagons, among whom prayers are not offered up in the name + of a crucified Jesus to the Father and Creator of all things.” But this + splendid exaggeration, which even at present it would be extremely + difficult to reconcile with the real state of mankind, can be considered + only as the rash sally of a devout but careless writer, the measure of + whose belief was regulated by that of his wishes. But neither the belief + nor the wishes of the fathers can alter the truth of history. It will + still remain an undoubted fact, that the barbarians of Scythia and + Germany, who afterwards subverted the Roman monarchy, were involved in the + darkness of paganism; and that even the conversion of Iberia, of Armenia, + or of Æthiopia, was not attempted with any degree of success till + the sceptre was in the hands of an orthodox emperor. Before that time, the + various accidents of war and commerce might indeed diffuse an imperfect + knowledge of the gospel among the tribes of Caledonia, and among the + borderers of the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates. Beyond the + last-mentioned river, Edessa was distinguished by a firm and early + adherence to the faith. From Edessa the principles of Christianity were + easily introduced into the Greek and Syrian cities which obeyed the + successors of Artaxerxes; but they do not appear to have made any deep + impression on the minds of the Persians, whose religious system, by the + labors of a well-disciplined order of priests, had been constructed with + much more art and solidity than the uncertain mythology of Greece and + Rome. + </p> + <p> + <br/> <br/> <a name="linkch15-p9" id="linkch15-p9"></a> + </p> + <h2> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IX. + </h2> + <p> + From this impartial though imperfect survey of the progress of + Christianity, it may perhaps seem probable, that the number of its + proselytes has been excessively magnified by fear on the one side, and by + devotion on the other. According to the irreproachable testimony of + Origen, the proportion of the faithful was very inconsiderable, when + compared with the multitude of an unbelieving world; but, as we are left + without any distinct information, it is impossible to determine, and it is + difficult even to conjecture, the real numbers of the primitive + Christians. The most favorable calculation, however, that can be deduced + from the examples of Antioch and of Rome, will not permit us to imagine + that more than a fraction of the population placed themselves under the banner of the cross before the + important conversion of Constantine. But their habits of faith, of zeal, + and of union, seemed to multiply their numbers; and the same causes which + contributed to their future increase, served to render their actual + strength more apparent and more formidable. + </p> + <p> + Such is the constitution of civil society, that, whilst a few persons are + distinguished by riches, by honors, and by knowledge, the body of the + people is condemned to obscurity, ignorance and poverty. The Christian + religion, which addressed itself to the whole human race, must + consequently collect a far greater number of proselytes from the lower + than from the superior ranks of life. This innocent and natural + circumstance has been improved into a very odious imputation, which seems + to be less strenuously denied by the apologists, than it is urged by the + adversaries, of the faith; that the new sect of Christians was almost + entirely composed of the dregs of the populace, of peasants and mechanics, + of boys and women, of beggars and slaves, the last of whom might sometimes + introduce the missionaries into the rich and noble families to which they + belonged. These obscure teachers (such was the charge of malice and + infidelity) are as mute in public as they are loquacious and dogmatical in + private. Whilst they cautiously avoid the dangerous encounter of + philosophers, they mingle with the rude and illiterate crowd, and + insinuate themselves into those minds whom their age, their sex, or their + education, has the best disposed to receive the impression of + superstitious terrors. + </p> + <p> + This unfavorable picture, though not devoid of a faint resemblance, + betrays, by its dark coloring and distorted features, the pencil of an + enemy. As the humble faith of Christ diffused itself through the world, it + was embraced by several persons who derived some consequence from the + advantages of nature or fortune. Aristides, who presented an eloquent + apology to the emperor Hadrian, was an Athenian philosopher. Justin Martyr + had sought divine knowledge in the schools of Zeno, of Aristotle, of + Pythagoras, and of Plato, before he fortunately was accosted by the old + man, or rather the angel, who turned his attention to the study of the + Jewish prophets. Clemens of Alexandria had acquired much various reading + in the Greek, and Tertullian in the Latin, language. Julius Africanus and + Origen possessed a very considerable share of the learning of their times; + and although the style of Cyprian is very different from that of + Lactantius, we might almost discover that both those writers had been + public teachers of rhetoric. Even the study of philosophy was at length + introduced among the Christians, but it was not always productive of the + most salutary effects; knowledge was as often the parent of heresy as of + devotion, and the description which was designed for the followers of + Artemon, may, with equal propriety, be applied to the various sects that + resisted the successors of the apostles. “They presume to alter the Holy + Scriptures, to abandon the ancient rule of faith, and to form their + opinions according to the subtile precepts of logic. The science of the + church is neglected for the study of geometry, and they lose sight of + heaven while they are employed in measuring the earth. Euclid is + perpetually in their hands. Aristotle and Theophrastus are the objects of + their admiration; and they express an uncommon reverence for the works of + Galen. Their errors are derived from the abuse of the arts and sciences of + the infidels, and they corrupt the simplicity of the gospel by the + refinements of human reason.” + </p> + <p> + Nor can it be affirmed with truth, that the advantages of birth and + fortune were always separated from the profession of Christianity. Several + Roman citizens were brought before the tribunal of Pliny, and he soon + discovered, that a great number of persons of <i>every order</i>of + men in Bithynia had deserted the religion of their ancestors. His + unsuspected testimony may, in this instance, obtain more credit than the + bold challenge of Tertullian, when he addresses himself to the fears as + well as the humanity of the proconsul of Africa, by assuring him, that if + he persists in his cruel intentions, he must decimate Carthage, and that + he will find among the guilty many persons of his own rank, senators and + matrons of noblest extraction, and the friends or relations of his most + intimate friends. It appears, however, that about forty years afterwards + the emperor Valerian was persuaded of the truth of this assertion, since + in one of his rescripts he evidently supposes that senators, Roman + knights, and ladies of quality, were engaged in the Christian sect. The + church still continued to increase its outward splendor as it lost its + internal purity; and, in the reign of Diocletian, the palace, the courts + of justice, and even the army, concealed a multitude of Christians, who + endeavored to reconcile the interests of the present with those of a + future life. + </p> + <p> + And yet these exceptions are either too few in number, or too recent in + time, entirely to remove the imputation of ignorance and obscurity which + has been so arrogantly cast on the first proselytes of Christianity. * + Instead of employing in our defence the fictions of later ages, it will be + more prudent to convert the occasion of scandal into a subject of + edification. Our serious thoughts will suggest to us, that the apostles + themselves were chosen by Providence among the fishermen of Galilee, and + that the lower we depress the temporal condition of the first Christians, + the more reason we shall find to admire their merit and success. It is + incumbent on us diligently to remember, that the kingdom of heaven was + promised to the poor in spirit, and that minds afflicted by calamity and + the contempt of mankind, cheerfully listen to the divine promise of future + happiness; while, on the contrary, the fortunate are satisfied with the + possession of this world; and the wise abuse in doubt and dispute their + vain superiority of reason and knowledge. + </p> + <p> + We stand in need of such reflections to comfort us for the loss of some + illustrious characters, which in our eyes might have seemed the most + worthy of the heavenly present. The names of Seneca, of the elder and the + younger Pliny, of Tacitus, of Plutarch, of Galen, of the slave Epictetus, + and of the emperor Marcus Antoninus, adorn the age in which they + flourished, and exalt the dignity of human nature. They filled with glory + their respective stations, either in active or contemplative life; their + excellent understandings were improved by study; Philosophy had purified + their minds from the prejudices of the popular superstitions; and their + days were spent in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue. Yet + all these sages (it is no less an object of surprise than of concern) + overlooked or rejected the perfection of the Christian system. Their + language or their silence equally discover their contempt for the growing + sect, which in their time had diffused itself over the Roman empire. Those + among them who condescended to mention the Christians, consider them only + as obstinate and perverse enthusiasts, who exacted an implicit submission + to their mysterious doctrines, without being able to produce a single + argument that could engage the attention of men of sense and learning. + </p> + <p> + It is at least doubtful whether any of these philosophers perused the + apologies * which the primitive Christians repeatedly published in behalf + of themselves and of their religion; but it is much to be lamented that + such a cause was not defended by abler advocates. They expose with + superfluous wit and eloquence the extravagance of Polytheism. They + interest our compassion by displaying the innocence and sufferings of + their injured brethren. But when they would demonstrate the divine origin + of Christianity, they insist much more strongly on the predictions which + announced, than on the miracles which accompanied, the appearance of the + Messiah. Their favorite argument might serve to edify a Christian or to + convert a Jew, since both the one and the other acknowledge the authority + of those prophecies, and both are obliged, with devout reverence, to + search for their sense and their accomplishment. But this mode of + persuasion loses much of its weight and influence, when it is addressed to + those who neither understand nor respect the Mosaic dispensation and the + prophetic style. In the unskilful hands of Justin and of the succeeding + apologists, the sublime meaning of the Hebrew oracles evaporates in + distant types, affected conceits, and cold allegories; and even their + authenticity was rendered suspicious to an unenlightened Gentile, by the + mixture of pious forgeries, which, under the names of Orpheus, Hermes, and + the Sibyls, were obtruded on him as of equal value with the genuine + inspirations of Heaven. The adoption of fraud and sophistry in the defence + of revelation too often reminds us of the injudicious conduct of those + poets who load their <i>invulnerable</i> heroes with a + useless weight of cumbersome and brittle armor. + </p> + <p> + But how shall we excuse the supine inattention of the Pagan and + philosophic world, to those evidences which were represented by the hand + of Omnipotence, not to their reason, but to their senses? During the age + of Christ, of his apostles, and of their first disciples, the doctrine + which they preached was confirmed by innumerable prodigies. The lame + walked, the blind saw, the sick were healed, the dead were raised, dæmons + were expelled, and the laws of Nature were frequently suspended for the + benefit of the church. But the sages of Greece and Rome turned aside from + the awful spectacle, and, pursuing the ordinary occupations of life and + study, appeared unconscious of any alterations in the moral or physical + government of the world. Under the reign of Tiberius, the whole earth, or + at least a celebrated province of the Roman empire, was involved in a + preternatural darkness of three hours. Even this miraculous event, which + ought to have excited the wonder, the curiosity, and the devotion of + mankind, passed without notice in an age of science and history. It + happened during the lifetime of Seneca and the elder Pliny, who must have + experienced the immediate effects, or received the earliest intelligence, + of the prodigy. Each of these philosophers, in a laborious work, has + recorded all the great phenomena of Nature, earthquakes, meteors, comets, + and eclipses, which his indefatigable curiosity could collect. Both the + one and the other have omitted to mention the greatest phenomenon to which + the mortal eye has been witness since the creation of the globe. A + distinct chapter of Pliny is designed for eclipses of an extraordinary + nature and unusual duration; but he contents himself with describing the + singular defect of light which followed the murder of Cæsar, when, + during the greatest part of a year, the orb of the sun appeared pale and + without splendor. The season of obscurity, which cannot surely be compared + with the preternatural darkness of the Passion, had been already + celebrated by most of the poets and historians of that memorable age. + </p> + <p> + END OF VOL. I. + </p> + +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of The Decline and Fall of +the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + +***** This file should be named 890-h.htm or 890-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/9/890/ + +Produced by David Reed and Dale R. Fredrickson + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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